2 locomotion and support
- 3. 1. Support internal organs, protect internal structure 2. Move from place to place 3. Cuticle; covers the surface body 4. Waxy -to prevent water loss 5. Joint- thin , flexible 6. Non-living structure, incapable of growth 7. Ecydisis- to shed of the old skeleton
- 4. 1. vertebrates 2. Rigid framework – bone, cartilage-muscle attachment 3. functions: i. maintain body shape ii. Supporting –soft body tissues iii. Protecting internal organs- injury
- 5. 1. internal watery fluid within the confined spaces 2. under pressure, surrounded muscle 3. liquid cannot escape- skeleton; cannot compressed 4. soft-walled structure: rigid; muscle act against it
- 8. Skull 1. 22 bones ; rest on top of the vertebral column 2. consists of: i. cranial bones- enclose and protect the brain ii. Facial bones: protect and provide support for entrance of respiratory and digestive system iii. Bones held together by immovable joints- suture 3. jaw- freely movable bone
- 9. 1. thorax : thoracic cage 2. thoracic cage: i. ribs ii. Sternum 3. function: encloses and protects organs in thoracic cavity and upper abdominal cavity 4. twelve pairs –ribs ; make side of the thoracic cavity 5. sternum/breastbone- flat, narrow bone located-the centre of anterior thoracic wall
- 10. 1. the spine/ backbone 2. a series of vertebrae 3. functions: i. encloses and protects spinal cord ii. A point of attachments-ribs, pelvic girdle, muscles of the back 4. 33 vertebrae: i. 7 cervical vertebrae ii. 12 thoracic vertebrae iii. 5 lumbar vertebrae iv. 5 sacral vertebrae (sacrum) v. 4 caudal vertebrae (coccyx)
- 11. 5. cervical, thoracic and lumbar: movable 6. sacrum, coccyx: are not movable 7. intervertebral disc: i. various movements of vertebral column ii. Absorb vertical shock iii. Made of cartilage
- 12. 1. transverse foramen – blood vessels and nerves pass 2. the first two are slightly different The first cervical vertebrae-atlas The second cervical vertebrae- axis Thoracic vertebrae 1. spinous processes – long and directed downwards 2. spinous processes and transverse processes a- points of attachment for muscles and ligaments
- 16. 1. largest and strongest vertebrae 2. processes- short, thick 3. large centrums – bear the weight of the lower back Sarcum and coccyx 1. triangular bones 2. fusion of 5 bones coccyx 1. triangular bones 2. fusion of 4 bones
- 18. The appendicular skeleton is divided into six major regions: 1) Pectoral Girdles (4 bones) - Left and right Clavicle (2) and Scapula (2). 2) Arm and Forearm (6 bones) - Left and right Humerus (2) (Arm), Ulna (2) and Radius (2) (Fore Arm). 3) Hands (58 bones) - Left and right Carpal (16) (wrist), Metacarpal (10), Proximal phalanges (10), Middle phalanges (8), distal phalanges (10), and sesamoid (4). 4) Pelvis (2 bones) - Left and right os coxae (2) (ilium). 5) Thigh and leg (8 bones) - Femur (2) (thigh), Tibia (2), patella (2) (knee), and Fibula (2) (leg). 6) Feet (56 bones) - Tarsals (14) (ankle), Metatarsals (10), Proximal phalanges (10), middle phalanges (8), distal phalanges (10), and sesamoid (4).
- 19. 1. The appendicular skeleton is composed of 126 bones in the human body. 2. The word appendicular is the adjective of the noun appendage which itself means a part that is joined to something larger. 3. Functionally it is involved in locomotion (Lower limbs) of the axial skeleton and manipulation of objects in the environment (Upper limbs).
- 20. The appendicular skeleton of 126 bones and the axial skeleton of 80 bones together form the complete skeleton of 206 bones in the human body.
- 21. 1. The appendicular skeleton - pectoral girdle -upper limbs -pelvic girdle -lower limbs 2. Pectoral girdle - clavicle - long, slender S-shaped bone, - horizontally above the first rib - scapula – large, flat, triangular bone, - the posterior of the thorax
- 22. 1. two hip bones 2. provides a strong, stable support for the vertebral column 3. hip bones joined at pubic symphysis Upper limb 1. humerus- the longest, largest bone of upper limb 2. articulates with -scapula- shoulder - ulna and radius- elbow
- 23. - carpus or wrist: eight bones called carpals - metacarpus or palm five bones called metacarpals - phalanges : bones of the fingers - thumb- 2 phalanges – others -3 phalanges -
- 26. Femur - longest, heaviest, strongest bond - head: a ball-and-socket joint with the hip bone - the other end- a hinge joint with tibia Patella - kneecap, triangular bone - protects the knee joint Tibia- bears the weight of the body Fibula- smaller than tibia Tarsus- ankle : 7 bones Metatarsus- 5 bones: metatarsals Phalanges- similar with hand
- 27. 1. Bones- rigid, can’t bend 2. connective tissue- holding bones 3. joint – 2 or more bones meet 4. ligaments- tough sheets of elastic fibres - held bones - allow bones move - prevent dislocation 5. Synovial joint- cavity filled with fluid - freely movable
- 29. Types of joint 1. Hinge joint - examples; knee joint - Elbows, finger bones, toe bones - One plane 2. ball-and-socket joint - Shoulder joint, hip joint - Rotational movement - Swinging of arms, legs in a circular motion
- 32. 1. tough, strong inelastic strands of dnse connective tissue 2. join skeletal muscles to the bones
- 42. The muscles involved in walking 1. The calf muscles contracts and raises the heel. 2. It exerts a forward thrust, by pushing the ball of the foot against the ground. 3. The hamstring muscle contracts to pull the femur (the thigh) back and bends the knee. The leg is raised.
- 43. The muscles involved in walking
- 44. The muscles involved in walking 4. As the right foot loses contact with the ground, the weight of the body is now supported by the the left leg which is still in contact with the ground. 5. The quadriceps muscle contracts, pulls the femur forward and extends the leg.
- 45. The muscles involved in walking 6. When the extension of the leg is completed, the foot then regains contact with the ground with the heel touching the ground first. The weight of body is now supported on the right leg. 7. The whole sequence is repeated with the left leg.
- 47. Muscle cramp
- 48. Muscle cramps? Weak muscles are more likely to get overexerted when exercising and this overexertion depletes the muscle of oxygen. Without oxygen, waste product builds up in the muscle causing the fibers to spasm and shorten the muscle.
- 49. Dehydration Dehydration is a factor too. When you sweat you lose fluids, salt and minerals, and electrolytes. Electrolytes are the minerals: calcium, magnesium and potassium which your muscles need to function. So drink before you are thirsty to avoid dehydration or try a sports drink that contains electrolytes.
- 50. Treatment for muscle cramps When you do cramp up you should stop doing whatever activity triggered the cramp and gently stretch and massage the area. If the area is really painful you can try icing it too. But to add to the mystery of cramping, some people find heat helps more than ice.
- 54. Causes? a problem known as a mutation — causes DMD. In 1987, the protein associated with this gene was identified and named dystrophin.
- 55. What are Duchenne and Becker Muscular Dystrophies? Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) was first described by the French neurologist Guillaume Benjamin Amand Duchenne in the 1860s. Becker muscular dystrophy (BMD) is named after the German doctor Peter Emil Becker, who first described this variant of DMD in the 1950s.
- 56. In DMD, boys begin to show signs of muscle weakness as early as age 3. The disease gradually weakens the skeletal, or voluntary, muscles, those in the arms, legs and trunk. By the early teens or even earlier, the boy’s heart and respiratory muscles also may be affected.
- 59. Osteoporosis - Disease characterized by low bone mass and structural deterioration of bone tissue
- 60. Osteoporosis
- 66. Arthritis Rheumatoid Arthritis - Chronic desease mainly characterized by inflamation of the lining of the joints; can lead to long term joint damage resulting in chronic pain, loss of function, and disability Osteoarthritis - Most common form of arthritis; is characterized by the breakdown of joint cartilage and may affect any joint in the body
- 67. Psoriatic Arthritis - Swelling and pain in the joints surrounding the spine Gout - Systemic disease caused by the buildup of uric acid in the joints
- 68. Arthritis
- 71. Arthititis
- 75. Rheumatoid Arthritis in the Knee Joint
- 78. Locomotion in an earthworm
- 88. 1. muscles-inner surface of leg 2. flexor and extensor muscle contract alternately 3. six legs attached to the thorax 4. claws- grip surfaces 5. adhesive pad between claws – used on slippery surfaces
- 89. Fish
- 99. 1 Strong and big chest muscle – for uplift and propulsion. 2 Wings are wide – enables it to stay in the air better. 3 Wing acts as an aerofoil.- generates a lifting force. 4 Body of the bird is streamline- reduces air resistance. 5 Bones – small and spongy, some are hollow- makes the body light, 6 Feathers – waxy and waterproof .
- 107. Aquatic plants : Lotus ( Nelumbium sp )
- 109. Eichhornia crassipes
- 114. Terrestial plants
- 120. 1. turgidity – parenchyma cell 2. collenchyma cell – cell wall – cellulose , pectin. woody plants 1. sclerenchyma tissue- Fibre, sclereids External support – buttress roots -creepers, vines – other trees- tendrils and thorns
- 121. Posture - the manner in which the body is held at rest by muscle attached to the skeleton. Good posture – the body is held in correct position ( or well balanced position ) when standing, sitting, lying down or in motion .
- 122. Bad posture 1. bent backbone, sunken chest , protruding abdomen 2. organs such as the heart and the lungs in the chest cavity are squeezed and cramped 3. person cannot work properly. 4. hinders proper breathing, less oxygen is inhaled – insufficient oxygen for all activities 5. prevents free circulation of blood.