![(13) a. I reminded the president of the company policy regarding smoking which he himself
had instated.
b. When she was told, my mom broke into uncontrolled sobbing.
3.5.1 Constituency Tests
• Ability to stand alone
• Constituents can be replaced by pro-forms (pronouns, do)
(14) a. HE ate the bone.
b. The dog ate IT.
c. HE likes to see THEM.
d. The president likes to see SUCH profits.
e. My stupid kid brother DID.
(15) a. * The dog it/such/that bone.
b. * The that/such/did company likes to see big profits.
• Movement – (some) constituents can be moved, non-constituents cannot.
(16) a. The bone ,
the dog ate.
b. Big profits ,
the president of the company likes to see.
• Clefts – only constituents can form cleft sentences
(17) a. What the dog did was [eat the bone].
b. What the dog ate was [the bone].
c. It is [the president of the company] who likes to see big profits.
Not always clear. Some strings pass some tests but not all.
4 Ambiguity
Ambiguity:
• syntactical – more than one possible structure for the same string of words.
I saw a man with a telescope. (Who has the telescope, me or the man?)
We need more intelligent leaders. (need more or more intelligent?)
• morphological – a form has more than one morphological interpretations
Napˇet´ı vyvolalo zdraˇzen´ı.
• lexical (homonymity) – a word has more than one meaning.
Did you see the bat?
Where is the bank?
8](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/06-syntax-160222143652/85/06-syntax-8-320.jpg)
![5.1 Formal grammars and Chomsky hierarchy (a refresher)
Formally, a grammar is: G = [N, T, P, S] where P ⊆ (N ∪ T )+
→ (N ∪ T )∗
; S ∈ N
Chomsky hierarchy of grammars:
Languages Complexity Automaton Type of rules
0 Recursively enumerable Undecidable Turing machine any
1 Context-sensitive Exponential Linear-bounded αAβ → αγβ
2 Context-free Polynomial pushdown A → γ
3 Regular Linear Finite state A → a|aB|Ba
6 Valency
6.1 Subject Object/Complement
(24) a. John snores loudly.
b. John wrote a long homework.
c. A long homework was written by John.
Roughly: Subject is the active participant in the active sentence.
(25) a. John writes a letter.
b. However: John underwent torture (at the hands of the terrorists).
Note: We are defining a syntactic notion using semantics. It works in most of the cases,
however not always (e.g. 2b)
Objects (complements) are the other participants.
Most of the active sentences can be transformed into passive sentences – an object becomes
the subject, the subject becomes the by-PP or can be omitted.
(26) a. John loves Mary. (active)
b. Mary is loved by John. (passive)
c. Mary is loved. (passive)
All English sentences (except imperative) have a subject. Many (but not all) have an object.
In some languages (e.g. Spanish), the subject can be omitted if it is understandable from
the context.
The pronoun in tag questions refers to the subject:
(27) a. The boy wrote a book, didn’t he?
b. The girl wrote a book, didn’t she?
c. John underwent torture at the hands of the terrorists, didn’t he?
d. *John underwent torture at the hands of the terrorists, didn’t they?
11](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/06-syntax-160222143652/85/06-syntax-11-320.jpg)
![on vid-el he saw ona vid-ela she saw
Some languages (Bantu in Africa, etc.) have object-verb agreement.
6.5 Adjuncts
(36) a. John eats [often].
b. John eats [loudly].
c. John eats [in the morning].
d. John eats [when he gets hungry].
e. John eats [in a restaurant] [on Sunday].
• Can combine with any verb (mostly)
• Can be repeated
• Have meaning on their own
• Usually expressed by adverbs, PPs
7 Syntax vs. Semantics
Compare:
(37) a. I ate a cake.
b. I entered a room.
The sentences have the same syntactic structure – both a cake and a room are (direct)
objects, but the cake disappeared after I ate it, while the room did not after I entered it.
Compare:
(38) a. I took my friend to Tesco.
b. I took D5 to Tesco.
Both my friend and D5 are (direct) objects, but ...
14](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/06-syntax-160222143652/85/06-syntax-14-320.jpg)
06 syntax
- 1. Intro to Linguistics – Syntax 1 Jirka Hana – November 7, 2011 Overview of topics • What is Syntax? • Part of Speech • Phrases, Constituents & Phrase Structure Rules • Ambiguity • Characteristics of Phrase Structure Rules • Valency 1 What to remember and understand: Syntax, difference between syntax and semantics, open/closed class words, all word classes (and be able to distinguish them based on morphology and syntax) Subject, object, case, agreement. 1 What is Syntax? Syntax – the part of linguistics that studies sentence structure: • word order: I want these books. *want these I books. • agreement – subject and verb, determiner and noun, . . . often must agree: He wants this book. *He want this book. I want these books. *I want this books. • How many complements, which prepositions and forms (cases): I give Mary a book. *I see Mary a book. I see her. *I see she. • hierarchical structure – what modifies what We need more (intelligent leaders). (more of intelligent leaders) We need (more intelligent) leaders. (leaders that are more intelligent) • etc. Syntax is not about meaning! Sentences can have no sense and still be grammatically correct: Colorless green ideas sleep furiously. – nonsense, but grammatically correct *Sleep ideas colorless furiously green. – grammatically incorrect Syntax: From Greek syntaxis from syn (together) + taxis (arrangement). Cf. symphony, synonym, synthesis; taxonomy, tactics 1
- 2. 2 Parts of Speech • Words in a language behave differently from each other. • But not each word is entirely different from all other words in that language. ⇒ Words can be categorized into parts of speech (lexical categories, word classes) based on their morphological, syntactic and semantic properties. Note that there is a certain amount of arbitrariness in any such classification. For example, should my be classified as a pronoun or as a determiner, should numerals/participles/auxiliary verbs be a separate category. If he is a pronoun, should do be a pro-verb? Open versus closed classes: • Open class – new and new items are added to the class over the time – nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. • Closed class – contains small number of words, new items are added very rarely – determiners, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions 2.1 Open Classes 2.1.1 Nouns (N) • morphology – most nouns form plural cat-s, house-s, kiss-es, men, sheep • syntax – usually has a determiner (except proper names like John) and can be modified by an adjective: Determiner (Adjective) a cat, many kisses, few men, several sheep a small cat, many exciting kisses, few clever men, several bored sheep • semantics – name of a person, thing or place. But: problem with abstract nouns (beauty, anger, aspect) and actions (a thump). 2.1.2 Verbs (V) • morphology – form third person, past tense, past participle, present participle: walk walks walked walked walking go goes went gone going buy buys bought bought buying run runs ran run running • syntax: 1. can combine with an auxiliary: Aux will go, have seen, should run, must leave, is swimming 2. can be modified by an adverb: Adverb or Adverb usually sleep, read carefully 2
- 3. • semantics – usually describes an action, a process or a state of being But: problem with some verbs (know, remember) But: hard to distinguish from nouns describing actions (a thump) 2.1.3 Adjectives (A, Adj) • morphology: 1. form comparative and superlative forms: cool – cooler – coolest, successful – more successful – most successful, good – better – best 2. many can be changed into adverbs by the -ly suffix: sad – sadly, funny – funnily, nice – nicely, beautiful – beautifully • syntax: 1. Can modify a noun: Determiner N a tall man, a cool day, a wonderful trip 2. Can be modified by an adverb: Adverb very clever, extremely clever, unusually hot • semantics – usually describes a quality or attribute 2.1.4 Adverbs (Adv) quickly, soon, morally, today, here, very, before • morphology – often formed from adjectives by the -ly suffix. But: good – well, fast – fast, friendly – friendly, eastward • syntax – can modify verbs (hence ad-verbs), adjectives & often other adverbs. 1. V or V stop abruptly, usually eat 2. Adj amazingly cheap, very bad (very cannot modify a verb), quite nice 3. Adv very quickly, quite soon 2.1.5 Summary of open classes Typical Morphology Typical Syntax Typical Semantics Noun plural D (Adj) thing, person, place house – houses the big house Verb tenses, . . . combines with an Aux action walk – walked would walk Adj comparative, superlative D N quality, property big – bigger – biggest the big house Adverb often has -ly suffix modifies V, Adj, Adv manner, degree, . . . really, but: well a really big house 3
- 4. 2.2 Closed Classes 2.2.1 Determiners (D, Det) articles (a, the), quantifiers (many, any, all, several), possesives(my, your, his, her) Syntax – come before nouns: (Adj) N 2.2.2 Auxiliary verbs (Aux) will, may, must, shall, would, can, have Syntax: 1. Is followed by a verb: V It will rain. You must be quiet. 2. Is negated directly: not He cannot swim. She would not come. *He doesn’t can swim. *She doesn’t would come. Normal verbs vs. Auxiliary verbs: Verbs Auxiliary verbs negation needs aux do directly I don’t want it. *I don’t will come. *I want not it. I will not come. question needs aux do inversion Do you know it? *Do you will come? Know you it? Will you come? agreement yes no He knows it. *He wills come *He know it. He will come Be, have and do are sometimes normal verbs and sometimes auxiliary verbs. (I don’t have it. vs. I have not seen it.) 2.2.3 Pronouns (Pron) Words that stand for a noun or a whole noun phrase. I, you, he, she, it, we, they, me, him, her, us, them Note: It makes sense to classify possessives (traditionally called possessive pronouns) as determiners. Syntactically, pronouns and possessives behave differently – pronouns act as nouns, but possessives modify nouns: pronoun: I run. – *My run. possessive: John likes my house. – *John likes I house. pronoun: Based on Latin pro (for) + noun 2.2.4 Prepositions (P) in, on, about, with, at, to, of, under 4
- 5. Syntax: stand before noun phrases (see later, simply NP = Det (Adj) N) Semantics: usually express spacial, temporary, etc. relations. on the table, with nice colors, about mammals 2.2.5 Conjunctions (Conj) and, or, but, . . . Syntax: connect two words or phrases on the same level 1. N N (women and men) 2. V V (run or walk) 3. Adj Adj (warm but rainy) 4. S S (I will talk and he will write.) 5. etc. 2.3 Words belonging to more than one lexical category Some words belong to several categories: • They have similar meaning: – She talks very much. vs. She is giving three talks. – It’s cold. vs. I got a cold. • They have completely different meanings: – I can’t bear the noise. vs. There is a bear in the wood. – tree barks vs. the dog barks Virtually all English nouns can be turned into verbs. 3 Phrases, Constituents & Phrase Structure Rules 3.1 Describing Noun Phrases In English, a noun phrase a determiner followed by a noun, or determiner followed by an adjective followed by a noun, or a single noun, or . . . To save words, we can use the so called Phrase Structure Rules capture this: (1) a. NP → Det N the cat b. NP → Det A N those noisy cats c. NP → N cats d. NP → A N noisy cats We can mark optional subphrases with parentheses and save even more words: (2) NP → (Det) (A) N cats, noisy cats, the cat, those noisy cats 5
- 6. A phrase structure rule tell us two things: • Which smaller phrases (Det, A, N) use to build a bigger phrase (NP). • How to order the smaller phrases – the rule (2) allows noisy cats, but not cats noisy (3) NP Det those A noisy N cats In addition, a pronoun can be a noun phrase: (4) NP → Pron she, you, . . . 3.2 Describing Prepositional phrases In English, preposition is usually followed by a noun phrase (let’s ignore the prepositions at the end of the sentence). (5) PP → P NP about those noisy cats Now we can put that together and say things like: (6) P P P about NP Det those A noisy N cats 3.3 Describing Sentences In English, a sentence consists of a subject (usually a noun phrase) followed by a verb which is sometimes followed by an object (another noun phrase), prepositional phrases etc. (7) a. Alphons slept. – Subject + V b. Alphons saw his dog. – Subject + V + Object c. Alphons asked for a beer. d. Alphons begged beer from his dog. (8) a. S → NP V – Alphons slept b. S → NP V NP – Alphons saw his dog c. S → NP V PP – Alphons asked for a beer d. S → NP V NP PP – Alphons asked his dog for a beer We can abbreviate these rules as:1 1Of course, we ignored many other sentences like: (i) a. S → NP V NP NP – Alphons offered his dog some beer b. S → NP V PP PP – Alphons argued with his dog about beer c. S → NP V NP InfP – Alphons persuaded his dog to buy some beer d. S → NP V NP that S – Alphons persuaded his dog that it would be wise to bring beer Linguists often distinguish between sentences and verb phrases (VP). A verb phrase is a sentence without a subject (e.g. saw his dog). Then you have to describe sentence in two steps: First, S → NP VP and then VP → V (NP) (PP). 6
- 7. (9) S → NP V (NP) (PP) This rule says: Sentence is a noun phrase followed by a verb and possibly some other noun phrase and/or prepositional phrase. For example: (10) S NP Alphons V saw NP his dog 3.4 Phrase structure trees • Phrases are created from other phrases or words. • Sentence is the biggest phrase. We can depict the fact that a sentence is built from smaller parts by a diagram: (11) S NP V NP Det Adj N Det N The little boy chases his dog A tree diagram represents several aspects of “how words are put together” in a sentence: • the order of the words in a sentence. • the word class (Part of Speech) of each word. • the hierarchical structure of a sentence – the grouping of words into phrases, and the grouping of phrases into larger phrases. • the centers of phrases that other words group around (e.g. N in NP, V in S) 3.5 Phrase/Constituent Intuitively, a constituent (phrase) is a group of words which “belong together” in a sentence. They are usually coherent by themselves (i.e., when taken out of the context of the sentence) and make a coherent contribution to the meaning of the sentence as a whole. (12) a. The dog ate the bone. b. The president of the company likes to see big profits. c. My stupid kid brother told my mom about my F in algebra. Always relative to a given sentence. What is a constituent in one sentence is not necessarily a constituent in another sentence. 7
- 8. (13) a. I reminded the president of the company policy regarding smoking which he himself had instated. b. When she was told, my mom broke into uncontrolled sobbing. 3.5.1 Constituency Tests • Ability to stand alone • Constituents can be replaced by pro-forms (pronouns, do) (14) a. HE ate the bone. b. The dog ate IT. c. HE likes to see THEM. d. The president likes to see SUCH profits. e. My stupid kid brother DID. (15) a. * The dog it/such/that bone. b. * The that/such/did company likes to see big profits. • Movement – (some) constituents can be moved, non-constituents cannot. (16) a. The bone , the dog ate. b. Big profits , the president of the company likes to see. • Clefts – only constituents can form cleft sentences (17) a. What the dog did was [eat the bone]. b. What the dog ate was [the bone]. c. It is [the president of the company] who likes to see big profits. Not always clear. Some strings pass some tests but not all. 4 Ambiguity Ambiguity: • syntactical – more than one possible structure for the same string of words. I saw a man with a telescope. (Who has the telescope, me or the man?) We need more intelligent leaders. (need more or more intelligent?) • morphological – a form has more than one morphological interpretations Napˇet´ı vyvolalo zdraˇzen´ı. • lexical (homonymity) – a word has more than one meaning. Did you see the bat? Where is the bank? 8
- 9. All languages have expressions which have more than one possible interpretation. (18) S NP V NP Det N PP P NP Det N I saw a man with a telescope (19) S NP V NP PP Det N P NP Det N I saw a man with a telescope Another example: (20) Old men and women are exempt from the new tax. Sometimes, world knowledge can help you to select the right interpretation: (21) a. I saw a policeman with a gun. b. I saw a dog with a telescope. Syntactically, these examples are ambiguous, however your knowledge of the world helps you to choose the most probable interpretation. 9
- 10. 5 Characteristics of Phrase Structure Rules A simple grammar: (22) a. S → NP V (NP) (PP) d. N → {dog, boy, . . . }, P → {on, in, . . . }, . . . b. NP → (Det) (A) N (PP) c. PP → P NP This grammar describes a simple language (similar to English). It has several characteristics, which it shares with grammars of real languages: • Generativity: It does not list the sentences of the language, it describes the way how to build them. This is important, since languages contain infinite number of sentences. • Ambiguity: Some sentences can be build in more than one way (starting with the S rule and ending with the words in the sentence) These sentences have more than one syntactic structure – they are syntactically ambiguous (for example the telescope sentence). This also shows that sentences are more than just simple strings of words. • Infinite Recursion: The grammar is recursive and thus allows to produce an infinite number of sentences using a finite (very small) number of rules. (23) The D book N on P the D shelf N in P the D corner N in P the D bedroom N of P ... NP „„ PP ¢¢ ———— NP $$$$$ „„ PP @@@@@@@@ $$$$$ rrr NP @@@@@@@@@ „„ PP @@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@ rrr NP @@@@@@@@@@@@ tt PP @@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@ rrr NP Questions Some things to think about: • Is it similarly easy to write a simple grammar of Czech? • How would one capture agreement? (In English?, In Czech?) • How is Phrase Structure Grammar different from Dependency Grammar (the type of syntax taught at Czech schools) 10
- 11. 5.1 Formal grammars and Chomsky hierarchy (a refresher) Formally, a grammar is: G = [N, T, P, S] where P ⊆ (N ∪ T )+ → (N ∪ T )∗ ; S ∈ N Chomsky hierarchy of grammars: Languages Complexity Automaton Type of rules 0 Recursively enumerable Undecidable Turing machine any 1 Context-sensitive Exponential Linear-bounded αAβ → αγβ 2 Context-free Polynomial pushdown A → γ 3 Regular Linear Finite state A → a|aB|Ba 6 Valency 6.1 Subject Object/Complement (24) a. John snores loudly. b. John wrote a long homework. c. A long homework was written by John. Roughly: Subject is the active participant in the active sentence. (25) a. John writes a letter. b. However: John underwent torture (at the hands of the terrorists). Note: We are defining a syntactic notion using semantics. It works in most of the cases, however not always (e.g. 2b) Objects (complements) are the other participants. Most of the active sentences can be transformed into passive sentences – an object becomes the subject, the subject becomes the by-PP or can be omitted. (26) a. John loves Mary. (active) b. Mary is loved by John. (passive) c. Mary is loved. (passive) All English sentences (except imperative) have a subject. Many (but not all) have an object. In some languages (e.g. Spanish), the subject can be omitted if it is understandable from the context. The pronoun in tag questions refers to the subject: (27) a. The boy wrote a book, didn’t he? b. The girl wrote a book, didn’t she? c. John underwent torture at the hands of the terrorists, didn’t he? d. *John underwent torture at the hands of the terrorists, didn’t they? 11
- 12. 6.2 Transitive and intransitive verbs • Intransitive verb – a verb with a subject and no objects: sleep, snore (28) a. John snores. b. *John snores a book. • Transitive verb – a verb with a subject and an object: buy, brush, write, catch (29) a. John buys a candy. b. *John buys. Some verbs are both intransitive and transitive: dance – John dances × John dances samba. • Ditransitive verbs – a subclass of transitive verbs, take two objects (direct indirect). (30) a. John give a book to his friend. b. John gives his friend a nice book. c. A nice book is given to Mary by John. d. Mary is given a nice book by John. 6.3 Form Typical realization of subjects and objects: • Noun phrase (NP) (31) a. The cat caught the mouse. b. He goes to Chicago. • A sentence (S) (32) a. That I lost the tickets annoys me. b. I know that this is true. 6.4 How to know what is what? 6.4.1 Word order English: • declarative sentences – subject goes before the verb, object after it: A small dog chases a big cat. Subj V Obj • interrogative sentences – subject after the auxiliary verb, object after the verb: Does a small dog chase a big cat? Aux Subj V Obj 12
- 13. 6.4.2 Case Case – morphological marking of a word suggesting its syntactic function. Usually, words have a special suffix at the end indicating the case. English: very sporadic, only some pronouns distinguish it: (33) a. He sees Mary. b. Mary sees him. If a language has cases, then this is the typical situation: • nominative case is used for subjects (e.g. Latin deus God-subject) • accusative case is used for (direct) objects (e.g. Latin deum God-object) Some languages have more cases (Old English – 4, German – 4, Latin – 6, Finnish – 15) serving generally the same function as English prepositions. Czech (the same word order, different cases, different meaning): (34) a. Mal-´a Small-nom koˇck-a cat-nom vid´ı sees Honz-u. John-acc Subj V Obj nom acc The small cat sees John. b. Mal-ou Small-acc koˇck-u cat-acc vid´ı sees Honz-a. John-nom Obj V Subj acc nom John sees the small cat. The suffix a in koˇcka says it is nominative, therefore it is the subject. The suffix u in Honzu says it is accusative, therefore it is the object. 6.4.3 Agreement In many languages, subject and verb agree – they share certain morphological properties (number, person, gender, etc.) English: Limited only to the 3 sup rd person singular and everything else distinction: (35) a. I write a letter. b. *I writes a letter. Spanish: Singular Plural 1 yo habl-o I speak nosotros habl-amos we speak 2 t´u habl-as you speak vosotros habl-´ais you (guys) speak 3 ´el habl-a he speak ellos habl-an they speak Russian: Singular Plural 1 ya vizh-u I see my vid-im we see 2 ty vid-ish’ you see vy vid-ite you (guys) see 3 on vid-it he sees oni vid-yat they see 13
- 14. on vid-el he saw ona vid-ela she saw Some languages (Bantu in Africa, etc.) have object-verb agreement. 6.5 Adjuncts (36) a. John eats [often]. b. John eats [loudly]. c. John eats [in the morning]. d. John eats [when he gets hungry]. e. John eats [in a restaurant] [on Sunday]. • Can combine with any verb (mostly) • Can be repeated • Have meaning on their own • Usually expressed by adverbs, PPs 7 Syntax vs. Semantics Compare: (37) a. I ate a cake. b. I entered a room. The sentences have the same syntactic structure – both a cake and a room are (direct) objects, but the cake disappeared after I ate it, while the room did not after I entered it. Compare: (38) a. I took my friend to Tesco. b. I took D5 to Tesco. Both my friend and D5 are (direct) objects, but ... 14