Ee2451 eeguc

EE2451 ELECTRICAL ENERGY GENERATION AND
UTILISATION AND CONSERVATION
SCE Page 1 of 135 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
A Course Material on
EE-2451 ELECTRIC ENERGY GENERATION AND UTILISATION AND CONSERVATION
By
Mr. K.K.KUMAR
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
SASURIE COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
VIJAYAMANGALAM – 638 056

QUALITY CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the e-course material
Subject Code : EE-2451
Scubject : ELECTRIC ENERGY GENERATION AND UTILISATION AND CONSERVATION
Class : IV Year EEE
being prepared by me and it meets the knowledge requirement of the university curriculum.
Signature of the Author
Name: K.K.KUMAR
Designation:
This is to certify that the course material being prepared by Mr.K.K.Kumar is of adequate quality. He has referred
more than five books among them minimum one is from aborad author.
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Name:
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S. No TOPICS PAGE No.
UNIT –I POWER GENERATION
1 Review of conventional methods 6
2 Thermal Power generation 6
3 Hydro Power generation 7
4 Nuclear Based Power generation 8
5
Non-conventional methods of power generation – fuel
cells
10
6 Tidal waves Power generation 15
7 Wind Power generation 17
8 Geothermal Power generation 19
9 Solar Power generation 25
10 Bio-Mass Power generation 27
11 Municipal Waste 29
12 Cogeneration 29
13
Effect of distributed generation on power system
operation 32
UNIT II ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF GENERATION
14 Economic aspects of power generation 34
15 Load and load duration curves 34
16 Number and size of units 35
17 Cost of electrical energy 36
18 Tariff 37
19 Economics of power factor improvement 38
20 Power capacitors 41
21 Power quality 42
22 Importance of electrical energy conservation 44
23 Energy efficient equipments 44
24 Introduction to energy auditing 44
UNIT III ILLUMINATION
25 Importance of lighting 46
26 Properties of good lighting scheme 46
27 Laws of illumination 47
28 Photometry 51
26 Types of lamps 55
30 Lighting calculations 59
31
Basic design of illumination schemes for residential,
commercial, street lighting, and sports ground
60
32 Energy efficiency lamps 67

UNIT IV INDUSTRIAL HEATING AND WELDING
33 Role electric heating for industrial applications 69
34 Resistance heating 71
35 Induction heating 74
36 Dielectric heating 78
37 Electric arc furnaces 79
38 Brief introduction to electric welding 80
39 Welding generator 82
40 Welding transformer and the characteristics 84
UNIT V ELECTRIC TRACTION
41 Merits of electric traction 85
42 Requirements of electric traction system 86
43 Supply systems 87
44 Mechanics of train movement 88
45 Traction motors and control 88
46 Braking 93
47 Recent trends in electric traction 100
QUESTION BANK 104
UNIVERSITY QUESTION PAPERS 121
GLOSSARY 132

AIM
To expose students to the main aspects of generation, utilization and conservation.
OBJECTIVES
To impart knowledge on
i. Generation of electrical power by conventional and non–conventional methods.
ii. Electrical energy conservation, energy auditing and power quality.
iii. Principle and design of illumination systems and methods of heating and welding.
iv. Electric traction systems and their performance.
v. Industrial applications of electric drives.
1. POWER GENERATION
Review of conventional methods – thermal, hydro and nuclear based powergeneration. Non-conventional
methods of power generation – fuel cells - tidalwaves – wind – geothermal – solar - bio-mass - municipal
waste. Cogeneration.Effect of distributed generation on power system operation.
2. ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF GENERATION
Economic aspects of power generation – load and load duration curves – numberand size of units – cost of
electrical energy – tariff. Economics of power factorimprovement – power capacitors – power quality.
Importance of electrical energy conservation – methods – energy efficient equipments. Introduction to
energy auditing.
3. ILLUMINATION
Importance of lighting – properties of good lighting scheme – laws of illumination –photometry - types of
lamps – lighting calculations – basic design of illuminationschemes for residential, commercial, street
lighting, and sports ground – energy efficiency lamps.
4. INDUSTRIAL HEATING AND WELDING
Role electric heating for industrial applications – resistance heating – induction heating – dielectric heating
- electric arc furnaces.Brief introduction to electric welding – welding generator, welding transformer and
the characteristics.
5. ELECTRIC TRACTION
Merits of electric traction – requirements of electric traction system – supply systems – mechanics of train
movement – traction motors and control – braking – recent trends in electric traction.
TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
TEXT BOOKS
1. C.L. Wadhwa, ‘Generation, Distribution and Utilization of Electrical Energy’, New Age International
Pvt. Ltd, 2003.
2. B.R. Gupta, ‘Generation of Electrical Energy’, Eurasia Publishing House (P) Ltd, New Delhi, 2003.
REFERENCES
1. H. Partab, ‘Art and Science of Utilisation of Electrical Energy’, Dhanpat Rai and Co, New Delhi, 2004.
2. E. Openshaw Taylor, ‘Utilization of Electrical Energy in SI Units’, Orient Longman Pvt. Ltd, 2003.
3. J.B. Gupta, ‘Utilization of Electric Power and Electric Traction’, S.K.Kataria and Sons, 2002.

UNIT-1
POWER GENERATION
1.1 Introduction
In this unit a brief idea of a modern power system is outlined. Emphasis is given to create a clear
mental picture of a power system to a beginner of the course Electrical Technology. As consumers, we use
electricity for various purposes such as:
1. Lighting, heating, cooling and other domestic electrical appliances used in home.
2. Street lighting, flood lighting of sporting arena, office building lighting, powering PCs etc.
3. Irrigating wast agricultural lands using pumps and operating cold storages for various
agricultural products.
4. Running motors, furnaces of various kinds, in industries.
5. Running locomotives (electric trains) of railways.
1.1.1 Basic idea of generation
Prior to the discovery of Faraday’s Laws of electromagnetic discussion, electrical power was
available from batteries with limited voltage and current levels. Although complicated in construction,
D.C generators were developed first to generate power in bulk. However, due to limitation of the D.C
machine to generate voltage beyond few hundred volts, it was not economical to transmit large amount of
power over a long distance. For a given amount of power, the current magnitude (I=P/V), hence section of
the copper conductor will be large. Thus generation, transmission and distribution of d.c power were
restricted to area of few kilometer radius with no interconnections between generating plants.
Therefore, area specific generating stations along with its distribution networks had to be used.
1.2. Review of conventional methods:
1.2 Thermal, hydel & nuclear power stations
In this section we briefly outline the basics of the three most widely found generating
stations – thermal, hydel and nuclear plants in our country and elsewhere.
1.2.1 Thermal plant
Generate voltage at 50 Hz we have to run the generator at some fixed rpm by some external agency.
A turbine is used to rotate the generator. Turbine may be of two types, namely steam turbine and water
turbine. In a thermal power station coal is burnt to produce steam which in turn, drives the steam turbine
hence the generator (turbo set) the elementary features of a thermal power plant is shown. In a thermal
power plant coil is burnt to produce high temperature and high pressure steam in a boiler. The steam is
passed through a steam turbine to produce rotational motion. The generator, mechanically coupled to the
turbine, thus rotates producing electricity. Chemical energy stored in coal after a couple of
transformations produces electrical energy at the generator terminals as depicted in the figure. Thus
proximity of a generating station nearer to a coal reserve and water sources will be most economical as
the cost of transporting coal gets reduced. In our country coal is available in abundance and naturally
thermal power plants are most popular. However, these plants pollute the atmosphere because of burning of
coals.

Stringent conditions (such as use of more chimney heights along with the compulsory use of
electrostatic precipitator) are put by regulatory authorities to see that the effects of pollution is
minimized. A large amount of ash is produced every day in a thermal plant and effective handling of the ash
adds to the running cost of the plant. Nonetheless 57% of the generation in our country is from thermal
plants. The speed of alternator used in thermal plants is 3000 rpm which means 2-pole alternators are used
in such plants.
1.2.2 Hydel plants:
In a hydel power station, water head is used to drive water turbine coupled to the generator. Water head
may be available in hilly region naturally in the form of water reservoir (lakes etc.) at the hill tops. The
potential energy of water can be used to drive the turbo generator set installed at the base of the hills
through piping called penstock Water head may also be created artificially by constructing dams on a
suitable river. In contrast to a thermal plant, hydel power plants are eco-friendly, neat and clean as no fuel is
to be burnt to produce electricity. While running cost of such plants is low, the initial installation cost is
rather high compared to thermal plants due to massive civil construction necessary. Also sites to be selected
for such plants depend upon natural availability of water reservoirs at hill tops or availability of suitable
rivers for constructing dams. Water turbines generally operate at low rpm, so number of poles of the
alternator is high. For example a 20-pole alternator the rpm of the turbine is only 300 rpm.

Advantages:
 Once the dam is built, the energy is virtual y free.
 No waste or pollution produced.
 Much more reliable than wind, solar or wave power.
 Water can be stored above the dam ready to cope with peaks in demand.
 Hydro-electric power stations can increase to ful power very quickly, unlike other power stations.
 Electricity can be generated constantly.
Disadvantages:
 The dams are very expensive to build.
 However, many dams are also used for flood control or irrigation, so building costs can be shared.
 Building a large dam will flood a very large area upstream, causing problems for animals that used
to live there.
 Finding a suitable site can be difficult - the impact on residents and the environment may be
unacceptable.
 Water quality and quantity downstream can be affected, which can have an impact on plant life.
1.2.3 Nuclear plants:
As coal reserve is not unlimited, there is natural threat to thermal power plants based on coal. It is
estimated that within next 30 to 40 years, coal reserve will exhaust if it is consumed at the present rate.
Nuclear power plants are thought to be the solution for bulk power generation. At present the installed
capacity of nuclear power plant is about 4300 MW and expected to expand further in our country. The
present day atomic power plants work on the principle of nuclear fission of U
.
In the natural uranium, U
constitutes only 0.72% and remaining parts is constituted by 99.27% of U andonlyabout0.05%ofU.
The concentration of U may be increased to 90% by gas diffusion process to obtain enriched U.
When U is bombarded by neutrons a lot of heat energy along with additional neutrons is produced. These
new neutrons further bombard producing more heat and more neutrons.

Thus a chain reaction sets up. However this reaction is allowed to take place in a controlled manner
inside a closed chamber called nuclear reactor. To ensure sustainable chain reaction, moderator and control
rods are used. Moderators such as heavy water (deuterium) or very pure carbon C are used to reduce the
speed of neutrons. To control the number neutrons, control rods made of cadmium or boron steel are
inserted inside the reactor. The control rods can absorb neutrons. If we want to decrease the number
neutrons, the control rods are lowered down further and vice versa. The heat generated inside the reactor is
taken out of the chamber with the help of a coolant such as liquid sodium or some gaseous fluids. The
coolant gives up the heat to water in heat exchanger to convert it to steam as shown in figure. The steam
then drives the turbo set and the exhaust steam from the turbine is cooled and fed back to the heat
exchanger with the help of water feed pump. Calculation shows that to produce 1000 MW of electrical
power in coal based thermal plant, about 6 × 10Kg of coal is to be burnt daily while for the same amount of
power, only about 2.5 Kg of U is to be used per day in a nuclear power stations.
The initial investment required to install a nuclear power station is quite high but running cost is
low. Although, nuclear plants produce electricity without causing air pollution, it remains a dormant
source of radiation hazards due to leakage in the reactor. Also the used fuel rods are to be carefully handled
and disposed off as they still remain radioactive. The reserve of U is also limited and cannot last longer if
its consumption continues at the present rate. Naturally search for alternative fissionable material continues.
For example, plutonium (Pu) and (U) are fissionable. Although they are not directly available. Absorbing
neutrons gets converted to fissionable plutonium Pu in the atomic reactor described above.
Disadvantages:
 Although not much waste is produced, it is very, very dangerous.
 It must be sealed up and buried for many thousands of years to al ow the radioactivity to die away.
 For all that time it must be kept safe from earthquakes, flooding, terrorists and everything else. This is
difficult.
 Nuclear power is reliable, but a lot of money has to be spent on safety - if it does go wrong, a nuclear

accident can be a major disaster.
 People are increasingly concerned about this - in the 1990's nuclear power was the fastest-growing
source of power in much of the world. In 2005 it was the second slowest-growing.
1.3 Non-conventional methods of power generation:
1.3.1 Fuel Cells:
A fuel cell is a device that converts the chemical energy from a fuel into electricity through a
chemical reaction with oxygen or another oxidizing agent
Hydrogen produced from the steam methane reforming of natural gas is the most common fuel, but
for greater efficiency hydrocarbons can be used directly such as natural gas and alcohols like methanol.
Fuel cells are different from batteries in that they require a continuous source of fuel and oxygen/air to
sustain the chemical reaction whereas in a battery the chemicals present in the battery react with each other
to generate an electromotive (emf). Fuel cells can produce electricity continuously for as long as these
inputs are supplied.
The first fuel cells were invented in 1838. The first commercial use of fuel cells came more than a
century later in NASA space programs to generate power for probes, satellites and space capsules. Since
then, fuel cells have been used in many other applications. Fuel cells are used for primary and backup
power for commercial, industrial and residential buildings and in remote or inaccessible areas. They are
also used to power fuel-cell vehicles, including forklifts, automobiles, buses, boats, motorcycles and
submarines.
There are many types of fuel cells, but they all consist of an anode, a cathode and an electrolyte that
allows charges to move between the two sides of the fuel cell. Electrons are drawn from the anode to the
cathode through an external circuit, producing direct current electricity. As the main difference among fuel
cell types is the electrolyte, fuel cells are classified by the type of electrolyte they use followed by the
difference in startup time ranging from 1 sec for PEMFC to 10 min for SOFC. Fuel cells come in a variety
of sizes. Individual fuel cells produce relatively small electrical potentials, about 0.7 volts, so cells are
"stacked", or placed in series, to increase the voltage and meet an application's requirements.[2]
In addition to
electricity, fuel cells produce water, heat and, depending on the fuel source, very small amounts of nitrogen
dioxide and other emissions. The energy efficiency of a fuel cell is generally between 40–60%, or up to
85% efficient in cogeneration if waste heat is captured for use.
Types:
Fuel cells come in many varieties; however, they all work in the same general manner. They are made
up of three adjacent segments: the anode, the electrolyte, and the cathode. Two chemical reactions occur at
the interfaces of the three different segments. The net result of the two reactions is that fuel is consumed,
water or carbon dioxide is created, and an electric current is created, which can be used to power electrical
devices, normally referred to as the load.
At the anode a catalyst oxidizes the fuel, usually hydrogen, turning the fuel into a positively charged
ion and a negatively charged electron. The electrolyte is a substance specifically designed so ions can pass
through it, but the electrons cannot. The freed electrons travel through a wire creating the electric current.
The ions travel through the electrolyte to the cathode. Once reaching the cathode, the ions are reunited with
the electrons and the two react with a third chemical, usually oxygen, to create water or carbon dioxide.

The electrolyte substance usually defines the type of fuel cell.
The fuel that is used. The most common fuel is hydrogen.
The anode catalyst breaks down the fuel into electrons and ions. The anode catalyst is usually made up
of very fine platinum powder.
The cathode catalyst turns the ions into the waste chemicals like water or carbon dioxide. The cathode
catalyst is often made up of nickel but it can also be a nonmaterial-based catalyst.
A typical fuel cell produces a voltage from 0.6 V to 0.7 V at full rated load. Voltage decreases as current
increases, due to several factors:
Activation loss
Ohmic loss (voltage drop due to resistance of the cell components and interconnections)
Mass transport loss (depletion of reactants at catalyst sites under high loads, causing rapid loss of
voltage)
To deliver the desired amount of energy, the fuel cells can be combined in series to yield
higher voltage, and in parallel to allow a higher current to be supplied. Such a design is called a fuel cell
stack. The cell surface area can also be increased, to allow higher current from each cell. Within the stack,
reactant gases must be distributed uniformly over each of the cells to maximize the power output.
i) Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs):
In the archetypical hydrogen–oxide proton exchange membrane fuel cell design, a proton-conducting
polymer membrane (the electrolyte) separates the anode and cathode sides. This was called a "solid
polymer electrolyte fuel cell" (SPEFC) in the early 1970s, before the proton exchange mechanism was well-
understood.
On the anode side, hydrogen diffuses to the anode catalyst where it later dissociates into protons and
electrons. These protons often react with oxidants causing them to become what are commonly referred to
as multi-facilitated proton membranes. The protons are conducted through the membrane to the cathode,
but the electrons are forced to travel in an external circuit (supplying power) because the membrane is
electrically insulating. On the cathode catalyst, oxygen molecules react with the electrons (which have
traveled through the external circuit) and protons to form water.
In addition to this pure hydrogen type, there are hydrocarbon fuels for fuel cells,
including diesel, methanol and chemical hydrides. The waste products with these types of fuel are carbon
dioxide and water, when hydrogen is used the CO2 is released when methane from natural gas is combined
with steam in a process called steam methane reforming to produce the hydrogen, this can take place in a

different location to the fuel cell potentially allowing the hydrogen fuel cell to be used indoors for example
in forklifts.
Construction of a high-temperature PEMFC: Bipolar plate as electrode with in-milled gas channel
structure, fabricated from conductive composites (enhanced with graphite, carbon black, carbon fiber,
and/or carbon annotates for more conductivity) Porous carbon papers; reactive layer, usually on
the polymer membrane applied; polymer membrane.
Condensation of water produced by a PEMFC on the air channel wall. The gold wire around the cell
ensures the collection of electric current.
The different components of a PEMFC are;
1. Bipolar plates,
2. Electrodes,
3. Catalyst,
4. Membrane, and
5. The necessary hardware.
The materials used for different parts of the fuel cells differ by type. The bipolar plates may be made
of different types of materials, such as, metal, coated metal, graphite, flexible graphite, C–
C composite, carbon–polymer composites etc. The membrane electrode assembly (MEA) is referred as the
heart of the PEMFC and is usually made of a proton exchange membrane sandwiched between
two catalyst-coated carbon papers. Platinum and/or similar type of noble metals are usually used as the
catalyst for PEMFC. The electrolyte could be a polymer membrane.
ii) Phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC):
Phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFC) were first designed and introduced in 1961 by G. V. Elmore and H.
A. Tanner. In these cells phosphoric acid is used as a non-conductive electrolyte to pass positive hydrogen

ions from the anode to the cathode. These cells commonly work in temperatures of 150 to 200 degrees
Celsius. This high temperature will cause heat and energy loss if the heat is not removed and used properly.
This heat can be used to produce steam for air conditioning systems or any other thermal energy consuming
system.[31]
Using this heat incogeneration can enhance the efficiency of phosphoric acid fuel cells from 40–
50% to about 80%.Phosphoric acid, the electrolyte used in PAFCs, is a non-conductive liquid acid which
forces electrons to travel from anode to cathode through an external electrical circuit. Since the hydrogen
ion production rate on the anode is small, platinum is used as catalyst to increase this ionization rate. A key
disadvantage of these cells is the use of an acidic electrolyte. This increases the corrosion or oxidation of
components exposed to phosphoric acid.
iii) High-temperature fuel cells:
1) Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs):
Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) use a solid material, most commonly a ceramic material called yttria-
stabilized zirconia (YSZ), as the electrolyte. Because SOFCs are made entirely of solid materials, they are
not limited to the flat plane configuration of other types of fuel cells and are often designed as rolled tubes.
They require high operating temperatures (800–1000 °C) and can be run on a variety of fuels including
natural gas.
SOFCs are unique since in those, negatively charged oxygen ions travel from the cathode (positive
side of the fuel cell) to the anode (negative side of the fuel cell) instead of positively charged hydrogen ions
travelling from the anode to the cathode, as is the case in all other types of fuel cells. Oxygen gas is fed
through the cathode, where it absorbs electrons to create oxygen ions. The oxygen ions then travel through
the electrolyte to react with hydrogen gas at the anode. The reaction at the anode produces electricity and
water as by-products. Carbon dioxide may also be a by-product depending on the fuel, but the carbon
emissions from an SOFC system are less than those from a fossil fuel combustion plant. The chemical
reactions for the SOFC system can be expressed as follows.
2H2 + 2O2−
→ 2H2O + 4e−
O2 + 4e–
→ 2O2−
2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
SOFC systems can run on fuels other than pure hydrogen gas. However, since hydrogen is necessary for the
reactions listed above, the fuel selected must contain hydrogen atoms. For the fuel cell to operate, the fuel
must be converted into pure hydrogen gas. SOFCs are capable of internally reforming light hydrocarbons
such as methane (natural gas), propane and butane. These fuel cells are at an early stage of development.
Challenges exist in SOFC systems due to their high operating temperatures. One such challenge is the
potential for carbon dust to build up on the anode, which slows down the internal reforming process.
Research to address this "carbon coking" issue at the University of Pennsylvania has shown that the use of
copper-based cermet (heat-resistant materials made of ceramic and metal) can reduce coking and the loss of
performance. Another disadvantage of SOFC systems is slow start-up time, making SOFCs less useful for
mobile applications. Despite these disadvantages, a high operating temperature provides an advantage by
removing the need for a precious metal catalyst like platinum, thereby reducing cost. Additionally, waste
heat from SOFC systems may be captured and reused, increasing the theoretical overall efficiency to as
high as 80%–85%.
The high operating temperature is largely due to the physical properties of the YSZ electrolyte. As
temperature decreases, so does the ionic conductivity of YSZ. Therefore, to obtain optimum performance of
the fuel cell, a high operating temperature is required. According to their website, Ceres Power, a UK
SOFC fuel cell manufacturer, has developed a method of reducing the operating temperature of their SOFC
system to 500–600 degrees Celsius. They replaced the commonly used YSZ electrolyte with a CGO
(cerium gadolinium oxide) electrolyte. The lower operating temperature allows them to use stainless steel
instead of ceramic as the cell substrate, which reduces cost and start-up time of the system.

2) Hydrogen-Oxygen Fuel Cell:
The Hydrogen-Oxygen Fuel Cell was designed by Bacon in the year 1959. It was used as a primary
source of electrical energy in the Apollo space program. The cell consists of two porous carbon electrodes
impregnated with a suitable catalyst such as Pt, Ag, CoO, etc. The space between the two electrodes is
filled with a concentrated solution of KOH or NaOH which serves as an electrolyte. 2H2 gas and O2 gas are
bubbled into the electrolyte through the porous carbon electrodes. Thus the overall reaction involves the
combination of hydrogen gas and oxygen gas to form water. The cell runs continuously until the reactant's
supply is exhausted. This type of cell operates efficiently in the temperature range 343 K to 413 K and
provides a potential of about 0.9 V.
3) Molten carbonate fuel cells:
Molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs) require a high operating temperature, 650 °C (1,200 °F), similar
to SOFCs. MCFCs use lithium potassium carbonate salt as an electrolyte, and this salt liquefies at high
temperatures, allowing for the movement of charge within the cell – in this case, negative carbonate ions.
Like SOFCs, MCFCs are capable of converting fossil fuel to a hydrogen-rich gas in the anode, eliminating
the need to produce hydrogen externally. The reforming process creates CO
2emissions. MCFC-compatible fuels include natural gas, biogas and gas produced from coal. The hydrogen
in the gas reacts with carbonate ions from the electrolyte to produce water, carbon dioxide, electrons and
small amounts of other chemicals. The electrons travel through an external circuit creating electricity and
return to the cathode. There, oxygen from the air and carbon dioxide recycled from the anode react with the
electrons to form carbonate ions that replenish the electrolyte, completing the circuit.[43]
The chemical
reactions for an MCFC system can be expressed as follows:
CO3
2−
+ H2 → H2O + CO2 + 2e−
CO2 + ½O2 + 2e−
→ CO3
2−
H2 + ½O2 → H2O
As with SOFCs, MCFC disadvantages include slow start-up times because of their high operating
temperature. This makes MCFC systems not suitable for mobile applications, and this technology will most
likely be used for stationary fuel cell purposes. The main challenge of MCFC technology is the cells' short
life span. The high-temperature and carbonate electrolyte lead to corrosion of the anode and cathode. These
factors accelerate the degradation of MCFC components, decreasing the durability and cell life. Researchers
are addressing this problem by exploring corrosion-resistant materials for components as well as fuel cell
designs that may increase cell life without decreasing performance.
MCFCs hold several advantages over other fuel cell technologies, including their resistance to
impurities. They are not prone to "carbon coking", which refers to carbon build-up on the anode those
results in reduced performance by slowing down the internal fuel reforming process. Therefore, carbon-rich
fuels like gases made from coal are compatible with the system. The Department of Energy claims that
coal, itself, might even be a fuel option in the future, assuming the system can be made resistant to
impurities such as sulfur and particulates that result from converting coal into hydrogen.[34]
MCFCs also
have relatively high efficiencies. They can reach a fuel-to-electricity efficiency of 50%, considerably higher
than the 37–42% efficiency of a phosphoric acid fuel cell plant. Efficiencies can be as high as 65% when
the fuel cell is paired with a turbine and 85% if heat is captured and used in a Combined Heat and
Power (CHP) system.
Fuel Cell Energy, a Connecticut-based fuel cell manufacturer, develops and sells MCFC fuel cells.
The company says that their MCFC products range from 300 kW to 2.8 MW systems that achieve 47%
electrical efficiency and can utilize CHP technology to obtain higher overall efficiencies. One product, the
DFC-ERG, is combined with a gas turbine and, according to the company, it achieves an electrical
efficiency of 65%.

1.3.2 Tidal Waves:
Tidal power is taken from the Earth's oceanic tides; tidal forces are periodic variations in gravitational
attraction exerted by celestial bodies. These forces create corresponding motions or currents in the world's
oceans. Due to the strong attraction to the oceans, a bulge in the water level is created, causing a temporary
increase in sea level. When the sea level is raised, water from the middle of the ocean is forced to move
toward the shorelines, creating a tide. This occurrence takes place in an unfailing manner, due to the
consistent pattern of the moon’s orbit around the earth.[5]
The magnitude and character of this motion
reflects the changing positions of the Moon and Sun relative to the Earth, the effects of Earth's rotation, and
local geography of the sea floor and coastlines.
Tidal power is the only technology that draws on energy inherent in the orbital characteristics of
the Earth–Moon system, and to a lesser extent in the Earth–Sun system. Other natural energies exploited by
human technology originate directly or indirectly with the Sun, including fuel,
conventional, wind, biofuel, wave and solar energy. Nuclear energy makes use of Earth's mineral deposits
of fissionable elements, while geothermal power taps the Earth's internal heat, which comes from a
combination of residual heat from planetary accretion (about 20%) and heat produced through radioactive
decay (80%).
A tidal generator converts the energy of tidal flows into electricity. Greater tidal variation and higher
tidal current velocities can dramatically increase the potential of a site for tidal electricity generation.
Because the Earth's tides are ultimately due to gravitational interaction with the Moon and Sun and the
Earth's rotation, tidal power is practically inexhaustible and classified as a renewable energy resource.
Movement of tides causes a loss of mechanical energy in the Earth–Moon system: this is a result of
pumping of water through natural restrictions around coastlines and consequent viscous dissipation at
the seabed and inturbulence. This loss of energy has caused the rotation of the Earth to slow in the
4.5 billion years since its formation.

Tidal stream generator:
Tidal stream generators (or TSGs) make use of the kinetic energy of moving water to power turbines,
in a similar way to wind turbines that use wind to power turbines. Some tidal generators can be built into
the structures of existing bridges, involving virtually no aesthetic problems. Land constrictions such as
straits or inlets can create high velocities at specific sites, which can be captured with the use of turbines.
These turbines can be horizontal, vertical, open, or ducted and are typically placed near the bottom of the
water column.
Tidal barrage
Tidal barrages make use of the potential energy in the difference in height (or hydraulic head) between
high and low tides. When using tidal barrages to generate power, the potential energy from a tide is seized
through strategic placement of specialized dams. When the sea level rises and the tide begins to come in,
the temporary increase in tidal power is channeled into a large basin behind the dam, holding a large
amount of potential energy. With the receding tide, this energy is then converted into mechanical energy as
the water is released through large turbines that create electrical power through the use of generators.
Barrages are essentially dams across the full width of a tidal estuary.
Dynamic tidal power
Dynamic tidal power (or DTP) is an untried but promising technology that would exploit an interaction
between potential and kinetic energies in tidal flows. It proposes that very long dams (for example: 30–
50 km length) be built from coasts straight out into the sea or ocean, without enclosing an area. Tidal phase
differences are introduced across the dam, leading to a significant water-level differential in shallow coastal
seas – featuring strong coast-parallel oscillating tidal currents such as found in the UK, China, and Korea.
Tidal lagoon
A newer tidal energy design option is to construct circular retaining walls embedded with turbines
that can capture the potential energy of tides. The created reservoirs are similar to those of tidal barrages,
except that the location is artificial and does not contain a preexisting ecosystem.

1.3.3 Wind Power Generation:
Horizontal axis:
Horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWT) have the main rotor shaft and electrical generator at the top of
a tower, and must be pointed into the wind. Small turbines are pointed by a simple wind vane, while large
turbines generally use a wind sensor coupled with a servo motor. Most have a gearbox, which turns the
slow rotation of the blades into a quicker rotation that is more suitable to drive an electrical generator.
Since a tower produces turbulence behind it, the turbine is usually positioned upwind of its supporting
tower. Turbine blades are made stiff to prevent the blades from being pushed into the tower by high winds.
Additionally, the blades are placed a considerable distance in front of the tower and are sometimes tilted
forward into the wind a small amount.
Downwind machines have been built, despite the problem of turbulence (mast wake), because they
don't need an additional mechanism for keeping them in line with the wind, and because in high winds the
blades can be allowed to bend which reduces their swept area and thus their wind resistance. Since cyclical
(that is repetitive) turbulence may lead to fatigue failures, most HAWTs are of upwind design.
Turbines used in wind farms for commercial production of electric power are usually three-bladed
and pointed into the wind by computer-controlled motors. These have high tip speeds of over 320 km/h
(200 mph), high efficiency, and low torque ripple, which contribute to good reliability. The blades are
usually colored white for daytime visibility by aircraft and range in length from 20 to 40 meters (66 to
131 ft) or more. The tubular steel towers range from 60 to 90 meters (200 to 300 ft) tall. The blades rotate at
10 to 22 revolutions per minute. At 22 rotations per minute the tip speed exceeds 90 meters per second
(300 ft/s).A gear box is commonly used for stepping up the speed of the generator, although designs may
also use direct drive of an annular generator. Some models operate at constant speed, but more energy can
be collected by variable-speed turbines which use a solid-state power converter to interface to the

transmission system. All turbines are equipped with protective features to avoid damage at high wind
speeds, by feathering the blades into the wind which ceases their rotation, supplemented by brakes.
Vertical axis:
Vertical-axis wind turbines (or VAWTs) have the main rotor shaft arranged vertically. One advantage of
this arrangement is that the turbine does not need to be pointed into the wind to be effective, which is an
advantage on a site where the wind direction is highly variable. It is also an advantage when the turbine is
integrated into a building because it is inherently less steerable. Also, the generator and gearbox can be
placed near the ground, using a direct drive from the rotor assembly to the ground-based gearbox,
improving accessibility for maintenance.
The key disadvantages include the relatively low rotational speed with the consequential
higher torque and hence higher cost of the drive train, the inherently lower power coefficient, the 360
degree rotation of the aerofoil within the wind flow during each cycle and hence the highly dynamic
loading on the blade, the pulsating torque generated by some rotor designs on the drive train, and the
difficulty of modeling the wind flow accurately and hence the challenges of analyzing and designing the
rotor prior to fabricating a prototype.
When a turbine is mounted on a rooftop the building generally redirects wind over the roof and this
can double the wind speed at the turbine. If the height of a rooftop mounted turbine tower is approximately
50% of the building height it is near the optimum for maximum wind energy and minimum wind
turbulence. Wind speeds within the built environment are generally much lower than at exposed rural
sites, noise may be a concern and an existing structure may not adequately resist the additional stress.

1.3.4 Geothermal Power Generation:
Flashed steam/dry steam condensing system; resource temperature range from about 320°C to some
230°C.
Flashed steam back pressure system; resource temperature range from about 320°C to some 200°C.
Binary or twin-fluid system (based upon the Kalian or the Organic Rankin cycle); resource temperature
range between 120°C to about 190°C.
 Power house equipment: Comprising of turbine/generator unit complete with condenser, gas exhaust
system.
 Automatic control and communication system: Consisting of frequency control, servo valve control,
computer system for data collection, resource and maintenance monitoring, internal and external
communication etc.
 Cooling system: Cooling water pumps, condensate pumps, fresh water (seawater) cooling, or cooling
towers.
 Particulate and/or droplet erosion: This is an erosion problem that is typically associated with the
parts of the system where the fluid is accelerated (e.g. in control valves, turbine nozzles, etc.) and/or
abruptly made change direction (e.g. via pipe bends, T-fittings or wanes).
 Heat exchangers: These are either of the plate or the tube and shell type. These are generally only used
in binary and hybrid type conversion systems, and/or in integrated systems.
 Gas evacuation systems: High temperature geothermal fluid contains a significant quantity of non-
condensable gases (C02, N2, H2S, and others). These have to be removed for instance from the
condensing plant for reasons of conversion efficiency. Some countries require the gas to be cleaned of
H2S or Hg to minimize atmospheric pollution.
 Re-injection system: Comprising liquid effluent collection pipelines, injection pumps, injection
pipelines, injection wells and control system.
 Chemical injection system: In order to reduce scaling of calcite in production wells sometimes a scale
inhibitor is injected through capillary tubing down hole. Similar injection is applied with caustic soda to
neutralize acid wells to reduce the corrosively. Acid is used for pH modification in order to arrest the
scaling of silica in waste water going to reinjection, for cases where the water is supersaturated.

Power House equipment:
Turbine:
The problems potentially associated with the turbine are scaling of the flow control valve and nozzles
(primarily in the stator inlet stage); stress corrosion of rotor blades; erosion of turbine (rotor and stator)
blades and turbine housing.
The rate and seriousness of scaling in the turbine are directly related to the steam cleanliness, i.e. the
quantity and characteristics of separator “carry-over“. Thus the operation and efficiency of the separator
are of great importance to trouble free turbine operation. Prolonged operation of the power
plant off-design point also plays a significant role.
Generator:
It must be pointed out here that high-temperature steam contains a significant amount of carbon dioxide
CO2 and some hydrogen sulphite H2S and the atmosphere in geothermal areas is thus
permeated by these gases.
All electrical equipment and apparatus contains a lot of cuprous or silver components, which are highly
susceptible to sulphite corrosion and thus have to be kept in an H2S free environment. This is achieved
by filtering the air entering the ventilation system and maintaining slight overpressure in the control
room and electrical control centres.
The power generator is either cooled by nitrogen gas or atmospheric air that has been cleaned of H2S
by passage through special active carbon filter banks.
Condenser:
The steam-water mixture emitted from the turbine at outlet contains a significant amount of non

condensable gases comprising mainly CO2 (which is usually 95–98% of the total gas content), CH4
and H2S, and is thus highly acidic.
Since most high-temperature geothermal resources are located in arid or semi-arid areas far removed
from significant freshwater (rivers, lakes) sources, the condenser cooling choices are mostly limited to
either atmospheric cooling towers or forced ventilation ones.
The application of evaporative cooling of the condensate results in the condensate containing dissolved
oxygen in addition to the non-condensable gases, which make the condenser fluid highly corrosive and
require the condenser to be clad on the inside with stainless steel; condensate pumpsto be made of
stainless steel, and all condensate pipelines either of stainless steel or glass reinforced plastic.
Addition of caustic soda is required to adjust the pH in the cooling tower circuit. Make-up water and
blow-down is also used to avoid accumulation of salts in the water caused by evaporation.
A problem sometimes encountered within the condenser is the deposition of almost pure sulphur on
walls and nozzles within the condenser.
This scale deposition must be periodically cleaned by high pressure water spraying etc.
Cooling tower and associated equipment:
Most high-temperature geothermal resources are located in arid or semi-arid areas far removed from
significant freshwater (rivers, lakes) sources. This mostly limits condenser cooling choices to either

atmospheric cooling towers or forced ventilation ones. Freshwater cooling from a river is, however,
used for instance in New Zealand and seawater cooling from wells on Reykjanes, Iceland.
In older power plants the atmospheric versions and/or barometric ones, the large parabolic ones of
concrete, were most often chosen. Most frequently chosen for modern power plants is the forced ventilation
type because of environmental issues and local proneness to earth quakes.
The modern forced ventilation cooling towers are typically of wooden/plastic construction comprising
several parallel cooling cells erected on top of a lined concrete condensate pond. The ventilation fans are
normally vertical, reversible flow type and the cooling water pumped onto a platform at the top of the tower
fitted with a large number of nozzles, through which the hot condensate drips in counterflow to the airflow
onto and through the filling material in the tower and thence into the condensate pond, whence the cooled
condensate is sucked by the condenser vacuum back into the condenser.
To minimise scaling and corrosion effects the condensate is neutralised through pH control,
principally via addition of sodium carbonate.
Three types of problems are found to be associated with the cooling towers, i.e.
• Icing problems in cold areas.
• Sand blown onto the tower in sandy and arid areas.
• Clogging up by sulphitephylic bacteria.
 The first mentioned is countered by reversing the airflow cell by cell in rotation whilst operating
thus
melting off any icing and snow collecting on the tower.
 The second problem requires frequent cleaning of nozzles and condensate pond. The last
mentioned is
quite bothersome. It is most commonly alleviated by periodic application of bacteria killing chemicals, and
cleaning of cooling tower nozzles by water jetting. The sludge accumulation in the condensate pond,
however, is removed during scheduled maintenance stops. A secondary problem is the deposition of almost
pure sulphur on walls and other surfaces within the condenser. It must be periodically cleaned by high
pressure water spraying etc., which must be carried out during scheduled turbine stops.
Condenser pumping system:
The condensate pumps must, as recounted previously, be made of highly corrosion resistant
materials,and have high suction head capabilities. They are mostly trouble free in operation.
The condensate pipes must also be made of highly corrosion resistant materials and all joints efficiently
sealed to keep atmospheric air ingress to a minimum, bearing in mind that such pipes are all in a vacuum
environment. Any air leakage increases the load on the gas evacuation system and thus the ancillary power
consumption of the power plant.
Heat exchangers:
In high-temperature power generation applications heat exchangers are generally not used on the well
fluid. Their use is generally confined to ancillary uses such as heating, etc. using the dry steam. In
cogeneration plants such as the simultaneous production of hot water and electricity, their use is
universal.
The exhaust from a back pressure turbine or tap-off steam from a process turbine is passed as primary
fluid through either a plate or a tube and shell type heat exchanger.

The plate type heat exchanger was much in favour in cogeneration plants in the seventies to nineties
because of their compactness and high efficiency. They were, however, found to be rather heavy in
maintenance.
The second drawback was that the high corrosion resistance plate materials required were only able to
withstand a relatively moderate pressure difference between primary and secondary heat exchanger media.
Thirdly the plate seals tended to degenerate fairly fast and stick tenaciously to the plates making removal
difficult without damaging the seals. The seals that were needed to withstand the required temperature and
pressure were also pricy and not always in stock with the suppliers.
This has led most plant operators to change over to and new plant designers to select the shell and tube
configurations, which demand less maintenance and are easily cleaned than the plate type though requiring
more room.
In low-temperature binary power plants shell and tube heat exchangers are used to transfer the heat
from the geothermal primary fluid to the secondary (binary) fluid. They are also used as condensers/and or
regenerators in the secondary system.
In supercritical geothermal power generation situation it is foreseen that shell and tube heat exchangers
will be used to transfer the thermal energy of the supercritical fluid to the production of clean steam to
power the envisaged power conversion system.
Gas evacuation system:
As previously stated the geothermal steam contains a significant quantity of non-condensable gas
(NCG) or some 0.5% to 10% by weight of steam in the very worst case. To provide and maintain sufficient
vacuum in the condenser, the NCG plus any atmospheric air leakage into the condenser must be forcibly
exhausted. The following methods are typically adopted, viz.:
The use of a single or two stage steam ejectors, economical for NCG content less than 1.5% by weight
of steam.
The use of mechanical gas pumps, such as liquid ring vacuum pumps, which are economical for high
concentration of NCG.
The use of hybrid systems incorporating methods 1 and 2 in series.
The advantages of the ejector systems are the low maintenance, and high operational security of such
systems.
The disadvantage is the significant pressure steam consumption, which otherwise would be available for
power production.
The advantages of the vacuum pumps are the high degree of evacuation possible. The disadvantage isthe
electric ancillary power consumption, sensitivity to particulate debris in the condenser, and high
maintenance requirements.
To reduce the ambient level of H2S in the proximity of the power plant, the exhausted NCG is currently
in most countries discharged below the cooling tower ventilators to ensure a thorough mixing with the air
as it is being blown high into the air and away from the power plant and its environs. In the USA and Italy
H2S abatement is mandatory by law, and in Italy also mercury (Hg) and thus require chemical type
abatement measures.
In some of the older Geysers field power plants the H2S rich condenser exhaust was passed through
abed of iron and zinc oxide to remove the H2S. These proved a very messy way of getting rid of the
H2S and were mostly abandoned after a few years. In a few instances the Stretford process and other

equivalent ones have been used upstream of the power plant to convert H2S gas into sulphur for industrial
use. This has proved expensive and complex and is not in use in other geothermal fields than the Geysers
field in California.
The main H2S abatement methods currently in use worldwide are (only some are currently used for
geothermal NCG):
1. Claus (Selectox).
2. Haldor Topsöe – WSA process.
3. Shell-Paques Biological H2S removal process/THIOPAC.
4. LO-CAT (wet scrubbing liquid redox system).
5. Fe-Cl hybrid process.
6. Aqueous NaOH absorbent process.
7. Polar organic absorbent process.
8. Photo catalytic generation process.
9. Plasma chemical generation process.
10. Thermal decomposition process.
11. Membrane technology.
A study into feasible H2S abatement methods for the Nesjavellir Geothermal Project was carried
outby Matthíasdóttir (2006). Matthíasdóttir and Gunnarsson, from the Iceland Technology Institute,came to
the conclusion that of the above listed methods the following four merited further study for Nesjavellir, i.e
the Haldor Topsöe-WSA, THIOPAQ (with bacteria), LO-CAT and the Fe-Cl hybrid process.
Re-injection system:
In most geothermal areas the geothermal fluid may be considered to be brine because of the
typically high chloride content. It may also contain some undesirable tracer elements that pose danger to
humans, fauna and flora.
In considering the most convenient way of disposing of this liquid effluent other than into
effluentponds on the surface, the idea of injecting the liquid effluent back into the ground has been with the
geothermal power industry for a long time (Stefánsson, 1997). Initially the purpose of re-injection was
simply to get rid of the liquid effluent in a more elegant way than dumping it on the surface, into lakes or
rivers, and even to the ocean. Many technical and economic drawbacks were soon discovered. The more
serious of these were the clogging up of injection wells, injection piping and the formations close to the
borehole; the cold effluent migrated into the production zone so reducing the enthalpy of the well output
with consequent fall-off in power plant output. Injection into sandstone and other porous alluvial
formations was and is fraught with loss of injectivity problems that are still not fully understood.
Soon, however, it became generally understood and accepted that returning the effluent liquid
back into the reservoir had even greater additional benefits, viz.:
Greatly reducing the rate of reservoir pressure and fluid yield decline.
Improved extraction of the heat content contained within the reservoir formations.
Reducing the fluid withdrawal effect on surface manifestations, e.g. hot pools, steam vents etc.
All the above items serve to maintain resource sustainability and are thus of significant environmental
benefit.
Re-injection should be considered an integral part of any modern, sustainable and
environmentally friendly geothermal utilization, both as a method of effluent water disposal and to
counteract pressure draw-down by providing artificial water recharge (Stefánsson, 1997). Re-injection is
essential for sustainable utilization of virtually closed and limited recharge geothermal systems. Cooling of
production wells, which is one of the dangers associated with re-injection, can be minimised though
careful testing and research. Tracer testing, combined with comprehensive interpretation, is probably
the most important tool for this purpose.

Many different methods have and are still being tried to overcome these technical problems
mentioned above such as the use of settling tanks that promote polymerisation of the silica molecules and
settling in the tanks prior to injection; injection of the effluent liquid directly from the separators at
temperatures in the range of 145–160°C, so called “hot injection”, both to avoid contact with
atmospheric air and to hinder scaling in the injection system; controlling the pH of the effluent
commensurate with reduction in the rate of silica/calcite precipitation using acids and add condensate
from the plant to dilute the silica in the brine, to name a few.
The danger of production well cooling can be minimised through careful testing and research.
Tracer testing, combined with comprehensive interpretation, is probably the most important tool for this
purpose. One way to delay the effects of cooling is also to locate the re-injection wells far enough away
from the production area, say 2 km.
Another way gaining popularity is to inject deep into the reservoir, even where there is small
permeability, by pumping at high pressures (60–100 bar).
Surface disposal contravenes the environmental statutes of most countries and the use of settling
tanks has ceased mostly because of associated cost and complexity. The most commonly adopted injection
methods are the last two, i.e. hot re-injection and chemical pH control ones. The main disadvantage
of the hot re-injection technique is the lowered overall thermal efficiency and the consequent greater
fluid production (more wells to yield the same power output) required. The main disadvantage of the
pH control scheme is the very large acid consumption (cost) and uncertainties regarding its long-term
effects.
Hot re-injection is precluded in low-temperature power generation and the most common
technique is to make use of the reverse solubility of calcite in water by operating the conversion system at a
pressure level above the CO2 bubble point and only reduce the pressure once the fluid temperature has
attained a level low enough to prevent calcite dissipation prior to re-injection.
1.3.5 Solar Power Generation:
Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a
large area of sunlight into a small beam. The concentrated heat is then used as a heat source for a
conventional power plant. A wide range of concentrating technologies exists: the most developed are the
parabolic trough the concentrating linear fresnel reflector, the Stirling dish and the solar power tower.
Various techniques are used to track the sun and focus light. In all of these systems a working fluid is
heated by the concentrated sunlight, and is then used for power generation or energy storage. Thermal
storage efficiently allows up to 24 hour electricity generation.

A parabolic trough consists of a linear parabolic reflector that concentrates light onto a receiver
positioned along the reflector's focal line. The receiver is a tube positioned right above the middle of the
parabolic mirror and is filled with a working fluid. The reflector is made to follow the sun during daylight
hours by tracking along a single axis. Parabolic trough systems provide the best land-use factor of any solar
technology.

Compact Linear Fresnel Reflectors are CSP-plants which use many thin mirror strips instead of
parabolic mirrors to concentrate sunlight onto two tubes with working fluid. This has the advantage that flat
mirrors can be used which are much cheaper than parabolic mirrors, and that more reflectors can be placed
in the same amount of space, allowing more of the available sunlight to be used. Concentrating linear
fresnel reflectors can be used in either large or more compact plants.
The Stirling solar dish combines a parabolic concentrating dish with a Stirling engine which
normally drives an electric generator. The advantages of Stirling solar over photovoltaic cells are higher
efficiency of converting sunlight into electricity and longer lifetime. Parabolic dish systems give the highest
efficiency among CSP technologies. The 50 kW Big Dish in Canberra, Australia is an example of this
technology.
A solar power tower uses an array of tracking reflectors (heliostats) to concentrate light on a
central receiver atop a tower. Power towers are more cost effective, offer higher efficiency and better
energy storage capability among CSP technologies. The PS10 Solar Power Plant and PS20 solar power
plant are examples of this technology.
1.3.6 Biomass Power Generation:
Biomass is biological material derived from living, or recently living organisms. It most often
refers to plants or plant-based materials which are specifically called lignocellulosic biomass. As an energy
source, biomass can either be used directly via combustion to produce heat, or indirectly after converting it
to various forms of biofuel. Conversion of biomass to biofuel can be achieved by different methods which
are broadly classified into: thermal, chemical, and biochemical methods.

Wood remains the largest biomass energy source to date; examples include forest residues (such
as dead trees, branches and tree stumps), yard clippings, wood chips and even municipal solid waste. In the
second sense, biomass includes plant or animal matter that can be converted into fibers or other
industrial chemicals, including biofuels. Industrial biomass can be grown from numerous types of plants,
including miscanthus, switchgrass,hemp, corn, poplar, willow, sorghum, sugarcane, bamboo, and a variety
of tree species, ranging from eucalyptus to oil palm (palm oil).
Plant energy is produced by crops specifically grown for use as fuel that offer high biomass
output per hectare with low input energy. Some examples of these plants are wheat, which typically yield
7.5–8 tonnes of grain per hectare, and straw, which typically yield 3.5–5 tonnes per hectare in the UK. The
grain can be used for liquid transportation fuels while the straw can be burned to produce heat or electricity.
Plant biomass can also be degraded from cellulose to glucose through a series of chemical treatments, and
the resulting sugar can then be used as a first generation biofuel.
Biomass can be converted to other usable forms of energy like methane gas or transportation
fuels like ethanol and biodiesel. Rotting garbage, and agricultural and human waste, all release methane gas
also called "landfill gas" or "biogas." Crops, such as corn and sugar cane, can be fermented to produce the
transportation fuel, ethanol. Biodiesel, another transportation fuel, can be produced from left-over food
products like vegetable oils and animal fats. Also, biomass to liquids (BTLs) and cellulosic ethanol are still
under research.

There is a great deal of research involving algal, or algae-derived, biomass due to the fact that it’s
a non-food resource and can be produced at rates 5 to 10 times faster than other types of land-based
agriculture, such as corn and soy. Once harvested, it can be fermented to produce biofuels such
as ethanol, butanol, and methane, as well as biodiesel and hydrogen.
1.3.7 Municipal Waste:
The composition of municipal solid waste varies greatly from municipality to municipality
(country to country) and changes significantly with time. In municipalities (countries) which have a well
developed waste recycling culture, the waste stream consists mainly of intractable wastes such as plastic
film, and un-recyclable packaging materials. At the start of the 20th century, the majority of domestic waste
(53%) in the UK consisted of coal ash from open fires in developed municipalities (countries) without
significant recycling activity it predominantly includes food wastes, market wastes, yard wastes, plastic
containers and product packaging materials, and other miscellaneous solid wastes from residential,
commercial, institutional, and industrial sources. Most definitions of municipal solid waste do not
include industrial wastes, agricultural wastes, medical waste, radioactive waste or sewage sludge. Waste
collection is performed by the municipality within a given area. The term residual waste relates to waste left
from household sources containing materials that have not been separated out or sent for reprocessing.
Waste can be classified in several ways but the following list represents a typical classification:
1. Biodegradable waste: food and kitchen waste, green waste, paper (can also be recycled).
2. Recyclable material: paper, glass, bottles, cans, metals,
certain plastics, fabrics, clothes, batteries etc.
3. Inert waste: construction and demolition waste, dirt, rocks, debris.
4. Electrical and electronic waste (WEEE) - electrical appliances, TVs, computers, screens, etc.
5. Composite wastes: waste clothing, Tetra Packs, waste plastics such as toys.
6. Hazardous waste including most paints, chemicals, light bulbs, fluorescent tubes, spray
cans, fertilizer and containers
7. Toxic waste including pesticide, herbicides, fungicides
8. Medical waste.
1.4 Cogeneration:
Thermal power plants (including those that use fissile elements or burn coal, petroleum,
or natural gas), and heat engines in general, do not convert all of their thermal energy into electricity. In
most heat engines, a bit more than half is lost as excess heat (see: Second law of
thermodynamics and Carnot's theorem). By capturing the excess heat, CHP uses heat that would be wasted
in a conventional power plant, potentially reaching an efficiency of up to 80%, for the best conventional
plants. This means that less fuel needs to be consumed to produce the same amount of useful energy.
Steam turbines for cogeneration are designed for extraction of steam at lower pressures after it has passed
through a number of turbine stages, or they may be designed for final exhaust at back pressure (non-
condensing), or both. A typical power generation turbine in apaper mill may have extraction pressures of
160 psig (1.103 MPa) and 60 psig (0.41 MPa). A typical back pressure may be 60 psig (0.41 MPa). In
practice these pressures are custom designed for each facility. The extracted or exhaust steam is used for
process heating, such as drying paper, evaporation, heat for chemical reactions or distillation. Steam at
ordinary process heating conditions still has a considerable amount of enthalpy that could be used for power
generation, so cogeneration has lost opportunity cost. Conversely, simply generating steam at process
pressure instead of high enough pressure to generate power at the top end also has lost opportunity cost.
The capital and operating cost of high pressure boilers, turbines and generators are substantial, and this

equipment is normally operated continuously, which usually limits self-generated power to large-scale
operations.
Large cogeneration systems provide heating water and power for an industrial site or an entire town.
Common CHP plant types are:
Gas turbine CHP plants using the waste heat in the flue gas of gas turbines. The fuel used is
typically natural gas
Gas engine CHP plants use a reciprocating gas engine which is generally more competitive than a gas
turbine up to about 5 MW. The gaseous fuel used is normally natural gas. These plants are generally
manufactured as fully packaged units that can be installed within a plant room or external plant
compound with simple connections to the site's gas supply and electrical distribution and heating
systems. Biofuel engine CHP plants use an adapted reciprocating gas engine or diesel engine,
depending upon which biofuel is being used, and are otherwise very similar in design to a Gas engine
CHP plant. The advantage of using a biofuel is one of reduced hydrocarbon fuel consumption and thus
reduced carbon emissions. These plants are generally manufactured as fully packaged units that can be
installed within a plant room or external plant compound with simple connections to the site's electrical
distribution and heating systems. Another variant is the wood gasifier CHP plant whereby a wood
pellet or wood chip biofuel is gasified in a zero oxygen high temperature environment; the resulting gas
is then used to power the gas engine.
Combined cycle power plants adapted for CHP
Molten-carbonate fuel cells and solid oxide fuel cells have a hot exhaust, very suitable for heating.
Steam turbine CHP plants that use the heating system as the steam condenser for the steam turbine.
Nuclear power plants, similar to other steam turbine power plants, can be fitted with extractions in the
turbines to bleed partially expanded steam to a heating system. With a heating system temperature of
95 °C it is possible to extract about 10 MW heat for every MW electricity lost. With a temperature of
130 °C the gain is slightly smaller, about 7 MW for every MWe lost.
Heat recovery steam generators:
A heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) is a steam boiler that uses hot exhaust gases from
the gas turbines or reciprocating engines in a CHP plant to heat up water and generate steam. The steam, in
turn, drives a steam turbine or is used in industrial processes that require heat.
HRSGs used in the CHP industry are distinguished from conventional steam generators by the
following main features:
The HRSG is designed based upon the specific features of the gas turbine or reciprocating engine that it
will be coupled to.
Since the exhaust gas temperature is relatively low, heat transmission is accomplished mainly
through convection.
The exhaust gas velocity is limited by the need to keep head losses down. Thus, the transmission
coefficient is low, which calls for a large heating surface area.
Since the temperature difference between the hot gases and the fluid to be heated (steam or water) is
low, and with the heat transmission coefficient being low as well, the evaporator and economizer are
designed with plate fin heat exchangers.

Thermal Efficiency:
Every heat engine is subject to the theoretical efficiency limits of the Carnot cycle. When the fuel
is natural gas, a gas turbine following the Brayton cycle is typically used. Mechanical energy from the
turbine drives an electric generator. The low-grade (i.e. low temperature) waste heat rejected by the turbine
is then applied to space heating or cooling or to industrial processes. Cooling is achieved by passing the
waste heat to an absorption chiller.
Thermal efficiency in a trigeneration system is defined as:
Where:
= Thermal efficiency
= Total work output by all systems
= Total heat input into the system
Typical trigeneration models have losses as in any system. The energy distribution below is represented as
a percent of total input energy
Electricity = 45%
Heat + Cooling = 40%
Heat Losses = 13%

Electrical Line Losses = 2%
Conventional central coal- or nuclear-powered power stations convert only about 33% of their input heat
to electricity. The remaining 67% emerges from the turbines as low-grade waste heat with no significant
local uses so it is usually rejected to the environment. These low conversion efficiencies strongly suggest
that productive uses could be found for this waste heat, and in some countries these plants do collect
byproduct heat that can be sold to customers.
But if no practical uses can be found for the waste heat from a central power station, e.g., due to
distance from potential customers, then moving generation to where the waste heat can find uses may be of
great benefit. Even though the efficiency of a small distributed electrical generator may be lower than a
large central power plant, the use of its waste heat for local heating and cooling can result in an overall use
of the primary fuel supply as great as 80%. This provides substantial financial and environmental benefits.
1.5 Effect of distributed generation on power system operation:
The introduction of DG in systems originally radial and designed to operate without any generation on
the distribution system, can significantly impact the power flow and voltage conditions at both, customers
and utility equipment.
These impacts can be manifested as having positive or negative influence, depending on the DG
features and distribution system operation characteristics.
A method to asses this impact, is based on investigate the behaviour of an electric system, with
and without the presence of DG. The difference between the results obtained in these two operating
conditions, gives important information for both, companies in the electric sector and customers.

.
1) Impact of DG on Voltage Regulation:
Radial distribution systems regulate the voltage by the aid of load tap changing transformers (LTC) at
substations, additionally by line regulators on distribution feeders and shunt capacitors on feeders or
along the line. Voltage regulation is based on one way power flow where regulators are equipped with
line drop compensation.
The connection of DG may result in changes in voltage profile along a feeder by changing the direction
and magnitude of real and reactive power flows. Nevertheless,
DG impact on voltage regulation can be positive or negative depending on distribution system and
distributed generator characteristics as well as DG location
There are two possible solutions facing this problem: the first solution is to move the DG unit to the
upstream side of the regulator, while the second solution is adding regulator controls to compensate for
the DG output.
The installation of DG units along the power distribution feeders may cause overvoltage due to too much
injection of active and reactive power. For instance, a small DG system sharing a common distribution
transformer with several loads may raise the voltage on the secondary side, which is sufficient to cause
high voltage at these customers
2) Impact of DG on Losses:
One of the major impacts of Distributed generation is on the losses in a feeder. Locating the DG units is
an important criterion that has to be analyzed to be able to achieve a better reliability of the system with
reduced losses
3) Impact of DG on Harmonics:
A wave that does not follow a “pure” sinusoidal wave is regarded as harmonically distorted.
Harmonics are always present in power systems to some extent. They can be caused by for instance:
non-linearity in transformer exciting impedance or loads such as fluorescent lights, AC to DC
conversion equipment, variable-speed drives, switch mode power equipment, arc furnaces, and other
equipment.
Impact of DG on Short Circuit Levels of the Network
The presence of DG in a network affects the short circuit levels of the network. It creates an increase in
the fault currents when compared to normal conditions at which no DG is installed in the network
The fault contribution from a single small DG is not large, but even so, it will be an increase in the fault
current. In the case of many small units, or few large units, the short circuits levels can be altered enough
to cause miss coordination between protective devices, like fuses or relays.The nature of the DG also
ffects the short circuit levels.
The highest contributing DG to faults is the synchronous generator. During the first few cycles its
contribution is equal to the induction generator and self excited synchronous generator, while after the
first few cycles the synchronous generator is the most fault current contributing DG type. The DG type
that contributes the least amount of fault current is the inverter interfaced DG type, in some inverter
types the fault contribution lasts for less than one cycle.

UNIT-2
ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF GENERATION
2.1 Economic aspects of power generation:
Introduction to Economics of Power Generation:
The function of a power station is to deliver power at the lowest possible cost per kilo watt hour. This
total cost is made up of fixed charges consisting of interest on the capital, taxes, insurance, depreciation and
salary of managerial staff, the operating expenses such as cost of fuels, water, oil, labor, repairs and
maintenance etc.
1. The cost of power generation can be minimized by:
2. Choosing equipment that is available for operation during the largest possible % of time in a
year.
3. Reducing the amount of investment in the plant.
4. Operation through fewer men.
5. Having uniform design
6. Selecting the station as to reduce cost of fuel, labor, etc.
All the electrical energy generated in a power station must be consumed immediately as it cannotbe
stored. So the electrical energy generated in a power station must be regulated according tothe demand. The
demand of electrical energy or load will also vary with the time and a powerstation must be capable of
meeting the maximum load at any time.
2.2 Load curve:
Load curve is plot of load in kilowatts versus time usually for a day or a year.
Definition:
The curve showing the variation of load on the power station with respect to time.
Types of load curves:
1. Daily load curve–Load variations during the whole day
2. Monthly load curve–Load curve obtained from the daily load curve
3. Yearly load curve-Load curve obtained from the monthly load curve
Load Characteristics:
Connected load
Maximum demand

Average load
Load factor
Diversity factor
Plant capacity factor
Plant use factor
2.3 Load duration curve:
Load duration curve is the plot of load in kilowatts versus time duration for which it occurs.
When the elements of a load curve are arranged in the order of descending magnitudes.
Number and Size of Units:
Maximum demand:
Maximum demand is the greatest of all demands which have occurred during a given period of
time.
Average load:
Average load is is the average load on the power station in a given period (day/month or year)
Base load:
Base load is the minimum load over a given period of time.
Connected load:
Connected load of a system is the sum of the continuous ratings of the load consuming apparatus
connected to the system.
Peak load:
Peak load is the maximum load consumed or produced by a unit or group of units in a stated
period of time. It may be the maximum instantaneous load or the maximum average load over a
designated interval of time.

Demand factor:
Demand factor is the ratio of maximum demand to the connected load of a consumer.
Diversity factor:
Diversity factor is the ratio of sum of individual maximum demands to the combined maximum
demand on power stations
Load factor:
Load factor is the ratio of average load during a specified period to the maximum load occurring
during the period.
Load factor = Average Load / Maximum demand
Station load factor:
Station load factor is the ratio of net power generated to the net maximum demand on a power
station.
Plant factor:
Plant factor is the ratio of the average load on the plant for the period of time considered, to the
aggregate rating of the generating equipment installed in the plant.
Capacity factor:
Capacity factor is the ratio of the average load on the machine for a period of time considered, to
the rating of the machine.
Demand factor:
Demand factor is the ratio of maximum demand of system or part of system, to the total
connected load of the system, or part of system, under consideration.
Cost of electrical energy:
Electric Energy is the source of energy for electrical appliances. Your computer, the cooling, and
the lighting at your home are all powered by electric energy. Can you imagine life without
electric energy? Do you even know how much it costs? Electric Energy is measured in kWh
(kilowatt-hour) or MWh (megawatt-hour). Power is equal to work done in respect to time, so
work equals power multiplied by time. Since work equals energy, electric energy would be
measured by a kilowatt-hour.
P = W/t
W = E = Pt
(1000W)(1h) = 1kWh
The cost of each kWh depends on your location and the company you use. In New York, the
average kWh costs 14.31 cents, but it can cost as high as 16.73 cents in Hawaii or as low as 5.81
cents in Kentucky. You're probably thinking that's not so expensive, but when it all adds up, the
number can become significant. Just look at your electric bill. An electric bill in New York can
come out to be $81.68, depending on which appliances are being used. But imagine you’re electric bill
when you're blasting your air conditioner. It can cost you a few hundred dollars. But you candecrease that
cost by using more of your fan in place of your air conditioner because a typical fan would cost you in the
teens rather than in the hundreds. This is mainly due to the amount of watts used to power your electric
appliances. An air conditioner can use up to a few thousand watts, while a fan would only use a few
hundred watts. If you want to keep your electric bill low, substitute high watt appliances for low watt

appliances
Tariff:
Tariff means the schedule of rates framed for supply of electrical energy to the various categories
of consumers. All types of tariffs must cover the recovery of costs of
(i) Capital investment in generating, transmitting and distributing equipment
(ii) Operation, supplies and maintenance of equipment and
(ii) Metering equipment, billing, collection and miscall aneous services
(iv) A satisfactory return on the total capital investment.
(i) Flat Demand Tariff:
This is one of the earliest forms of tariffs used for charging the consumers for
electrical energy consumption. This tariff is expressed as energy charges, y = Rs. Ax where a is the rate per
lamp or kw of connected load and x is the number of lamps or load connected in kw. In these types of tariff
the metering equipment, meter reading, billing, and accounting costs are eliminated. Now-a-days such a
tariff is restricted to use such as in street lighting, signal systems, sign lightings etc.
(ii) Simple Tariff:
This is the simplest type of tariff according to which the cost o energy is charged on the basis of
units consumed and can be expressed in the form y = Rs ax where a is charges in rupees per unit and x is the
total electrical energy consumed in units or kwh.
(ii ) Flat Rate Tariff:
This types of tariff differs from the former one in the sense that the different types
of consumers are charged at different rates i.e. the flat rate for light and fan loads is slightly higher than that
for power load. The rate for each category of consumers is arrived at by taking into account its load factor
and diversity factor.
(iv)Step Rate Tariff:
The step rate tariff is a group of flat rate tariffs of decreasing unit charges for higher range of
consumption.
(vi) Hopkinson Demand Rate or Two Part Tariff:
The total energy charge to be made to the consumer is split into two components namely fixed
charge and runign charge. This type of tariff is expressed as
Y = Rs a kw + b kwh
Where Rs a is the charge per kw of maximum demand assessed and Rs b is the charge per kwh of energy
consumed.
This tariff is mostly applicable to medium industrial consumers.
(vi ) Maximum Demand Tariff:
This tariff is similar to that of two part tariff except that in this case maximum demand is actual y

measured by a maximum demand indicator instead of merely assessing it on the basis of rate able value.
(vi i) KVA Maximum Demand Tariff:
It is a modified form of two part tariff. In tis case maximum demand is measured in Kva instead
of in kw. This type of tariff encourages the consumers to operate their machines/equipment at improved
power factor because low power factor wil cause more demand
charges.
(ix) Doherty Rate or Three Part Tariff:
In this tariff total energy charge is split into three elements namely fixed charge, semi-fixed
charge and variable charge. Such a tariff is expressed as
y = Rs a + bkw + c kwh.
Where a is a constant charge, b is unit charge in Rs per kw of maximum demand in kw during bil ing
period (in some case it is also charged in Rs per kva instead of Rs per kw) and c is the unit charge for
energy in Rs per kwh of energy consumed. This type of tariff is usual y applicable to bulk supplies.
(x) Off Peak Tariff:
The load on the power station usual y has pronounced peak loads in the morning and early
evening and a very low load during the night (from 10 P.M. to 6 A.M.). During the night, therefore, and
other off-peak period which may occur, a large proportion of the generating and distribution equipment wil
be lying idle. In case the consumers are encouraged to use electricity during off peak hours by giving a
special discount, the energy can be supplied without incurring an additional capital cost and should
therefore prove very profitable. This type of tariff is very advantageous for certain processes such as water
heating by thermal storage, pumping, refrigeration.
Economics of power factor improvement:

For example, real power produces the mechanical output of a motor. Reactive power is not used
to do work, but is needed to operate equipment and is measured in volt-amperes-reactive (VAR) or kilovar
(kVAR). Many industrial loads are inductive such as motors, transformers, fluorescent lighting ballasts,
power electronics, and induction furnaces.
The current drawn by an inductive load consists of two components: magnetizing current and
power producing current. The magnetizing current is required to sustain the electromagnetic field
in a device and creates reactive power. An inductive load draws current that lags the voltage, in
that the current follows the voltage wave form. The amount of lag is the electrical displacement
(or phase) angle between the voltage and current. n the absence of harmonics, apparent power (also known
as demand power) is comprised of (vectorial sum) both real and reactive power and is measured in units of
volt-amps (VA) or kilovolt-amps (kVA).
Power factor (PF) is the ratio of the real power to apparent power and represents how much real
power electrical equipment uses. It is a measure of how effectively electrical power is being used. Power
factor is also equal to the cosine of the phase angle between the voltage and current
Electrical loads demand more power than they consume. Induction motors convert at most 80%
to 90% of the delivered power into useful work or electrical losses. The remaining power is used
to establish an electromagnetic field in the motor. The field is alternately expanding and
collapsing (once each cycle), so the power drawn into the field in one instant is returned to the
electric supply system in the next instant. Therefore, the average power drawn by the field is
zero, and reactive power does not register on a kilowatt-hour meter. The magnetizing current
creates reactive power. Although it does no useful work, it circulates between the generator and
the load and places a heavier drain on the power source as well as the transmission and
distribution system.
As a means of compensation for the burden of supplying extra current, many utilities establish a
power factor penalty in their rate schedule. A minimum power factor, usually 0.85 to 0.95, is

established. When a customer’s power factor drops below the minimum value, the utility collects
a low power factor revenue premium on the customer’s bill. Another way some utilities collect a
low power factor premium is to charge for kVA (apparent power) rather than kW (real power).
With a diverse range of billing rate structures imposed by electrical utilities especially for large
users, it is imperative to fully understand the billing method employed.
Improving power factor:
Adding capacitors is generally the most economical way to improve a facility’s power factor.
While the current through an inductive load lags the voltage, current to a capacitor leads the
voltage. Thus, capacitors serve as a leading reactive current generator to counter the lagging
reactive current in a system.
The expression “release of capacity” means that as power factor of the system is improved, the
total current flow will be reduced. This permits additional loads to be added and served by the
existing system. In the event that equipment, such as transformers, cables, and generators, may
be thermally overloaded, improving power factor may be the most economical way to reduce
current and eliminate the overload condition.
Primarily, the cost-effectiveness of power factor correction depends on a utility’s power factor
penalties. It is crucial to understand the utility’s rate structure to determine the return on
investment to improve power factor.
Maintaining a high power factor in a facility will yield direct savings. In addition to reducing
power factor penalties imposed by some utilities, there may be other economic factors that, when
considered in whole, may lead to the addition of power factor correction capacitors that provide a
justifiable return on investment. Other savings, such as decreased distribution losses, improved
voltage reduction, and increased facility current carrying capacity, are less obvious. Though real,

often these reductions yield little in cost savings and are relatively small in comparison to the
savings to be gained from reducing power factor penalties.
Harmonic current considerations:
This article intentionally assumes that a facility does not have significant harmonic currents
present. However, some caution must be taken when applying capacitors in a circuit where
harmonics are present (true power factor).
Although capacitors themselves do not generate harmonics, problems arise when capacitors for
power factor correction improvement are applied to circuits with nonlinear loads that interject harmonic
currents. Those capacitors may lower the resonant frequency of that circuit enough to create a resonant
condition. Resonance is a special condition in which the inductive reactance is equal to the capacitive
reactance. As resonance is approached, the magnitude of harmonic current in the system and capacitor
becomes much larger than the harmonic current generated by the nonlinear load. The current may be high
enough to blow capacitor fuses, create other “nuisance” problems, or develop into a catastrophic event. A
solution to this problem is to detune the circuit by changing the point where the capacitors are connected to
the circuit, changing the amount of applied capacitance, or installing passive filter reactors to a capacitor
bank, which obviously increases its cost. Use of an active harmonic filter may be another solution.
Capacitor bank considerations and associated costs:
The selection of the type of capacitor banks and their location has an impact on the cost of
capacitor banks. More difficult than determining the total capacitance required is deciding where the
capacitance should be located. There are several factors to consider, including:
Should one large capacitor bank be used, or is it better to add small capacitors at individual
loads?
Should fixed or automatically switched capacitors be employed?
In general, since capacitors act as a kVAR generator, the most efficient place to install them is
directly at an inductive load for which the power factor is being improved.
Fixed capacitor location schemes include:
This will generally improve losses, although it is not an optimal solution.Distributing the
capacitors using the motor sizes and the NEMA tables as a guide. This solution does not reflect the need for
more released capacity, if this is a goal. Capacitors sized for small loads are often proportionally much more
expensive than larger fixed capacitors, primarily because of installation costs.
Capacitor switching options include:
Switching a few of the capacitors with larger motors is an option. The capacitors may be
physically installed either directly connected to the motor or through a contactor on the motor control center
that is tied in with the motor control. If the motors are large enough to use capacitors of the same size as
were being considered for the fixed capacitor scheme, little additional cost is incurred for installing them on
the motors. Where the economy is lost is when the capacitors are placed on several small motors. There is
relatively little difference in installation costs for large and small 480-V units.
The second switching option is to consider an automatic power factor controller installed in the
capacitor bank. This will switch large capacitor banks in small steps (25 through 50 is common)
to follow the load. Automatic power factor capacitor banks should be installed at the motor control center
rather than on the main bus, if optimal distribution loss is a goal. The economics of purchasing, installing,

protecting, and controlling single large automatically switched capacitor banks can tilt the decision toward a
main bus location, especially if the primary goal is to avoid power factor penalties.
Reactors can be added to fixed or automatic power factor capacitor banks to prevent the risk of
the harmful effects of harmonics (detuned filters).
Power quality:
Transients:
 Impulsive Transients
 Oscillatory Transients
Short Duration Variation:
 Voltage Sags or Dips
 Voltage Swells
 Interruptions
 Voltage Magnitude Step
Long Duration Variation:
 Undervoltages
 Overvoltages
 Interruptions
What is power quality?
Power quality is simply the interaction of electrical power with electrical equipment. If electrical
equipment operates correctly and reliably without being damaged or stressed, we would say that the
electrical power is of good quality. On the other hand, if the electrical equipment malfunctions, is
unreliable, or is damaged during normal usage, we would suspect that the power quality is poor.
As a general statement, any deviation from normal of a voltage source (either DC or AC) can be
classified as a power quality issue. Power quality issues can be very high-speed events such as voltage
impulses / transients, high frequency noise, waveshape faults, voltage swells and sags and total power loss.
Each type of electrical equipment will be affected differently by power quality issues. By analyzing the
electrical power and evaluating the equipment or load, we can determine if a power quality problem exists.
See Power Quality events for a more detailed description of power quality problems.
We can verify the power quality by installing a special type of high-speed recording test
equipment to monitor the electrical power. This type of test equipment will provide information used in
evaluating if the electrical power is of sufficient quality to reliably operate the equipment. The process is
similar to a doctor using a heart monitor to record the electrical signals for your heart. Monitoring will
provide us with valuable data; however the data needs to be interpreted and applied to the type of equipment
being powered. Let’s look at two examples of interpreting data for a USA location (other countries use
different voltages but the same principal applies).
Power Quality Events:
Power quality problems have many names and descriptions. Surges, spikes, transients, blackouts,
noise, are some common descriptions given, but what do they mean? This section delves into
defining power quality issues and terminology.
Power quality issues can be divided into short duration, long duration, and continuous categories. The

computer industry has developed a qualification standard to categorize power quality events. The most
common standard is the CBEMA curve (Computer Business Equipment Manufacturing Association).
What can cause power quality problems?
Typical problems include grounding and bonding problems, code violations and internally
generated power disturbances.
Other internal issues include powering different equipment from the same power source. Lets
take an example of a laser printer and a personal computer. Most of us would not think twice
about plugging the laser printer into the same power strip that runs the PC. We are more
concerned about the software and communication compatibility than the power capability;
however, some laser printers can generate neutral-ground voltage swells and line-neutral voltage
sags every minute or so. The long term effect to the PC may be power supply failure. We have
to be careful in how technology is installed and wired.
Most common Power Quality problems:
Voltage sag (or dip)
Description:
A decrease of the normal voltage level between 10 and 90% of the nominal rms voltage at the
power frequency, for durations of 0,5 cycle to 1 minute.
Causes:
Faults on the transmission or distribution network (most of the times on parallel feeders). Faults
in consumer‟ s installation. Connection of heavy loads and start-up of large motors.
Consequences:
Malfunction of information technology equipment, namely microprocessor-based control
systems (PCs, PLCs, ASDs, etc) that may lead to a process stoppage. Tripping of contactors and
electromechanical relays. Disconnection and loss of efficiency in electric rotating machines.
Energy conservation:
Energy conservation refers to efforts made to reduce energy consumption. Energy conservation
can be achieved through increased efficient energy use, in conjunction with decreased energy
consumption and/or reduced consumption from conventional energy sources
Energy being an important element of the infrastructure sector has to be ensured its availability
on sustainable basis. On the other hand, the demand for energy is growing manifold and the
energy sources are becoming scarce and costlier. Among the various strategies to be evolved for
meeting energy demand, efficient use of energy and its conservation emerges out to be the least
cost option in any given strategies, apart from being environmentally benign.
The steps to create sustainable energy system begin with the wise use of resources; energy
efficiency is the mantra that leads to sustainable energy management.

Energy Demand and Supply:
On the energy demand and supply side, India is facing severe shortages. 70% of the total
petroleum product demand is being met by imports, imposing a heavy burden on foreign
exchange. Country is also facing Peak power and average energy shortages of 12% and 7%
respectively. To provide power for all, additional capacity of 100,000 MW would be needed by
2012, requiring approximately Rs.8000 billion investment. Further, the per capita energy
consumption in India is too low as compared to developed countries, which is just 4% of USA
and 20% of the world average. The per capita consumption is targeted to grow to about 1000
kWh per year by 2012 , thus imposing extra demand on power system.
Importance of Energy Conservation
In a scenario where India tries to accelerate its development process and cope with increasing
energy demands, conservation and energy efficiency measures are to play a central role in our
energy policy. A national movement for energy conservation can significantly reduce the need
for fresh investment in energy supply systems in coming years. It is imperative that all-out
efforts are made to realize this potential. Energy conservation is an objective to which all the
citizen in the country can contribute. Whether a household or a factory, a small shop or a large
commercial building, a farmer or a office worker, every user and producer of energy can and
must make this effort for his own benefit, as well as that of the nation.
Energy audit methodology
 The methodology adopted for this audit was
 Formation of audit groups for specific areas and end use
 Visual inspection and data collection
 Observations on the general condition of the facility and equipment and quantification
 Identification / verification of energy consumption and other parameters by
measurements
 Detailed calculations, analyses and assumptions
 Validation
 Potential energy saving opportunities
 Implementation
An energy audit is a preliminary activity towards instituting energy efficiency programs in an establishment.
It consists of activities that seek to identify conservation opportunities preliminary to the development of an
energy savings program.
The Role of an Energy Audit
To institute the correct energy efficiency programs, you have to know first which areas in your
establishment unnecessarily consume too much energy, e.g.which is the most cost-effective to improve. An
energy audit identifies where energy is being consumed and assesses energy saving opportunities - so you
get to save money where it counts the most.

Contents of an Audit
An energy audit seeks to document things that are sometimes ignored in the plant, such as the energy
being used on site per year, which processes use the energy,and the opportunities for savings. In so doing, it
assesses the effectiveness of management structure for controlling energy use and implementing changes.
The energy audit action plan lists the steps and sets the preliminary budget for the energy management
program.
1. Analysis of energy use
Identifying where energy is used is useful because it identifies which areas the audit should focus on and
raises awareness of energy use and cost. The results of the analysis can be used in the review of
management structures and procedures for controlling energy use.
2. Identification of energy projects
Opportunities for energy savings can range from the simplest, such as lighting retrofits, to the most
complex such as the installation of a cogeneration plant. The important thing to remember is to focus on
major energy users and areas. Always apply the 80/20 rule, focus on opportunities that provide 80% of the
saving but require 20% input. After the preliminary identification of opportunities, spend more
time on those which have shorter payback periods.
3. Cost benefit analysis
The identified energy conservation opportunities should be analyzed in terms of the costs of
implementing the project versus the benefits that can be gained. If you want to, say, install a heat plate
exchanger to recover waste heat, you need to calculate the total cost of installation and compare that with
the savings you will derive from recovering waste heat. It makes sense to go on with the project if there is a
net positive benefit from the project.
4. Action plan to set implementation priority
After passing the cost benefit test, an action plan should be developed to ensure that the opportunities
identified are implemented. The action plan should include all the major steps for implementing the
opportunity as well as the people responsible.Furthermore, there should be a plan for monitoring the results.

UNIT-3
ILLUMINATION
Introduction:
Light by definition connotes Electromagnetic radiation that has a wavelength in the range
from about 4,000 (violet) to about 7,700 (red) angstroms and may be perceived by the normal unaided
human eye. In fact in the prehistoric days, all human activities were coordinated with Sunrise and
Sunset. Today, in principle activities are carried out round the clock. All this is made possible
because of Artificial Lighting systems. The lighting systems comprise of a source employing any physical
phenomenon among.
Incandescence, Electrolumniescence or Flourescence. Some control scheme and a
Luminaire. In fact all this has lead to a class of professionals called Lighting Engineers or Illumination
Engineers. Unlike other group of professionals they need to be adept at not only at exact sciences of
Maths, Physics, Chemistry; but be wary of Physiology and Psychology of users (like a medical
professional); have good aesthetic sense and economically utilize resources.Efficacy of these systems is
talked in terms of Illuminance per Watt of energy consumed. Efforts are on to reduce energy
conmsumption yet have efficient Illumination to enhance productivity. Need less to mention that all
these sources employ electrical energy.Trend these days is to employ, modern electronic controls
together with energy efficient lamps.These aspects are borne in mind, right from the planning stage of
a building. As electrical energy is being used for the purpose, it becomes important for Illuminating
Engineer to come up with an integrated system for the complete electrical system of a building.
Importance of lighting:
Humans depend on Light for all activities. Light is a natural phenomenon, very vital for
existence, which is taken for granted. In fact, Life involves day night cycles beginning with sunrise and
ending with sunset. Pre-historic man had activities limited only to day time. Artificial light enables
extended activity period employing in a planned optimized manner, minimizing the resources.
Vision is the most important sense accounting for 80% information acquisition for humans.
Information may be acquired through sun/moon light (direct/ reflected) or by using artificial light (closest
to natural light). Before we go any further, it is worth looking at Teichmuller’s definition for lighting. “We
say the lighting is good, when our eyes can clearly and pleasantly perceive the things around us”. Therefore
Artificial light should be Functional and pleasant both physiologically and psychologically. This is often
achieved employing multiple sources. It must be borne in mind that the sources should be economic
and energy efficient. As all of us are aware, all sources today employ electrical energy.
Electrical energy is supplied as a.c. (alternating current) or d.c. (direct current). Usually electric
power supply is a.c. in nature, either single phase or three phases. It must be borne that close circuit is
a must for current flow. As it is well known losses exist in all electrical circuits or lines.
Properties of good lighting scheme:
1. Incandescence
Thermo luminescence is by definition radiation at high temperature. The sources
employing this process are Incandescent Lamp, Gas Lamp, (flames and in oil Lamps and wax candles).
They lead to a continuous spectrum of radiation.
2. Luminescence:
Luminescence Electro luminescence by definition Chemical or Electrical Action on gases
or vapour radiation. Here color of radiation depends on the material employed. Usually this process leads
to Line or Band Spectrum.
3. Fluorescence:

Fluorescence is a process in which radiation is absorbed at one wavelength and radiated at
another wavelength eg: UV impinging on Uranium – Fluorescent oils. This re radiation makes the light
radiated visible.
4. Phosphorescence:
Phosphorescence is a process when energy is absorbed at some time and radiated later as glow.
Examples of this process are luminous paints that contain calcium sulfide that lead to Phosphorescence.
They produce light Radiation after exposure to light.In practice good efficient lighting is obtained by
combining Luminescence and Fluorescence. Fluorescent lamp is Luminescent source of low luminous
value activating Fluorescent surfaces which lead to visible radiation. Here intensity depends on gas or
vapor involved and phosphor material. However, the temperatures of the material play a role in
radiation.
Lumen
The lumen (symbolized lm) is the International Unit of luminous flux. It is defined in terms of candela
steradians (cd multiplied by sr). One lumen is the amount of light emitted in a solid angle of 1 sr, from a
source that radiates to an equal extent in all directions, and whose intensity
is 1 cd.
Luminous intensity
Luminous intensity is an expression of the amount of light power emanating from a point source within a
solid angle of one steradian.
Laws of illumination:
The original standard of light was Wax Candle, which is highly unreliable. It was replaced by a Vaporized
Pentane Lamp. This is equal to10 original Candles. In the year 1909, Incandescent Lamp was taken as
standard by comparison with a Pentane Lamp. Thing to be kept in mind is Primary Standard should be
reproducible.It was in1948, Luminous Intensity; based on Luminance (objective brightness) of a small
aperture due to Light from a Radiator maintained at1773°c i.e. Solidification temperature of platinum was
adopted as Standard. It consists of:
1. Radiator – Fused Thoria – Thorium Oxide. 45mm long internal dia of 2.5mm. Packed with Fused
Thoria Powder at the bottom.
2. Supported Vertically Pure Platinum in a Fused thoria crucible with a small aperture of 1.5mm in a
large refractory container.
3. Platinum melted by a High Frequency Eddy current.Luminance = 589000 Candles /m2
≈600 000 units.
Transparent:
Common unit of light intensity is candela. It is Luminous intensity in the Perpendicular direction of a
surface, 1 / 600,000 of a black body at temperature of solidification or Freezing of Platinum under Standard
Atmospheric pressure. It is abbreviated as Cd. It is indicative of Light Radiating Capacity of a source of
Lamp.

Consider a transparent sphere of radius 1m shown in Fig. If we place a 1 Cd source at the
centre then light flux coming out through an area of 1m2 over 1 steradian solid angle will be 1 lumen.
Thus Luminous Intensity over 1 Str. by 1, Cd, we call it 1 lumen ≈ 1 lm. Basic unit of Light
Flux.
∴ Total Flux = 4 π lumens, out of the sphere in Fig .
If the Solid Angle be dω and Luminous Intensity I Cd at the center then Luminous flux in
dω =dφ = I dω lm.
Yet another important unit is MSLI. It means Mean Spherical Luminous Intensity. Average
value of Luminous Intensity in all directions. Therefore for the case in Fig
φ = I 4πlumens
Now we define Luminous intensity on a surface. It is known as Illuminance. It is Luminous Flux
per unit area or lumens per sq m. = lumen / m2 = lm / m2 = lux (lx).

Frechner’s law:
Weber in 1830 found that I – Stimulus (Intensity) produces dI – Least perceptible increment affecting
sense organs. Then the ratio
dI/i= Constant Under fixed –
1) Fatigue
2) Attention and
3) Expectation.
Thus we have sensitivity given by the equation
Here I0 is the threshold intensity. This is known as Frechner’s Law. The same percentage change in
stimulus Calculated from the least amount perceptible. Gives same change in sensation. Sensations
produced by optic nerves have logarithmic dependence or relationship to Light Radiation producing the
sensation.Intensity of Illumination produced by a point source varies inversely as square of the distance
from the source. It is given by the equation and as shown in Fig
E = I / D
Lambert’s Cosine Law of Incidence
E = I cos
D2
This – tells us the variation of Illuminance on arbitrary surface inclined at an angle of α. As shown in
Fig

Above Fig.shows a lamp placed at A, bm above the floor. For this scheme b e l o w Fig shows
the variation of Illuminance on the floor. It is well known that Illuminance is maximum under the lamp at
‘B’.
Illuminance at B =
LI in direction AB
b2
Illuminance at C =
LI in direction AC
AC2
= LI in direction AB× Cosθ
(b2 +d2)
Illuminance at C = Illuminance at Bx Cos3θ

Next is to measure the candle power of the lamp. Typical measurement can be done using a
photometric bench shown in Fig. 7 where IS represents standard lamp. IX represents test lamp. There
is a screen at the centre called photometer head, adjusted for equal brightness on either side. Applying
inverse law one can arrive at the value of IX.
This lesson introduced the primary standard and other terminology related to measurement of light
flux.
Photometry:
Primary Standard was defined in an earlier lecture based on the brightness of a body (i.e. black body)
maintained at Freezing Temperature of platinum. Unit of Luminous Intensity abbreviated as is candela
cd (z). Light Flux hence emanating from a point source in all directions is
Illuminance - ¼ πlumens and is termed msli is the light flux incident on a task surface in lumens
per unit area and is called lux. Comparison with a standard. Normally Primary standards are kept in
standards Laboratories. Usually Incandescent Lamp Compared with a Primary standard is used as a
Laboratory Standard. The test source / lamp is compared With the Laboratory Standard. However,
Incandescent Lamp not suitable beyond 50 – 100 hours Standardization of Lamp is by voltage rating
Current rating and wattage.
These measurements comprise photometry. They employ a Photometric Bench with a photometric head
which is an opaque screen. These measurements involve compassing the test lamp with standard lamp
a. By varying the position of comparison lamp (standard Lamp) Is b. By
varying the position of the test lamp IT
c. By varying the position of the screen
Measurement is complete when the bench is balanced. It is balanced when two sides of the screen are
equally bright [in a Dark Room] as shown in Fig.1
Photometric Bench:
Fig. 1 Photometric Bench

Measurements may be made on Illumination meter or Lux meter also in this instead of the screen
adjust the meter to get the same reading on photometric bench. Fig.2. shows a method where distance
is varied to get the same reading on the meter.
Fig. 2 Use of Lux meter on Photometric Bench
Alternatively, the distance on the bench may be kept constant and readings on the meter are
noted.
Fig. 3 Photometric Bench with Lux meter at a Constant Distance

Fig. 4 Integrating Photometer
Fig 4 shows a typical photo meter. It has a standard point source ‘L’ of Light at the centre of a
opaque sphere. It has an opening W where a photo cell is placed that receives diffused light from the
source. Window ‘W’ is shielded by diffusing screen ‘C’ from direct light. Reading on the micrometer
is first taken with a standard Lamp and later with the test Lamp.
Fig. 5 shows the photocell employed in a photometer. In a photocell sensitive element ‘S’ is selenium
coated in the form of a thin layer on a steel plate P. This is in turn covered with a thin layer of Metal
‘M’ on which is a collection ring R.
Fig. 5 Photovoltaic cell
Sensitive element is a semi-conductor that releases electrons upon exposure to light. Selenium and
Cuprous oxide are most suitable semi-conductor materials. Steel Plate ‘P’ coated with thin
layer of Selenium at 200°c and annealed at 80°c Producing crystalline form. It is in turn coated
by a thin transparent film of metal ‘M’ with a collection ring ‘R’ of metal.

Fig. 6 Top view of a photo cell
B is the barrier Layer Upon exposure to light – light enters through ‘M’ releases electrons from
metallic Selenium. They cross barrier ‘B’ to ‘M’ and are collected through ‘R’ and P Current
indicated by (A) is proportional to Illuminance. Often (A) is a micro ammeter calibrated in lm.
The next aspect of photometry is to look at the luminance curves of the Lamps. Here comes the role
of Luminaries. Luminaries primarily provide the physical support to the Lamps. They may be
directing, globes, reflecting or refracting. They could be supported on the walls using wall branects.
They may be portable units on pole mounted in case of street Light. In all cares we need light
distribution curves. Light distribution curves are curves giving Variation of Luminous intensity with
angle of emission in a Horizontal plane i.e. Polar angle Azimuth or Vertical plane, passing though
centre.
Fig 7 shows a typical Polar Luminance distribution curve of a point source of Light. From a
Polar Curve in order to arrive at msli of the lamp a Rousseau diagram is constructed. Fig 8 shows
such a construction.
Fig.7 A typical Polar Luminance distribution diagram

Fig. 8 Rousseau Diagram
Consider the Polar curve A for the typical lamp with O as centre of the Lamp Draw a semicircle of
convenient radius OB = OC Insert no. of radii. From the top of there radial segments. From the tip of the
radial segments draw horizontal lines extended to cut the vertical line to scale depending on length of Radic.
Then the average width of the curve DP “Q” R “S” F is msli.
Types of lamps:
"Arc lamp" or "arc light" is the general term for a class of lamps that produce light by an electric arc (also
called a voltaic arc). The lamp consists of two electrodes, first made from carbon but typically made today
of tungsten, which are separated by a gas. The type of lamp is often named by the gas contained in the bulb;
including neon, argon, xenon, krypton, sodium, metal halide, and mercury, or by the type of electrode as in
carbon-arc lamps. The common fluorescent lamp is actually a low-pressure mercury arc lamp
High Pressure Mercury Vapour Lamp:

The mercury vapour lamp in construction is similar to sodium vapour lamp. It gives greenish blue colour
light, which causes colour distortion. The efficiency is about 30-40 lumens per watt. These lamps (MA type)
are manufactured in 250 and 400 W ratings for use on 200-250 Vac supply. Lamps of this type are used for
general industrial lighting, railway yards, ports, work areas; shopping centers etc where greenish-blue colour
ligh is not objectionable. Another type, which is manufactured in 300 and 500 W ratings for use on ac as
well as dc supply mains is MAT type. This is similar to MA type except that it does not use choke as
ballast. Lower wattage lamps, such as 80 and 125 W, are manufactured in a different design and using high
vapour pressure of about 5-10 atmospheres. These are known as MB type lamps.
Incandescent lamp:
The incandescent light bulb, incandescent lamp or incandescent light globe produces light by heating a
metal filament wire to a high temperature until it glows. The hot filament is protected from oxidation in the
air with a glass enclosure that is filled with inert gas or evacuated. In a halogen lamp, filament evaporation
is prevented by a chemical process that redeposit’s metal vapor onto the filament, extending its life. The
light bulb is supplied with electrical current by feed-through terminals or wires embedded in the glass. Most
bulbs are used in a socket which provides mechanical support and electrical connections. Incandescent bulbs
are manufactured in a wide range of sizes, light output, and voltage ratings, from 1.5 volts to about 300
volts. They require no external regulating equipment, have low manufacturing costs, and work equally well
on either alternating current or direct current. As a result, the incandescent lamp is widely used in household
and commercial lighting, for portable lighting such as table lamps, car headlamps, and flashlights, and for
decorative and advertising lighting.
Some applications of the incandescent bulb use the heat generated by the filament, such as incubators,
brooding boxes for poultry, heat lights for reptile tanks, infrared heating for industrial heating and drying
processes, and the Easy-Bake Oven toy. This waste heat increases the energy required by a building's air
conditioning system.

Gaseous discharge lamps:
Gas-discharge lamps are a family of artificial light sources that generate light by sending an electrical
discharge through an ionized gas, i.e. a plasma. The character of the gas discharge critically depends on the
frequency or modulation of the current: see the entry on a frequency classification of plasmas. Typically,
such lamps use a noble gas (argon, neon, krypton and xenon) or a mixture of these gases. Most lamps are
filled with additional materials, like mercury, sodium and/or metal halides. In operation the gas is ionized and
free electrons, accelerated by the electrical field in the tube, collide with gas and metal atoms. Some
electrons in the atomic orbitals of these atoms are excited by these collisions to a higher energy state. When
the excited atom falls back to a lower energy state, it emits a photon of a characteristic energy, resulting in
infrared, visible light, or ultraviolet radiation. Some lamps convert the ultraviolet radiation to
visible light with a fluorescent coating on the inside of the lamp's glass surface. The fluorescent lamp is
perhaps the best known gas-discharge lamp.
Gas-discharge lamps offer long life and high efficiency, but are more complicated to manufacture, and they
require auxiliary electronic equipment such as ballasts to control current flow through the gas. Due to their
greater efficiency, gas-discharge lamps are replacing incandescent lights in many lighting applications.
Sodium Vapour Lamp:
Principally sodium vapour lamp consists of a bulb containing a small amount of metallic sodium, neon gas
and two sets of electrodes connected to a pin type base. The lamp operates at a temperature of about
300°C and in order to conserve the heat generated and assure the lamp operating at normal air
temperatures the discharge envelope is enclosed in special vacuum envelope designed for this purpose. The
efficiency of a sodium vapour lamp under practical conditions is about 40-50 lumens/watt. Such lamps are
manufactured in 45, 60, 85 and 140 W ratings. The average life is about 3000 hours and is not affected by
voltage variations. The major application of this type of lamp is for highway and general outdoor lighting
where colour discrimination is not required, such as street lighting, parks, rail yards, storage yards etc.

Fluorescent Lamp:
Employs transformation of UV radiation due to low pressure mercury vapor. Luminescent Powder
in tubular vapor Lamps Enhances brilliancy of light.Radiation from Low Pressure Mercury Vapor
(which is in UV region) is impinged on Luminescent Materials and re – radiated at longer wavelengths of
visible spectrum. In a Glass Tube small drop of Mercury and small amount of Argon gas are placed for
initiation of discharge. Pressure, voltage and current are so adjusted that 253.7 nm line is excited. This re-
radiates at longer wavelength. Typically a 40W lamp requires 2-3g of phosphors. Maximum sensitivity is
around 250 – 260 nm. Various types of Fluorescent Lamps are:
1. Day Light Fluorescent Lamps- Average Noon Day Light. 6500°k suitable where demands are not
exacting
2. Standard white Light - 3500°k general Lighting.
3. 4500°k white Lamp – between std. white Light & Day Light Lamp.
4. Soft white Lamp – Pinker Light. 25% lower light output than Std. white Lamp suitable for
Residential lighting and Restaurants.
Dimension and Voltage depend on Luminous Efficacy, Brightness, Lumen Output and Lumen
Maintenance. Reliable Starting is achieved by having preheated cathodes / hot cathode. Half the open
circuit voltage should be used by the Lamp and the other half by the ballast. Lamp Voltage decides the arc
length, bulb diameter and lamp current. Hot Cathode lamps operate at lower voltage < cold Cathode
lamps. Typically cold cathodes have 70-100V drop at the cathode.

Lighting Calculations:
Inverse-square law
The skilled application of computerized point lighting calculations can optimize lighting levels in both the
task and ambient domains in order to minimize energy consumption. The lighting professional should
consider the use of point lighting calculations, both to design more energy-efficient spaces, and to create
spaces with more drama and visual interest.
Point calculations are an exceptionally accurate way to compare general lighting systems. While the easier
lumen method allows the comparison of average luminance, point calculations permit the comparison of
uniformity of light on the work plane, the patterns of light produced on ceilings and walls, and task contrast
rendering. More specifically, point calculations allow consideration of the effects listed below.
Effect on Room Surfaces. By evaluating the patterns of light on a wall caused by a row of compact
fluorescent down lights, an aesthetic evaluation can be made. Artwork locations may be selected or lighting
may be designed to highlight artwork. It may also be possible to determine whether the pattern created on a
wall will produce luminance extremes that will cause glare or reflections in VDT screens.
Indirect Lighting Effects on Ceiling. When they are too close to the ceiling, indirect lighting systems may
create definite stripes or pools of light on the ceiling that are distracting and that may image in VDT
screens. Careful ceiling luminance calculations can help identify the problem, and allow comparison of
lighting products with various optical distributions and suspension lengths to reduce the effect. Gray-scale
printouts or shaded VDT screen output of luminance make visual assessments possible.
Interior Task-Ambient Lighting. Point calculations should be used for any type of lighting design where the
task locations and types are well known and are unlikely to move without a lighting redesign. They may also
be used for lighting designs where tasks that move end up in predefined locations.
Cautions for Point Calculations. In the case where a task light is used, or where an indirect fixture is
mounted within 12 inches of the ceiling, point calculations are not always appropriate. In general, if the
luminaire is close to the surface where lighting patterns are to be evaluated, a near field situation exists. A

shortcoming of the mathematics used in point calculations is that these near field calculations are
comparatively inaccurate unless near field photometric data is available from the luminaire manufacturer, or
the computer program is capable of adjusting the characteristics of the luminaries to improve the accuracy
of the results. Otherwise, it may be more accurate to evaluate the light patterns from the task light or
indirect fixture empirically.
The most common methods used for lighting calculations are:
(1) Watts per Square Meter Method. This is principally a „rule of thumb‟ method very handy for rough
calculations or checking. It consists of making an allowance of watts/m
2
of area to be illuminated according
to the illumination desired on the assumption of an average figure of overall efficiency of the system.
(2) Lumen or Light Flux Method. This method is applicable to those cases where the sources of light are
such as to produce an approximate uniform illumination over the working plane or where an average value
is required. Lumens received on the working plane may be determined from the relation.
Lumens received on the working plane = Number of lamps X wattage of each lamp X lamp efficiency
(lumens/watt) X coefficient of utilization/depreciation factor.
(3) Point-To-Point or Inverse Square Law Method. This method is applicable where the illumination at a
point due to one or more sources of light is required, the candle power of sources in the particular direction
under consideration being known. This method is not much used because of its complicated and
cumbersome applications.
Design of lighting system:
Direct lighting:
Lighting provided from a source without reflection from other surfaces. In day lighting, this means that the
light has travelled on a straight path from the sky (or the sun) to the point of interest. In electrical
lighting it usually describes an installation of ceiling mounted or suspended luminaires with mostly
downward light distribution characteristics.
Indirect lighting:
Lighting provided by reflection usually from wall or ceiling surfaces. In day lighting, this means that the
light coming from the sky or the sun is reflected on a surface of high reflectivity like a wall, a window sill or
a special redirecting device. In electrical lighting the luminaries are suspended from the ceiling or wall
mounted and distributes light mainly upwards so it gets reflected off the ceiling or the walls.
Types of Lighting:
One of the primary functions of a luminaries is to direct the light to where it is needed. The light distribution
produced by luminaries is characterized by the Illuminating Engineering Society as follows:
Indirect Lighting= 90 to 100 percent of the light is directed to the ceilings and upper walls and is reflected
to all parts of a room.
Semi-Direct Lighting=60 to 90 percent of the light is directed downward with the remainder directed

upward.
Semi-indirect Lighting=60 to 90 percent of the light is directed upward with the remainder directed
downward.
Highlighting Lighting= the beam projection distance and focusing ability characterize this luminaire
Industrial Luminaries:
Coming to industrial areas if in the Interior-up to 6m Fluorescent Lamp with matt white reflector are
employed. In High bays beyond 6m Discharge Lamps with Mirror Reflectors are employed. Luminaries in
Hazardous Areas are specially designed. They are encapsulated in boxes made of steel or cast iron exterior
housing to avoid any explosion, sturdy resisting pressure.
Categories of Explosive Areas:
In this respect explosives are as are categorized as
Zone 0 – Explosive all the time,
Zone 1 – Normally Explosive and
Zone 2 – Explosive Abnormally.
Here moisture & dust are taken care by Gasketted Luminnaires – Completely sealed eg: in a Shower or a
Laundry. Emergency Lighting is required when normal lighting fails. Escape Lighting sufficient for
evacuation typically 1 – 10 lx. Safety Lighting – 5% normal Lighting is provided in Potentially
Hazardous areas. Standby power supply required for activation of vital implements. A permanent, separate,
self supporting Power system which is reliable and mains rechargeable batteries in each Luminaries are
provided
Non Permanent - Auto Switching - Emergency Generator - Battery Supply is also used.
Road Lighting:
Conventionally by they are arranged in a column, mounted on a wall or suspended by a span wire. Plane
of Symmetry being in vertical plane perpendicular to the axis of the road along the road. Catenary –
suspended from a catenary cable parallel to the axis of road. Plane of symmetry parallel to the axis of
road. They employ Corrosion Resistant sturdy materials and are usually closed.

Flood Lights:
Rain Proof Lamp holder with wide / narrow beam Reflectors are used for flood light. They are usually High
wattage Incandescent Lamps, Halogen Lamps, High Pressure Mercury Vapor Lamp or Low / high Pressure
Sodium Lamp.
Spot lights / down lights are usually used with Screens, Reflectors, Filters, Colored envelope and Closed
Lamps.
Down lights are Spot lights when suspended.
As already brought out the components of an Illumination system are Lamp, the Radiation Source,
Luminaire that directs and controls the light flux. Control Gear is the accessory that helps in controlling
the requisite amount of flux on the work plane. Now we take a look at the accessories involved. First of these
is Ballast. In a discharge lamp a series impedance to limit the current is required. If the current is allowed to
increase there can be explosion of the lamp. This takes the form in a.c. as Inductance-w/o undue loss of
power. This is called Ballast. It should have high power factor for economic use of the supply and should
generate minimum harmonics. It should offer high impedance to audio frequencies. It should suppress-
Electromagnetic interference (Radio interference-TV interference). It is essentially, a reactor of a wound coil
on a magnetic core often called Choke and is in series with the lamp. Typical power factor is 0.5 Lag. Power
factor is improved by having a capacitor connected across input lines.

Fig 1 shows the connection for a discharge lamp employing ballast formed by a reactor commonly known as
choke. Fig 2 shows how the capacitor may be connected to improve the power factor. As may be seen the
capacitor is placed in shunt. At times a lead circuit may result by placing a capacitor in series as shown in Fig
3. However, when a illumination system employing two lamps is used power factor may be improved by
having one with a lead circuit and other with a lag circuit as shown in Fig. 4. Next important accessory is a
starter that initiates the discharge in a discharge lamp. Starter is marked as ‘S’ in the Figs.1 to 4. Starter less
circuit are shown in Fig 5. They employ pre-heated filament electrodes. The preheating obtained through a
small portion of voltage tapped from the input source.

When discharge lamps are used on dc the ballast takes the form of a resistor together with associated
power loss. These days they take the form of electronic ballast which converts dc to high frequency
ac of around 20 kHZ.
Except high pressure mercury lamp where V > VS (starting) all lamps need a starting device. At
times, it is integral part of a lamp. Switch start employs bimetallic strip that opens upon
heating. Starterless, rapid start or instant starts are useful for outdoor applications. Other forms of
starters employed are three electrode devices called igniters.
Glare Evaluation:
Visual comfort system is most common evaluation in the USA/Canada. This is expressed as
percentage of people considering an installation comfortable as viewed from one end. Glare
tables list various proportions and layout of room for glare free lighting. Figure of merit is based on a
source of 1000 lm.from a luminaire. If VCP ≈ 70% then the system is said to be glare free. British
method employs Zone of luminaire with a classification for quality of light expressed as Glare index.
Luminance limit system is adopted in Australia. Standard code for Luminaire base lamp. dep. on
room dimensions, mounting height and a Empirical shielding angle
Luminance curve system is employed in Europe.
Luminance limits for luminaires critical angles, γ are 45º < γ < 85º. Quality class is expressed
from A to E type is based on Luminaire orientation.
Type 1. Luminous sides when Luminous side plane> 30 mm

General light is predominantly light coming downwards. Typically reflectance of 0.5 for walls
/ceiling and 0.25 for furniture. How is Glare evaluated?
1. Determine luminance of the source between 45º - 85º
2. Determine the quality class and illuminance required.
3. Select the curve – class / level.
4. Determine. Max. Angle to be considered from length & height and plane of eye level & plane of
luminaires. (Refer to Fig 1)
5. Horizontal limit based on” a / h”, part of the line (or curve) to be ignored.
6. Compare luminance of one luminaire with selected part of the limiting curve.
Interior Lighting:
Interior Lighting is a complex problem depending on various factors such as
• Purpose intended service,

• Class of Interiors.
• Luminaire best suited,
• Color effect and
• Reflection from ceiling, walls, floors.
Good Lighting means intensity should be ample to see clearly and distinctly. The light
distribution should be nearly uniform over a part of the room at least. It should be diffused that is
soft and well diffused. Color depends on purpose and taste source but should approach
daylight / yellow. Source location should be well above range of vision. To avoid glare intrinsic
brightness is reduced by diffused glass ware and by remaining objects of secular reflection from
range of vision. Shadows are a must for accentuating depth but should not too apparent abruptly or
dense, they are not to be harsh and should toned down.
Standard practice is to have general lighting in all areas at a level comfortable to eye. It should
eliminate dark shadows and avoid sharp contrast. In order to emphasize on parts that should be
shown. Light sources located such that visual importance of object is kept in mind. Lamp may be
concealed or counter lighted with a very low attention value to itself. Glare minimized by
diffusing.
American Institute of Architects Recommends for Good Illumination.
1. General. Lighting – effectively illuminate all objects/areas with due regard to relative
importance in the interior composition. Adequate for eye comfort throughout the room elimination of
dark shadows and sharp contrasts – preserve soft shadows for roundness/relief – lighting emphasis on
those parts that need first attention.
2. Light sources be subordinated in visual importance to the things intended to illuminate, except
rarely when itself is a dominant decorative element. Unless – concealed/counter lighted, that they
are not apparent they have extremely high attention value – dominate the scheme. If visible – so
disposed – to attract eye to major feature of room than themselves.
3. Glare must be eliminated. Result of intense brightness in concentrated areas within the line of
vision. Produced by excess brightness of visible light. reflection of bright lights from – Polished –
low diffused surfaces - extreme contrast of light/shade
Employ – means of diffusing – at source or finish the room - with Diffusing/Absorbing materials
rather than reflecting material.
4. Level of illumination to be adequate for the type of eye work. Local lighting to
supplement general lighting adequate illumination – working at m/cs – desks – reading tables High
level local lighting is always to be accompanied by general lighting to avoid eye strain and minimize
controls. If glare is avoided there is no over illumination. Natural light limits are for outdoor 107600
lux and 1076 lux for indoor. Level should be adequate for eye task expected.
5. General lighting is to be related and controlled to suit the mood. While worship,
meditation, introspection need low levels. Gaiety, mental activity, physical activity or intense activity
needs high levels. Theaters, homes and restaurants may need levels varied according to mood. Shops
level should be appropriate to woo customers through psychological reaction. Offices, factories and
schools adequate illumination to work w/o eye strain.

6. Light source must suit interior in style, shape and finish in all architectural aspects.
Sports Lighting:
Lighting for sports facility looks for comfort of four user groups namely Players,
Officials, Spectators and Media. Players and officials should see clearly in the play area to
produce best possible results the object used in the game. Spectators should follow the
performance of the players. In addition to play area surroundings also need to be illuminated.
Lighting should be such that it enables safe entry and exit. With increasing crowd level safety
becomes more and more important. Media include TV and film, for which lighting should provide
lighting such that conditions are suitable for color picture quality as per CIE 83. This should be
suitable for both general pictures as well as close up of players and spectators. Additionally, it should
have provisions for emergency power supply to provide continuous transmission.
Criteria relevant for sports lighting are Horizontal Illuminance, Vertical Illuminance,
Illuminance
Uniformity, Glare restrictions, Modeling & shadows and Color appearance & rendering
Energy efficiency lamps:
Horizontal Illuminance:
This becomes important as major part of view is illuminated playing area. Illuminance on
the horizontal plane serves adaptation of the eye. It acts as a background, so adequate illuminance is
important. For safe entry and exit adequate illumination is required in the circulation area also.
Vertical Illuminance:
Sufficient contrast across players’ body is essential for the identification of the player. This
is possible only if sufficient vertical illumination is there. This is characterized by both magnitude
and direction. Players need adequate vertical illumination, from all directions. Spectators and
Media need illumination only in defined directions. Generally, if horizontal illuminance is taken care,
vertical illuminance levels become adequate. Usually vertical illuminance is specified or measured at
a vertical height 1.5 m above the play area. Apart from player recognition and picture quality
vertical illuminance should enable observation of movement of ball (or object moving in the sport
concerned) above the playing field by both players and spectators. Spectator’s stands are also
part of the environment and must also have adequate vertical illuminance, more from the safety point
of view.
Illuminance Uniformity:
Good illuminance is important in both the horizontal and vertical planes. If it be good it
does away need for continuous adjustment of cameras. This is achieved by having Illuminance
Uniformity.
Road Lighting:
Road lighting provides visual conditions for safe, quick and comfortable movement of Road users.
The factors responsible for the lighting scheme for roads are:

i. Luminance Level.
ii. Luminance Uniformity.
iii. Degree of Glare limitation.
iv. Lamp Spectra and
v. Effectiveness of visual guidance.
Luminance Level:
As the Luminance of a road influences contrast sensitivity of drivers’ eyes and contrast of
obstacles, relative to back ground. Hence affects performance of Road users. Surrounding brightness
affects the adaptation of human eye. Bright surroundings lower contrast sensitivity there by requiring
higher luminance for the road surface. Darker surroundings make driver adapted to road (assuming
road is brighter). Roads with dark surrounds are to be lit by including surroundings. Otherwise
drivers cannot perceive objects in the surroundings. CIE 12 recommends that 5m away
from the road on either side should be lit by illuminance level at least 50% of that on the road.
Luminance Uniformity:
Adequate uniformity is necessary for visual performance and visual comfort of the user.
From visual performance view point, uniformity ratio is defined by U0 = Lmin / Lavg .U0 should not
be below 0.4.From visual comfort view point uniformity ratio is defined as U1 = Lmin / Lmax
measured along the line passing through the observer positioned in the middle of the traffic
facing the traffic flow. Termed longitudinal uniformity ratio.
Glare Limitation:
Physiological or disability glare affect visual performance. Psychological or discomfort
glare affect visual comfort. Glare is to be avoided at all costs.
Lamp Spectra
Spectral composition determines color appearance of the lamp. The way lamp is going to
render color to objects Low pressure sodium vapour lamps give greater visual acuity. Spectrum
should be such; there is Great speed of perception, less discomfort glare and shorter recovery time
after glare.
Visual Guidance:
Visual guidance guides the road user and hence must for user to get a recognizable picture
of the course immediately. This is improved by lamp arrangement that follows the run of the
road. More so if turns and intersections are there. Lighting scheme must provide visual guidance.
On roads having separate lanes with a separator the lighting columns are located on the separator.
As is the custom in large avenues in Metros. On a curve the lighting column is located along the
outer column. This gives a clear indication of the run of the road on the curvature. Visual
guidance pilots traffic through lights of different colors on different routes.

UNIT-4
INDUSTRIAL HEATING AND WELDING
Electric Heating Introduction:
Electric heating is any process in which electrical energy is converted to heat. Common
applications include heating of buildings, cooking, and industrial processes. An electric heater is an
electrical appliance that converts electrical energy into heat. The heating element inside every electric
heater is simply an electrical resistor, and works on the principle of Joule heating: an electric current
through a resistor converts electrical energy into heat energy. Alternatively, a heat pump uses an
electric motor to drive a refrigeration cycle, drawing heat from a source such as the ground or outside
air and directing it into the space to be warmed.
Definition
Dielectric heating (also known as electronic heating, RF heating, high-frequency heating) is the
process in which radiowave or microwave electromagnetic radiation heats a dielectric material. This
heating is caused by dipole rotation.
Role electric heating for industrial applications:
When current is passed through a conductor, the conductor becomes hot. When a magnetic material
is brought in the vicinity of an alternating magnetic field, heat is produced in the magnetic material.
Similarly it was found that when an electrically insulating material was subjected to electrical
stresses, it too underwent a temperature rise (Dielectric heating).
There are various method of heating a material but electric heating is considered to be far
superior for the following reasons:
(i)Cleanliness:
Due to complete elimination of dust and ash, the charges to maintain cleanliness are minimum and
the material to be heated does not get contaminated.
(ii)Ease of control:
With the help of manual or automatic devices, it is possible to control and regulate the temperature
of a furnace with great ease.
(iii)Uniform heating:
Whereas in other forms of heating a temperature gradient is set up from the outer surface
(iv) Low attention and maintenance cost:
Electric heating equipments normally do not require much attention and maintenance is also
negligible.

Hence labour charges on these items are negligibly small as compared to alternative methods of
heating.
Requirement of Heating Material:
i) Low Temperature Coefficients of Resistance
Resistance of conducting element varies with the temperature; this variation should be small in
case of an element.
Otherwise when switched ON from room temperature to go upto say 1200˚C, the low resistance at
initial stage will draw excessively high currents at the same operating voltage.
ii) Resistance coefficient Positive
If temperature is negative the element will draw more current when hot.
A higher current means more voltage, a higher temperature or a still lower resistance, which can
instability of operation.
iii) High Melting Point
Its melting point should be sufficiently higher than its operating temperature. Otherwise a small
rise in the operating voltage will destroy the element.
iv) High Specific Resistance
The resistivity of the material used for making element should be high.
This will require small lengths and shall give convenient size.
v) High Oxidizing Temperature
Its oxidizing temperature should higher than its operating temperature.
To have convenient shapes and sizes, the material used should have high ductility and
flexibility.
It should not be brittle and fragile.
vi) Should with stand Vibration
In most industrial process quite strong vibrations are produced.
Some furnaces have to open or rock while hot. The element material should withstand the
vibrations while hot and should not break open.
vii) Mechanical Strength
The material used should have sufficient mechanical strength of its own.

CLASSIFICATION OF METHODS OF ELECTRIC HEATING :
i) Power Frequency Method:
Direct resistance heating, indirect resistance heating, direct arc heating, and indirect arc heating.
ii) High Frequency Heating:
Induction heating and dielectric heating.
Resistance Heating:
This method is based upon the I2R loss. Whenever current is passed through a resistive material
heat is produced because of I2 R loss.
There are two methods of resistance heating. They are
a. Direct Resistance Heating
b. Indirect Resistance Heating
Direct Resistance Heating:
In this method of heating the material or change to be heated is taken as a resistance and current

is passed through it.
The charge may be in the form of powder pieces or liquid. The two electrodes are immersed in
the charge and connected to the supply.
In case of D.C or single phase A.C two electrodes are required but there will be three electrodes
in case of three phase supply.
When metal pieces are to be heated a powder of high resistivity material is sprinkled over the
surface of the charge to avoid direct short circuit.
But it gives uniform heat and high temperature. One of the major applications of the process is
salt bath furnaces having an operating temperature between 500˚C to 1400˚C.
An immersed electrode type medium temperature salt bath furnace is shown in figure
The bath makes use of supply voltage across two electrodes varying between 5 to 20 volts.
For this purpose a special double wound transformer is required which makes use of 3Ф
primary and single phase secondary. This speaks of an unbalanced load.
The variation in the secondary voltage is done with the help of an off load tapping switch of the
primary side. This is necessary for starting and regulating the bath load.
Advantages:
 High efficiency.
 It gives uniform heat and high temperature.
Application:
 It is mainly used in salt bath furnace and water heaters.

Indirect Resistance Heating:
In this method the current is passed through a highly resistance element which is either placed
above or below the over depending upon the nature of the job to be performed.
The heat proportional to I2R losses produced in heating element delivered to the charge either by
radiation or by convection.
Sometimes in case of industrial heating the resistance is placed in a cylinder which is surrounded by
the charge placed in the jackes.The arrangement provides as uniform temperature.
Automatic temperature control can be provided in this case
This method is used in room heater, in bimetallic strip used in starters, immersion water heaters and
in various types of resistance ovens used in domestic and commercial cooking.

Induction heating:
Induction heating processes make use of currents induced by electromagnetic action in the material
to be heated.
Induction heating is based on the principle of transformers. There is a primary winding through
which an a.c current is passed.
The coil is magnetically coupled with the metal to be heated which acts as secondary.
An electric current is induced in this metal when the a.c current is passed through the primary coil.
The following are different types of induction furnaces
1. Core type furnaces
a. Direct core type induction furnace
b. Vertical core type induction furnace
c. Indirect core type induction furnace
2. Core less type furnaces
Direct core type:
The direct core type induction furnace is shown ion fig.

It consist of an iron core, crucible and primary winding connected to an a.c supply.
The charge is kept in the cruicible, which forms a single turn short circuited secondary circuit.
The current in the charge is very high in the order of several thousand amperes. The charge is
magnetically coupled to the primary winding.
The change is melted because of high current induced in it. When there is no molten metal, no
current will flow in the secondary.
To start the furnace molten metal is poured in the oven from the previous charge.
This type of furnace has the following drawbacks:
The magnetic coupling between the primary and secondary is very weak, therefore the leakage
reactance is very high. This causes low power factor.
Low frequency supply is necessary because normal frequency causes turbulence of the charge.
If current density exceeds about 5 amps/mm2 the electromagnetic force produced by this current
density causes interruption of secondary current.
Hence the heating of the metal is interrupted. It is called pinch effect.
The crucible for the charge id of odd shape and inconvenient from the metallurgical point of view.
The furnace cannot function if the secondary circuit is open.
It must be closed. For starting the furnace either molten metal is poured into the crucible or
sufficient molten metal is allowed to remain in the crucible from the previous operation.
Such furnace is not suitable for intermittent services.

Indirect core type induction furnace:
I n this type of furnace induction principle has been used for heating metals.
In such furnace an inductively heated element is made to transfer its heat to the change
When the primary winding is connected to the supply, current is induced in the secondary of the
metal container.
So heat is produced due to induced current. This heat is transmitted to the charge by radiation.
The portion AB of the magnetic circuit is made up of a special alloy and is kept inside the
chamber of the furnace.
The special alloy will loose its magnetic properties at a particular temperature and the magnetic
properties are regained when the alloy will cooled.
As soon as the furnace attains the critical temperature the reluctance of the magnetic circuit
increases many times and the inductive effect correspondingly decreases thereby
cutting off the heat supply.
The bar AB is removable type and can be replaced by other, having different critical temperature.
Thus the temperature of the furnace can be controlled very effectively.
Coreless induction furnace:
Coreless induction furnace also operates on the principle of transformer. In this furnace there is no
core and thus the flux density will be low.
Hence for compensating the low flux density, the current supplied to the primary should have
sufficiently high frequency.
The flux set up by the primary winding produces eddy currents in the charge. The heating effect
of the eddy currents melts the charge.
Stirring of the metals takes place by the action of the electromagnetic forces. Coreless furnace
may be having conducting or non conducting containers.
Fig shows a coreless induction furnace in which container is made up of conducting material.
The container acts as secondary winding and the charge can have either conducting or non
conducting properties.
Thus the container forms a short circuited single turn secondary. Hence heavy current induced in
it and produce heat.
The flux produced by the primary winding produces eddy currents in the charge. The heating
effects of the eddy currents melt the charge.

Stirring action in the metals takes place by the action of the electromagnetic forces.
Advantages:
 Time taken to reach the melting temperature is less.
 Accurate power control is possible.
 Any shape of crucible can be used.
 The eddy currents in the charge results in automatic stirring.
 Absence of dirt, smoke, noise, etc.
 Erection cost is less.
Applications of Induction Heating
 Induction furnace
 Induction welding
 Induction cooking
 Induction brazing
 Induction sealing
 Heating to fit
 Heat treatment
Advantages of Induction Heating
 Optimized Consistency

 Maximized Productivity
 Improved Product Quality
 Extended Fixture Life
 Environmentally Sound
 Reduced Energy Consumption
Dielectric heating:
Dielectric heating is also sometimes called as high frequency capacitance heating.
If non metallic materials ie, insulators such as wood, plastics, china clay, glass, ceramics etc are
subjected to high voltage A.C current, their temperature will increase in temperature is due to the
conversion of dielectric loss into heat.
The dielectric loss is dependent upon the frequency and high voltage. Therefore for obtaining high
heating effect high voltage at high frequency is usually employed.
The metal to be heated is placed between two sheet type electrodes which forms a capacitor as
shown in fig. The equivalent circuit and vector diagram is also shown in fig.
When A.C supply is connected across the two electrodes, the current drawn by it is leading the
voltage exactly 90˚.
The angle between voltage and current is slightly less than 90˚
But at high frequencies, the loss becomes large, which is sufficient to heat the dielectric.
Advantages:
 Uniform heating is obtained.
 Running cost is low.
 Non conducting materials are heated within a short period.
 Easy heat control.
Applications:
 For food processing.
 For wood processing.
 For drying purpose in textile industry.
 For electronic sewing.

Electric arc furnaces:
AJAX WYATT Vertical core type furnace:
The principle of operation is that of a transformer in which the secondary turns are replaced by
a closed loop of molten metal. The primary winding is placed on the central limb of the core.
Hence leakage reactance is comparatively low and power factor is high. Inside of the furnace is
lined with refactory depending upon the charge.
The top of the furnace is covered with an insulated cover which can be removed for charging.
Necessary arrangements are usually made for titling the furnace to take out the molten metal.
The molten metal in the ‘V’ portion acts as a short circuited secondary. When primary is
connected to the a.c supply, high current will be accumulated at the bottom and even a small amount of
charge will keep the secondary completed.
Hence a chance of discontinuity of the circuit is less.
Advantages:
 High efficiency and low operating cost.

 Since both primary and secondary are on the same central core, its power factor is better.
 The furnace is operated from the normal supply frequency.
 Chances of discontinuity of the secondary circuit is less, hence it is useful for intermittent
operations.
Applications:
 This furnace is used for melting non ferrous metals like brass, zinc, tin, bronze, copper etc.
Introduction to electric welding:
Welding is the process of joining two similar metals by heating. The metal parts are heated to
melting point. In some cases the pieces of metal to be joined are heated to plastic stage and are fused
together.
The electric welding sets may be either dc or ac type. DC welding sets are of two types namely
generator type welding set consisting of a differential compound wound dc generator, giving
drooping volt-ampere characteristic, driven by any type of prime-mover (a squirrel cage induction
motor or a petrol or diesel engine) and dry type rectifier (selenium rectifier) used in conjunction with a
multiphase high leakage transformer. IN generator type welding sets the control may be obtained by
tapping the series field or by providing a suitable shunt across the series field winding. In the rectifier
type set dc voltage is controlled by regulating the transformer output. If supply from existing dc
distribution system is to be used for welding then ballast (resistance) is put in series with the
equipment and the control is affected by varying this external series resistance.
In electric welding process, electric current is used to produce large heat, required for joining
two metal pieces. There are two methods by which electric welding can be carried out. These are
a) Resistance welding and
b) Arc welding.
Types of electric welding:
1. Resistance welding
a) Seam welding
b) Projection welding
c) Flash welding
2. Arc welding
a) Carbon arc welding
b) Metal arc welding
c) Atomic hydrogen arc welding

d) Inert gas metal arc welding
e) Submerged arc welding.
Resistance welding:
In resistance welding heavy current is passed through the metal pieces to be welded. Heat will be
developed by the resistance of the work piece to the flow of current.
The heat produced for welding is given by
H=I2Rt
Where,
H= Heat developed at the contact area.
I= Current in amperes.
R= Resistance in ohms.
t= time of flow of current.
Butt welding:
In this process heat is generated by the contact resistance between two components.
In this type of welding the metal parts to be joined end to end. Sufficient pressure is applied along
the axial direction.
A heavy current is passed from the welding transformer which creates the necessary heat at the
joint due to high resistance of the contact area.
Due to the pressure applied, the molten metal forced to produce a bulged joint.
This method is suitable for welding pipes, wires and rods.
ii) Spot welding:
Spot welding is usually employed for joining or fabricating sheet metal structure. This type of joint
only provides mechanical strength and is not air or water tight.
The plates to be welded are placed overlapping each other between two electrodes, sufficient
mechanical pressure is applied through the electrodes.
The welding current flows through electrodes tips producing a spot weld. The welding current and
period of current flow depend on the thickness of the plates.

iii) Arc welding:
An electric arc is the flow of electric current through gases.
An electric arc is struck by short circuiting two electrodes and then with drawing them apart by
small distance.
The current continue to flow across the small gap and give intense heat.
The heat developed by the arc is also used for cutting of metal.
The electrode is made of carbon or graphite and is to be kept negative with respect of work.
The work piece is connected to positive wir. Flux and filler are also used.
Filler is made up of similar metal as that of metal to be welded.
If the electrode is made positive then the carbon contents may flow into the weld and cause
brittleness.
The heat from the arc forms a molten pool and the extra metal required to make the weld is
supplied by the filler rod.
This type of welding is used for welding copper and its alloy.
iv)Metal arc welding:
In metal arc welding a metal rod of same material as being welded is used as an electrode.
The electrode also serves the purpose of filler. For metal arc welding A.C or D.C can be used.
Electric supply is connected between electrode and work piece.
The work piece is then suddenly touched by the electrode and then separated from it a little. This
results in an arc between the job and the electrode.
A little portion of the work and the tip of the electrode melts due to the heat generated by the arc.
When the electrode is removed the metal cools and solidifies giving a strong welded joint.
WELDING GENERATOR - A.C SUPPLY
In tapped reactor method, output current is regulated by taps on the reactor. This has
limited number of current settings.

In the moving coil method of current control, relative distance between primary and
secondary windings is changed. When coils are more separated out current is less.
In magnetic shunt method, position of central magnetic shunt can be adjusted. This
changes the magnitude of shunt flux and therefore, output current. When central core is more inside,
load current will be less and vice versa.
In continuously variable reactor method, output current is controlled by varying the
height of the reactor. Greater the core insertion, greater the reactance and less the output current.
Reverse is true for less height of core insertion
In saturable reactor method, the reactance of the reactor is adjusted by changing the value
of d.c excitation obtained from bridge rectifiers by means of rheostat. When d.c current in the central
winding of reactor is more, reactor approaches magnetic saturation. This means the reactance of
reactor becomes less. Vice versa happens on the
A welding transformer is a step down transformer that reduces the voltage from the source voltage to a
lower voltage that is suitable for welding, usually between 15 and 45 volts. The secondary current is
quite high. 200 to 600 amps would be typical, but it could be much higher.The secondary may have
several taps for adjusting the secondary voltage to control the welding current. The taps are typically
connected to a several high-current plug receptacles or to a highcurrent switch. For welding with direct
current (DC) a rectifier is connected to the secondary of the transformer.
There may also be a filter choke (inductor) to smooth the DC current. The entire transformer and

rectifier assembly may be called a transformer or welder, but "welding power supply" would be
more appropriate term.
WELDING TRANSFORMER:
The impedance of a welding transformer may be higher that the impedance of a transformer
designed for some other purpose. The transformer impedance may play a role in the process of
establishing an arc and controlling the current.
Special Features:
Stepless current control within single range from front panel
For its high permitted load, its ideal for fematic welding
Phase compensation facility optional. It’s a good investment as the primary current and rated output
can be reduced, resulting in reduced fuse size and cable diameter
Provided with wheels and handle for easy mobility
Sturdy design for all working environments
Horizontal shunt core travel ensures precise setting after prolonged use
Class 'H' insulation provides longer coil life
Multi voltage input supply

UNIT-5
ELECTRIC TRACTION
Merits of electric traction:
The locomotive in which the driving or tractive force is obtained from electric motors is called
Electric traction.
Electric traction has many advantages as compared to other non-electrical systems of traction
including steam traction.
Electric traction is used in:
i) Electric trains
ii) Trolley buses
iii) Tram cars
iv) Diesel-electric vehicles etc.
Traction systems:
All traction systems, broadly speaking, can be classified as follows:
1. Non-electric traction systems:
These systems do not use electrical energy at some stage or the other.
Examples: Steam engine drive used in railways at some stage or the other.
These are further sub divided into the following two groups:
a) Self contained vehicles or locomotives
Examples:
i) Battery-electric drive
ii) Diesel-electric drive
b) Vehicles which receive electric power from a distribution network or suitably placed sub-stations.
Examples:
i) Railway electric locomotive fed from overhead A.C supply;
ii) Tramways and trolley buses supplied with D.C.supply.
Here power is applied to the vehicle from an overhead wire suspended above the track.
Electric traction systems may be broadly categorized as those operating on:
1. Alternating current supply
2. Direct current supply.

In general following electric traction systems exist:
a) AC 3 phase 3.7 kV system
b) AC single phase 15/16 kV -161/25 Hz
c) AC single phase 20/25 kV - 50/60 Hz
d) DC 600 V
e) DC 1200 V
f) DC 1.5 kV
g) DC 3 kV.
Advantages:
Electrical transmission, which is usually applied to high power units, has following advantages:
1. It has smooth starting without shocks.
2. Full driving torque is available from standstill.
3. Engine can be run at its most suitable speed range. This given higher efficiency range.
4. Characteristics of traction motor and generator are so chosen that the speed of the traction unit
automatically adjusts according to the load and gradient so as to maintain constant output and not to
overload the diesel engine.
5. Electrical transmission docs not only work as torque converter but also works as reversion gear.
Requirements of an ideal traction system:
1. High adhesion coefficient, so that high tractive effort at the start is possible to have rapid
acceleration.
2. The locomotive or train unit should be self contained so that it can run on any route.
3. Minimum wear on the track.
4. It should be possible to overload the equipment for short periods.
5. The equipment required should be minimum, of high efficiency and low initial and maintenance
cost.
6. It should be pollution free.
7. Speed control should be easy.
8. Braking should be such that minimum wear is caused on the brake shoes, and if possible the energy
should be regenerated and returned to the supply during braking period.

Supply Systems:
Ac single phase system:
In this supply is taken from a single overhead conductor with the running rails. A pantograph collector
is used for this purpose. The supply is transferred to primary of the transformer through on oil circuit
breaker. The secondary of the transformer is connected to the motor through switchgear connected to
suitable tapping on the secondary winding of the transformer.
The switching equipment may be mechanically operated tapping switch or remote controlled
contractor of group switches. The switching connections are arranged in two groups usually connected
to the ends of a double choke coil which lies between the collections to adjacent tapping points on the
transformer. Thus the coil acts as a preventive coil to enable tapping change to be made without short
circuiting sections of the transformer winding and without the necessity of opening the main circuit.
Direct current systems:
The transformation and high voltage generation of dc is very inconvenient to the dc supply used is at
normally 600 V and this voltage is almost universal for use in urban and suburban railways.
For direct current equipment, the series motor is universally employed as its speed-torque
characteristics are best suited to traction requirements. Generally two or more motors are used in single
equipment and these are coupled in series or in parallel to give the different runningspeeds required.
The motors are initially connected in series with starting rheostats across the contact line and rails, the
rheostats are then cut out in steps, keeping roughly constant current until the motors are running in full
series. After this the motors are rearranged in parallel, again with rheostats, the rheostats are cut out in

steps, leaving the motors in full parallel. The power input remains approximately constant during the
series notching, then jumps to twice this value during the parallel notching. Thus a 4 motor unit will
have three economical speeds when the motors are running in series, series - parallel connections. The
rheostats are operated electro magnetically or electro-pneumatically.
Mechanics of train movement:
Essential driving mechanism of an electric locomotive is shown in fig. The armature of the
driving motor has a pinion diameter d‟ attached to it. The tractive effort at the edge of the pinion
is transferred to the driving wheel by means of a gear wheel.
Tractive effort transferred tot the driving is given by the expression.
F = = η F (d/D0 = η 2T/D) = ηT (2/D) (d/d) = ηT 2y/D
Where T is the torque exerted in N-m, by the driving motor, d is the diameter of gear wheel in
metres. D is the diameter of driving wheel in metres, η is the transmission efficiency and γ is the
gear ratio and is equal to d/d‟
For obtaining train motion without slipping tractive effort F should be less than or at the most
equal to µW where µ the coefficient of adhesion between the wheel is and the track and W is the
weight of the train on the driving axles (called the adhesive weight).
Traction motors and control:
The control of traction motors for starting and for smooth acceleration is very much essential to avoid
damage to the motors. The control equipment is provided for manual and automatic operation. Usually
a master controller is used for the purpose.
1) D.C series motor control or plain rheostat control
2) Series –Parallel control
i. Open circuit transition
ii. Shunt transition control

iii. Bridge transition control
3.Metadyne control
4.Multiple unit control
Train Movement and Energy Consumption:
Speed-Time Curves:
The curve drawn between speed and time is called the speed-time-curve. The speed-time curve
gives complete information of the motion of the train. The curve gives the speed at various
instants after the start of run directly. Slop of the curve at any point gives the acceleration at the
corresponding instant or speed. The area covered by the curve, the time axis and the ordinates
through the instants between which the time is taken, represents the distance covered in the
corresponding time interval.
Speed-time curve mainly consists of
1) Initial acceleration
(a)Constant acceleration or acceleration while notching up and
(b)Speed curve running or acceleration on the speed curve
2) Constant speed run or free run
3) Coasting and
4) Retardation or braking
1. Acceleration period:
From starting to the stage when locomotive attains maximum speed, the period is known as
acceleration period, as the vehicle is constantly accelerated. This is represented by OA portion of the

curve and time duration is t1.
2. Free running:
During this period the motor develops enough torque to overcome the friction and wind resistance and
hence the locomotive runs at constant speed. This is shown by the portion AB of the curve.
3. Coasting:
When the locomotive is running at certain speed, if the motor is switch off, due to inertia the vehicle
will continue to run, of course with little deceleration due to friction and windage.
4. Braking:
The locomotive is retarded to stop it within short distance and at a particular spot. The shape of the
curve will change depending upon the distance between consecutive stations .
It is the curve drawn between speed of train in km/hour along y-axis and time in seconds along x-axis.
The speed time curve gives complete information of the motion of the train.
This curve gives the speed at various times after the start and run directly.
The distance travelled by the train during a given interval of time can be obtained by determining
the area between the curve and the time axis corresponding to this interval.
A typical speed time curve for main line service is shown in fig. This curve consists of five
sections.
1. Notching up period (0 to t1)
During this period of run (0 to t1), starting resistance is gradually cut so that the motor current is
limited to a certain value and the voltage across the motor is gradually increased and the traction motor
accelerates from rest.
To cut the starting resistance, the starter handle has to be moved from one notch to another. Hence
this period is called notching up period.
The acceleration is almost uniform during this period.
Now the torque decreases and speed increases according to the speed torque characteristics of the
motor.
Now the acceleration gradually decreases with the increase in speed and finally reaches the
required torque for the movement of the train (at time t2).
3. Free running period (t2to t3).
During this period i.e. t2 to t3 the power supplied to the motor is at full voltage and speed of this

period is constant, also during this period
Power drawn from the supply is constant.
4. Coasting period (t3to t4)
At the end of free running period supply to the motor is cut off and the train is allowed to run
under its own kinetic energy.
Due to train resistance speed of the train gradually decreases.
The rate of decreasing of speed during this period is known as “coasting retardation”.
5. Braking or retardation period (t4to t5)
At the end of coasting period the brakes are applied to bring the train to stop.
During this period speed decreases rapidly and finally reduces to zero.
Types of services:
There are three types of electric traction services.
1. Main line service
2. Sub-urban service
3. Urban service
Speed – Time curve for suburban service
In this type of service the distance between two successive stations is in the range of 1.5 km to 8
km. Fig represents speed-time curve for sub-urban service.
Acceleration and braking retardation required are high.
Free running period is not possible and coasting period will be comparatively longer than urban
service.
Speed – Time curve for urban or city service
In city service the distance between the two stations is very short i.e., between 0.75 to 1 km.
The time required for this run between the adjacent and retardation should be sufficient high.
Fig shows the speed-time curve for urban or city service. It will be seen that there will be no free
running period.
The coasting period is also small.

Tractive effort:
The effective efforts required to run a train on track are
Tractive effort needed to provide acceleration (Fa)
Tractive effort needed to overcome the train resistance (Fr)
Tractive effort needed to overcome gradients (Fg)
Tractive effort for acceleration (F):
Acceleration = α km/hr/sec
= α x 1000/3600 m/sec2
When a train is accelerated in a linear direction, its rotating parts like the wheels and armature of
motors have to be accelerated in an angular direction.
Therefore the accelerating mass of the train is greater than the dead mass of the train.
Generally the effective or accelerating mass is 10% more than the dead mass.
i.e. Me = 1.1 M
Let the effective mass of train = Me ton
= 1000 Me kg.
Force required for acceleration = Mass x acceleration.
i.e., Fa= Mex a
= 1000 Mex α 1000/3600
= 277.8 Me α Newtons
Tractive effort to overcome the train resistance (Fr):
While moving, the train has to overcome the opposing force due to the surface friction and wind
resistance.
The train resistance depends upon various factors such as shape, size, condition of track etc.
Tractive effort required to overcome the train resistance
Fr = M x r Newtons

Where M = Mass of train in tone
Consider that an electric train is moving upwards on a slope
The dead mass of the train along the slope will tend to bring it downward.
To overcome this effect of gravity, tractive effort are required in opposite direction.
Tractive effort to overcome the effect of gravity = Fg
Fg = Mg sin θ tone m/sec2
= 1000 Mg sin θ kg m/ sec2
= 1000 Mg sin Newton
Where g is the acceleration due to gravity
= 9.81 m/sec2
Θ is the angle of slope.
Fg = 1000 M x 9.81 sin θ Newton ------------- (1)
In railway practice the gradient is expressed in terms of rise or fall in every 100 metres of track and it
is denoted by G %
Gradient G = BC /(AC/100)
= (BC/AC) x 100
i.e., G = 100 sin θ
sin θ = G/100 -------------------- (2)
Sub the value of sin in eqn (1)
Fg = 1000 M x 9.81 x G/100
Fg = ± 9.81 MG Newton
Positive sign is to be used for upgradient and negative sign for down gradient.
Braking:
Braking is very frequent in electric drives to stop a motor in a reasonably short time.
For example a plannar must quickly be stopped at the end of its stroke and sometimes must quickly
be stopped at the end of its stroke and sometimes it is necessary to stop the motor in order to prevent
accident
The essential of a good braking system should be

1) Reliable and quick in its action.
2) The braking force must be capable of being controlled.
3) Adequate means be provided for dissipating the stored energy that is kinetic energy of the rotating
parts.
4) In case of a fault in any part of the braking system the whole system must come to instantaneous
rest or result in the application of the brakes.
There are two types of braking:
1) Mechanical braking:
The motor in this case is stopped due to friction between the moving part of the motor and the brake
shoe that is stored energy is dissipated as heat by a brake shoe or brake lining which rubs against a
brake shoe or brake lining which rubs against a brake drum.
2) Electric braking:
In this method of braking, the kinetic energy of the moving parts that is motor is converted into
electrical energy which is consumed in a resistance as heat or alternatively it is returned to the supply
source.
During braking operation a motor has to function as a generator.
The motor can be held at stand still. In other words the electric braking cannot hold the motor at
rest.
Thus it becomes essential to provide mechanical brakes in addition to electric braking.
Various types of electrical braking are:
a) Plugging
b) Rheostatic braking
c) Regenerative braking
Plugging :
This is a simple method of electric braking and consists in reversing the
connections of the armature of the motor so as to reverse its direction of rotation which will oppose the
original direction of rotation of the motor and will bring it to zero speed when mechanical brakes can
be applied.
At the end of the braking period the supply to the motor is automatically cut off.
This method of braking can be applied to the following motors.

1) DC motors
2) Induction motors
3) Synchronous motors
Plugging applied to DC motors:
To reverse a DC motors, it is necessary to reverse the connections of the armature while the
connections of the field are kept the same.
The direction of m.m.f remains the same even during braking periods.
Series motors:
Total voltage of V+ Eb is available across the armature terminals which causes a current I to flow
around the circuit.
When Eb = V then the voltage across the armature is 2V and at the time of braking twice the normal
voltage is applied to the resistance in series with the armature at this time in order to limit the current.
While the motor is being braked, the current is still being drawn from the supply.
This method requires energy from the supply for its action and not only the kinetic energy
of the motor is being wasted, but this energy is also being dissipated.
Speed and braking torque
Electric braking to torque
TB α ФI ---------------------------- (1)
TB = K ФI ---------------------------- (2)
Where K is a constant
Current = V+ Eb/ R -------------------- (3)
Eb= K1N Ф --------------------- (4)
N is the speed
K1 is a constant
Substitute the value of Eb from equation (4) in (3)

Current I = (V + K1N Ф)/ R -------------------- (5)
In view of equations (2) and (5)
TB = K Ф[(V + K1N Ф)/ R]
= K ФV/ R + KK1N Ф2/ R
= K2 Ф + K3 Ф2N --------------------- (6)
Where K2 = KV/ R -------------------- (7)
And K3 = KK1/R --------------------- (8)
Apply the results obtained to the series motor, where
Ф α armature current (Ia) ------------------- (9)
Then Electric braking in series motor,
= K4 Ia + K5 Ia2 -------------------- (10)
In the case of shunt motor since flux is constant
Electric braking torque:
Wherever there is a load on the machine the load will also exert braking torque due to it and then the
total braking torque (T)
T = Electric braking torque + Load torque ---------------- (12)
Plugging applied to induction motors:
In the case of induction motor its speed can be reversed by inter changing any of the two stator
phases which reverses the direction of rotation of motor field.
Actually at the time of braking when the induction motor is running at near synchronous
speed.
The point Q represents the torque at the instant of plugging one can notice that the torque increases
gradually as one approaches the stand still speed.
Different values of rotor resistance give rise to different shapes of speed torque curve in order to

give any desired braking effect.
The rotor current I2 can be calculated during the braking period from the following
relation and is plotted as shown.
I2 = SE2/ √ [Re2 + (SX2)2] ------------------- (13)
Where E2 is the e.m.f. induced in rotor at standstill
R2 is the rotor resistance
X2 is the standstill reactance of the rotor and
S2 is the percentage slip
Plugging applied to synchronous motors
Plugging can be applied to the synchronous motors, with the only difference that the field on the
rotor will be rotating in opposite direction to that of the rotating field on the stator with the
synchronous speed and the relative velocity between the two will be twice the synchronous
speed.Rheostatic braking
In this method of braking, the motor is disconnected from the supply and run as generator driven by
the remaining kinetic energy of the equipment that is the energy stored in motor and load which are to
be braked.
The following drives can be braked by the rheostatic method:
1) DC motor
2) Induction motor
3) Synchronous motor
Dc motors
Shunt motor:
In this type of motor, the armature is simply disconnected from the supply and is connected to as
resistance in series with it, the field; winding remains connect to the supply.
The braking can be adjusted suitably by varying the resistance in the armature circuit.
In the case of failure of the supply, there is no braking torque because of absence of the field.
Series motor:
In this case of the connections are made as shown is fig during braking operation.
The motor after disconnection from the supply in made to run as a DC series generator.

Braking torque and speed
Electric braking torque is given by equation (3)
Braking current = Eb/ R ---------------------------------- (14)
Hence braking current of equation (14) and (4)
= K1ФN/R ---------------------------------- (15)
Substitute the value of braking current is equation (1)
Electric braking torque = KK1Ф2N/R
= K2 Ф2N --------------------------------- (16)
Where K2 = KK1/R -------------------------------- (17)
In the case of a series motor the flux dependent upon the armature current
Electric braking torque for series motor
= K3Ia2N -------------------------------- (18)
While in the case of shunt motor since flux is constant
Electric braking torque = K4N ------------------------------- (19)
Rheostatic braking is applied to induction motor:
In this case the stator is disconnected from the supply and is connected to DC supply which excites
the windings thereby producing a DC field.
The rotor is short-circuited across through resistance in each phase.
When the short circuited rotor moves it outs the steady flux produced in the air gap due to DC
current flowing in the stator produced in the air gap due to DC current flowing in the stator and an
e.m.f is induced in the rotor conductors Rheostatic braking in the synchronous motors is similar to the
rheostatic braking in induction motors.
In this case the stator is shorted across resistance in star or delta and the machine works like an
alternator supplying the current to the resistance, there by dissipating in kinetic energy in the
form of losses in the resistances.
Regenerative braking:
In this type of braking the motor is not disconnected from the supply but remains connected to it
and its feeds back the braking energy or its kinetic energy to the supply system.

This method is better than the first and second methods of braking since no energy is wasted
and rather it is supplied back to the system.
This method is applicable to following motors:
1) D.C motors
2) Induction motors
D.C motors:
Shunt motor:
In a DC machine where energy will be taken from the supply or delivered to it depends upon the
induced emf, if it in less than the line voltage the machine will operate as motor and if it is more than
the line voltage, the machine will operate as generator.
The e.m.f induced in turn depends upon the speed and excitation that is when the field current or the
speed is increased the induced e.m.f exceeds the line voltage and the energy will be field into the
system.
This will quickly decrease the speed of the motor and will bring it to rest.
Series motor:
In this case, complications arise due to fact that the reversal of the current in the armature would
cause a reversal of polarity of the series field.
In the case of induction motors, the regenerative braking is inherent, since an induction motor act as
a generator when running at speeds above synchronous speeds and it feeds power back to the supply
system.
No extra auxiliaries are needed for this purpose.
This method is however very seldom used for braking but its application is very useful to lifts and
hoists for holding a descending load at a speed only slightly above the synchronous speed.
Tramways:
The tramway is perhaps the cheapest type of transport available in very dense traffic.
It receives power through a bow collector or a grooved wheel from an overhead conductor at about
600 V D.C., the running rail forming the return conductor.
It is provided with atleast two driving axles in order to secure necessary adhesion, start it from
either end and use two motors with series- parallel control.
Two drum-type controllers, one at each end used for controlling the tramcar.
Though these controllers are connected in parallel, they have suitable interlocking arrangement to
prevent their being used simultaneously.
The main frame of the car body is made from high tensile steel. Aluminium is extensively used for
bodywork.
The under frame is of rolled steel sections. Seats are either in transverse direction or a combination
of transverse and longitudinal arrangement is used.
The equipment is similar to that used in railways but the output is considerably smaller and does not
exceed 60 to 75 H.P.

For normal service rheostatic and mechanical braking are employed.
For mechanical braking, electro-mechanical drum brakes are used. Also magnetic tracks brakes are
used for giving better retardation.
Trolley-Bus:
Serious drawback of tramway is the lack of manoeuvrability in congested areas and noise; this is
overcome by the trolley-bus drive.
It is an electrically- operated pneumatic-tyred vehicle which needs no track in the roadway. It
receives its power at 600 V D.C. from two overhead contact wires.
A D.C compound motor of output of 50 to 100 kW is normally used.
Speed control is obtained by field weakening method. Foot operated master controllers are used so
that drive may have his hands free to steer the vehicle and apply hand brake. One pedal controls the
starting, speed control and regenerative braking, if any and second pedal control rheostatic and
compressed air brakes. Regenerative braking is usually not employed in trolley-bus drive because of
difficulty of ensuring that supply system is always in a position to absorb the energy regenerated.
The lighting system in the car is low-voltage D.C supplied from a motor- generator set connected in
parallel with a battery. The vehicles are usually provided with secondary batteries so that the vehicles
can be manoeuvred in case of emergency.
Since the body of the car is insulated from earth on account of the rubber-tyred wheels, it must be
properly checked for adequate insulation resistance lest it leaks and causes electric shocks to the
passengers while boarding and alighting from the bus. The insulation resistance is checked at the end
of the day.
Trolley – buses have more passenger carrying capacity, higher acceleration and braking retardation
than oil-engined buses. These are, therefore, used for medium traffic density as obtained in inner
suburbs. Oil engine buses, on the other hand, are used for outer suburbs and country side where there
is low traffic density.
Recent trends in electric traction:
Magnetic levitation, maglev, or magnetic suspension is a method by which an object is
suspended with no support other than magnetic fields. Magnetic pressure is used to counteract the
effects of the gravitational and any other accelerations.
Earnshaw's theorem proves that using only static ferromagnetism it is impossible to stably
levitate against gravity, but servomechanisms, the use of diamagnetic materials,superconduction, or
systems involving eddy currents permit this to occur.
In some cases the lifting force is provided by magnetic levitation, but there is a mechanical
support bearing little load that provides stability. This is termed pseudo-levitation.
Magnetic levitation is used for maglev trains, magnetic bearings and for product display purposes.

Mechanical constraint (pseudo-levitation):
With a small amount of mechanical constraint for stability, pseudo-levitation is relatively
straightforwardly achieved.
If two magnets are mechanically constrained along a single vertical axis, for example, and arranged
to repel each other strongly, this will act to levitate one of the magnets above the other.
Another geometry is where the magnets are attracted, but constrained from touching by a tensile
member, such as a string or cable.
Another example is the Zippe-type centrifuge where a cylinder is suspended under an attractive
magnet, and stabilized by a needle bearing from below.
Diamagnetism:
Diamagnetism is the property of an object which causes it to create a magnetic field in
opposition to an externally applied magnetic field, thus causing a repulsive effect. Specifically, an
external magnetic field alters the orbital velocity of electrons around their nuclei, thus changing the
magnetic dipole moment. According to Lenz's law, this opposes the external field.Diamagnets are
materials with a magnetic permeability less than μ0 (a relative permeability less than 1). Consequently,
diamagnetism is a form of magnetism that is only exhibited by a substance in the presence of an
externally applied magnetic field. It is generally quite a weak effect in most materials, although
superconductors exhibit a strong effect. Diamagnetic materials cause lines of magnetic flux to curve
away from the material, and superconductors can exclude them completely (except for a very thin
layer at the surface).
Direct diamagnetic levitation:
A substance that is diamagnetic repels a magnetic field. All materials have diamagnetic properties,
but the effect is very weak, and is usually overcome by the object's paramagnetic or ferromagnetic
properties, which act in the opposite manner. Any material in which the diamagnetic component is
strongest will be repelled by a magnet.
Earnshaw’s theorem does not apply to diamagnets. These behave in the opposite manner to normal
magnets owing to their relative permeability of μr < 1 (i.e. negative magnetic susceptibility).
Diamagnetic levitation can be used to levitate very light pieces of pyrolytic graphite or bismuth
above a moderately strong permanent magnet. As water is predominantly diamagnetic, this technique
has been used to levitate water droplets and even live animals, such as a grasshopper, frog and a
mouse. However, the magnetic fields required for this are very high, typically in the range of 16 teslas,
and therefore create significant problems if ferromagnetic materials are nearby.
The modern trend is towards the use of d.c motors (both separately excited and d.c series motors)
equipped with thyristor control. The operating voltages are 600V or 1,000V. Braking employed are
mechanical, rheostatic and regenerative, Thyristorised converters provide accurate control and fast
response. Main advantages of thyristor control are the absence of bulky on load tap changer and

electromagnetic devices, saving of energy, notch less control, increase in pulling ability of the motive
power, and minimum wear and tear because of absence of conventional moving parts in the motor
control circuits.
In electric traction, it is desirable that the train accelerates and decelerates at a constant rate for the
comfort of the passengers. Using thyristors, this objective can be met in the following way:
When the speed goes down during breaking the generator voltage decreases. For a particular braking
torque a particular armature current is required. This is achieved by increasing the field excitation to a
relatively high value. If, however, the generator voltage exceeds the supply voltage, in dynamic
braking, this increase is permissible as the armature is not connected to the supply and the energy of
the generator can be dissipated in the braking resistors, external resistances in series with the armature
are connected in case of regenerative braking to absorb the voltage difference between the armature
voltage and supply voltage. With this, of course, part of the generated power is wasted in the external
resistors and the efficiency of the overall system is decreased.
Various methods of speed control and electric braking employing thyristors have already been studied
in power electronic subjects. In addition to ordinary phase control methods, cycle selection methods
of control of SCR for varying the voltage applied to the traction motors are also employed. In this
method the required average voltage is obtained by accepting or rejecting a certain numbers of
complete half cycles. In practice, at the start only one half out of eight is accepted and as the speed

builds up, it is gradually raised to 2/8, 3/8 and finally 8/18 for full power operation. This method is
advantageous due to low frequency harmonics, low rate of rise of current, better power factor etc.
In chopper control of traction motors, at start, the ‘on’ period of pulse is kept very short which
lengthens during the period of controlled acceleration. Thus the average voltage applied across the
traction motors is gradually increased keeping the mean value of the input current close to the desired
value.Fig. shows a typical thyritorised dc traction system supplying a group of four separately excited
motors. The armatures are supplied from half controlled bridge converters. However, it is desirable to
feed the field windings through fully controlled bridge converters so as to reduce the ripple in the field
current. Low ripple in the field current ensures low iron losses in the machines. However, if
regenerative braking is required then the armature should be supplied from fully controlled bridges.
Freewheeling diodes are connected as illustrated to ensure good waveform of armature current. The
armatures are connected in series – parallel arrangement to ensure good
starting and running characteristics. It is seen that armatures are supplied by three bridges connected in
series. For starting first only bridge A is triggered and firing angle is advanced as speed builds up.
When bridge A is fully conducting (i.e. when α=0), bridge B is triggered and then bridge C is
triggered. During starting field currents are set to maximum to provide high starting torque. The use of
three bridges ensures better power factor than would be possible with a single bridge.

QUESTION BANK
UNIT 1
GENERATION
1) What are the sources of energy?
Electrical energy is produced from energy available in various forms in nature. The sources of
energy are
The Sun
The wind
Water
Fuels
Nuclear energy
2) Name the different types of power generation.
Conventional methods (With prime movers)
a) Hydro power generation
b) Thermal power generation
c) Nuclear power generation
Non-Conventional methods (Without prime movers)
d) MHD (magneto hydro dynamic) power generation
e) Solar power generation
f) Fuel cells generation
g) Thermo electric generation
h) Thermionic converters
i) Solar cells
j) Wind power generation
k) Geo-thermal energy generation
L) Tidal power generation
3) What are the limitations of conventional energy sources?
1. Resources are limited some are seasonal
2. Most of them emit harmful gases contributing to global warming
3. Situated in remote areas and higher T and D losses
4. Requires large areas
4) How will you classify hydro-electric plants according to nature of load?
Classification according to nature of load
Base load plants
Pear load plants
Pumped storage plants for peak load.
5) What is the principle of Hydel power generation?
Energy from flowing water is used to spin a generator
6) What are the types of hydel power generation?
System based on falling water
System based on natural flow of river current
Pumped storage system
7) How are hydel stations classified according to the head?
Low head less than 30 meters Francis turbines
Medium head 30 to 100 meters Francis and Kaplan turbines
High head 100 meters and above Kaplan turbines

8) What is penstock?
From the reservoir the water is carried to valve house through pressure tunnel and from
valve house to the water turbine through pipes of large diameter made of steel or reinforced
concrete, called the penstock.
9) What is the principle of pumped storage scheme?
The basic principle of pumped storage scheme is to convert the surplus electrical energy
generated by a power plant or available in a system in off-peak periods, to hydraulic potential
energy, in order to generate power in periods where the peak demand on the system exceeds the
total available capacity of the generating stations.
10) What are the factors to be considered while selecting a site for steam power plants?
The factors to be considered for selecting the steam power plant are as follows:
Nearness to the load centre
Availability and supply of cooling water
Availability of coal
Land requirement
Transport facilities and Ash disposal facilities.
11) What is the function of deaerator in steam power plant?
The function of deaerator is to reduce dissolved oxygen content in the condensate i.e. in the feed
water. The feed water is then pumped into boiler through economizer in which it is further heated
by the heat of the flue gas passing through it on the way to chimney.
12) What are the disadvantages of steam power plants?
The disadvantages are
High maintenance and operating cost.
Pollution of atmosphere due to fumes and residues from pulverized fuels.
Requirement of water in huge quantity.
Handling of coal and disposal of ash is quite difficult.
Troubles from smoke and heat from the plant.
Requires long time for erection and put into action.
13) What is nuclear fission?
In nuclear station, heavy elements such as Uranium (U235) or Thorium (Th232) are
subjected to nuclear fission in a special apparatus known as reactor.
Fission:
The breaking up of nuclei of heavy atoms into two nearly equal parts with release of huge
amount of energy is known as nuclear fission.
14) What are the components of nuclear reactor?
The nuclear reactor consists of the following basic components
Reactor core
Moderator
Control rods
Coolant
Reflector
Thermal shielding
Reactor vessel
Biological shield.

15) What are the merits of nuclear power plants?
The advantages are
The amount of fuel required is small; therefore, there is no problem of transportation,
storage etc.
The demand for coal, oil and gas is reduced which are tending to rise in cost as the stocks
are becoming depleted.
These plants need less area as compared to any other plant. A 2000MW nuclear plant needs
80 acres whereas thermal stations need about 250 acres of land.
Most economical in large capacity.The operating cost is quite low and once the installation
is completed, the loading of the plant is always operated as a base load plant.
16) What is the principle of wind power generation?
Converts kinetic energy in moving air (wind) into electrical energy. If mechanical energy is
directly used it is called a wind mil.e.g.Pump. If mechanical energy is used to generate electrical
energy and then used it is a wind energy converter. Clusters of wind mills is called a wind
form.Winds are essentially caused by the solar heating of the atmosphere. They carry enormous
quantity of energy. Wind as a source of power is very attractive because it is plentiful,
inexhaustible, renewable and non-polluting. There is no depletion of scarce resources. In large
portion of the world, wind blows for 320 days in a year and this gives them an advantage over
sunlight in direct conversion programmes, operating cost of a wind mill is negligible. Further, it
does not impose extra burden on the environment.
The ideal maximum efficiency using Froud momentum theory is equal to 59% but an overall
efficiency of 30% could be had due to aerodynamic and other mechanical losses. This gives a
power of about 0.3KW/sq.m for a wind velocity of 10m/s.
17) What is the principle of MHD power generation?
Direct conversion of kinetic energy of a flowing liquid in to electricity Faradays law of
electro magnetic induction .By forcing a high pressure high temperature combustion gas through a
strong magnetic field
18) What is the principle of GEO THERMAL power generation?
Residual thermal energy is left over in fluids in deep reservoirs within the earth’s crest left
over by planets origin. Hot natural supply of water which can produce steam by the hot under
ground magma is exhausted and processed.
19) What is the principle of solar generation?
Solar energy the energy produced in the sun and collected on the earth. Energy from sun in
the form of heat and light is harnessed. Solar heating system uses the heat energy and solar electric
system uses light energy (photo voltic cell) to generate electrical energy.
20) What is the principle of tidal power generation?
Tidal movements of tides in seas are due to difference in water levels caused by
(1) Gravitational forces between the Sun, moon and the earth and
(2) Rotation of the moon and earth.
The kinetic energy of moving tides and the potential energy difference between the high tides
and the low tides can be converted into electrical energy.
21) What are the advantages of MHD generation?
The advantages are
The conversion efficiency is around 50% to 60%.
No moving part, so more reliable.
Capital cost is less compared with conventional steam plants.
Overall generation cost is less.
Economic and reduced fuel consumption.

The closed cycle system produces power free of pollution.
Elimination of energy losses.
22) What is solar cell?
The solar cells operate on the principle of photo voltaic effect, which is a process of
generating an emf as a result of the absorption of ionizing radiation.It is possible to convert solar
energy directly into electrical energy by means of silicon wafer photo-voltaic cells, also called the
solar cells, without any intermediate thermodynamic cycle.Thus a solar cell is a transducer, which
converts the sun’s radiant energy directly into electrical energy and is basically a semi-conductor
diode capable of developing a voltage of 0.5-1volts and a current density of 20-40 mA/sq.cm
depending on the materials used and the conditions of sunlight.
23) What are the types of collectors used in solar power generation?
Types of collectors
Flat plate collectors(60°C)
Focusing or concentrating collectors
Cylindrical parabolic concentrator (100-200°C)
Paraboloids, Mirror Arrays( <200°C)
24) What is tide?
TIDE is a periodical rise and fall of the water level of sea which are carried by the action of
the sun and moon on thewater of the earth.
The main feature of the tidal cycle is the difference in water surface elevations at the high
tide end, the tidal energy can be converted into electrical energy by means of a generator.
25) What is the function of moderator in nuclear power plant?
A nuclear reactor is a cylindrical stout pressure vessel and houses fuel rods of Uranium,
moderator and control rods. The fuel rods constitute the fission material and release huge
amount of energy when bombarded with slow moving neutrons.
The moderator consists of graphite rods which enclose the fuel rods. The moderator slows
down the neutrons before they bombard the fuel rods.
26) What are the merits and demerits of tidal power generation?
The advantages of tidal power are
It is free from the problems of uprooting the people and disturbing the ecology balance.
It is everlasting and is not influenced by the charging mood of the nature such as failure of
the monsoon.
No extra submerging of land is involved.
The major drawback of tidal power plants is their uneven operation. Variations in the tidal
energy available through the lunar day and lunar month different from their solar
counterparts prevent the tidal power from being regularly used in power systems during the
periods of peak demand.
27) What is thermal efficiency?
The ratio of heat equivalent of mechanical energy transmitted to the turbine shaft to the heat
of combustion of coal is known as Thermal efficiency of Steam power station.
28) What are the types of wind mills?
Wind energy conversion system are classified into two types,
i) Horizontal axis wind mills
The axis of rotation is horizontal and in the aero turbine, plane is vertical facing the wind.
ii) Vertical axis wind mills
The axis of rotation is vertical, the blades also be vertical.
29) Define a distributed generation system?

It is a system of modular power generators at are near the customers sites and loads It
potentially provide an economic
value to the consumers as well as the power grid.
30) What is meant by islanding w.r.to interconnection of distributed generation system connected to
the grid?
When a distributed generation system gets disconnected from the grid and when it continues
to feed the local loads the situation is called islanding.
31) How does islanding of a distributed generation system connected to the grid affect the power
system?
1. over and under voltage
2. over and under frequency
3. Phase jump
4. Voltage harmonics
32) What are the effects of a distributed generation system on a power system?
1. Affects over current protection setting
2. Affects auto reclosing
3. Creates Ferro resonance
4. Causes insulation failure
5. Islanding creates power quality problems
33) What are the functions of power electronic interface in a distributed generation system
connected to the grid?
1. dc to ac conversion
2. to improve power quality
UNIT-II
ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF GENERATION
1) What do you mean by Economics of power generation?
The art of determining the per unit i.e. one KWh cost of production of electrical energy is known as
Economics of power generation.
2) Explain the term depreciation.
The decrease in the value of the power plant equipment and building due to constant use is
known as depreciation.In practice, every power station has a useful life ranging from fifteen to
thirty years. From the time the power station is installed, its equipment steadily deteriorates due to
wear and tear so that there is a gradual reduction in the value of the plant. This reduction in the
value of plant every year is known as annual depreciation.
3) Define load factor.
Load factor is the ratio of average demand to the maximum demand during a certain period
of time and is applicable to both generating equipment and receiving equipment.
Load factor = Average demand/Maximum demand
4) What is load curve?
The curve showing the variation of load on the power station with reference to time is known as a
load curve.
The load curves supply the following information
The variation of the load during different hours of the day.
The area under the curve represents the total number of units generated in a day.
The peak of the curve represents the maximum demand on the station on the particular day.
The area under the load curve divided by the number of hours represents the average load on
the power station.

The ratio of the area under the load curve to the total area of the rectangle in which it is
contained gives the load factor.
5) Define diversity factor.
Diversity factor is defined as the state of being dissimilar to one another. It is defined as the
ratio of sum of the maximum demands of individual consuming units in a group during a specified
period to the maximum demand of the whole group during the same period.
Diversity factor = Sum of individual demands of different units in a group/Maximum demand of the
entire group
The value of diversity factor is always greater than one. If thediversity factor is higher, the
cost per unit of generation will be lesser.
6) What do you mean by utilisation factor?
It is a measure of the utility of the power plant capacity and is the ratio of maximum demand
to the rated capacity of the power plant. It is always less than unity.
Utilization factor = Maximum Demand on the power station/Rated capacity of the power station
A low value of utilization factor indicates that the plant has been installed much in advance
of need. A high value indicates that the plant is probably most efficient in the system. If its value
exceeds unity, it means that the load has been carried in excess of rated capacity of the plant.
7) Write short note on load duration curve?
When the load elements of a load curve are arranged in the order of descending magnitudes,
the curve thus obtained is called load duration curve.
The load curve is obtained from the same data as the load curve but the ordinates are
arranged in the order of descending magnitudes. In other words, the maximum load is represented
to the left and decreasing loads are represented to the right in the descending order. Hence the area
under the load duration curve and the load curve are equal.
Load factor and diversity factor play a vital role in the cost of the supply of electrical
energy. Higher the values of load factor and diversity factor, lower will be the overall cost per unit
generated.
8) Write the significance of load factor?
Higher load factor means greater average load, resulting in greater number of units
generated for a given maximum demand. Thus, the standing charges, which are proportional to
maximum demand and independent of number of units generated, can be distributed over a large
number of units supplied and therefore overall cost per unit of electrical energy generated will be
reduced.
9) What is mean by base load?
The unvarying load which occurs almost the whole day on the station is known as base load.
10) What are the methods for determining depreciation charges?
The decrease in the value of the power plant equipment and building due to constant use is
known as depreciation. The cost of depreciation will depend on the size and type of equipment and
on its estimated life.
The reduction in the value of the plant every year is known as annual depreciation. Due to
depreciation the plant has to be replaced by new one after its useful life. Therefore a suitable
amount must be set aside every year, so that by the time the plant retires the collected amount by
way of depreciation equals the cost of equipment.
The methods commonly used for determination of annual depreciation charges are
Straight line method
Diminishing value method and
Sinking fund method.

11) What are the objectives of tariff?
Electrical energy is sold at such a rate so that it not only returns the cost but also earns
reasonable profit. Therefore, a tariff must cover the following items:
Recovery of cost of capital investment in generating, transmitting and distributing
equipment.
Recovery of cost of operation, supplies and maintenance of equipment.
Recovery of cost of metering equipment, billing, and collection costs etc.
A satisfactory return on the total capital investment.
12) Define energy audit.
Energy Audit means studying the energy consumption patternin the utilities or equipments
by obtaining necessary data analyse the same to identify the areas where wastages or loses
occur and suggest methods to avoid wastages or loss and also other consumption measures to
ensure efficient use of energy.
13) What are the causes of low power factor?
The following are the causes of low power factor
Most of the a.c motors are of induction type which have low lagging power factor. These
motors work at a power factor which is extremely small on light load 0.2 to 0.3 and rises to
0.8 to 0.9 at full load.
Arc lamps, electric discharges lamps and industrial heating furnaces operate at low lagging
power factor.
The load on the power system is varying, being high during morning and evening and low at
other times. During low load period, supply voltage is increased which increases the
magnetization current. This results in the decreased power factor.
14) Define the term connected load factor.
It is the sum of the continuous rating in KW of all electrical devices installed at the
consumer’s premises and connected to the supply system.
15) What are the important points to be taken into consideration while selecting the size and number
of units?
The load on a power station is never constant due to variable demands from time to time.
The nature of these demands can be seen from the load curve. The load variation is greater
with a poorer load factor.
The selection of the number and sizes of the units is per decided from the annual load curve
of the station. The number and size of the units are selected in such a way that they correctly
fit the station load curve.
The capacity of the plant should be made 15% to 20% more than the maximum demand to meet
the future load requirements. There should be a spare generating unit so that repairs and overhauling
of the working units can be carried out.
16) Define capacity factor.
It is the ratio of average demand to plant capacity
17) What is plant use factor?
It is defined as the ratio of kwh generated to the product of plant capacity and number of
hours for which the plant is in operation.
18) What are the important types of power factor tariff?
(i) KVA maximum demand tariff
(ii) Sliding rate tariff
(iii) KWh and kVAR tariff

19) What is three part tariff?
The total charge comprised of fixed charge made during billing period, charge per kW of
maximum demand and charge per kWh of energy consumed.
20) What is the difference between base load and peak load?
The unvarying load which occurs almost thewhole day is known as base load.
The various demands of load over and above the base load is the peak load.
UNIT-III
ILLUMINATION, HEATING AND WELDING
1) Define luminous flux.
It is defined as the total quantity of light energy emitted per second from a luminous body. It is
represented by symbol F and is measured in lumens. The conception of luminous flux helps us to
specify the output and efficiency of a given light source.
2) What is meant by candle power?
It is defined as the number of lumens given out by the source in a unit solid angle in a given
direction n. It is denoted by CP.
CP=lumens/ω
3) Define MHCP.
The mean of candle power in all directions in the horizontal plane containing the source of
light is termed as Mean Horizontal Candle Power.
4) Define utilization factor.
It is defined as the ratio of total lumens reaching the working plane to total lumens given out
by the lamp.
Utilization factor= Total lumens reaching the working plane/Total lumens given out by the lamp
5) What are the laws of illumination?
Law of Inverse Squares:
Illumination at appoint is inversely proportional to square of its distance from the point
source and directly proportional to the luminous intensity (CP) of the source of light in that
direction.If a source of light emits light equally in all directions be placed at the centre of a hollow
sphere, the light will fall uniformly on the inner surface of the sphere. If the sphere be replaced by
one of the larger radius, the same total amount of light is spread over a larger area proportional to
the square of the radius.
Lambert’s cosine law:
The illumination at a point on a surface is proportional to cosine of the angle which ray
makes with the normal to the surface at that point.
6) What is meant by luminance?
It is defined as the luminous intensity per unit projected area of either a surface source of
light or a reflecting surface and is denoted by L.
7) Define space-height ratio.
It is defined as the ratio of horizontal distance between adjacent lamps and height of their
mountings.
Space-height ratio= Horizontal distance between two adjacent lamps/Mounting height of lamps
above working plane
8) What is polar curve?
In most lamps or sources of light the luminous intensity is not the same in all directions. If
the luminous intensity, i.e. the candle power is measured in a horizontal plane about a vertical axis

and a curve is plotted between candle power and the angular position,a curve is obtained is called as
horizontal polar curve.
The luminous intensity in all the directions can be represented by polar curves. If the
luminous intensity in a vertical plane is plotted against the angular position, a curve known as
vertical polar curve is obtained.
9) Name the various photometer heads.
1. Bunsen Head (or) Grease spot photometer
2. Lummer-Brodhun photometer head
There are two types of Lummer Brodhun heads
a) Equality of Brightness type photometer head
b) Contrast type photometer head
10) What are all the sources of light?
According to principle of operation the light sources may be grouped as follows.
Arc lamps
High temperature lamps
Gaseous discharge lamps
Fluorescent type lamps
11) What is stroboscopic effect of fluorescent tubes?
With a.c. supply frequency of 50 cycles per second, discharge through the lamp becomes
zero, 100 times in a second. Due to the persistence of vision, our eyes do not notice this. If this light
falls on moving parts, they may appear to be either running slow or in the reverse direction or even
may appear stationary. This effect is called stroboscopic effect.
12) Define beam factor.
The ratio of lumens in the beam of a projector to the lumens given out by lamps is called the
beam factor. This factor takes into account the absorption of light by reflector and front glass of the
projector lamp. Its values vary from 0.3 to 0.6.
13) Mention the types of lighting schemes.
The distribution of the light emitted by lamps is usually controlled to some extent by means
of reflectors and translucent diffusing screens or even lenses. The interior lighting schemes may be
classified as
Direct lighting
Semi-direct lighting
Indirect lighting
Semi-indirect lighting
General lighting
14) What are the drawbacks of discharge lamps?
Drawbacks of discharge lamps:
Take time to attain full brightness.
High initial cost and poor power factor.
Starting requires trigger-starter.
Light output fluctuates at twice the supply frequency.
The flicker causes stroboscopic effect.
These lamps can be used only in particular position.
15) What are the requirements of lighting system?
The following factors are required to be considered while designing the lighting scheme.
Illumination level
Uniformity of illumination

Colour of light
Shadows
Glare
Mounting height
Spacing of luminaries
Colour of surrounding walls.
16) What are the advantages of electric heating?
The main advantages of electric heating over other systems of heating such as coal, oil or
gas heating are given below.
Economical
Cleanliness
Absence of flue gases
Ease of control or adaptation
Automatic protection
Upper limit of temperature
Special heating features
High efficiency of utilisation
Better working conditions
Safety
Heating of non-conducting materials
17) Classify the methods of electric heating.
Kinds of electric heating
A. Power frequency heating
a. Resistance heating
i) Direct resistance heating
ii) Indirect resistance heating
iii) Infrared or Radiant heating
b. Arc heating
i) Direct arc heating
ii) Indirect arc heating
B. High frequency heating
a. Induction heating
i) Direct induction heating
ii) Indirect induction heating
b. Dielectric heating
18) What is meant by indirect resistance heating?
In this method, the current is passed through a high resistance wire known as heating
element. The heat produced due to I2 R loss in the element is transmitted by radiation or convection
to the body to be heated.Applications are room heaters, in bimetallic strip used in starters,
immersion water heaters and in domestic and commercial cooking and salt bath furnace.
19).What is meant by (1) infra red /radiant heating? (2) Dielectric heating?
(1)When current possess through a resistive element heat energyis produced and the same is
dissipated in the form of infrared radiation this is focused upon a body to be heated .e.g. to
dry the wet paint on an object.
(2)When a non metallic material is placed between two electrodes at high voltage the
dielectric loss is dissipated in the form of heat which is used for heating purposes.

20) What are the requirements of a good heating material?
1. High ressistivity
2. Low temperature coefficient of ressistance
3. High melting point
4. Free from oxidation
21) What are the properties of heating element material?
The material of the heating elements should posses the following desirable properties for
efficient operation and long life.
High resistivity: It should have high specific resistance so that the overall length to produce
a certain amount of heat may be smaller.
High melting point: It should have high melting point so that high temperatures can be
produced without jeopardizing the life of the element.
Free from oxidation: It should be able to resist oxidation at high temperatures; otherwise its
life will be shortened.
Low temperature coefficient: It should have a low temperature coefficient so that resistance
remains appreciably constant even with increases of temperature. This helps in accurate
control of temperature.
22) What are the causes of failure of heating elements?
Principle causes are
Formation of hot spots
General oxidation of the element and intermittency of operation
Embrittlement caused by grain growth
Contamination of element or corrosion
23) Write short note on infrared heating.
In radiant heating, the elements are of tungsten operating about 2300°C as at this
temperature a greater proportion of infra-red radiation is given off.Heating effect on the charge is
greater since the temperature of the heating element is greater than in the case of resistance heating.
Heat emission intensities up to 7500 watts/sq.m can be obtained leading to heat absorption up to
4300 watts/sq.m. This reduces the time taken by various drying process.
24) What is the basic principle of induction heating?
High frequency eddy current heating produced by eddy currents induced by electromagnetic
action in the metal to be heated.It works on the principle of electromagnetic induction as same as a
transformer. It has a metal disc surrounded by a copper coil in which a.c supply is flowing. The disc
has a finite value of diameter and thickness and is spaced a given distance from the coil and
concentric to it. We find that a secondary current is caused to circulate around the outer surface of
the disc.
25) What are the different types of resistance welding?
The different types are as follows
Butt welding
Spot welding
Projection welding
Seam welding
Percussion welding

26) Compare DC welding and AC welding.
27) What is LASER welding?
LASER (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation) welding is a welding
process that uses the heat from a laser beam impinging on the joint. The process is without a
shielding gas and pressure.
UNIT-IV
INDUSTRIAL HEATING AND WELDING
1. State the advantages of electric heating.
Cleanliness
Economical
Uniform heating
Cheap furnace
2. What are the modes of heat transfer?
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
3. State Stephan’s law of radiation
In this process heat is transferred by means of heat waves governed by Stephan’s law
4. What are the properties of heating element material?
High specific resistance ---- free from oxidation
High melting point -----------small temp coefficient
5. Name the method of temp control in resistance oven.
By varying the no. of elements
Changing in connection

External series resistance
Changing transformer tappings
Automatic control
6. How electric heating is classified?
Resistance heating
Induction heating
7. What are the applications of induction heating?
Surface hardening
Annealing
Melting
Tempering
Soldering
8. Mention few draw backs of core type furnace.
Due to poor magnetic coupling, leakage reactance is high and power factor is low
Low frequency supply is required
9. State the advantage of core less induction furnace
Time taken to reach the melting temp is less
There is no smoke and noise
10. What is induction heating?
Induction heating is a method of providing fast & consistent heating for manufacturing
applications which involved bonding or changing properties of metlal for electrically
conducting materials.
Todays advanced design concepts warrant most engineering components to be heated to
either from different shapes or attain specific grain structures.
Microtech's range of induction heating systems are offered for custom built applications
with suitable coils, materials handling solutions with complete automation
11. What are the classifications of power frequency method?
Direct resistance heating
Indirect resistance heating
Direct arc heating
Indirect arc heating
12. What is meant by direct resistance heating?
In this method opf heating current is passed through the body to be heated.the resistance
offered by the body to the flow of current produces ohmic loss which results in heating the body.
13. What is meant by indirect resistance heating?
In this method the current is produced through a high resistance wire known as heating
element.the heat produced due to I^2*R loss in the element is transmitted by radiation or convection
to the body to be heated.
14. What is the requirement of a good heating material?
High specific resistance
High melting point
Free from oxidation
Low temperature co efficient of resistance
15. What are the properties of steel?
1. Strength - the ability to withstand mechanical stress
2. Ductility - Ability to be formed without rupture
3. Hardness - Resistance to deformation, abrasion, cutting, crushing

4. Toughness - ability to absorb shock without breaking
16. What is annealing in heat treatment?
Annealing consists of heating the steel to or near the critical temperature (Temperature at
which crystalline phase change occurs) to make it suitable for fabrication. Annealing is performed
to soften steel after cold rolling, before surface coating and rolling, after drawing wired rod or cold
drawing seamless tube. Stainless steels and high alloy steels generally require annealing because
these steels are more resistant to rolling.
17. What is normalizing?
Normalizing consists of heating the steel above the critical temperature and cooling in air.
This treatment refines the grain size and improves the uniformity of microstructure and properties
of hot rolled steel. Normalizing is used in some plate mills, in the production of large forgings such
as railroad wheels and axles, some bar products.
18. What is quenching?
Quenching consists of heating the steel above the critical point and holding at that
temperature for enough time to change the crystalline structure. This heat is followed by quenching
in a water or oil bath to bring the steel back through the critical temperature range without further
changes to the microstructure. Quenching produces very hard, very brittle steel.
19. What is tempering?
Tempering is carried out by preheating previously quenched or normalized steel to a
temperature below the critical range, holding, and then cooling to obtain the desired mechanical
properties. Tempering is used to reduce the brittleness of quenched steel.Many products that require
hardness and resistance to breakage are quenched and tempered.
20. What is dielectric heating?
The process of heating poor conductors of electricity (dielectrics) by- means of high-
frequency electrical currents. The thermoplastic composite to be heated forms the dielectric of a
condenser to which is applied a high-frequency (20-to-80 mc) voltage.The heat is developed within
the material rather than being brought to it from the outside, and hence the material is heated more
uniformly throughout.
UNIT-V
ELECTRIC TRACTION
1) What are the requirements of an ideal traction system?
The requirements of an ideal traction system are as follows
The starting tractive effort should be high so as to have rapid acceleration.
The wear on the track should be minimum.
Pollution free
Speed control should be easy.
The equipment should be capable of withstanding large temporary loads.
Low initial and maintenance cost.
There should be no interference to the communication lines running along the lines.
Braking should be such that minimum wear is caused on the brake shoes.
2) Name the various systems of traction.
1. Direct steam engine drive
2. Direct Internal Combustion Engine Drive
3. Steam Electric Drive
4. Internal Combustion Engine Electric Drive

5. Petrol Electric traction
6. Battery Electric Drive
7. Electric Drive
3) Classify the supply system for electric traction.
A. D.C system
B. A.C system
i) Single phase
ii) Three phase
C. Composite system
i) Single phase AC-DC
ii) Single phase-Three phase
4) What are the advantages of electric traction?
High starting torque
Less maintenance cost
Cheapest method of traction
Rapid acceleration and braking
Less vibration
Coefficient of adhesion is better
It has great passenger carrying capacity at higher speed.
5) What are the disadvantages of electric traction?
High capital cost
Problem of supply failure
Additional equipment is required for achieving electric braking and control
The leakage of current from the distribution mains and drop of volts in the track are to be
kept within the prescribed limits.
The electrically operated vehicles have to move on guided track only.
6) Define average speed and scheduled speed.
Average speed is the ratio of distance between two consecutive stations to time taken to
travel the distance; Scheduled speed is the ratio of distance between two consecutive stations to
total time taken for moving including the time for stops.
7).Name the different stages of train movement
1. Acceleration
2. Constant speed or free running
3. Coasting, running with power switched off and brake not applied
4. Retardation, with braking
8) What are the essential features (electrical) of an ideal traction motor?
1. High starting torque.
2. Series speed torque characteristics
3. Simple speed control
4. Possibility of regenerative braking
9) What is the need for traction motor control?
1. To limit starting current
2. Smooth acceleration without jerk
3. Both manual and automatic control should be possible.
10) What is meant by speed-time curve? Why it is used?
The movement of the train and their energy consumption can be studied by means of speed-
time and speed-distance curves, which shows the speed at different time instants after start of run

and speed at different distances from the starting point respectively. Of the two, the speed-time
curve is generally used.The curve drawn between speed in Kw/hr along Y-axis and time in seconds
along X-axis is called speed=time curve. The speedtime curve gives the complete information about
the motion of the train.
This curve gives the speed at various time instants after the start of run directly. Slope of the
curve at any point gives the speed at that instant. The area under the curve gives the total distance
traveled by the train.
11) What do you mean by average speed in electric traction?
The mean of the speeds from the start to stop i.e the distance between two stops divided by
the actual time of run is known as average speed.
Average speed= Distance between stops in km/Actual time of run in hours
12) What do you mean by schedule speed in electric traction?
The ratio of distance covered between two stops and total time of run including time of stop
is known as schedule speed.
Schedule speed = Distance between stops in km/Actual time of run in hours+ Stop time in hours
The schedule speed is always smaller than the average speed.
The difference is large in case of urban and suburban services and is negligibly small in case of
main line service.
13) What is tractive effort?
The effective force necessary to propel the train at the wheels of the locomotive to which the
motor is geared is called the geared effort. It is measured in Newtons and is tangential to the driving
wheels.
Total tractive effort required to run a train on track= Tractive effort to produce acceleration +
Tractive effort to overcome effect of gravity + Tractive effort to overcome train resistance.
14) What are the factors affecting energy consumption?
The various factors affecting energy consumption are
(i) Distance between the stops
The greater the distance between the stops, the lesser will be the specific energy consumption
for suburban service is 50 to 75 watts-hour/ ton-km and for main line service it is between 18 to
32 Watt-hour/ton-km.
(ii) Train resistance
The train resistance depends upon the nature of track, speed of the train and shape of the rolling
stock, particularly the front and rear portions of the train. If the train resistance is greater, the
specific energy consumption is more.
(iii) Acceleration and retardation
If the acceleration and retardation increases, the specific energy consumption is increased.
(iv) Gradient
The steep gradients will involve more energy consumption though regenerative braking is
applied.
(v) Train equipment
More efficient train equipment will reduce the specific energy consumption.
15) Define dead weight, adhesive weight.
(i) Dead weight
The total weight of locomotive and train to be pulled by the locomotive is known as dead
weight.
(ii) Adhesive weight
The total weight to be carried on the driving wheels is known as the adhesive weight.
16) Name the various methods of traction motor control.
There are various methods for controlling the speed of d.c series motors. They are

*Rheostatic control
*Series parallel control
*Field control
*Buck and Boost method
*Metadyne control
*Thyristor control
17) What are the basic requirements of braking system?
The basic requirements of a braking system are given below
It should be simple, robust, quick and reliable in action.
Easy to use for driver to operate.
Maintenance should be minimum.
The braking system should be inexhaustible.
In case of emergency braking, safety consideration is taken into account.
Kinetic energy of the train must be storable during braking which could be used
subsequently during acceleration of the train.
18) What are the various methods of applying electric braking?
There are three methods of applying electric braking are
Plugging or Reverse current braking
Rheostatic braking
Regenerative braking.
19) Name the advanced methods of speed control of traction motors.
The latest methods of speed control of traction motors are
Tap changer control
Thyristor control
Chopper control
Microprocessor control
20) What are the advantages of microprocessor based control of traction motors?
The advantages of microprocessor based drives are
High speed of response
High accuracy
Over voltage and over speed protection.
Electronic interlocking
Less sensitive to temperature variations and drift.
Numbers of components used are less.

Question Paper Code: 11380
B.E./B.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATION. NOVEMBER, DECEMBER 2012.
Ejghth Semester
Electrical and Electronics Engrneering
(Regulation 2008)
Time: Three hours Maximum: 100 marks
Alswer ALL questions
PARTA-(10x2-20marks)
1. Wlat is the use of super heater in steam power plant?
2. Define the term gust in wind energy system.
3. Differentiate between load curve and load duration curve.
4. State any two steps taken fol power quality improvement-
5. Define luminous efficacy.
6. What is the importance of strect lighting system?
7. Give the methods of control oftemperature in arc lurDaces.
8. List some steps taken to minimize skin effect in induction heating.
I9.Define crest speed of a train.
10. Wlat are the requirements for an electdc traction system?
PART B (5 x 16 = 80 marks)
11. (a) (i) Dcscribe with neat sketch the construciion and principle of operation of a hydel power
plant. (10)
(ii) Explain in detail about the reactor system in a nuclear power plant. (6)
(b) (i) Explain with neat diagram the power generation from geothermal plant. (10)
(ii) List ihe prospects of distributed generation system. (6)
12. (a) The load on a power plant on a typical day is given below :
Plot the load duration curve. Firld the load lactor of the plant and the energy supplied by the
plant in 24 hours- Also suggest the size and number of generating units. (16)
Or
(b) (i) Explain the reasons why power factor tariff is imposed. Explain clearly the procedure for
finding out the capacity of the shunt ciapacitor required for an existing installation for
improvement of power factor. (10)
13. (a) (i) Discuss laws ofillumination and its limitation in actual practice. (8)
(ii) A lamp of 500 cp is placed 2m below a plane miuor which reflects 80% of light falling
on it. Determine illumination at a point 5 m away ftom the foot ofthe lamp which is hung
5 m above the ground. (10)
Or
(b) (i) Describe the construction and pinciple of operation of mercury Yapour lamp- (8)
(ii) Explain the vadous factors to be taken into account for designing street lighting and
flood Lighting. (8)
14. (a). (i) Explain the working of coreless induction furnace and list its medts. (6)
(ii) Calculate the time taken to melt 3 nietdc tones of steel in a three phase arc furnace
having the following data:
Current = 5000 A; Arc voltage = 60 V
Resistance of transformer = 0.003 ohms; Reactance of transformer = 0.005 ohms;

Melting point ofsteel = 1370' C; Initial temperature of steel = 18' C. Assume overall
efficiencv as 60%. (10)
Or
(b) (i) Explarn the vadous tlTes ofelectdc arc welding. (8)
(ii) Explain the principle and working ofwelding transformer. (8)
15. (a) (i) List the medts of electdc traction compare with conventional system. (6)
(ii) A 250 tonnes train with 10% rotatioDal inertia effect is started with uniform
acceleration and reaches a speed of 50 kmphps in 265 seconds on level road- Find the
specific energy consumption if the journpy is l,o be made ac.ording ro rrapezoialal speed -
lrmg qu11g. Acceleration = 2 kmphps; Tracking retardation = 3 kmphps; Distance
betvreen the stations is 2.4 km; Efficiencv = 0.9; Track resistance = 5 kg/tones. (10)
Or
(b) (i) Defrne specific energy consumption and discuss the factors that affects the specfic
energy consumption of trains operation at a given schedule speed. (8)
(ii) Explain regenerative braking when used for dc series traction motors- How does it differ
foom the regenerative braking as used for shunt motors? (8)

Question Paper Code: D 221-!
B.E.iB.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATiON, APRIL/MAY 2010.
Eighth Semester
Electrical and Electronics Engineering
EE 1451 - ELECTRIC ENERGY GENERATION, UTILISATION AND
CONSERVATION
(Regulation 2004)
Answer ALL questions.
PARTA-(10x2=20marks)
1. Give the principle of working of geothennal power generation.
2. State the advantages of MHD power generation.
3. Give any four objectives of tariff.
4. Defrne the term power quality.
5. State the laws of illumination.
6. What are the properties heating element matenals?
7. What ilrpe of notor is used for electric traction? Why?
8. Give any two advantages of electric traction.
9. Dehne continuous rating of rnotor.
10. Why is induction rnotor cornrnonly preffered drive for industriai application?
PART B (5* 16 = 80 marks)
11. (a) With a neat block diagram explain the main parts and workrng of a wind electric system.
(16)
Or
(b) (i) Write a note on distributed generation. (8)
(ii) Explain the main components and working of Tidal power plant. (8)
12. (a) Write short notes on:
(i) Need for electrical energy conservation (6)
(ii) Energy management (5)
(iii) Energy auditing (5)
Or
(b) Explain the different methods of power factor improvement. (16)
13. (a) (i) With oecessary equations describe the design of heating element. (10)
(ii) Write about welding transformer and its characteristics. (6)
Or
(b)(i) Discuss the various steps involved in the design of illumination system. (8)
(ii) Discuss the various aspects of residential lighting and street lighting. (8)
14. (a)(i) Discuss the recent trends in electric tractron. (8)
(ii) Descrlbe the different types of supply systems used for railway electrification. (8)
(b) (i) Write about mechanics of train movement. (8)
(ii) Discuss the working of D C selies motor controi in detail. (8)
15. (a) Explain state state and transient characteristics of.drives. (16)
Or
(b) What do you understand by the term load equahzation? Derive the expression lor moror
torque in case of motor fitted with the flywheel when load is increasing. (16)

B.E./BTech. DEGREE EXAMINATION, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2008.
Eighth Semester
(Regulations 2004)
Electrical and Electronics Engineering
EE 1451 - ELECTRIC ENERGY GENERATION UTILIZATION AND
CONSERVATION
Answer ALL questions.
PART A-(10x2=20marks)
1. Give four sources of non-conventional energy.
2. Name the various semi conductors used for photovoltaic conversion.
3. Define load factor.
4. What are the causes of low power factor?
5. Define the term Lux.
6. List the four merits of electrically produced heat.
7. Define tractive effort.
8. What is neant by specific energy consumption?
9. What are the advantages of individual drive?
10. What type of electrical drive is used in (a) Cranes (b) Blowers?
PARTB-(5x16=80marks)
11. (a) (i)What are the basic components of solar pv system?(8)
(ii)Explain the basic solar PV system used fof power generation.(8)
Or
(b) Give a brief review of ger-reration of electrical Power by any two conventiorral methods
(8+8)

GLOSSARY
Anaerobic – living in the absence of air or free oxygen, or a chemical reaction or process not
dependent on the presence of oxygen.
Ballast – part of a fluorescent light fixture that supplies initial electricity to the bulb and regulates
electricity flow
Battery – device that stores energy and furnishes electric current upon demand
Bio-diesel – a blend of bio-fuel and petroleum diesel which can be used in compression-ignition
(diesel) engines
Bio-fuel – fuel produced from plant and organic-based compounds.
Biogenic – resulting from the activity of living organisms, as fermentation; produced by living
organisms or biological processes.
Biomass – a renewable energy source derived from organic materials including plant matter and
animal waste that is usually incinerated to produce electricity
British thermal units (Btu) – a unit of energy equal to the quantity of heat required to raise the
temperature of one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit at one atmospheric pressure.
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) – a compound carbon and oxygen generated as a by-product of the
combustion of fossil fuels or the burning of vegetable matter; is an acidic oxide; toxic in high
concentrations.
Carbon monoxide (CO) – an odorless, colorless and toxic gas that results from incomplete
oxidation of carbon in combustion; burns with a violet flame
Commissioning – quality-oriented process for achieving, verifying, and documenting that the
performance of facilities, systems, and assemblies meets defined objectives and criteria
Compressed natural gas (CNG) – a natural gas that is under pressure, remains clear, odorless and
non-corrosive and is often used as an environmentally friendly substitute for gasoline or diesel
Condenser coils – soft aluminum tubes in an HVAC unit through which refrigerant flows so it can
be cooled, allowing for the transfer of heat more quickly
Conservation – the careful utilization of natural resources in order to prevent depletion (see also
energy conservation)
Cool Roofs – roofs consisting of materials that very effectively reflect the sun’s heat energy from
the roof surface.
Demand Response Program – Demand response (also known as load response) is end-use
customers reducing their use of electricity in response to power grid needs, economic signals from a
competitive wholesale market or special retail rates.
Direct Current (DC) – electricity that flows in one direction steadily with constant strength, not
used for long-distance power transmission
Economizer – mechanical devices intended to reduce energy consumption in buildings by
recapturing heat from the building before air is exhausted to the outside or by using ambient air
temperature outside to adjust building temperatures inside without requiring mechanical heating or
cooling.
Fossil fuel – fuels such as oil, natural gas and coal that were naturally produced over long periods
of time from the remains of living organisms.
Efficiency – a relative measure of the amount of energy required to do a task compared to the
optimum means of accomplishing the same task.
Ethylene propylene diene monomer (EPDM) – high-density synthetic rubber used as a roofing
material that is very durable, has great resistance to abrasives, tearing, solvents and high
temperatures
Electric Vehicle (EV) – a vehicle propelled by an electric motor(s) powered by battery packs that
can be recharged by plugging them into a power outlet.

Emissions – substances discharged into the air including by-products of internal combustion
engines and power generating plants that are fired by coal, natural gas or oil.
Energy – (physics) a thermodynamic quantity equivalent to the capacity of a physical system to do
work;
Energy conservation – is the practice of decreasing the quantity of energy used. It may be chieved
through more efficient energy use, in which case energy use is decreased
while achieving a similar outcome (e.g. improving insulation in exterior walls), or by a reduction in
activities that consume energy (e.g. turning off lights when not in the room).
Energy Star – A joint program of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the U.S.
Department of Energy developed to protect the environment through energy efficiency products and
practices.
Ethanol – a liquid fuel produced through man-made processing of organic matter;
Flex Fuel Vehicle (FFV) – a vehicle designed to run on both gasoline and a blend of gasoline and
ethanol; FFVs typically get about 20-30 percent fewer miles per gallon since ethanol contains less
energy than gasoline
Fluorescent lights – lights where the source of light is produced by gas that glows when connected
to electricity. Fluorescent light bulbs can have a very long life – between 8,000 and 20,000 hours.
They use up to 75 percent less power than incandescent light bulbs.
Fuel cell – a device used for combining fuel and oxides to generate electricity. It is the conversion
of chemicals to electrical energy.
Geothermal – refers to the utilization of the relatively constant below-grade temperatures of the
earth for either heat extraction or heat rejection for HVAC systems in buildings.
Greenhouse gases (GHG) – any gas that absorbs infrared radiation in the atmosphere; includes
water vapor, carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N20), halogenated
fluorocarbons (HCFCs), ozone (O3), perfluorinated carbons (PFCs) and hydrofluorocarbons HFCs)
Heat pump – a machine or device that moves heat from one location (the 'source') to another
location (the 'sink' or 'heat sink') using mechanical work. One common type of heat pump works by
exploiting the physical properties of an evaporating and condensing fluid known as a refrigerant.
Common examples are food refrigerators and freezers, air conditioners, and reversible-cycle heat
pumps for providing thermal comfort.
Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HVE) – a vehicle propelled by an internal combustion engine and an
electric motor(s);, the HVE converts energy normally wasted during coasting and braking into
electricity, which is stored in the battery until needed by the electric motor.
Hydrocarbons (HC) – organic compounds that contain only carbon and hydrogen
Hydroelectricity – electricity generated from the power of moving water operating electrical
turbines
Hydrogen – the most abundant element on earth yet hydrogen does not occur naturally; once
separated from another element, hydrogen can be burned as a fuel or converted into electricity.
Improving energy efficiency – accomplishing a task with less energy; energy efficiency may be
improved by changing-out older technology equipment with newer technology equipment (for
example replacing 32-watt light fluorescent bulbs with 28-watt bulbs which produce equal light).
Incandescent light – lights where the source of the light is an electric current passing through a
thin filament, heating it until it glows
Kilowatt hour (kWh) – measure of electricity equal to 1 kilowatt of power produced or used over
1 hour
Landfill Gas to Energy (LFG) – A process of burning the gases produced by decomposing waste
in landfills to power electric generators

Leadership in Energy & Environmental Design (LEED) – A rating scale developed by the U.S.
Green Building Council for measuring a building’s impact on the environment and those that will
occupy the building;
Light Emitting Diode (LED) – a light source that uses significantly less energy than traditional
lighting because it produces light without significant waste heat
Maryland Renewable Portfolio Standard (RPS) – a Maryland statute that requires electricity
suppliers (all utilities and competitive retail suppliers) to use renewable energy sources to generate a
minimum portion of their retail sales. Beginning in 2006, electricity suppliers are required to
provide 1% of retail electricity sales in the state from Tier 1 renewables and 2.5% from Tier 2
renewables. The renewable requirement increases gradually, ultimately reaching a level of 20%
from Tier 1 resources in 2022 and beyond, and 2.5% from Tier 2 resources from 2006 through
2018. The Tier 2 requirement sunsets, dropping to 0% in 2019 and beyond
Megawatt (MW) – unit of energy equal to 1 million watts or 1,000 kilowatts
Methane (CH4) – odorless, colorless, flammable gas, released during decomposition of plant or
other organic compounds; main component of marsh gas and frequently formed in coal mines; used
as a source of fuel and an important source of hydrogen
Million Metric Tons of Carbon Equivalent (MMTCE) – also referred to as carbon equivalent.
Metric measure used to compare the emissions of greenhouse gases based upon their global
warming potential. The equivalent for gas is derived by multiplying the tons of gas by the
associated global warming potential.
Natural gas – a fossil fuel that is a colorless and odorless gas
Non-renewable energy– of or relating to energy sources such as oil, natural gas, coal, uranium that
are not replenishable, or that are produced naturally at a dramatically slower rate than current
demand would utilize.
Northeast Maryland Waste Disposal Authority (NMWDA) – An independent State agency
representing 7 Maryland counties and the City of Baltimore
Oxygenated fuel – fuel that has a chemical compound containing oxygen added to improve
combustion efficiency and reduce some types of atmospheric pollution
Photovoltaic (PV) – direct conversion of light into electricity through solar cells
Portfolio Manager (provided by EPA) – An interactive energy management software application
made available to the public by the EPA and DOE that tracks and assess energy and water
consumption across an entire portfolio of buildings and provides a ranking of a building’s energy
efficiency compared to other buildings of a similar size and use taking into account regional and
seasonal variations in the weather.
Renewable energy – energy produced from sources that can be used indefinitely or over very long
periods of time without exhausting the supply if property managed such as solar energy, flowing
water, geothermal heat, bio-fuels or wood.
Renewable Energy Credits (REC’s) – marketable environmental commodities in the U.S. which
represent proof of electricity was generated from eligible renewable energy resources
Seasonal Energy Efficiency Rating (SEER)/Energy Efficiency Rating (EER) – measures of the
efficiency of air-conditioning systems; ratio of the annual BTU’s of cooling provided divided by the
electric energy input used and measured over a range of temperatures
Smart Client – is a term used to describe electronic data management through a ‘virtual desktop
infrastructure’ that reduces electricity consumption by eliminating the need for the more traditional
desktop computer hardware of local hard drives, external hardware ports and floppy drives.
Solar Cells – cells that convert sunlight directly into electricity and are made of semiconductors
such as crystalline silicon or various thin-film materials
Solar Energy – heat and light energy produced by the sun

Solar Reflectance – measure of the ability of a surface material to reflect sunlight – including the
visible, infrared, and ultraviolet wavelengths – scale of measure from 0 to 1. Also called albedo
Solid Waste Association of North America (SWANA) – leading professional association in the
solid waste management field
Standard Planning Grade Energy Assessment– building assessments designed to identify and
document energy-saving retrofit and upgrade opportunities
Sustainability – a lifestyle or the result of choices that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs; understand the
interconnections of the economy, society and environment and supports equitable distribution of
resources and opportunities
Thermal Energy – energy derived from heat
Therms – a unit of measure equal to 100,000 Btu’s
Thermoplastic olefin (TPO) – blend of polymers with high reflective qualities used as a roofing
material
Tier 1 Renewable sources – geothermal, hydro facilities under 30 MW, methane, ocean, qualifying
biomass, solar, wind, and fuel cells
Tier 2 Renewable sources – municipal waste-to-energy projects, poultry litter, and existing hydro
facilities over 30 MW

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