![The Church and the theory
• Copernicus dedicated his publication to Pope Paul
III
• 1615: Galileo defended heliocentrism, and
claimed it did not oppose the Holy Scriptures [by
arguing that the Bible should not be interpreted
literally]
• 1616: Copernicanism was banned by the Church
• Galileo was forced to abstain from teaching or
discussing his ideas on the matter and all books
on Copernicanism were banned
• The ban continued until 1758! (though in the
interim, astronomical observations were used by
the Church for their calendars)](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/2019lecture2-190225020330/85/2019-lecture-2-15-320.jpg)
![On Newton
Newton was a decidedly odd figure–brilliant beyond measure, but solitary, joyless,
prickly to the point of paranoia, famously distracted (upon swinging his feet out of
bed in the morning he would reportedly sometimes sit for hours, immobilized by
the sudden rush of thoughts to his head), and capable of the most riveting
strangeness. He built his own laboratory, the first at Cambridge, but then engaged
in the most bizarre experiments. Once he inserted a bodkin—a long needle of the
sort used for sewing leather—into his eye socket and rubbed it around “betwixt
my eye and the bone as near to [the] backside of my eye as I could” just to see
what would happen. What happened, miraculously, was nothing—at least,
nothing lasting. On another occasion, he stared at the Sun for as long as he could
bear, to determine what effect it would have upon his vision. Again he escaped
lasting damage, though he had to spend some days in a darkened room before his
eyes forgave him.
Set atop these odd beliefs and quirky traits, however, was the mind of a supreme
genius—though even when working in conventional channels he often showed a
tendency to peculiarity. As a student, frustrated by the limitations of conventional
mathematics, he invented an entirely new form, the calculus, but then told no one
about it for twenty-seven years. In like manner, he did work on optics that
transformed our understanding of light and laid the foundation for the science of
spectroscopy, and again chose not to share the results for three decades.
- (Excerpt from Bill Bryson’s A Short History of Nearly Everything)](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/2019lecture2-190225020330/85/2019-lecture-2-21-320.jpg)
2019 lecture 2
- 1. What is modern science? What is Pseudo-science?
- 2. Ancient Science Formal attempts to explain physical events based on the natural world Aristotle(384 BCE – 322 BCE) Speculative Philosopher, not an Experimentalist Five Elements Morphological Taxonomy of Living Creatures Geological Timescales Islamic Renaissance (800 – 1250 CE) Alchemy, Astronomy, Algebra, Cartography, Physics, Medicine, Optics, Botany Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) Ibn Rushd (Averroes) Ibn Sina (Avicenna) ‘Aristotle teaching’ c. 1220 British Library MS or. 2784, f. 96r Kitāb naʿt al-hayawān by Jabril ibn Bukhtishu
- 3. Renaissance (14th to 17th centuries) Discovery of Classical Greek Philosophy Anthropocentrism “Man is the Measure of All Things” – Protagoras Increasing Observation and Inductive Reasoning School of Athens Raphael c. 1509 – 1511 Apostolic Palace, Vatican City Vitruvian Man Leonardo da Vinci c. 1492
- 4. Leonardo da Vinci c. 1510
- 5. Renaissance Transition from Middle Ages to Modernity Shifts in Knowledge Change in Organisation of Knowledge New Technologies of Knowledge Dissemination ALSO Continuities from the Middle Ages
- 6. Natural philosophy Theology Rhetoric Logic Grammar Arithmetic Laurentius de Voltolina Liber ethicorum des Henricus de Alemannia (university class in Bologna) second half of 14th century Medieval Syllabus
- 7. The Scientific Revolution is a term commonly referring to the transformation of thought about nature through which the Aristotelian tradition was replaced by so-called "modern" science. Most see it as a series of events focused in the period 16th and 17th century or, more precisely, from 1543 (De Revolutionibus of Copernicus) to 1687 (Principia of Newton). Others grant it some status from 1300 to 1800. Still others, see revolutions all around, Glorious, American, French, Industrial, Chemical, Darwininan, Freudian, Russian, Quantum, and Plate Tectonics. Scientific Revolution
- 8. When did modern science begin? Modern science traced to 16th century CE Europe – the beginning of scientific revolution Shifts in knowledge as a result of the Renaissance Shifts in philosophies/methods of science – e.g. Aristotle vs. Galileo Shifts ALSO in the social contexts of science: – Academia, commerce, wars
- 9. Early times of modern science Dichotomies of science reason vs. religion/faith/dogma Increasing validity of science Increasing resources for scientific research. Where from? Technological shifts e.g. Gutenberg’s printing press (15th century). Why? Closely associated with ‘Enlightenment’ or the ‘Age of Reason’ in 18th century Europe and America
- 10. Enlightenment The Enlightenment (also known as the Age of Enlightenment or the Age of Reason)was an intellectual and philosophical movement that dominated the world of ideas in Europe during the 18th century, which is considered as the "Century of Philosophy". The Enlightenment and scholastic development changed the socio- political and literary scenario of Europe and its effects flourished during the French revolution and afterwards.
- 11. The Enlightenment Joseph Wright 'of Derby’ 1768 An Experiment on a Bird in the Air Pump
- 12. From Richard Savage’s The Wanderer (1729) So in some Engine, that denies a Vent, If unrespiring is some Creature pent, It sickens, droops, and pants, and gasps for Breath, Sad o'er the Sight swim shad'wy Mists of Death; If then kind Air pours pow'rful in again, New Heats, new Pulses quicken ev'ry Vein, From the clear'd, lifted, life-rekindled Eye, Dispers'd, the dark and dampy Vapours fly.
- 13. Case Study: Heliocentrism • An astronomical model developed by Nicolaus Copernicus in 1514, but published only in 1543 • Copernicus was a Renaissance mathematician, astronomer, and Catholic cleric • The model positions the sun near the center of the Universe, motionless, and the Earth and other planets orbiting around it in circular paths • Replaced the geocentric model of Ptolemy which had prevailed for centuries before • Is often regarded as the launching point to modern astronomy and the Scientific Revolution • The ancient Greek Aristarchus (in the 3rd Century BCE) had already proposed a heliocentric theory; Copernicus cited him as a proponent of it in a reference (that was, however, deleted before publication)
- 14. On the other side of the globe • Several Islamic astronomers of the Maragha School, in the 12th and 13th centuries, had already questions the Earth’s apparent immobility • 12th century: Nur ad-Din al-Bitruji proposed an alternative to the Ptolemaic system (although not heliocentric); this system spread through most of Europe during the 13th century • Mathematical techniques developed in this period by Arab and Persian astronomers such as Mo’avveduddin al-Urdi, Nasir-al-Din al-Tusi, and Ibn al-Shatir are referenced to obliquely by Copernicus in his De revolutionibus orbium coelestium
- 15. The Church and the theory • Copernicus dedicated his publication to Pope Paul III • 1615: Galileo defended heliocentrism, and claimed it did not oppose the Holy Scriptures [by arguing that the Bible should not be interpreted literally] • 1616: Copernicanism was banned by the Church • Galileo was forced to abstain from teaching or discussing his ideas on the matter and all books on Copernicanism were banned • The ban continued until 1758! (though in the interim, astronomical observations were used by the Church for their calendars)
- 16. 17th Century: Age of Reason • Rene Descartes began (but never finished) his heliocentric treatise titled “The World” • Around the same time, Kepler’s advocacy made heliocentrism popular around Europe • By 1686, Copernicus’s book had been translated into English and other languages, making it into “one of the first great popularizations of science” • 1687: Newton in his Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy) provided an explanation for Kelper’s laws in terms of universal gravitation
- 17. The scientific method Scientists who were philosophers of science: • Galileo Galilei, Francis Bacon (Empiricism) • Rene Descartes (Mechanical view) • Newton (Induction deduction)
- 18. Galileo • Galileo (1564-1642): father of observational astronomy, of the scientific method, of modern physics, and of modern science • Innovation combination of experimentation and mathematical principles • Stated that the laws of nature are mathematical • One of the earliest figures to rely on observation and experimentation (i.e. empiricism and verifiability) to test hypotheses
- 20. Descartes • Descartes (1596-1650): proponent of mechanical philosophy • Argued that the physical world consists simply of inert particles of matter that collide and interact with each other
- 21. On Newton Newton was a decidedly odd figure–brilliant beyond measure, but solitary, joyless, prickly to the point of paranoia, famously distracted (upon swinging his feet out of bed in the morning he would reportedly sometimes sit for hours, immobilized by the sudden rush of thoughts to his head), and capable of the most riveting strangeness. He built his own laboratory, the first at Cambridge, but then engaged in the most bizarre experiments. Once he inserted a bodkin—a long needle of the sort used for sewing leather—into his eye socket and rubbed it around “betwixt my eye and the bone as near to [the] backside of my eye as I could” just to see what would happen. What happened, miraculously, was nothing—at least, nothing lasting. On another occasion, he stared at the Sun for as long as he could bear, to determine what effect it would have upon his vision. Again he escaped lasting damage, though he had to spend some days in a darkened room before his eyes forgave him. Set atop these odd beliefs and quirky traits, however, was the mind of a supreme genius—though even when working in conventional channels he often showed a tendency to peculiarity. As a student, frustrated by the limitations of conventional mathematics, he invented an entirely new form, the calculus, but then told no one about it for twenty-seven years. In like manner, he did work on optics that transformed our understanding of light and laid the foundation for the science of spectroscopy, and again chose not to share the results for three decades. - (Excerpt from Bill Bryson’s A Short History of Nearly Everything)
- 22. Industrial Revolution Change in manufacturing processes in North America and England from the mid-18th to the mid-19th centuries Iron Bridge, Shropshire, England, 1781 ‘Rain Steam and Speed’ J.M.W. Turner, circa 1840
- 23. Universal Knowledge • Charles Darwin (1809-1882) On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection • Karl Marx (1818-1883) Das Kapital, Buch I: Der Produktionsprocess des Kapitals • James George Frazer (1854-1941) The Golden Bough: A Study in Comparative Religion Around the same time as 1857