05 0638

MP 05W0000077
MITRE PRODUCT
Fundamentals of Survey Research
Methodology
April 2005
Priscilla A. Glasow (25988)
Division:
Department:
W800
W804
.
Washington C3 Center
McLean, Virginia
Approved for Public Release; Distribution Unlimited
Case #05-0638

MITRE Department
Approval:
Edward F. Gonzalez

Table of Contents
Section Page
1. What is Survey Research? 1-1
1.1 Survey Strengths........................................................................................................... 1-1
1.2 Survey Weaknesses....................................................................................................... 1-2
1.3 Definition of Terms ...................................................................................................... 1-2
2. The Survey Process 2-1
2.1 Survey Design............................................................................................................... 2-1
2.1.1 Sample Selection..................................................................................................... 2-1
2.1.2 Sample Size............................................................................................................. 2-2
2.1.2.1 Degree of Precision .......................................................................................... 2-2
2.1.2.2 Statistical Power............................................................................................... 2-2
2.1.2.2.1 Effect Size as a Determinant of Power....................................................... 2-3
2.1.2.2.2 Sample Size as a Determinant of Power..................................................... 2-3
2.1.2.3 Access to Subjects............................................................................................ 2-3
2.1.2.4 Stratification and Clustering............................................................................. 2-3
2.1.2.5 Units of Analysis.............................................................................................. 2-3
2.1.3 Choice of Survey Media ......................................................................................... 2-4
2.1.3.1 Written Surveys................................................................................................ 2-4
2.1.3.2 Verbal Surveys ................................................................................................. 2-4
2.1.3.3 Mixed Mode Surveys ....................................................................................... 2-5
2.2 Survey Instrument Development .................................................................................. 2-5
2.2.1 Standards for Good Survey Questions.................................................................... 2-5
2.2.1.1 Question Wording ............................................................................................ 2-5
2.2.1.2 Feasible and Ethical.......................................................................................... 2-6
2.2.1.3 Additional Considerations................................................................................ 2-6
2.2.1.4 Biased Wording................................................................................................ 2-6
2.2.1.5 Biased Context.................................................................................................. 2-6
2.2.1.5.1 General Characteristics............................................................................... 2-6
2.2.1.5.2 Cognitive Implications of Biased Context.................................................. 2-7
2.2.1.5.3 Facets of Biased Context ............................................................................ 2-7
2.2.2 Types of Survey Questions..................................................................................... 2-7
2.2.2.1 Open-ended Questions...................................................................................... 2-7
2.2.2.2 Closed-ended Questions................................................................................... 2-7
2.2.2.2.1 Questions that Describe and Evaluate People, Places and Events.............. 2-8
2.2.2.2.2 Questions that Measure Responses to Ideas, Analyses or Proposals.......... 2-9
2.2.2.2.3 Questions that Measure Knowledge ........................................................... 2-9
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Section Page
2.2.3 Subjective Responses to Survey Questions ............................................................ 2-9
2.2.4 Cognitive Tasks Required for Survey Response .................................................... 2-9
2.2.5 Sources of Measurement Error ...............................................................................2-10
2.3 Survey Execution..........................................................................................................2-11
2.4 Data Analysis and Reporting Survey Results...............................................................2-11
3. Conclusion 3-1
List of References RE-1
Appendix . A Checklist for Survey Assessment A-1
A.1 Survey Design........................................................................................................ A-1
A.2 Population and Sample........................................................................................... A-1
A.3 Survey Instrument.................................................................................................. A-1
A.4 Study Variables...................................................................................................... A-2
A.5 Data Analysis Plan................................................................................................. A-2
Distribution List DI-1
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Section 1
What is Survey Research?
Survey research is used:
“to answer questions that have been raised, to solve problems that have been posed
or observed, to assess needs and set goals, to determine whether or not specific
objectives have been met, to establish baselines against which future comparisons
can be made, to analyze trends across time, and generally, to describe what exists, in
what amount, and in what context.” (Isaac & Michael, 1997, p. 136)
Kraemer (1991) identified three distinguishing characteristics of survey research (p. xiii).
First, survey research is used to quantitatively describe specific aspects of a given
population. These aspects often involve examining the relationships among variables.
Second, the data required for survey research are collected from people and are, therefore,
subjective. Finally, survey research uses a selected portion of the population from which the
findings can later be generalized back to the population.
In survey research, independent and dependent variables are used to define the scope of
study, but cannot be explicitly controlled by the researcher. Before conducting the survey,
the researcher must predicate a model that identifies the expected relationships among these
variables. The survey is then constructed to test this model against observations of the
phenomena.
In contrast to survey research, a survey is simply a data collection tool for carrying out
survey research. Pinsonneault and Kraemer (1993) defined a survey as a “means for
gathering information about the characteristics, actions, or opinions of a large group of
people” (p. 77). Surveys can also be used to assess needs, evaluate demand, and examine
impact (Salant & Dillman, 1994, p. 2). The term survey instrument is often used to
distinguish the survey tool from the survey research that it is designed to support.
1.1 Survey Strengths
Surveys are capable of obtaining information from large samples of the population. They
are also well suited to gathering demographic data that describe the composition of the
sample (McIntyre, 1999, p. 74). Surveys are inclusive in the types and number of variables
that can be studied, require minimal investment to develop and administer, and are relatively
easy for making generalizations (Bell, 1996, p. 68). Surveys can also elicit information
about attitudes that are otherwise difficult to measure using observational techniques
(McIntyre, 1999, p. 75). It is important to note, however, that surveys only provide estimates
for the true population, not exact measurements (Salant & Dillman, 1994, p. 13).
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1.2 Survey Weaknesses
Pinsonneault and Kraemer (1993) noted that surveys are generally unsuitable where an
understanding of the historical context of phenomena is required. Bell (1996) observed that
biases may occur, either in the lack of response from intended participants or in the nature
and accuracy of the responses that are received. Other sources of error include intentional
misreporting of behaviors by respondents to confound the survey results or to hide
inappropriate behavior. Finally, respondents may have difficulty assessing their own
behavior or have poor recall of the circumstances surrounding their behavior.
1.3 Definition of Terms
• Verbal surveys are often known as interviews and written surveys are questionnaires.
• Reliability is often used to refer to the consistency of survey responses over time.
• Item consistency determines whether the responses for each question are consistent
across constructs.
• Test administration and scoring consistency examines the possibility of errors caused by
carelessness in administration or scoring (Creswell, 1994, p. 121).
• Validity is the extent to which the measurements of the survey provide the information
needed to meet the study’s purpose (Simon & Francis, 1998, p. 70). This definition is
limited, however, to the face validity of the instrument.
• Content validity considers whether the questions measure the content they were intended
to measure.
• Predictive validity examines whether the responses are able to predict a criterion
measure.
• Concurrent validity addresses the correlation of survey results with results from other
sources.
• Construct validity asks whether the survey questions capably measure hypothetical
constructs.
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Section 2
The Survey Process
2.1 Survey Design
According to Levy and Lemeshow (1999), survey design involves two steps. First, a
sampling plan must be developed. The sampling plan is the methodology that will be used to
select the sample from the population (p. 6). The sampling plan describes the approach that
will be used to select the sample, how an adequate sample size will be determined, and the
choice of media through which the survey will be administered. Survey media include
telephone and face-to-face interviews, as well as mailed surveys using either postal or
electronic mail (Salant & Dillman, 1994, p. 3).
Second, procedures for obtaining population estimates from the sample data and for
estimating the reliability of those population estimates must be established. This process
includes identification of the desired response rate and the preferred level of accuracy for the
survey (Salant & Dillman, 1994, p. 3).
Survey design procedures require inputs from the people who will use the survey data and
from those who will conduct the survey. The data users should identify the variables to be
measured, the estimates required, the reliability and validity needed to ensure the usefulness
of the estimates, and any resource limitations that may exist pertaining to the conduct of the
survey (Levy & Lemeshow, 1999, p. 6). The people who conduct the survey should provide
additional input regarding resource requirements and offer alternative sampling procedures
that they deem feasible and appropriate to the task. Statisticians integrate these inputs to
develop a survey design that will meet the data users’ requirements within the specified
resource constraints.
The following sections address three key elements of survey design: (a) considerations in
the selection of the sample, requirements for determining the needed sample size, and
considerations for choosing the appropriate survey media.
2.1.1 Sample Selection
Sample selection depends on the population size, its homogeneity, the sample media and
its cost of use, and the degree of precision required (Salant & Dillman, 1994, p. 54). The
people selected to participate in the sample must be selected at random; they must have an
equal (or known) chance of being selected (p. 13).
Salant and Dillman (1994) observed that a prerequisite to sample selection is to define
the target population as narrowly as possible (p. 58). It is often not possible, however, to
know the true population. In such cases, Attewell and Rule (1991) suggested that a
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theoretical sample may be used. Theoretical samples purposively select organizations that
exhibit the desired features that are the focus of the researcher’s study (p. 300). Although the
theoretical sample is not randomly selected, individual respondents from within that sample
can be selected at random to achieve an approximate effect.
2.1.2 Sample Size
Determination of sample size depends on five factors:
• Desired degree of precision
• Statistical power required
• Ability of the researcher to gain access to the study subjects
• Degree to which the population can be stratified
• Selection of the relevant units of analysis
2.1.2.1 Degree of Precision
A survey is used to establish that a postulated effect exists in the sample. The contention
that this effect exists is the alternate hypothesis. The null hypothesis claims that this effect
does not exist.
The sample must be “large enough to yield the desired level of precision” (Salant &
Dillman, 1994, p. 5). Two measures of precision are discussed in the literature. First, the
significance level is the amount of Type I error that the researcher will allow in the study.
Type I error occurs when the null hypothesis is rejected when it is, in fact, true.
The second measure of precision is the confidence interval. A survey sample consists of
data for which a mean and variance can be calculated. Confidence intervals can be
constructed for each of these statistics, such that the researcher can state that he or she is, for
example, “95 percent confident” that the corresponding statistic for the population falls
within the specified range of the sample statistic.
Where the purpose of the study is to gain a general sense of a belief or attitude, a lower
level of precision may be acceptable. A smaller sample size may then be drawn. Salant
and Dillman (1994) noted that the researcher must ensure that the number of surveys
distributed is sufficient to allow for no response and for unusable, illegible, and incomplete
responses (p. 57).
2.1.2.2 Statistical Power
Statistical power is the probability that the researcher rejects the null hypothesis given
that the alternate hypothesis is true (Attewell & Rule, 1991, p. 302). Where the null
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hypothesis is erroneously accepted and the alternate hypothesis is true, a Type II error is said
to exist. Statistical power is determined, in part, by effect size and sample size.
2.1.2.2.1 Effect Size as a Determinant of Power
As noted earlier, each random sample taken from a population has its own mean and
variance. The distribution of means is the distribution of all possible means of samples that
could be taken from the population. The distribution of means is the distribution given the
null hypothesis.
Effect size is a determinant of statistical power that helps us “evaluate the overall
importance of a result” (Aron & Aron, 1997, p. 137). In conducting a survey, a sample is
taken from the population. The sample distribution, representing the alternate hypothesis, is
compared to the distribution of means to determine whether the sample distribution differs
significantly from that of the null hypothesis. The effect size is the extent to which the
distributions of means for the null and alternate hypotheses do not overlap. The greater the
difference in the distributions of means, the higher the power (p. 133).
2.1.2.2.2 Sample Size as a Determinant of Power
A second determinant of power is sample size. As the sample size increases, the
distribution of means becomes narrower and the variance decreases, thereby reducing the
overlap between the two distributions and increasing power (Aron & Aron, 1997, p. 140).
2.1.2.3 Access to Subjects
A third factor in determining sample size is the ability of the researcher to gain access to
the desired subjects. One method for mitigating this problem is to use a theoretical sample,
as previously described (Attewell & Rule, 1991, p. 301).
2.1.2.4 Stratification and Clustering
The fourth factor in determining sample size is whether the random sample can be
stratified, for example, according to sector, size, or technology level (Attewell & Rule, 1991,
p. 301). By using multiple levels to describe the technologies used in different organizations,
for example, the researcher is able to statistically relate those differences in technology strata
to differences (variances) in the impact of those technologies. Salant and Dillman (1994)
noted, however, that the sample size must be increased when using stratified samples to
maintain necessary precision (p. 57). Control and test groups are one example of stratified
sampling.
2.1.2.5 Units of Analysis
The last factor in sample size determination is the selection of appropriate units of
analysis. The researcher must decide whether the respondents to a survey will be
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individuals, offices, or entire firms (Pinsonneault & Kraemer, 1993, p. 90). Attewell and
Rule (1991) noted that workgroups may also be a useful unit of analysis. Aggregating
individual questionnaire responses across a team helps to lessen the effects of idiosyncratic
or individual attitudes. Such research must then try to explain the differences found across
workgroups (p. 304).
2.1.3 Choice of Survey Media
Salant and Dillman (1994) noted that the choice of survey medium is determined by the
resources that are available.
2.1.3.1 Written Surveys
Written surveys require minimum resources (staff, time, and cost) and are best suited to
eliciting confidential information. Minimal sampling error occurs due to the relatively low
cost per survey. There are also minimal interviewer and respondent measurement errors due
to the absence of direct contact (Salant & Dillman, 1994, p. 35). Written surveys allow the
respondent the greatest latitude in pace and sequence of response (p. 18).
Written surveys may be distributed using either postal or electronic mail. In some cases,
written surveys are distributed in person to a group of respondents to evaluate a recent event.
This approach is frequently used in military survey research where after action reports are
used to evaluate an exercise. Although this method provides immediate results, the
involuntary nature of an in-person written survey makes this medium prone to response
biases.
Among the disadvantages of written surveys are their subjectivity to certain types of
error. For example, written surveys are subject to coverage error where population lists are
incomplete or out of date. They are also typically subject to nonresponse error. Less
educated, illiterate, and disabled people are particularly less likely to respond to written
surveys (Isaac & Michael, 1997, p. 138). Written surveys are also subject to bias where the
intended respondent refers to others in completing the survey. Finally, written surveys are
subject to item nonresponse where some questions may be inadvertently or intentionally
skipped (Salant & Dillman, 1994, p. 35).
2.1.3.2 Verbal Surveys
Verbal surveys include telephone and face-to-face interviews. The face-to-face interview
is a particularly flexible tool that can capture verbal inflexion, gestures, and other body
language. A skilled interviewer can obtain additional insights into the answers provided by
observing the respondent’s body language (Isaac & Michael, 1997, p. 140).
Face-to-face interviews are useful where the true population is not known or when
respondents are unable or unlikely to respond to written surveys (Salant & Dillman, 1994,
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p. 40). They are also well suited to long or complex questionnaires and for reaching the
correct respondents.
Verbal surveys are, however, subject to measurement error when untrained interviewers
are used (Salant & Dillman, 1994, p. 42). They are also resource intensive in terms of staff,
facilities, and time. Findings from face-to-face interviews, in particular, are difficult to
summarize and incorporate in data analyses (Isaac & Michael, 1997, p. 140).
2.1.3.3 Mixed Mode Surveys
Salant and Dillman (1994) espoused the use of mixed mode surveys that combine survey
media. This approach first uses the best method for achieving a high response rate at the
lowest possible cost. Other media are then used to improve the response rate at increasing
costs per survey. Written surveys are usually the first method used in mixed mode surveys,
followed by verbal survey methods. The authors noted that mixed mode surveys generally
reflect higher composite response rates than single medium surveys (p. 50).
2.2 Survey Instrument Development
Survey instrument development must be preceded by certain prerequisites. First, the
focus of the study must be carefully defined. Second, the study objectives must be translated
into measurable factors that contribute to that focus (Salant & Dillman, 1994, pp. 77-78).
Third, the researcher must ensure that he or she is well versed in the topic (p. 99). Finally,
the survey must be consistently administered (Fowler, 1995, p. 3).
Survey instruments should ideally be developed by experts in the measurement sciences.
Levy and Lemeshow (1999) opined that a statistician should be called upon to provide input
on the procedures that will be used to ascertain the quality of the data collected by the
instrument, and to ensure that the instrument is conducive to easy data processing and
manipulation for analysis.
2.2.1 Standards for Good Survey Questions
At a fundamental level, “a good question is one that produces answers that are reliable
and valid measures of something we want to describe” (Fowler, 1995, p. 2).
2.2.1.1 Question Wording
Survey questions should use words that are consistent with the educational level of the
intended respondents (McIntyre, 1999, p. 78). Both the question and any response options
must be clear to both the respondent and the researcher (Fowler, 1995, p. 2; Salant &
Dillman, 1994, p. 92). The wording should preclude alternative interpretations or incomplete
sentences that would allow misinterpretation (Browne & Keeley, 1998, p. 115; Fowler, 1995,
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p. 3; Salant & Dillman, 1994, p. 100). Survey questions should not be combined where the
respondent may wish to answer affirmatively for one part, but negatively for another.
2.2.1.2 Feasible and Ethical
Good survey questions must be feasible to answer and respondents must be willing to
answer them (Fowler, 1995, p. 3). Questions must be civil and ethical (McIntyre, 1999, p.
77). The researcher must avoid questions that ask the respondent for data they could not or
do not have, including questions that assume the respondent knows something about the
subject (Salant & Dillman, 1994, p. 98). Personal questions, objectionable statements that
reflect the researcher’s bias and questions that require difficult calculations should similarly
be avoided (pp. 96-97).
2.2.1.3 Additional Considerations
McIntyre (1999) emphasized that the length of the survey should not be onerous. The
researcher should avoid questions that involve double negatives and long questions that lose
the respondent in the reading (p. 78). Undefined abbreviations, acronyms, and jargon should
not be used (Salant & Dillman, 1994, p. 93). Similarly, the tone of survey questions should
avoid biased wording that evokes an emotional response. Rating scales should be balanced
to provide an equal number of positive and negative response options (p. 95).
Salant and Dillman (1994) also noted that open-ended questions that require precise
answers are difficult for respondents to quickly answer (p. 93). They further cautioned
against changing time references where the survey may be given at different times such that
responses might reflect seasonal or temporal differences (p. 99).
2.2.1.4 Biased Wording
Biased wording is often observed where the question includes a predisposition either for
or against a particular perspective (Salant & Dillman, 1994, p. 94). Such questions may be
leading or include assumptions that may not be true (McIntyre, 1999, p. 78).
2.2.1.5 Biased Context
2.2.1.5.1 General Characteristics
Biased context results from the placement of questions in a particular order so that the
respondent is already thinking along certain lines on the basis of previous questions (Browne
& Keeley, 1998, p. 116). Biased context also occurs when the survey is long. For example, a
given question might be used at both the beginning and end of a long survey to which
respondents provide different responses. Fowler (1995) also noted that respondents are also
more likely to use rankings on the left side of a continuum, regardless whether the continuum
is decreasing or increasing from left to right (p. 75).
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Salant and Dillman (1994) stated that response options should be limited to less than five
choices and series of questions should be used to address complex and abstract issues (p. 87).
2.2.1.5.2 Cognitive Implications of Biased Context
Tourangeau (1999) identified two facets of biased context. First, the level of generality is
the degree to which the survey question addresses an issue that is encompassed by a broader
issue or attempts to generalize inappropriately about a narrow issue (p. 112). The second
facet is the influence of consistency and contrast. Contrast is the degree to which a survey
question is consistent with, or contrasts with, other survey questions that immediately
precede or follow the question of interest.
2.2.1.5.3 Facets of Biased Context
Tourangeau (1999) identified two facets of biased context. First, the level of generality is
the degree to which the survey question addresses an issue that is encompassed by a broader
issue or attempts to generalize inappropriately about a narrow issue (p. 112). The second
facet is the influence of consistency and contrast. Contrast is the degree to which a survey
question is consistent with, or contrasts with, other survey questions that immediately
precede or follow the question of interest.
2.2.2 Types of Survey Questions
2.2.2.1 Open-ended Questions
Open-ended survey questions allow respondents to answer in their own words. Open-
ended questions also allow the researcher to explore ideas that would not otherwise be aired
and are useful where additional insights are sought (Salant & Dillman, 1994, p. 81). They
are also useful where the researcher is less familiar with the subject area and cannot offer
specific response options.
Open-ended questions require greater thought and contemplation on the part of the
respondent, and are, therefore, more time intensive to answer (Salant & Dillman, 1994, p.
79). The results obtained from open-ended questions are also more difficult to analyze.
Finally, it is more difficult to identify a single course of action from the broad range of
responses that are received to open-ended questions (p. 80).
2.2.2.2 Closed-ended Questions
In contrast, closed-ended questions require the respondent to choose from among a given
set of responses (McIntyre, 1999, p. 75).
Closed-ended questions with ordered choices require the respondent to examine each
possible response independent of the other choices. The choices form a continuum of
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responses, such as those provided by Likert scales and numerical ranges. These types of
questions are easiest for respondents to answer and for researchers to analyze the data.
The second type of closed-ended question is the closed-ended question with unordered
choices (Salant & Dillman, 1994, p. 83). These questions ask the respondent to compare
possible responses and select one. Multiple choice questions are an example of this type.
The researcher must ensure that the respondent is given a comprehensive selection of
responses. Closed-ended questions with unordered choices are useful for ranking items in
order of preference.
The third type of closed-ended question is the partial closed-ended question in which the
respondent is asked to compare possible responses and select one, or write in “other”. Salant
and Dillman (1994) observed that most respondents choose one of the given responses when
this type of question is presented (p. 84).
Closed-ended questions may also be categorized as: (a) questions that describe and
evaluate people, places, and events; (b) questions that measure responses to ideas, analyses,
and proposals; and (c) questions that measure knowledge.
2.2.2.2.1 Questions that Describe and Evaluate People, Places and Events
This set of questions includes those that ask respondents to make self-assessments. The
question should be carefully examined to ensure that it is not open to different interpretations
(Fowler, 1995, p. 48).
• Evaluative continua
Evaluative continua are numerical or adjectival scales. Multiple choice questions should
ideally offer five to seven (5-7) response options. The researcher must be aware, however,
that numerical scales can be misinterpreted. For example, a respondent may begin at one end
of a numerical scale and work up or down from there to arrive at his or her response.
Similarly, the respondent may start at the midpoint of the numerical scale and formulate a
response from that point.
• Agreement continua
Agreement continua are simply questions that require the respondent to agree or disagree
with given statements. Such scales are subject to differences in interpretation. Fowler
(1995) noted that less-educated respondents tend to agree to such questions more easily than
do respondents having more education (p. 57).
• Other rating scales
Rankings are comparisons among given options, within pairs of options, by cardinality of
importance (first, second, third), or that score items one at a time using a common scale
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(Fowler, 1995, p. 58). Magnitude estimation asks respondents to place values on various
subjects relative to some given baseline or point of reference (p. 61).
2.2.2.2.2 Questions that Measure Responses to Ideas, Analyses or Proposals
This type of question asked respondents to compare their own views to the ideas
presented in the question statement. For this reason, questions must be clear and
unambiguous. As noted earlier, the researcher must be careful to present one idea at a time.
The rating scales used to respond to these questions should avoid response options with
emotional content, such as “strongly agree.” Fowler (1995) recommended the use of
modifiers such as “completely”, “generally”, or “mostly.” He also suggested that researchers
offer a “no response” option for those who have no strong feeling in either direction on the
continuum, and a “not enough information” option, which differs in meaning and purpose
from “no response” (p. 66).
2.2.2.2.3 Questions that Measure Knowledge
This type of question is often used to assess respondents’ familiarity with a subject. Such
questions are used to gauge respondents’ ability to provide informed responses or to identify
those respondents who believe they are informed and compare their responses to those who
do not believe they are informed (Fowler, 1995, p. 68). The rating scales used for this type
of question are usually of the true-false, yes-no, and multiple-choice variety. Fowler
suggested that the researcher intentionally include some plausible, but incorrect answers in
the multiple-choice format to distinguish those who know from those who think they know
the correct answers.
2.2.3 Subjective Responses to Survey Questions
A respondent’s beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors are imprecise and apt to change over
time. Beliefs are subjective opinions that indicate what people think. Attitudes are subjective
opinions that identify what people want. Behaviors are objective facts of what people do.
Attributes are objective facts that describe what people are. These also change, but over
longer periods.
Beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors are also often inadequately contemplated. Salant and
Dillman (1994) suggested that researchers use a series of related questions to gauge beliefs,
attitudes, and behaviors, then examine the responses to identify patterns and consistencies in
the answers (p. 88). The survey should ask for specific recommendations to be accepted or
rejected, or to rank the relative importance of competing interests (p. 90).
2.2.4 Cognitive Tasks Required for Survey Response
Schwarz (1999) considered the cognitive tasks that respondents perform when asked to
answer a survey question.
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The first cognitive task is question interpretation. Specifically, the respondent must
understand what the researcher is asking and determine what information will best meet that
request (Schwarz, 1999, p. 66).
The second cognitive task is response formulation. Schwarz (1999) noted that
respondents tend to construct new judgments as that is less cognitively demanding than
determining whether previously-held judgments meet the specific constraints of the question
(p. 66).
In the third cognitive task, the respondent communicates the response to the researcher.
Schwarz (1999) observed that given response options may constrain cognitive activity so that
the respondent only generates a response that directly fits the given options (p. 66).
Additionally, the respondent may intentionally or unintentionally edit the response to meet
unstated expectations of political correctness or social norms.
2.2.5 Sources of Measurement Error
Salant and Dillman (1994) cautioned interviewers to avoid leading respondents to
specific answers, interpreting questions for them, or projecting an image that suggests certain
answers are desired (p. 19). Each is a source of measurement error.
The respondent is another source of measurement error. Salant and Dillman (1994)
observed that respondents may answer as they think the interviewer wants them to answer
(p. 20). Additionally, responses to surveys may not reflect the true beliefs, attitudes, or
behaviors of the respondents. Respondents may intentionally provide false responses to
invalidate the survey’s results or choose not to reveal their true insights for a host of
personal reasons, reasons that may not be rational or even understood by the respondent
(Browne & Keeley, 1998, p. 114).
Isaac and Michael (1997) identified three additional sources of bias associated with
the respondent. First, the conduct of a survey is generally outside the daily routine of
most respondents and their participation may invoke feelings of being special (p. 137).
The Hawthorne effect, named after the Hawthorne Works of the Western Electric
Company, is perhaps the most well-known example of this type of bias. The Hawthorne
studies of worker performance in 1927 found that worker performance improved simply
from the awareness that experimental attempts were being made to bring about
improvement.
The second type of respondent bias noted by Isaac and Michael (1997) was the
propensity of respondents to agree with bias inherent in the wording of the question, such
that respondents more readily agreed with positively-worded questions.
Finally, respondents may give consistently high or low ratings, reflecting a rater bias that
detracts from the validity of the results (Isaac & Michael, 1997, p. 137).
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2.3 Survey Execution
The third phase of the survey process is the execution, or use, of the survey instrument.
Salant and Dillman (1994) emphasized the importance of maintaining the confidentiality of
individual responses and reporting survey results only in the aggregate. Another ethical
consideration is recognizing that survey participation is a voluntary event that requires the
researcher to encourage participation without undue pressure or coercion of the participants
(p. 9).
A pilot survey must first be conducted to test both the instrument and the survey
procedures before the actual survey is conducted (Levy & Lemeshow, 1999, p. 7). Surveys
can be evaluated in two ways. First, survey questions can be evaluated using focus group
discussions, cognitive interviews to determine how well respondents understand the
questions and how they formulate their responses, and pilot tests of surveys under field
conditions (Fowler, 1995, p. 5). Second, responses to surveys can be analyzed to reveal
expected relationships among the answers given, and to ensure consistency of respondent
characteristics across questions. Responses can be compared to alternatively worded
questions and to official records when available. Surveys can also be evaluated by
measuring the consistency of responses to given questions over time.
Field testing the survey instrument facilitates later data collection and analysis (Isaac &
Michael, 1997, p. 137). Once field testing has been completed, the survey is conducted and
the data are collected, coded, and processed.
2.4 Data Analysis and Reporting Survey Results
Finally, it is worthwhile to consider the resource requirements of surveys, data analysis,
and effective presentation of results as important elements of a credible and successful
survey. Isaac and Michael (1997) espoused the use of automated data collection tools to
facilitate data tabulation and manipulation (p. 137). Lucas (1991) urged the use of
nonparametric statistics where small sample sizes are involved (p. 278).
2-11

Section 3
Conclusion
This paper described the survey process, consisting of three phases: (a) survey design,
(b) survey instrument development, and (c) survey execution. Data analysis and reporting of
results was identified as an important fourth phase of the survey process. This paper
provided specific guidance for the design and implementation of survey research. Additional
guidance is provided in the Appendix—A Checklist for Survey Assessment.
3-1

List of References
Aron, A., & Aron, E. N. (1997). Statistics for the behavioral and social sciences: A brief
course. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Attewell, P., & Rule, J. B. (1991). Survey and other methodologies applied to IT impact
research: Experiences from a comparative study of business computing. Paper presented at
The Information Systems Research Challenge: Survey Research Methods.
Bell, S. (1996). Learning with information systems: Learning cycles in information systems
development. New York: Routledge.
Browne, M. N., & Keeley, S. M. (1998). Asking the right questions: A guide to critical
thinking. (5th Ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Creswell, J. W. (1994). Research design: Qualitative and quantitative approaches. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage.
Fowler, J., Floyd J. (1995). Improving survey questions: Design and evaluation. (Vol. 38).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Isaac, S., & Michael, W. B. (1997). Handbook in research and evaluation: A collection of
principles, methods, and strategies useful in the planning, design, and evaluation of studies in
education and the behavioral sciences. (3rd Ed.). San Diego: Educational and Industrial
Testing Services.
Kraemer, K. L. (1991). Introduction. Paper presented at The Information Systems Research
Challenge: Survey Research Methods.
Levy, P. S., & Lemeshow, S. (1999). Sampling of populations: Methods and applications.
(3rd ed.). New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Lucas, J., Henry C. (1991). Methodological issues in information systems survey research.
Paper presented at The Information Systems Research Challenge: Survey Research Methods.
McIntyre, L. J. (1999). The practical skeptic: Core concepts in sociology. Mountain View,
CA: Mayfield Publishing.
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Pinsonneault, A., & Kraemer, K. L. (1993). Survey research methodology in management
information systems: An assessment. Journal of Management Information Systems, 10,
75-105.
Salant, P., & Dillman, D. A. (1994). How to conduct your own survey. New York: John
Wiley and Sons.
Schwarz, N. (1999). Cognitive research into survey measurement: Its influence on survey
methodology and cognitive theory. In M. G. Sirken, D. J. Herrmann, S. Schechter, N.
Schwarz, J. M. Tanur, & R. Tourangeau (Eds.), Cognition and Survey Research. New York:
John Wiley and Sons.
Simon, M. K., & Francis, J. B. (1998). The dissertation cookbook: A practical guide to start
and complete your dissertation. (2nd Ed.). Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt.
Tourangeau, R. (1999). Interdisciplinary survey methods research. In M. G. Sirken, D. J.
Herrmann, S. Schechter, N. Schwarz, J. M. Tanur, & R. Tourangeau (Eds.), Cognition and
Survey Research. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
RE-2

Appendix
A Checklist for Survey Assessment
A.1 Survey Design
1) Indicate why a survey is the preferred data collection method for this study. Consider
its propensity to error and bias, resource requirements, and comparison to other data
collection methods.
2) Indicate whether the survey will be cross-sectional (information collected at one
time) or longitudinal (information collected over time).
3) Specify the survey media, the rationale for that choice, arguments for cost,
availability, convenience, and accuracy of results.
A.2 Population and Sample
4) Describe the population, its size if known, and how it will be identified. Address
questions of access and use of sampling frames if intended.
5) Determine whether the sampling design will be single stage (researcher contacts
subjects directly) or multi-stage (researcher must first contact organizations, gather
lists within organizational units, then sample within each cluster).
6) Identify how the sample will be selected. Aim for random sampling, using theoretical
samples only if subject availability is problematic.
7) Discuss whether the population will be stratified to ensure that specific characteristics
are represented in the sample. The sample must reflect the characteristics of the
population in general.
8) Identify the strata that will be used (gender, age, education level, rank). For each
stratum, state whether the sample will be chosen so that the characteristic of interest
is proportionate or disproportionate to the size of the stratum.
9) Indicate the procedure for selecting the random sample from the population lists or
the sampling frame. Random number selection is most rigorous.
10) Describe the sample size required and explain the sample size formula used.
A.3 Survey Instrument
11) Identify the survey instrument that will be used, whether it was designed for this
study, modified from previous instruments, or developed by another researcher.
A-1

For modified and legacy instruments, indicate that permission has been granted to
use the instruments (or parts thereof) for this study.
12) For legacy instruments, discuss the findings of previous researchers regarding the
validity and reliability of the instrument.
13) Attach a copy of the survey instrument as an appendix to the test plan.
14) Describe the major sections of the instrument, including the cover letter, the question
categories (demographics, belief questions, attitude questions, behavior questions,
attribute questions), and the closing instructions. Describe the types of scales that are
to be used (Likert ratings, binary choice, multiple choice, preference rankings).
15) Describe how the instrument will be pilot tested. Provide a rationale for this
procedure, including the number of testers and how their comments will be
incorporated into the final survey version.
16) Establish the follow-up actions for written surveys, such as postcard reminders,
follow-up letters with replacement questionnaire forms, and telephone calls.
A.4 Study Variables
17) Develop a table that lists each variable (independent, dependent, and mediating) in
the study, the research question or hypothesis that it responds to, and the survey
questions that will elicit that information.
A.5 Data Analysis Plan
18) Discuss the method for determining nonresponse bias. Wave analysis is one method
that examines the responses received from those who submitted their surveys late in
the response period. This group almost did not respond and, therefore, approximates
the nonrespondents. If responses from this late group are not substantially different
from responses received earlier in the response period, “a strong case for absence of
response bias can be established” (Creswell, 1994, pp. 123-124). Another method for
determining nonresponse bias is to telephone a few nonrespondents to determine
whether their responses to selected survey questions differ significantly from the
responses that were received.
19) A descriptive analysis of all independent and dependent variables will be conducted.
Summary statistics, such as means, variances, and standard deviations, will be
reported for each variable.
20) If building one’s own scales in an instrument, discuss how survey items will be
combined into scales on the independent and dependent dimensions by using factor
analysis. Report how the reliability of these scales will be checked statistically for
A-2

internal consistency, a measure also demonstrating the construct validity of the scales
on the instrument.
21) Identify the statistics that will be used to compare groups or relate variables and
provide evidence either in support of in refutation of the hypothesis. Provide a
rationale for the choice of statistics and base that rationale on the unit of measurement
of scales in the study, the intent of the research to either relate variables or compare
groups, and whether the data meet the assumptions of the statistic.
A-3

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