![Threshold Voltage Effects
• Body Effect:
• When a voltage Vsb is applied between the source and body, it increases
the amount of charge required to invert the channel, hence, it increases
the threshold voltage. The threshold voltage can be modeled as
• where Vt0 is the threshold voltage when the source is at the body
potential, Ks is the surface potential at threshold (see a device physics
text such as [Tsividis99] for further discussion of surface potential), and L
is the body effect coefficient, typically in the range 0.4 to 1 V1/2.
• The body effect further degrades the performance of pass transistors
trying to pass the weak value (e.g., nMOS transistors passing a ‘1’)](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/21ec63module1b-240708072907-70d39ef6/85/21EC63_Module1B-pptx-VLSI-design-21ec63-MOS-TRANSISTOR-THEORY-19-320.jpg)
21EC63_Module1B.pptx VLSI design 21ec63 MOS TRANSISTOR THEORY
- 1. MOS Transistor Theory Module 1: Part 2 Syllabus: Introduction, Long Channel I-V Characteristics, Non-Ideal I-V Effects, DC Transfer Characteristics Text2: Section 2.1,2.2,2.4 and 2.5 Prepared by Pradeepkumar S K Assistant Professor, Department of ECE K I T , Tiptur 572201 VLSI Design-18EC72
- 2. Introduction • Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor (MOS) transistor was introduced in terms of its operation as an ideal switch. • Performance and power of a chip depend on the current and capacitance of the transistors and wires. • The three-terminal symbols in Figure 2.1(a) are used in the great majority of schematics. • If the body (substrate or well) connection needs to be shown, the four-terminal symbols in Figure 2.1(b) will be used. Figure 2.1(c) shows an example of other symbols that may be encountered in the literature
- 3. Accumulation • In Figure 2.2(a) , a negative voltage is applied to the gate, so there is negative charge on the gate. The mobile positively charged holes are attracted to the region beneath the gate. This is called the accumulation mode.
- 4. Depletion • In Figure 2.2(b), a small positive voltage is applied to the gate, resulting in some positive charge on the gate. • The holes in the body are repelled from the region directly beneath the gate, resulting in a depletion region forming below the gate.
- 5. Inversion • In Figure 2.2(c), a higher positive potential exceeding a critical threshold voltage Vt is applied, attracting more positive charge to the gate. • The holes are repelled further and some free electrons in the body are attracted to the region beneath the gate. This conductive layer of electrons in the p-type body is called the inversion layer.
- 6. • Figure 2.3(a) The gate-to-source voltage Vgs is less than the threshold voltage Vt. • The source and drain have free electrons. • The body has free holes but no free electrons. • Suppose the source is grounded. • The junctions between the body and the source or drain are zero-biased or reverse-biased, so little or no current flows. • We say the transistor is OFF, and this mode of operation is called cutoff.
- 7. • In Figure 2.3(b), the gate voltage is greater than the threshold voltage. • Now an inversion region of electrons (majority carriers) called the channel connects the source and drain, creating a conductive path and turning the transistor ON. • The number of carriers and the conductivity increases with the gate voltage. • The potential difference between drain and source is Vds = Vgs - Vgd . • If Vds = 0 (i.e., Vgs = Vgd), there is no electric field tending to push current from drain to source. • When a small positive potential Vds is applied to the drain (Figure 2.3(c)), current Ids flows through the channel from drain to source. • This mode of operation is termed linear, resistive, triode, nonsaturated, or unsaturated; the current increases with both the drain voltage and gate voltage.
- 8. • If Vds becomes sufficiently large that Vgd < Vt , the channel is no longer inverted near the drain and becomes pinched off (Figure 2.3(d)). • However, conduction is still brought about by the drift of electrons under the influence of the positive drain voltage. • As electrons reach the end of the channel, they are injected into the depletion region near the drain and accelerated toward the drain. • Above this drain voltage the current Ids is controlled only by the gate voltage and ceases to be influenced by the drain.This mode is called saturation.
- 9. Summary • In summary, the nMOS transistor has three modes of operation. • If Vgs < Vt, the transistor is cutoff (OFF). If Vgs > Vt, the transistor turns ON. • If Vds is small, the transistor acts as a linear resistor in which the current flow is proportional to Vds. • If Vgs > Vt and Vds is large, the transistor acts as a current source in which the current flow becomes independent of Vds.
- 16. Nonideal I-V Effects • Mobility Degradation and Velocity Saturation • Channel Length Modulation • Threshold Voltage Effects • Leakage • Temperature Dependence • Geometry Dependence
- 17. Mobility Degradation and Velocity Saturation • Carrier drift velocity, and hence current, is proportional to the lateral electric field Elat = Vds /L between source and drain. • The long-channel model assumed that carrier mobility is independent of the applied fields. • A high voltage at the gate of the transistor attracts the carriers to the edge of the channel, causing collisions with the oxide interface that slow the carriers. • This is called mobility degradation. • The faster you try to go, the more often you collide. Beyond a certain level of fatigue, you reach a maximum average speed. In the same way, carriers approach a maximum velocity Vsat when high fields are applied. This phenomenon is called velocity saturation.
- 18. Channel Length Modulation • Ids is independent of Vds for a transistor in saturation, making the transistor a perfect current source. • The depletion region effectively shortens the channel length to • Increasing Vds decreases the effective channel length. Shorter channel length results in higher current; thus, Ids increases with Vds in saturation, as shown in Figure 2.18. • This can be crudely modeled by multiplying Idsat equation by a factor of (1 + Vds / VA), where VA is called the Early voltage. • As channel length gets shorter, the effect of the channel length modulation becomes relatively more important. Hence, VA is proportional to channel length. • Channel length modulation is very important to analog designers because it reduces the gain of amplifiers.
- 19. Threshold Voltage Effects • Body Effect: • When a voltage Vsb is applied between the source and body, it increases the amount of charge required to invert the channel, hence, it increases the threshold voltage. The threshold voltage can be modeled as • where Vt0 is the threshold voltage when the source is at the body potential, Ks is the surface potential at threshold (see a device physics text such as [Tsividis99] for further discussion of surface potential), and L is the body effect coefficient, typically in the range 0.4 to 1 V1/2. • The body effect further degrades the performance of pass transistors trying to pass the weak value (e.g., nMOS transistors passing a ‘1’)
- 20. • Drain-Induced Barrier Lowering • The drain voltage Vds creates an electric field that affects the threshold voltage. This drain-induced barrier lowering (DIBL) effect is especially pronounced in short-channel transistors. • It can be modeled as • where M is the DIBL coefficient, typically on the order of 0.1 • Drain-induced barrier lowering causes Ids to increase with Vds in saturation, in much the same way as channel length modulation does. • DIBL increases subthreshold leakage at high Vds.
- 21. • Short Channel Effect • The threshold voltage typically increases with channel length. • This phenomenon is especially pronounced for small L where the source and drain depletion regions extend into a significant portion of the channel, and hence is called the short channel effect .
- 22. Leakage • Even when transistors are nominally OFF, they leak small amounts of current. Leakage mechanisms include subthreshold conduction between source and drain, gate leakage from the gate to body, and junction leakage from source to body and drain to body, as illustrated in Figure 2.19. • Subthreshold conduction is caused by thermal emission of carriers over the potential barrier set by the threshold. • Gate leakage is a quantum-mechanical effect caused by tunneling through the extremely thin gate dielectric. • Junction leakage is caused by current through the p-n junction between the source/drain diffusions and the body
- 23. Sub threshold Leakage • The long-channel transistor I-V model assumes current only flows from source to drain when Vgs > Vt. • In real transistors, current does not abruptly cut off below threshold, but rather drops off exponentially, as seen in Figure 2.20. • When the gate voltage is high, the transistor is strongly ON. • When the gate falls below Vt, the exponential decline in current appears as a straight line on the logarithmic scale. • This regime of Vgs < Vt is called weak inversion. • The subthreshold leakage current increases significantly with Vds because of drain-induced barrier lowering.
- 24. Gate Leakage • The effect of carriers crossing a thin barrier is called tunneling, and results in leakage current through the gate. • Two physical mechanisms for gate tunneling are called Fowler-Nordheim (FN) tunneling and direct tunneling. • FN tunneling is most important at high voltage and moderate oxide thickness and is used to program EEPROM memories . • Tunneling current can be an order of magnitude higher for nMOS than pMOS transistors with SiO2 gate dielectrics because the electrons tunnel from the conduction band while the holes tunnel from the valence band and see a higher barrier . • The direct gate tunneling current can be estimated as
- 25. Junction Leakage • The p–n junctions between diffusion and the substrate or well form diodes, as shown in Figure 2.22. The well-to-substrate junction is another diode. • The substrate and well are tied to GND or VDD to ensure these diodes do not become forward biased in normal operation. However, reverse-biased diodes still conduct a small amount of current ID. • More significantly, heavily doped drains are subject to band-to-band tunneling (BTBT) and gate-induced drain leakage (GIDL).
- 26. Temperature Dependence • Carrier mobility decreases with temperature. An approximate relation is • where T is the absolute temperature, Tr is room temperature, and kR is a fitting parameter with a typical value of about 1.5. • Ion at high VDD decreases with temperature. Subthreshold leakage increases exponentially with temperature. BTBT increases slowly with temperature, and gate leakage is almost independent of temperature.
- 27. Geometry Dependence • The layout designer draws transistors with width and length Wdrawn and Ldrawn. • The actual gate dimensions may differ by some factors XW and XL • For example, the manufacturer may create masks with narrower polysilicon or may overetch the polysilicon to provide shorter channels (negative XL) without changing the overall design rules or metal pitch. • Moreover, the source and drain tend to diffuse laterally under the gate by LD, producing a shorter effective channel length that the carriers must traverse between source and drain.
- 28. CMOS Inverter