Chapter 10.2 powerpoint
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The document provides an overview of the Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment. It discusses: 1) Key figures of the Scientific Revolution like Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, Descartes, Boyle, Newton who developed new scientific theories and methods of observation and experimentation that displaced old views. 2) Advances in astronomy, medicine, and chemistry during this period based on new empirical approaches. 3) How the Enlightenment was influenced by the Scientific Revolution and figures like Locke and Newton. Philosophes like Voltaire, Montesquieu, and Diderot spread new ideas through works and salons. 4) Enlightenment thinkers believed in using reason to reform society through principles like
Chapter 10.2 powerpoint
- 1. Chapter 10 Revolution and Enlightenment Section 1: The Scientific Revolution
- 2. Background to the Revolution • During the Middle Ages, educated Europeans took more interest in the world around them. • However, they still relied upon a few ancient authorities, especially Aristotle, for their scientific knowledge.
- 3. • Changes in the 15th and 16th Centuries led to the abandonment of old views and the development of the new ones. Renaissance humanists discovered the works of Ptolemy, Archimedes, and Plato and realized that many ancient thinkers had disagreed with Aristotle.
- 4. • Technical problems associated with the changes taking place during this time spurred a movement towards observation and measurement. –The inventions of new instruments such as the telescope and microscope made fresh observations and discoveries possible.
- 5. – Mathematics also played an important role in these new ideas. Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, Newton and others developed new theories that became the foundation of the Scientific Revolution. – Because these thinkers believed the secrets of nature were written in the language of mathematics and discarded the old views, this period is sometimes referred to as the Age of Reason.
- 6. A Revolution in Astronomy • Medieval philosophers had constructed a geocentric model of the universe called the Ptolemaic system because it was based on the ideas of Ptolemy in the second century A.D. • The earth was at the center and was motionless.
- 8. • Copernicus published “On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres” in which he disagreed with the Ptolemaic Model.
- 9. • Copernicus called his idea about the universe the heliocentric system. • He believed that the planets moved around the sun and that the earth was not the center of the universe.
- 10. • Johannes Kepler’s observations confirmed that Copernicus was correct about the sun being the center of the universe by tracking the elliptical orbits of the planets (showing they weren’t circular as Copernicus had said).
- 12. • Galileo, a mathematician, was the first European to make regular observations of the heavens using a telescope. He showed that the planets were not pure orbs of light but were made of materials like the earth.
- 13. • Galileo published his discoveries in “The Starry Messenger” in 1610. • His ideas brought him under suspicion by the Catholic Church which backed the Ptolemaic model. • He was ordered to abandon his ideas about the universe because they contradicted the Bible.
- 15. • Despite the new ideas of Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo, it was an Englishman named Isaac Newton who finally tied everything together.
- 16. • Newton, in his Principia, defined the three laws of motion that govern the planetary bodies, as well as objects here on earth. • In his universal law of gravitation, he explained why the planetary bodies travel in an elliptical pattern. Objects in the universe are attracted to every other object by a force called gravity.
- 18. • Newton’s ideas showed the universe as a well-regulated machine that worked according to the laws of nature. • Newton’s theory of the world dominated until the 20th Century when Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity created a new view of our universe.
- 19. Breakthroughs in Medicine and Chemistry • Medicine had changed very little until the 16th Century. • It had been dominated by the teachings of the Greek physician, Galen (who lived in the second century A.D.) • Galen’s views were often wrong because he used animals, not people, for his dissection.
- 21. • The new anatomy of the 16th Century was based on the work of Andreas Vesalius who used the dissection of human bodies for his findings.
- 23. • This allowed him to come up with a more accurate view of the individual organs and general structure of the human body. • However, he still followed Galen’s incorrect idea that there were two kinds of blood: one kind in the veins and another kind in the arteries.
- 24. • William Harvey showed that the heart, not the liver, was the beginning point for the circulation of blood. • He also proved that the same blood flowed in both the veins and arteries. This meant that the blood makes a complete circuit as it flows through the body.
- 25. • The new science of chemistry arose in the 17th and 18th Centuries. • Robert Boyle was one of the first to scientifically conduct controlled experiments.
- 26. • He specifically studied the properties of gases which led to the development of Boyle’s Law. • This states that the volume of a gas varies with the pressure exerted on it.
- 27. • Antoine Lavoisier invented a system of naming the chemical elements ; much of which is still used. • He is considered the founder of modern chemistry.
- 28. Women and the Origins of Modern Science • Margaret Cavendish, in her book “Observations Upon Experimental Philosophy,” criticized the belief that humans, through science, were the masters of nature: “man cannot have a supreme and absolute power.”
- 29. • Maria Winkelmann was an astronomer who then became an assistant to her husband, Prussia’s main astronomer. • After his death, she was denied a job as an assistant astronomer at the Berlin Academy, even though she had the background and had discovered a comet, because of her gender. Any kind of scholarship was not considered the role or duty of women.
- 30. Descartes and Reason • Rene Descartes used the doubt and confusion of all of the new ideas of this time to arrive at a new philosophy. • He decided to set aside all that he had learned up to this time and start again.
- 31. • Descartes said he could rationally be sure of only one thing – his own existence. • He asserted that he would accept only those things his reason said were true. • His first principle was “I think, therefore I am.”
- 32. • Descartes’ second principle involved the separation of mind and matter (and of mind and body). • He said this separation allowed scientists to view matter as something dead that could be investigated independently by reason. • He is known as the father of modern rationalism because his system is based on the idea that reason is the chief source of knowledge.
- 33. The Scientific Method • During the Scientific Revolution, people were concerned about how they could best understand the physical world. • The result was the creation of the scientific method – a systematic procedure for collecting and analyzing evidence.
- 34. • Francis Bacon, an English philosopher, was the person who developed the scientific method. • He believed in using inductive reasoning, or making generalizations from observations to test hypotheses (going from specific evidence to general principles).
- 35. Medical Advances • Edward Jenner developed the first vaccine for smallpox using the scientific method. Even though there was some resistance, it caught on and significantly reduced the deaths from smallpox.
- 36. Section 2 • The Enlightenment
- 37. Path to the Enlightenment • The Enlightenment was an 18th Century philosophical movement of intellectuals who were impressed by the achievements of the Scientific Revolution.
- 38. • They hoped to use the scientific method to improve society. • Common words used by the Enlightenment thinkers were reason, natural law, hope, and progress.
- 39. • The Enlightenment was especially influenced by the ideas of two 17th Century Englishmen: Isaac Newton and John Locke.
- 40. • Newton saw the physical world and everything in it as a giant machine. – He had discovered natural laws that governed the physical world. – Intellectuals believed they could now discover laws that governed human society.
- 41. • John Locke, in his “Essay Concerning Human Understanding,” argued that people were born tabula rasa or with blank minds. • Everything they became was due to the surrounding world.
- 42. • He believed that if you changed the environment and exposed people to the right influences, they could be changed and a new better society could be created. This contradicted the view of an earlier Enlightenment thinker, Thomas Hobbes. Hobbes believed people needed a strong government because they were not guided by reason but by a ruthless struggle for self- preservation. Without absolute power, there would be no order in society.
- 43. • In his Two Treatises of Government, Locke had a more optimistic view of human nature. He believed people were basically reasonable and moral. They had certain natural rights, or rights that belonged to all humans from birth. These included life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. He argued that people formed governments to protect these rights. If a government fails to protect these rights, the people have the right to overthrow that government. Clearly he favored a limited government over one with absolute power. These ideas would later influence the American Revolution.
- 44. • By using Newton’s methods, intellectuals now believed they could discover the natural laws that all social institutions should follow to produce an ideal society.
- 45. Philosophes and Their Ideas • The intellectuals of the Enlightenment were known as philosophes, meaning philosophers. • To them, the purpose of philosophy was to change the world for the better. • While most philosophes were French, the English had provided the inspiration.
- 46. • The philosophes were writers, professors, journalists, economists, and, most of all, social reformers. • Three French philosophes dominated Enlightenment thought: Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Diderot.
- 47. • In his The Spirit of the Laws, Montesquieu tried to use the scientific method to find the natural laws that govern the social and political relationships of human beings.
- 48. • Montesquieu identified three basic kinds of governments: –Republics: suitable for small states (countries) –Despotism: appropriate for large states –Monarchies: ideal for middle or moderate-sized states
- 49. • In his study of England’s government, Montesquieu identified three branches: –The executive (or monarch) who enforces the laws –The legislative (or parliament) that makes the laws –The judicial (or courts) that interpret the laws
- 50. The U.S. Government is based on this idea.
- 51. • This type of government functioned through separation of powers which keeps one person or group from gaining too much power through the use of checks and balances. • Montesquieu’s work influenced American philosophes who then influenced the drafting of the U.S. Constitution.
- 53. • Voltaire was especially well-known for his criticism of Christianity and his strong belief in religious toleration. He battled corruption, injustice, and inequality, and defended freedom of speech.
- 54. • Voltaire believed in deism, an 18th Century religious philosophy based on reason and natural law which built on Newton’s idea of a world machine. • In the Deists’ view, God (the mechanic) created the universe which ran like a clock without His interference on its own natural laws.
- 55. • Voltaire’s outspoken criticism offended the French government and the Catholic Church. • He was imprisoned and forced into exile. • His books were outlawed and even burned, but he continued to defend the principle of freedom of speech. • His beliefs influenced several of our founding fathers.
- 56. • Diderot was most famous for his “Encyclopedia,” of 28 volumes which helped spread the ideas of the Enlightenment.
- 57. • Many of Diderot’s articles attacked religious superstition and supported religious toleration. • Other articles called for social, legal, and political improvements that could lead to a more tolerant and humane society.
- 58. Toward a New Social Science • The philosophes’ belief that there are natural laws that govern human society led to the development of the social sciences of economics and political science.
- 59. • The Physiocrats, a French group, were interested in indentifying the natural economic laws that governed human society. –They believed that individuals should be free to pursue their own economic self- interest. –Government should not impose regulations on the economy.
- 60. • This doctrine became known as laissez-faire (“hands off” or “let the people do what they want”). • The best statement of laissez-faire was made by Adam Smith in his work, The Wealth of Nations.
- 61. • Laissez-faire was a rejection of mercantilism which required colonies to send everything back to England instead of making a higher profit elsewhere. Since mercantilism required government regulation of the economy to achieve a favorable balance of trade for a country, philosophes rejected that view. • Smith believed the government should only have three basic roles – Protect society from invasion – Defend from injustice – Keep up public works (such as roads and canals)
- 62. The Later Enlightenment • Jean-Jacques Rousseau was the most famous philosophe of this time. • In his Discourse on the Origins of the Inequality of Mankind, he argued that people had adopted laws and government to protect their property which had led to their enslavement.
- 63. • In another work, The Social Contract, he said an entire society agrees to be governed by its general will (majority rule). This would result in true liberty. • Unlike many Enlightenment thinkers, he believed that emotions, as well as reason, were important to human development. The two needed to be balanced.
- 64. Rights of Women • Mary Wollstonecraft is viewed as the founder of the women’s rights movement. • She argued that the power of man over woman was as bad as that of monarchs. • If reason was found in all humans, women had reason and were entitled to the same rights as men.
- 65. Social World of the Enlightenment • The common people, especially the peasants, were mostly unaware of the Enlightenment. • The major appeal of the Enlightenment was among the upper classes.
- 66. • In the 18th Century, publishing and reading began to grow which helped spread the ideas of the Enlightenment. • Many books were now directed at the middle classes. • The development of newspapers and magazines for the general public began in the 18th Century.
- 67. • Enlightenment ideas were also spread through the salons; elegant drawing rooms of the wealthy upper class where guests gathered to discuss the ideas of the philosophes.
- 69. • In this salon, a young Mozart is playing the harpsichord in the middle of the room as an opera singer performs while playing the guitar.
- 70. • The salons brought writers and artists together with aristocrats, government officials, and wealthy middle class people. • The women who hosted the salons were in a position to sway political opinion and influence literary and artistic tastes.
- 71. Religion in the Enlightenment • Although many philosophes attacked religion, in the 18th Century most Europeans were still Christians. –Many wanted a deeper personal devotion to God. –Methodism was the most famous of the new religious movements.
- 72. • John Wesley was the founder of this new movement and his Methodist societies helped each other to do good works.
- 73. • The Methodist movement appealed mostly to the lower classes. • Methodism proved that the search for reason had not eliminated the need for spiritual experience.