750studyguide

OSHAcademy Course 750 Study Guide
Copyright © 2000-2013 Geigle Safety Group, Inc.
Introduction to
Industrial Hygiene

Copyright © 2000-2013 Geigle Safety Group, Inc. Page 1 of 76
Introduction to Industrial Hygiene
Copyright © 2013 Geigle Safety Group, Inc.
No portion of this text may be reprinted for other than personal use. Any commercial use of
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Contact OSHAcademy to arrange for use as a training document.
This study guide is designed to be reviewed off-line as a tool for preparation to successfully
complete OSHAcademy Course 750.
Read each module, answer the quiz questions, and submit the quiz questions online through
the course webpage. You can print the post-quiz response screen which will contain the correct
answers to the questions.
The final exam will consist of questions developed from the course content and module quizzes.
We hope you enjoy the course and if you have any questions, feel free to email or call:
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Contents
Course Introduction........................................................................................................................ 7
What is Industrial Hygiene?........................................................................................................ 7
Module 1: Industrial Hygiene and OSHA ........................................................................................ 9
How Are OSHA and Industrial Hygiene Related?........................................................................ 9
What is a Worksite Analysis?...................................................................................................... 9
How do Industrial Hygienist's Recognize and Control Hazards? .............................................. 10
Module 1 Quiz........................................................................................................................... 11
Module 2: Air Contaminants......................................................................................................... 13
Indoor Air Quality...................................................................................................................... 14
Acute Health Effects of Major Indoor Air Contaminants.......................................................... 15
Outdoor Air Quality................................................................................................................... 18
Six Common Outdoor Air Pollutants..................................................................................... 18
Module 3: Chemical Hazards ........................................................................................................ 23
Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 23
Toxic and Hazardous Chemicals................................................................................................ 23
What makes a chemical toxic?.............................................................................................. 23
Are "toxic" and "hazardous" the same? ............................................................................... 24
Why are some chemicals more harmful than others? ......................................................... 24
Routes of Exposure ................................................................................................................... 24
Inhalation.............................................................................................................................. 24
Skin Contact .......................................................................................................................... 25
Eye Contact ........................................................................................................................... 25
Ingestion................................................................................................................................ 25
Toxicity of Chemicals ................................................................................................................ 25
Dose: How much is too much? ............................................................................................. 25
Duration: How long is too long? ........................................................................................... 26
Latency: How long does it take for a toxic effect to occur? ................................................. 27
Differences between acute and chronic effects....................................................................... 28

Reaction and interaction: What if you're exposed to more than one chemical? .................... 28
Sensitivity: Are some people more affected than others?....................................................... 29
How can toxic substances harm the body? .............................................................................. 31
What are the different forms of toxic materials?..................................................................... 31
Solid....................................................................................................................................... 32
Liquid..................................................................................................................................... 32
Gas......................................................................................................................................... 32
Vapor..................................................................................................................................... 32
Dust....................................................................................................................................... 32
Fume ..................................................................................................................................... 33
Fiber ...................................................................................................................................... 33
Mist ....................................................................................................................................... 33
What are exposure limits?........................................................................................................ 33
How can exposure be measured and monitored? ................................................................... 34
Environmental Monitoring ....................................................................................................... 34
Practical clues to exposure ....................................................................................................... 35
How can exposures be reduced?.............................................................................................. 36
Knowledge ............................................................................................................................ 36
Engineering controls............................................................................................................. 36
Personal Protective Equipment ................................................................................................ 37
Respiratory Protective Equipment........................................................................................ 37
Protective Clothing ............................................................................................................... 37
Barrier Creams ...................................................................................................................... 37
Module 3 Quiz........................................................................................................................... 39
Module 4: Biological Hazards........................................................................................................ 41
Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 41
Biological Agents....................................................................................................................... 41
Anthrax.................................................................................................................................. 41
Avian Flu................................................................................................................................ 42

Bloodborne Pathogens and Needlestick Prevention............................................................ 42
Botulism ................................................................................................................................ 42
Foodborne Disease ............................................................................................................... 42
Hantavirus............................................................................................................................. 42
Legionnaires’ disease............................................................................................................ 42
Mold...................................................................................................................................... 43
Plague.................................................................................................................................... 43
Ricin....................................................................................................................................... 43
Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS)......................................................................... 43
Smallpox................................................................................................................................ 43
Tularemia .............................................................................................................................. 43
Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers (VHFs) .......................................................................................... 43
Possible Risks and Suggested Measures................................................................................... 44
Module 4 Quiz........................................................................................................................... 48
Module 5: Physical Hazards.......................................................................................................... 50
Distance..................................................................................................................................... 50
Shielding.................................................................................................................................... 50
Noise Hazards ........................................................................................................................... 50
Heat Exposure........................................................................................................................... 51
Ionizing & Non-Ionizing Radiation ............................................................................................ 51
Non-Ionizing Radiation ............................................................................................................. 52
Ionizing Radiation...................................................................................................................... 52
Ionization .............................................................................................................................. 53
Noise ......................................................................................................................................... 53
How does the ear work?........................................................................................................... 54
What are the warning signs that your workplace may be too noisy?...................................... 54
How loud is too loud?............................................................................................................... 55
What can be done to reduce the hazard from noise?.............................................................. 55
Vibration ................................................................................................................................... 58

Hazards and Solutions............................................................................................................... 58
Potential Hazards.................................................................................................................. 58
Possible Solutions ................................................................................................................. 59
Illumination............................................................................................................................... 60
Heat........................................................................................................................................... 61
Office Temperature/Humidity.............................................................................................. 61
Non-Office Work Environments................................................................................................ 62
Engineering Controls................................................................................................................. 62
General Ventilation............................................................................................................... 62
Air treatment/air cooling...................................................................................................... 63
Air conditioning..................................................................................................................... 63
Local air cooling .................................................................................................................... 63
Increasing the air flow .......................................................................................................... 63
Evaporative cooling............................................................................................................... 63
Heat conduction methods .................................................................................................... 64
Simple engineering controls ................................................................................................. 64
Heating Pipes ........................................................................................................................ 64
Shields................................................................................................................................... 64
Administrative Controls and Work Practices............................................................................ 64
Other Administrative Controls.................................................................................................. 65
Module 5 Quiz........................................................................................................................... 66
Module 6: Ergonomic Hazards...................................................................................................... 68
Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 68
Ergonomic Guidelines............................................................................................................... 69
Basic Ergonomic Principles ....................................................................................................... 70
Ergonomic Injuries .................................................................................................................... 70
Classifications of Ergonomic Injuries .................................................................................... 70
Examples of CTD's................................................................................................................. 70
Early Reporting of Ergonomic Issues ........................................................................................ 71

Stretching Basics ....................................................................................................................... 72
Ergonomic Risk Factors............................................................................................................. 73
Module 6 Quiz........................................................................................................................... 74

Course Introduction
What is Industrial Hygiene?
Industrial hygiene is the science of anticipating, recognizing, evaluating, and controlling
workplace conditions that may cause workers' injury or illness. Industrial hygienists use
environmental monitoring and analytical methods to detect the extent of worker exposure and
employ engineering, work practice controls, and other methods to control potential health
hazards.
There has been an awareness of industrial hygiene since antiquity. The environment and its
relation to worker health were recognized as early as the fourth century BC when Hippocrates
noted lead toxicity in the mining industry. In the first century AD, Pliny the Elder, a Roman
scholar, perceived health risks to those working with zinc and sulfur. He devised a face mask
made from an animal bladder to protect workers from exposure to dust and lead fumes. In the
second century AD, the Greek physician, Galen, accurately described the pathology of lead
poisoning and also recognized the hazardous exposures of copper miners to acid mists.
In the Middle Ages, guilds worked at assisting sick workers and their families. In 1556 the
German scholar, Agricola, advanced the science of industrial hygiene even further when, in his
book De Re Metallica, he described the diseases of miners and prescribed preventive measures.
The book included suggestions for mine ventilation and worker protection, discussed mining
accidents, and described diseases associated with mining occupations such as silicosis.
Industrial hygiene gained further respectability in 1700 when Bernardo Ramazzini, known as
the "father of industrial medicine," published in Italy the first comprehensive book on industrial
medicine, De Morbis Artificum Diatriba (The Diseases of Workmen). The book contained
accurate descriptions of the occupational diseases of most of the workers of his time. Ramazzini
greatly affected the future of industrial hygiene because he asserted that occupational diseases
should be studied in the work environment rather than in hospital wards.
Industrial hygiene received another major boost in 1743 when Ulrich Ellenborg published a
pamphlet on occupational diseases and injuries among gold miners. Ellenborg also wrote about
the toxicity of carbon monoxide, mercury, lead, and nitric acid.
In England in the 18th century, Percival Pott, as a result of his findings on the insidious effects
of soot on chimney sweepers, was a major force in getting the British Parliament to pass the
Chimney-Sweepers Act of 1788. The passage of the English Factory Acts beginning in 1833
marked the first effective legislative acts in the field of industrial safety. The Acts, however,
were intended to provide compensation for accidents rather than to control their causes. Later,
various other European nations developed workers' compensation acts, which stimulated the

adoption of increased factory safety precautions and the establishment of medical services
within industrial plants.
In the early 20th century in the United States, Dr. Alice Hamilton led efforts to improve
industrial hygiene. She observed industrial conditions first hand and startled mine owners,
factory managers, and state officials with evidence there was a correlation between worker
illness and their exposure to toxins. She also presented definitive proposals for eliminating
unhealthful working conditions.
At about the same time, U.S. federal and state agencies began investigating health conditions in
industry. In 1908, the public's awareness of occupationally related diseases stimulated the
passage of compensation acts for certain civil employees. States passed the first workers'
compensation laws in 1911. And in 1913, the New York Department of Labor and the Ohio
Department of Health established the first state industrial hygiene programs. All states enacted
such legislation by 1948. In most states, there is some compensation coverage for workers
contracting occupational diseases.
The U.S. Congress has passed three landmark pieces of legislation relating to safeguarding
workers' health: (1) the Metal and Nonmetallic Mines Safety Act of 1966, (2) the Federal Coal
Mine Safety and Health Act of 1969, and (3) the Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970
(Act). Today, nearly every employer is required to implement the elements of an industrial
hygiene and safety, occupational health, or hazard communication program and to be
responsive to the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and the Act and its
regulations.

Module 1: Industrial Hygiene and OSHA
How Are OSHA and Industrial Hygiene Related?
Under the Act, OSHA develops and sets mandatory occupational safety
and health requirements applicable to the more than 6 million
workplaces in the U.S. OSHA relies on, among many others, industrial
hygienists to evaluate jobs for potential health hazards. Developing and
setting mandatory occupational safety and health standards involves
determining the extent of employee exposure to hazards and deciding
what is needed to control these hazards, thereby protecting the
workers. Industrial hygienists, or IHs, are trained to anticipate,
recognize, evaluate, and recommend controls for environmental and
physical hazards that can affect the health and well-being of workers.
More than 40 percent of the OSHA compliance officers who inspect America's workplaces are
industrial hygienists. Industrial hygienists also play a major role in developing and issuing OSHA
standards to protect workers from health hazards associated with toxic chemicals, biological
hazards, and harmful physical agents. They also provide technical assistance and support to the
agency's national and regional offices. OSHA also employs industrial hygienists who assist in
setting up field enforcement procedures, and who issue technical interpretations of OSHA
regulations and standards. Industrial hygienists analyze, identify, and measure workplace
hazards or stressors that can cause sickness, impaired health, or significant discomfort in
workers through chemical, physical, ergonomic, or biological exposures. Two roles of the OSHA
industrial hygienist are to spot those conditions and help eliminate or control them through
appropriate measures.
What is a Worksite Analysis?
A worksite analysis is an essential first step that helps an
industrial hygienist determine what jobs and work stations are
the sources of potential problems. During the worksite analysis,
the industrial hygienist measures and identifies exposures,
problem tasks, and risks. The most effective worksite analyses
include all jobs, operations, and work activities. The industrial
hygienist inspects, researches, or analyzes how the particular
chemicals or physical hazards at that worksite affect worker
health. If a situation hazardous to health is discovered,
the industrial hygienist recommends the appropriate corrective actions.

How do Industrial Hygienist's Recognize and Control Hazards?
Industrial hygienists recognize that engineering, work practice, and administrative controls are
the primary means of reducing employee exposure to occupational hazards. Engineering
controls minimize employee exposure by either reducing or removing the hazard at the source
or isolating the worker from the hazards.
Engineering controls include eliminating toxic chemicals and replacing harmful toxic materials
with less hazardous ones, enclosing work processes or confining work operations, and installing
general and local ventilation systems.
Work practice controls alter the manner in which a task is performed. Some fundamental and
easily implemented work practice controls include: (1) following proper procedures that
minimize exposures while operating production and control equipment; (2) inspecting and
maintaining process and control equipment on a regular basis; (3) implementing good house-
keeping procedures; (4) providing good supervision and (5) mandating that eating, drinking,
smoking, chewing tobacco or gum, and applying cosmetics in regulated areas be prohibited.
Administrative controls include controlling employees' exposure by scheduling production and
workers' tasks, or both, in ways that minimize exposure levels. For example, the employer
might schedule operations with the highest exposure potential during periods when the fewest
employees are present.
When effective work practices and/or engineering controls are not feasible to achieve the
permissible exposure limit, or while such controls are being instituted, and in emergencies,
appropriate respiratory equipment must be used. In addition, personal protective equipment
such as gloves, safety goggles, helmets, safety shoes, and protective clothing may also be
required. To be effective, personal protective equipment must be individually selected,
properly fitted and periodically refitted; conscientiously and properly worn; regularly
maintained; and replaced as necessary.
To be effective in recognizing and evaluating on-the-job hazards and recommending controls,
industrial hygienists must be familiar with the hazards' characteristics. Major job risks can
include air contaminants, and chemical, biological, physical, and ergonomic hazards.

Module 1 Quiz
Use this quiz to self-check your understanding of the module content. You can also go online
and take this quiz within the module. The online quiz provides the correct answer once
submitted.
1. Industrial hygienists are trained to anticipate, recognize, evaluate, and recommend
controls for environmental and physical hazards.
a. true
b. false
2. More than _______ of the OSHA compliance officers who inspect America's workplaces
are industrial hygienists.
a. 10 percent
b. 25 percent
c. 40 percent
d. 65 percent
3. During the worksite analysis, the industrial hygienist measures and identifies: _______.
a. all of the employees in the worksite
b. the distance around the worksite
c. exposures, problem tasks, and risks
d. all of the worksite production objectives
4. Mike is an Industrial Hygienist and he is performing a worksite analysis. In order for
Mike's worksite analysis to be as effective as possible he should include: _______.
a. a blueprint of the worksite
b. all jobs, operations, and work activities
c. an organizational chart
d. a worksite communication tree
5. Mary is an Industrial Hygienist and has just discovered a situation "hazardous to health" at
a worksite. What should she do?
a. Report the hazard to the police immediately.
b. Report the hazard to OSHA immediately.

c. Recommend the employer should only address the health hazard if they have the
money to do so.
d. Recommend the appropriate corrective actions.
6. Industrial hygienists recognize that _______ are the primary means of reducing employee
exposure to occupational hazards.
a. engineering, work practice, and administrative controls
b. ignoring worksite hazards and providing little oversight
c. a memo from the Operations Manager at the worksite and harsh discipline
d. the redesign of every work activity and replacement of every piece of equipment in
the worksite
7. Jennifer is an Industrial Hygienist and is performing an analysis of the worksite. In her
analysis she is recommending the replacement of the toxic chemicals at the worksite with
less hazardous ones. What method is Jennifer using to control the hazard the toxic chemicals
pose to the worksite?
a. administrative controls
b. engineering controls
c. work practice controls
d. all of the above
8. Bill is following proper procedures that minimize exposures while operating production
and control equipment. This is an example of: _______.
a. administrative controls
b. engineering controls
c. work practice controls
d. all of the above

Module 2: Air Contaminants
Air contaminants are commonly classified as either particulate or gas and vapor contaminants.
The most common particulate contaminants include dusts, fumes, mists, aerosols, and fibers.
Dusts are solid particles that are formed or generated from solid organic or inorganic materials
by reducing their size through mechanical processes such as
crushing, grinding, drilling, abrading or blasting.
Fumes are formed when material from a volatilized solid
condenses in cool air. In most cases, the solid particles resulting
from the condensation react with air to form an oxide.
The term mist is applied to a finely divided liquid suspended in the
atmosphere. Mists are generated by liquids condensing from a
vapor back to a liquid or by breaking up a liquid into a dispersed
state such as by splashing, foaming or atomizing. Aerosols are also
a form of a mist characterized by highly respirable, minute liquid
particles.
Fibers are solid particles whose length is several times greater than their diameter.
Gases are formless fluids that expand to occupy the space or enclosure in which they are
confined. Examples are welding gases such as acetylene, nitrogen, helium, and argon; and
carbon monoxide generated from the operation of internal combustion engines or by its use as
a reducing gas in a heat treating operation. Another example is hydrogen sulfide which is
formed wherever there is decomposition of materials containing sulfur under reducing
conditions.
Liquids change into vapors and mix with the surrounding atmosphere through evaporation.
Vapors are the volatile form of substances that are normally in a solid or liquid state at room
temperature and pressure. Vapors are the gaseous form of substances which are normally in
the solid or liquid state at room temperature and pressure. They are formed by evaporation
from a liquid or solid and can be found where parts cleaning and painting takes place and
where solvents are used.

Indoor Air Quality
Indoor air quality refers to the presence or absence of air pollutants in buildings. There are
many sources of indoor air pollutants. The presence of sources of indoor air pollutants such as
tobacco smoke and radon, or by conditions that promote poor indoor air quality such as
inadequate ventilation or moisture intrusion that can lead to mold
growth, are used as indications of potential health effects.
The quality of indoor air inside offices, schools, and other
workplaces is important not only for workers' comfort but also for
their health. Poor indoor air quality (IAQ) has been tied to symptoms
like headaches, fatigue, trouble concentrating, and irritation of the
eyes, nose, throat and lungs. Also, some specific diseases have been
linked to specific air contaminants or indoor environments, like
asthma with damp indoor environments. In addition, some
exposures, such as asbestos and radon, do not cause immediate
symptoms but can lead to cancer after many years.
Many factors affect IAQ. These factors include poor ventilation (lack of outside air), problems
controlling temperature, high or low humidity, recent remodeling, and other activities in or
near a building that can affect the fresh air coming into the building. Sometimes, specific
contaminants like dust from construction or renovation, mold, cleaning supplies, pesticides, or
other airborne chemicals (including small amounts of chemicals released as a gas over time)
may cause poor IAQ.
The right ventilation and building care can prevent and fix IAQ problems.
In approximately 500 indoor air quality investigations in the last decade, the National Institute
for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) found the primary sources of indoor air quality
problems are:
• Inadequate ventilation 52%
• Contamination from inside building 16%
• Contamination from outside building 10%
• Microbial contamination 5%
• Contamination from building fabric 4%
• Unknown sources 13%

RECOMMENDED VENTILATION RATES
The 62-1989 Standard recommends a minimum of 15 CFM of outdoor air per person for offices
(reception areas) and 20 CFM per person for general office space with a moderate amount of
smoking. Sixty cubic feet per minute per person is recommended for smoking lounges with local
mechanical exhaust ventilation and no air recirculation.
Acute Health Effects of Major Indoor Air Contaminants
Employee complaints can be due to two types of building problems: sick or tight building
syndrome and building related illnesses.
Sick building syndrome is a condition associated with complaints of discomfort including
headache; nausea; dizziness; dermatitis; eye, nose, throat, and respiratory irritation; coughing;
difficulty concentrating; sensitivity to odors; muscle pain; and fatigue. The specific causes of the
symptoms are often not known but sometimes are attributed to the effects of a combination of
substances or individual susceptibility to low concentrations of contaminants. The symptoms
are associated with periods of occupancy and often disappear after the worker leaves the
worksite.
Building-related illnesses are those for which there is a clinically
defined illness of known etiology and include infections such as
legionellosis and allergic reactions such as hypersensitivity
diseases and are often documented by physical signs and
laboratory findings. A more thorough description of these
illnesses can be found in the American Conference of
Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) guidelines on
evaluating bio-aerosols.
Although asbestos and radon have been listed below, acute
health effects are not associated with these contaminants. These
have been included due to recent concerns about their health
effects. The investigator should be aware there may be other
health effects in addition to those listed.
Acetic Acid
o Sources: X-ray development equipment, silicone caulking compounds.
o Acute health effects: Eye, respiratory and mucous membrane irritation.

Carbon Dioxide
o Sources: Unvented gas and kerosene appliances, improperly vented devices, processes
or operations which produce combustion products, human respiration.
o Acute health effects: Difficulty concentrating, drowsiness, increased respiration rate.
Carbon Monoxide
o Sources: Tobacco smoke, fossil-fuel engine exhausts, improperly vented fossil-fuel
appliances.
o Acute health effects: Dizziness, headache, nausea, cyanosis, cardiovascular effects, and
death.
Formaldehyde
o Sources: Off-gassing from urea formaldehyde foam insulation, plywood, particle board,
and paneling; carpeting and fabric; glues and adhesives; and combustion products
including tobacco smoke.
o Acute health effects: Hypersensitive or allergic reactions; skin rashes; eye, respiratory
and mucous membrane irritation; odor annoyance.
Nitrogen Oxides
o Sources: Combustion products from gas furnaces and appliances; tobacco smoke,
welding, and gas- and diesel-engine exhausts.
o Acute health effects: Eye, respiratory and mucous membrane irritation.
Ozone
o Sources: Copy machines, electrostatic air cleaners, electrical arcing, smog.
o Acute health effects: Eye, respiratory tract, mucous membrane irritation; aggravation of
chronic respiratory diseases.
Radon
o Sources: Ground beneath buildings, building materials, and groundwater.
o Acute health effects: No acute health effects are known but chronic exposure may lead
to increased risk of lung cancer from alpha radiation.

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC's): Includes trichloroethylene, benzene, toluene, methyl ethyl
ketone, alcohols, methacrylates, acrolein, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and pesticides.
o Sources: Paints, cleaning compounds, moth-balls, glues, photocopiers, "spirit"
duplicators, signature machines, silicone caulking materials, insecticides, herbicides,
combustion products, asphalt, gasoline vapors, tobacco smoke, dried out floor drains,
cosmetics and other personal products.
o Acute health effects: Nausea; dizziness; eye, respiratory tract, and mucous membrane
irritation; headache; fatigue.
Miscellaneous Inorganic Gases: Includes ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, and sulfur dioxide.
o Sources: Microfilm equipment, window cleaners, acid drain cleaners, combustion
products, tobacco smoke, blue-print equipment.
o Acute health effects: Eye, respiratory tract, mucous membrane irritation; aggravation of
chronic respiratory diseases.
Asbestos
o Sources: Insulation and other building materials such as floor tiles, dry wall compounds,
reinforced plaster.
o Acute health effects: Asbestos is normally not a source of acute health effects. However,
during renovation or maintenance operations, asbestos may be dislodged and become
airborne. Evaluation of employee exposure to asbestos will normally be covered under
the OSHA Asbestos standard.
Synthetic Fibers
o Sources: Fibrous glass and mineral wool.
o Acute health effects: Irritation to the eyes, skin and lungs; dermatitis.
Tobacco Smoke
o Sources: Cigars, cigarettes, pipe tobacco.
o Acute health effects: Tobacco smoke can irritate the respiratory system and, in allergic
or asthmatic persons, often results in eye and nasal irritation, coughing, wheezing,
sneezing, headache, and related sinus problems. People who wear contact lenses often
complain of burning, itching, and tearing eyes when exposed to cigarette smoke. 6
Tobacco smoke is a major contributor to indoor air quality problems. Tobacco smoke
contains several hundred toxic substances including carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide,
hydrogen sulfide, formaldehyde, ammonia, benzene, benzo(a)pyrene, tars, and nicotine.
Most indoor air particulates are due to tobacco smoke and are in the respirable range.

Microorganisms and Other Biological Contaminants (Microbial): Includes viruses, fungi, mold,
bacteria, nematodes, amoeba, pollen, dander, and mites.
o Sources: Air handling system condensate, cooling towers, water damaged materials,
high humidity indoor areas, damp organic material and porous wet surfaces,
humidifiers, hot water systems, outdoor excavations, plants, animal excreta, animals
and insects, food and food products.
o Acute health effects: Allergic reactions such as hypersensitivity diseases
(hypersensitivity pneumonitis, humidifier fever, allergic rhinitis, etc.) and infections such
as legionellosis are seen. Symptoms include chills, fever, muscle ache, chest tightness,
headache, cough, sore throat, diarrhea, and nausea.
Outdoor Air Quality
The Clean Air Act requires the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to set National Ambient
Air Quality Standards for six common air pollutants. These commonly found air pollutants (also
known as "criteria pollutants") are found all over the United States. They are particle pollution
(often referred to as particulate matter), ground-level ozone, carbon monoxide, sulfur oxides,
nitrogen oxides, and lead. These pollutants can harm your health and the environment, and
cause property damage. Of the six pollutants, particle pollution and ground-level ozone are the
most widespread health threats. EPA calls these pollutants "criteria" air pollutants because it
regulates them by developing human health-based and/or environmentally-based criteria
(science-based guidelines) for setting permissible levels. The set of limits based on human
health is called primary standards. Another set of limits intended to prevent environmental and
property damage is called secondary standards.
Six Common Outdoor Air Pollutants
Ozone
In the earth's lower atmosphere, ground-level ozone is considered "bad." Motor vehicle
exhaust and industrial emissions, gasoline vapors, and chemical solvents as well as natural
sources emit NOx and VOC that help form ozone. Ground-level ozone is the primary constituent
of smog. Sunlight and hot weather cause ground-level ozone to form in harmful concentrations
in the air. As a result, it is known as a summertime air pollutant. Many urban areas tend to have
high levels of "bad" ozone, but even rural areas are also subject to increased ozone levels
because wind carries ozone and pollutants that form it hundreds of miles away from their
original sources.

"Good" ozone occurs naturally in the stratosphere approximately 10 to 30 miles above the
earth's surface and forms a layer that protects life on earth from the sun's harmful rays.
Particulate Matter
"Particulate matter," also known as particle pollution or PM, is a
complex mixture of extremely small particles and liquid droplets.
Particle pollution is made up of a number of components, including
acids (such as nitrates and sulfates), organic chemicals, metals, and
soil or dust particles.
The size of particles is directly linked to their potential for causing
health problems. EPA is concerned about particles that are 10
micrometers in diameter or smaller because those are the particles
that generally pass through the throat and nose and enter the
lungs. Once inhaled, these particles can affect the heart and lungs
and cause serious health effects. EPA groups particle pollution into
two categories:
1. "Inhalable coarse particles," such as those found near roadways and dusty industries,
are larger than 2.5 micrometers and smaller than 10 micrometers in diameter.
2. "Fine particles," such as those found in smoke and haze, are 2.5 micrometers in
diameter and smaller. These particles can be directly emitted from sources such as
forest fires, or they can form when gases emitted from power plants, industries and
automobiles react in the air.
Carbon Monoxide
Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless gas emitted from combustion processes.
Nationally and, particularly in urban areas, the majority of CO emissions to ambient air come
from mobile sources. CO can cause harmful health effects by reducing oxygen delivery to the
body's organs (like the heart and brain) and tissues. At extremely high levels, CO can cause
death.
Nitrogen Oxides
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is one of a group of highly reactive gasses known as "oxides of
nitrogen," or "nitrogen oxides (NOx)." Other nitrogen oxides include nitrous acid and nitric acid.
While EPA’s National Ambient Air Quality Standard covers this entire group of NOx, NO2 is the
component of greatest interest and the indicator for the larger group of nitrogen oxides. NO2

forms quickly from emissions from cars, trucks and buses, power plants, and off-road
equipment. In addition to contributing to the formation of ground-level ozone, and fine particle
pollution, NO2 is linked with a number of adverse effects on the respiratory system.
Sulfur Dioxide
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is one of a group of highly reactive gasses known as “oxides of sulfur.” The
largest sources of SO2 emissions are from fossil fuel combustion at power plants (73%) and
other industrial facilities (20%). Smaller sources of SO2 emissions include industrial processes
such as extracting metal from ore, and the burning of high sulfur containing fuels by
locomotives, large ships, and non-road equipment. SO2 is linked with a number of adverse
effects on the respiratory system.
Lead
Lead (Pb) is a metal found naturally in the environment as well as in manufactured products.
The major sources of lead emissions have historically been from fuels in on-road motor vehicles
(such as cars and trucks) and industrial sources. As a result of EPA's regulatory efforts to
remove lead from on-road motor vehicle gasoline, emissions of lead from the transportation
sector dramatically declined by 95 percent between 1980 and 1999, and levels of lead in the air
decreased by 94 percent between 1980 and 1999. Today, the highest levels of lead in air are
usually found near lead smelters. The major sources of lead emissions to the air today are ore
and metals processing and piston-engine aircraft operating on leaded aviation gasoline.

Module 2 Quiz
submitted.
1. The most common particulate contaminates include:
a. Mists, aerosols, and fibers
b. Fungi and bacteria
c. Dusts and fumes
d. Both A and C
2. Which answer below is the definition of indoor air quality?
a. The presence or absence of mold within a building
b. The presence or absence of air pollutants in buildings
c. The presence or absence of humidity found within buildings
d. The presence or absence of ventilation within a building
3. Employee complaints regarding air quality often include: ____________?
a. Headache, dizziness and nausea
b. Tiredness and lack of concentration
c. Eye, nose and throat irritation
d. All of the above
4. The 62-1989 Standard recommends a minimum of ____________ outdoor air per
person for offices.
a. 5 CFM
b. 15 CFM
c. 30 CFM
d. 60 CFM
5. Sources of Acetic Acid are _________________.
a. Processes or operations which produce combustion products
b. Unvented gas and kerosene appliances

c. X-ray development equipment, silicone caulking compounds
d. Both A and B
6. Acute health effects of Carbon Monoxide poisoning are _________________.
a. Dizziness, headache, nausea, cyanosis, cardiovascular effects and death
b. Difficulty concentrating, drowsiness and increased respiration rate
c. Eye, respiratory and mucous membrane irritation
d. Both B and C
7. Miscellaneous inorganic gases include:
a. Viruses, fungi, mold, bacteria, nematodes, amoeba and pollen
b. Fibrous glass and mineral wool
c. Ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, sulfur dioxide
d. Trichloroethylene, benzene and toluene
8. What are three common outdoor air pollutants?
a. Ozone, particulate matter and carbon monoxide
b. Nitrogen oxides, ammonia and hydrogen sulfide
c. Sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide and lead
d. Ozone, ammonia and lead

Module 3: Chemical Hazards
Introduction
Harmful chemical compounds in the form of solids, liquids, gases, mists, dusts, fumes, and
vapors exert toxic effects by inhalation (breathing), absorption (through direct contact with the
skin), or ingestion (eating or drinking). Airborne chemical hazards exist as concentrations of
mists, vapors, gases, fumes, or solids. Some are toxic through inhalation and some of them
irritate the skin on contact; some can be toxic by absorption through the skin or through
ingestion, and some are corrosive to living tissue.
The degree of worker risk from exposure to any given substance depends on the nature and
potency of the toxic effects and the magnitude and duration of exposure.
Information on the risk to workers from chemical hazards can be obtained from the Material
Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) that OSHA'S Hazard Communication Standard requires be supplied by
the manufacturer or importer to the purchaser of all hazardous materials. The MSDS is a
summary of the important health, safety, and toxicological information on the chemical or the
mixture's ingredients. Other provisions of the Hazard Communication Standard require that all
containers of hazardous substances in the workplace have appropriate warning and
identification labels.
Toxic and Hazardous Chemicals
What makes a chemical toxic?
The toxicity of a substance is its ability to cause harmful
effects. These
effects can strike a single cell, a group of cells, an organ
system, or the entire body. A toxic effect may be visible
damage, or a decrease in performance or function
measurable only by a test. All chemicals can cause harm. When only a very large amount of the
chemical can cause damage, the chemical is considered to be practically non-toxic. When a tiny
amount is harmful, the chemical is considered to be highly toxic.
The toxicity of a substance depends on three factors: its chemical structure, the extent to which
the substance is absorbed by the body and the body's ability to detoxify the substance (change
it into less toxic substances) and eliminate it from the body.

Are "toxic" and "hazardous" the same?
No. The toxicity of a substance is the potential of that substance to cause harm, and is only one
factor in determining whether a hazard exists. The hazard of a chemical is the practical
likelihood that the chemical will cause harm. A chemical is determined to be a hazard
depending on the following factors:
• Toxicity: how much of the substance is required to cause harm,
• Route of exposure: how the substance enters your body,
• Dose: how much enters your body,
• Duration: the length of time you are exposed,
• Reaction and interaction: other substances you are exposed to at the same time, and,
• Sensitivity: how your body reacts to the substance compared to other people.
Some chemicals are hazardous because of the risk of fire or explosion. These are important
dangers, but are considered to be safety rather than toxic hazards. The factors of a toxic hazard
are more fully explained below.
Why are some chemicals more harmful than others?
The most important factor in toxicity is the chemical structure of a substance (i.e., what it is
made of), what atoms and molecules it contains and how they are arranged. Substances with
similar structures often cause similar health problems. However, slight differences in chemical
structure can lead to large differences in the type of health effect produced. For example, silica
in one form (amorphous) has little effect on health, and is allowed to be present in the
workplace at relatively high levels. After it is heated, however, it turns into another form of
silica (crystalline) that causes serious lung damage at levels 200 times lower than amorphous
silica.
Routes of Exposure
How can chemicals enter the body?
Exposure normally occurs through inhalation, skin or eye contact, and ingestion.
Inhalation
The most common type of exposure occurs when you breathe a substance into the lungs. The
lungs consist of branching airways (called bronchi) with clusters of tiny air sacs (called alveoli) at
the ends of the airways. The alveoli absorb oxygen and other chemicals into the bloodstream.

Some chemicals are irritants and cause nose or throat irritation. They may also cause
discomfort, coughing, or chest pain when they are inhaled and come into contact with the
bronchi (chemical bronchitis). Other chemicals may be inhaled without causing such warning
symptoms, but they still can be dangerous.
Sometimes a chemical is present in the air as small particles (dust or mist). Some of these
particles, depending on their size, may be deposited in the bronchi and/or alveoli. Many of
them may be coughed out, but others may stay in the lungs and may cause lung damage. Some
particles may dissolve and be absorbed into the blood stream, and have effects elsewhere in
the body.
Skin Contact
The skin is a protective barrier that helps keep foreign chemicals out of the body. However,
some chemicals can easily pass through the skin and enter the bloodstream. If the skin is cut or
cracked, chemicals can penetrate through the skin more easily. Also, some caustic substances,
like strong acids and alkalis, can chemically burn the skin. Others can irritate the skin. Many
chemicals, particularly organic solvents, dissolve the oils in the skin, leaving it dry, cracked, and
susceptible to infection and absorption of other chemicals.
Eye Contact
Some chemicals may burn or irritate the eye. Occasionally they may be absorbed through the
eye and enter the bloodstream. The eyes are easily harmed by chemicals, so any eye contact
with chemicals should be taken as a serious incident.
Ingestion
The least common source of exposure in the workplace is swallowing chemicals. Chemicals can
be ingested if they are left on hands, clothing or beard, or accidentally contaminate food, drinks
or cigarettes. Chemicals present in the workplace as dust, for example, metal dusts such as lead
or cadmium, are easily ingested.
Toxicity of Chemicals
Dose: How much is too much?
In general, the greater the amount of a substance that enters your body, the greater is the
effect on your body. This connection between amount and effect is called the "dose-response
relationship".
For example, organic solvents such as toluene, acetone, and trichloroethylene all affect the
brain in the same way, but to different degrees at different doses. The effects of these solvents

are similar to those that result from drinking alcoholic beverages. At a low dose, you may feel
nothing or a mild, sometimes pleasant ("high") sensation. A larger dose may cause dizziness or
headache. With an even larger dose you may become drunk, pass out, or even stop breathing.
When you inhale a toxic chemical, the dose you receive depends on four factors:
1. The level (concentration) of chemical in the air
2. How hard (fast and deep) you are breathing, which depends on your degree of physical
exertion
3. How much of the chemical that is inhaled stays in your lungs and is absorbed into your
bloodstream
4. How long the exposure lasts
It is safest to keep exposure to any toxic substance as low as possible. Since some chemicals are
much more toxic than others, it is necessary to keep exposure to some substances lower than
others. The threshold level is the lowest concentration that might produce a harmful effect. It is
different for every chemical. The threshold for one chemical may differ from person to person
(see "Sensitivity"). If the concentration of a chemical in the air is kept well below the threshold
level, harmful effects probably will not occur. Levels above the threshold are "too much."
However, this means only there is a possibility that health effects might occur, not that such
effects definitely will occur (see "What are exposure limits?").
Duration: How long is too long?
The longer you are exposed to a chemical, the more likely you are to be affected by it. The dose
is still important-at very low levels you may not experience any effects no matter how long you
are exposed. At higher concentrations you may not be affected following a short-term
exposure, but repeated exposure over time may cause harm.
Chemical exposure which continues over a long period of time is often particularly hazardous
because some chemicals can accumulate in the body or because the damage does not have a
chance to be repaired. The combination of dose and duration is called the rate of exposure.
The body has several systems, most importantly the liver, kidneys and lungs, that change
chemicals to a less toxic form (detoxify) and eliminate them. If your rate of exposure to a
chemical exceeds the rate at which you can eliminate it, some of the chemical will accumulate
in your body. For example, if you work with a chemical for eight hours each day, you have the
rest of the day (16 hours) to eliminate it from your body before you are exposed again the next
day. If your body can't eliminate the entire chemical in 16 hours and you continue to be

exposed, the amount in the body will accumulate each day you are exposed. Illness that affects
the organs for detoxification and elimination, such as hepatitis (inflammation of the liver), can
also decrease their ability to eliminate chemicals from the body.
Accumulation does not continue indefinitely. There is a point where the amount in the body
reaches a maximum and remains the same as long as your exposure remains the same. This
point will be different for each chemical. Some chemicals, such as ammonia and formaldehyde,
leave the body quickly and do not accumulate at all. Other chemicals are stored in the body for
long periods. For instance, lead is stored in the bone, calcium is stored in the liver and kidneys,
and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are stored in body fat. There are a few substances, such
as asbestos fibers, that, once deposited, remain in the body forever.
Latency: How long does it take for a toxic effect to occur?
The effects of toxic substances may appear immediately or soon after exposure, or they may
take many years to appear. Acute exposure is a single exposure or a few exposures. Acute
effects are those which occur following acute exposures. Acute effects can occur immediately,
or be delayed and occur days or weeks after exposure. Chronic exposure is repeated exposure
that occurs over months and years. Chronic effects are those which occur following chronic
exposures, and so are always delayed.
A toxic chemical may cause acute effects, chronic effects or both. For example, if you inhale
solvents on the job, you may experience acute effects such as headaches and dizziness which
go away at the end of the day. Over months, you may begin to develop chronic effects such as
liver and kidney damage.
The delay between the beginning of exposure and the appearance of disease caused by that
exposure is called the "latency period". Some chronic effects caused by chemicals, such as
cancer, have very long latency periods. Cancer has been known to develop as long as 40 years
after a worker's first exposure to a cancer-causing chemical.
The length of the latency period for chronic effects makes it difficult to establish the cause-and-
effect relationship between the exposure and the illness. Since chronic diseases develop
gradually, you may have the disease for some time before it is detected. It is, therefore,
important for you and your physician to know what chronic effects might be caused by the
substances you use on the job.

Differences between acute and chronic effects
Reaction and interaction: What if you're exposed to more than one chemical?
Depending upon the job you have, you may be exposed to more than one chemical. If you are,
you need to be aware of possible reactions and interactions between them. A reaction occurs
when chemicals combine with each other to produce a new substance. The new substance may
have properties different from those of the original substances, and it could be more
hazardous. For example, when household bleach and lye (such as a drain cleaner) are mixed
together, highly dangerous chlorine gas and hydrochloric acid are formed. The Material Safety
Data Sheet (MSDS) for a chemical will often list its potential hazardous reactions and the
substances which should not be mixed with it. An employer is required by law to have an MSDS
for each hazardous substance in the workplace, and make them available for employees on
request.

An interaction occurs when exposure to more than one substance results in a health effect
different from the effects of either one alone. One kind of interaction is called synergism, a
process in which two or more chemicals produce an effect that is greater than the sum of their
individual effects. For instance, carbon tetrachloride and ethanol (drinking alcohol) are both
toxic to the liver. If you are overexposed to carbon tetrachloride and drink alcohol excessively,
the damage to your liver may be much greater than the effects of the two chemicals added
together.
Another example of synergism is the increased risk of developing lung cancer caused by
exposures to both cigarette smoking and asbestos. By either smoking one pack of cigarettes per
day or being heavily exposed to asbestos, you may increase your risk of lung cancer to six times
higher than someone who does neither. But if you smoke a pack a day and are heavily exposed
to asbestos, your risk may be 90 times higher than someone who does neither.
Another interaction is potentiation, which occurs when an effect of one substance is increased
by exposure to a second substance which would not cause that effect by itself. For example,
although acetone does not damage the liver by itself, it can increase carbon tetrachloride's
ability to damage the liver.
Unfortunately, few chemicals have been tested to determine if interactions with other
chemicals occur.
Sensitivity: Are some people more affected than others?
Yes. People vary widely in their sensitivity to the effects of a chemical. Many things determine
how an individual will react to a chemical. These include age, sex, inherited traits, diet,
pregnancy, state of health and use of medication, drugs or alcohol. Depending on these
characteristics, some people will experience the toxic effects of a chemical at a lower (or
higher) dose than other people.
People may also become allergic to a chemical. These people have a different type of response
than those who are not allergic. This response frequently occurs at a very low dose. Not all
chemicals can cause allergic reactions. Substances that are known to cause allergies are called
allergens, or sensitizers.
For example, formaldehyde gas is very irritating. Everyone will experience irritation of the eyes,
nose, and throat, with tears in the eyes and a sore throat, at some level of exposure. All people
will experience irritation if exposed to high enough levels. A person may be more sensitive to
formaldehyde and have irritation at low levels of exposure. Formaldehyde also occasionally
causes allergic reactions, such as allergic dermatitis, or hives. A few people may be allergic to

formaldehyde and develop hives at very low levels, although most people will not get hives no
matter how much they are exposed to formaldehyde.

How can toxic substances harm the body?
When a toxic substance causes damage at the point where it first contacts the
body, that damage is called a local effect. The most common points at which
substances first contact the body are the skin, eyes, nose, throat and lungs.
Toxic substances can also enter the body and travel in the bloodstream to
internal organs. Effects that are produced this way are called systemic. The
internal organs most commonly affected are the liver, kidneys, heart, nervous
system (including the brain) and reproductive system.
A toxic chemical may cause local effects, systemic effects, or both. For example,
if ammonia gas is inhaled, it quickly irritates the lining of the respiratory tract
(nose, throat and lungs). Almost no ammonia passes from the lungs into the blood. Since
damage is caused only at the point of initial contact, ammonia is said to exert a local effect. An
epoxy resin is an example of a substance with local effects on the skin. On the other hand, if
liquid phenol contacts the skin, it irritates the skin at the point of contact (a local effect) and
can also be absorbed through the skin, and may damage the liver and kidneys (systemic
effects).
Sometimes, as with phenols, the local effects caused by a chemical provide a warning that
exposure is occurring. You are then warned that the chemical may be entering your body and
producing systemic effects which you can't yet see or feel. Some chemicals, however, do not
provide any warning at all, and so they are particularly hazardous. For example, glycol ethers
(Cellosolve solvents) can pass through the skin and cause serious internal damage without
producing any observable effect on the skin.
What are the different forms of toxic materials?
Toxic materials can take the form of solids, liquids, gases, vapors, dusts,
fumes, fibers and mists. How a substance gets into the body and what
damage it causes depends on the form or the physical properties of the
substance.
A toxic material may take different forms under varying conditions and
each form may present a different type of hazard. For example, lead solder
in solid form is not hazardous because it is not likely to enter the body.
Soldering, however, turns the lead into a liquid, which may spill or come
into contact with skin. When the spilled liquid becomes solid again, it may
be in the form of small particles (dust) that may be inhaled or ingested and absorbed. If lead is
heated to a very high temperature such as when it is welded, a fume may be created; a fume

consists of very small particles that are extremely hazardous as they are easily inhaled and
absorbed. It is thus important to know what form or forms a given substance takes in the
workplace. See below for a description of each of the forms:
Solid
A solid is a material that retains its form, like stone. Most solids are generally not hazardous
since they are not likely to be absorbed into the body, unless present as small particles such as
dust.
Liquid
A liquid is a material that flows freely, like water. Many hazardous substances are in liquid form
at normal temperatures. Some liquids can damage the skin. Some pass through the skin and
enter the body and may or may not cause skin damage. Liquids may also evaporate (give off
vapors), forming gases which can be inhaled.
Gas
A gas consists of individual chemical molecules dispersed in air, like oxygen, at normal
temperature and pressure. Some gases are flammable, explosive, and/or toxic. The presence of
a gas may be difficult to detect if it has no color or odor, and does not cause immediate
irritation. Such gases, like carbon monoxide, may still be very hazardous.
Vapor
A vapor is the gas form of a substance that is primarily a liquid at normal pressure and
temperature. Most organic solvents evaporate and produce vapors. Vapors can be inhaled into
the lungs, and in some cases may irritate the eyes, skin or respiratory tract. Some are
flammable, explosive and/or toxic. The term vapor pressure or evaporation rate is used to
indicate the tendency for different liquids to evaporate.
Dust
A dust consists of small solid particles in the air. Dusts may be created when solids are
pulverized or ground, or when powder (settled dust) becomes airborne. Dusts may be
hazardous because they can be inhaled into the respiratory tract. Larger particles of dust are
usually trapped in the nose and windpipe (trachea) where they can be expelled, but smaller
particles (respirable dust) can reach and may damage the lungs. Some, like lead dust, may then
enter the bloodstream through the lungs. Some organic dusts, such as grain dust, may explode
when they reach high concentrations in the air.

Fume
A fume consists of very small, fine solid particles in the air which form when solid chemicals
(often metals) are heated to very high temperatures, evaporate to vapor, and finally become
solid again. The welding or brazing of metal, for example, produces metal fumes. Fumes are
hazardous because they are easily inhaled. Many metal fumes can cause an illness called metal
fume fever, consisting of fever, chills and aches like the "flu." Inhalation of other metal fumes,
such as lead, can cause poisoning without causing metal fume fever.
Fiber
A fiber is a solid particle whose length is at least three times its width. The degree of hazard
depends upon the size of the fiber. Smaller fibers such as asbestos, can lodge in the lungs and
cause serious harm. Larger fibers are trapped in the respiratory tract; and are expelled without
reaching the lung.
Mist
A mist consists of liquid particles of various sizes, which are produced by agitation or spraying
of liquids. Mists can be hazardous when they are inhaled or sprayed on the skin. The spraying of
pesticides and the machining of metals using metal working fluids are two situations where
mists are commonly produced.
What are exposure limits?
Exposure limits are established by health and safety authorities to
control exposure to hazardous substances. For example, in Washington
State, "Permissible Exposure Limits (PELs)" are set forth in WISHA
regulations. By law, Washington employers who use these regulated
chemicals must control employee exposures to be below the PELs for
these substances. Permissible exposure limits usually represent the
maximum amount (concentration) of a chemical that can be present in
the air without presenting a health hazard.
Permissible exposure limits may not always be completely protective,
for the following reasons:
1. Although exposure limits are usually based on the best available information, this
information, particularly for chronic (long-term) health effects, may be incomplete.
Often we learn about chronic health effects only after workers have been exposed to a
chemical for many years, and then as new information is learned, the exposure limits
are changed.

2. Exposure limits are set to protect most workers. However, there may be a few workers
who will be affected by a chemical at levels below these limits (refer to "Sensitivity" in
Module 3.6). Employees performing extremely heavy physical exertion breathe in more
air and more of a chemical, and so may absorb an excessive amount.
3. Exposure limits do not take into account chemical interactions. When two or more
chemicals in the workplace have the same health effects, industrial hygienists use a
mathematical formula to adjust the exposure limits for those substances in that
workplace. This formula applies to chemicals that have additive effects, but not to those
with synergistic or potentiating effects (refer to "Reaction and Interaction" in Module
3.6).
4. Exposure limits usually apply to the concentration of a chemical in the air, and are
established to limit exposure by inhalation. Limiting the concentration in air may not
prevent excessive exposure through skin contact or ingestion. Chemicals that may
produce health effects as a result of absorption through the skin have an "S" designation
next to their numerical value in the PEL table. Workers exposed to these chemicals must
be provided with protective clothing to wear when overexposure through the skin is
possible. Some chemicals, like lead and cadmium in dust form, may be ingested through
contamination of hands, hair, clothes, food and cigarettes.
How can exposure be measured and monitored?
When toxic chemicals are present in the workplace, your exposure can be determined by
measuring the concentration of a given chemical in the air and the duration of exposure. This
measurement is called air or environmental monitoring or sampling and is usually done by
industrial hygienists, using various types of instruments. The air is collected from your breathing
zone (the air around your nose and mouth) so that the concentrations measured will accurately
reflect the concentration you are inhaling. The exposure levels calculated from this monitoring
can then be compared to the Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL) for that chemical.
Environmental Monitoring
Environmental monitoring is the most accurate way to determine your exposure to most
chemicals. However, for chemicals that are absorbed by routes other than inhalation, such as
through the skin and by ingestion, air monitoring may underestimate the amount of chemical
you absorb. For these and some other chemicals, the levels of the chemical (or its breakdown
products) in the body can sometimes be measured in the blood, urine or exhaled air. Such
testing is called biological monitoring, and the results may give an estimate of the actual dose
absorbed into the body. For one substance, lead, biological monitoring is required by law when

air monitoring results are above a certain level. The American Conference of Governmental
Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) has recommended the exposure limits for biological monitoring
for a small number of chemicals. These are called Biological Exposure Indices (BEIs) and are
published together with TLVs.
Practical clues to exposure
Odor
If you smell a chemical, you are inhaling it. However, some chemicals can be smelled at levels
well below those that are harmful, so that detecting an odor does not mean that you are
inhaling harmful amounts. On the other hand, if you cannot smell a chemical, it may still be
present. Some chemicals cannot be smelled even at levels that are harmful.
The odor threshold is the lowest level of a chemical that can be smelled by most people. If a
chemical's odor threshold is lower than the amount that is hazardous, the chemical is said to
have good warning properties. One example is ammonia. Most people can smell it at 5 ppm,
below the PEL of 25 ppm. It is important to remember that for most chemicals, the odor
thresholds vary widely from person to person. In addition, some chemicals, like hydrogen
sulfide, cause you to rapidly lose your ability to smell them (called olfactory fatigue). With these
cautions in mind, knowing a chemical's odor threshold may serve as rough guide to your
exposure level.
Don't depend on odor to warn you. Remember, your sense of smell may be better or worse
than average, some very hazardous chemicals have no odor (carbon monoxide), some
chemicals of low toxicity have very strong odors (mercaptans added to natural gas), and others
produce olfactory fatigue.
Taste
If you inhale or ingest a chemical, it may leave a taste in your mouth. Some chemicals have a
particular taste, which may be mentioned in an MSDS.
Particles in Nose or Throat
If you cough up mucous (sputum or phlegm) with particles in it, or blow your nose and see
particles on your handkerchief, then you have inhaled some chemical in particle form.
Unfortunately, most particles which are inhaled into the lungs are too small to see.

Settled Dust or Mist
If chemical dust or mist is in the air, it will eventually settle on work surfaces or on your skin,
hair and clothing. If settled dust or mist is visible, it is possible you inhaled some of this
chemical while it was in the air.
Immediate Symptoms
If you or your co-workers experience symptoms known to be caused by a chemical during or
shortly after its use, you may have been overexposed. Symptoms might include tears in your
eyes; a burning sensation of skin, nose, or throat; a cough; dizziness or a headache.
How can exposures be reduced?
Exposures can be reduced through implementation of training (knowledge) and engineering
controls.
Knowledge
Everyone who works with toxic substances should know the names, toxicity and other hazards
of the substances they use. Employers are required by law to provide this information, along
with training in how to use toxic substances safely. A worker may obtain information about a
chemical's composition, physical characteristics, and toxicity from the Material Safety Data
Sheet (MSDS).
Engineering controls
Limiting exposure to hazards at the source is the preferred way to protect workers. The types of
engineering controls used to reduce this exposure to hazards, in order of effectiveness, are:
Substitution
Substitution is using a less hazardous substance. But before choosing a substitute,
carefully consider its physical and health hazards. For example, mineral spirits (Stoddard
Solvent) is less of a health hazard than perchloroethylene for dry cleaning, but is more
of a fire hazard and an air pollutant.
Enclosure/Isolation
Process or equipment enclosure is the isolation of the source of exposure, often through
automation. This completely eliminates the routine exposure of workers. For example,
handling of radioactive materials is often done by mechanical arms or robots.

Local exhaust ventilation is a hood or air intake at or over the source of exposure to
capture or draw contaminated air from its source before it spreads into the room and
into your breathing zone.
Ventilation
General or dilution ventilation is continual replacement and circulation of fresh air
sufficient to keep concentrations of toxic substances diluted below hazardous levels.
However, concentrations will be highest near the source, and overexposure may occur
in this area. If the dilution air is not well mixed with the room air, pockets of high
concentrations may exist.
Personal Protective Equipment
Personal protective equipment (respirators, gloves, goggles and
aprons) should be used only when engineering controls are not
possible or are not sufficient to reduce exposure.
Respiratory Protective Equipment
Respiratory protective equipment consists of devices that cover
the mouth and nose to prevent substances in the air from being inhaled. A respirator is
effective only when used as part of a comprehensive program established by the employer,
which includes measurement of concentrations of all hazardous substances, selection of the
proper respirator, training the worker in its proper use, fitting of the
respirator to the worker, maintenance, and replacement of parts when
necessary.
Protective Clothing
Protective clothing includes gloves, aprons, goggles, boots, face shields,
and any other materials worn as protection. It should be made of
material designed to resist penetration by the particular chemical being
used. Such material may be called impervious to that chemical. The
manufacturer of the protective clothing usually can provide some
information regarding the substances that are effectively blocked.
Barrier Creams
Barrier creams are special lotions used to coat the skin and prevent chemicals from reaching it.
They may be helpful when the type of work prevents the use of gloves. However, barrier

creams are not recommended as substitutes for gloves. Cosmetic skin creams and lotions (such
as moisturizing lotion) are not barrier creams.

Module 3 Quiz
submitted.
1. The degree of worker risk from exposure to any given substance depends on the: _______.
a. nature and potency of the non-toxic effects
b. nature and potency of the toxic effects and the magnitude and duration of exposure
c. magnitude and duration of toxic effects
d. magnitude and duration of non-toxic effects
2. Bob is an employee for ABC Inc. Part of his job consists of handling hazardous chemicals.
Where can Bob look up information regarding the risks involved with working with chemical
hazards?
a. Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS)
b. Chemical Composition Manual
c. Employer Job Postings
d. Employer Policy Manual
3. When a tiny amount of a chemical is harmful, the chemical is considered to be highly toxic.
a. true
b. false
4. How can chemicals enter the body?
a. inhalation, and skin contact
b. eye contact, and ingestion
c. through personal protective equipment
d. both a and b
5. What is the "dose-response relationship"?
a. The greater someone’s sensitivity to a chemical, the greater is the effect on their
body.
b. The greater the toxicity of a substance the less the effect it has on your body.
c. The less a substance enters your body, the greater is the effect on your body.
d. The greater the amount of a substance that enters your body, the greater is the
effect on your body.

6. While cooking at a fast food restaurant the employees wear latex gloves for sanitation
purposes. None of the employees have physical reactions to the gloves except for Mary.
Mary would be considered _______ to latex.
a. latent
b. resistant
c. sensitive
d. both a and b
7. Toxic substances can enter the body and travel in the bloodstream to internal organs. This
is called ______.
a. a local effect
b. a systemic effect
c. a non-local effect
d. a non-systemic effect
8. Exposure limits are: _______.
a. established by employers to control exposure to hazardous substances.
b. established by health and safety authorities to control exposure to hazardous
substances
c. established by health and safety authorities to increase exposure to hazardous
substances
d. established by employers to reduce exposure to hazardous substances

Module 4: Biological Hazards
Introduction
Biological hazards include bacteria, viruses, fungi, and other living organisms that can cause
acute and chronic infections by entering the body either directly
or through breaks in the skin. Occupations that deal with plants
or animals or their products or with food and food processing
may expose workers to biological hazards. Laboratory and
medical personnel also can be exposed to biological hazards. Any
occupations that results in contact with bodily fluids pose a risk
to workers from biological hazards.
In occupations where animals are involved, biological hazards are
dealt with by preventing and controlling diseases in the animal
population; as well as properly caring for and handling infected
animals. Also, effective personal hygiene, particularly proper attention to minor cuts and
scratches especially on the hands and forearms, helps keep worker risks to a minimum.
In occupations where there is potential exposure to biological hazards, workers should practice
proper personal hygiene; particularly hand washing. Hospitals should provide proper
ventilation, proper personal protective equipment such as gloves and respirators, adequate
infectious waste disposal systems, and appropriate controls including isolation in instances of
particularly contagious diseases such as tuberculosis.
Biological Agents
Biological agents include bacteria, viruses, fungi, other microorganisms and their associated
toxins. They have the ability to adversely affect human health in a variety of ways, ranging from
relatively mild, allergic reactions to serious medical conditions, even death. These organisms
are widespread in the natural environment; they are found in water, soil, plants, and animals.
Because many microbes reproduce rapidly and require minimal resources for survival, they are
a potential danger in a wide variety of occupational settings.
This page provides a starting point for technical and regulatory information about some of the
most virulent and prevalent biological agents.
Anthrax
Anthrax is an acute infectious disease caused by a spore-forming bacterium called Bacillus anthracis.
It is generally acquired following contact with anthrax-infected animals or anthrax-contaminated
animal products.

Avian Flu
Avian influenza is a highly contagious disease of birds which is currently epidemic amongst
poultry in Asia. Despite the uncertainties, poultry experts agree that immediate culling of
infected and exposed birds is the first line of defense for both the protection of human health
and the reduction of further losses in the agricultural sector.
Bloodborne Pathogens and Needlestick Prevention
OSHA estimates 5.6 million workers in the health care industry and related occupations are at
risk of occupational exposure to bloodborne pathogens, including human immunodeficiency
virus (HIV), hepatitis B virus (HBV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), and others.
Botulism
Cases of botulism are usually associated with consumption of preserved foods. However,
botulism toxins are currently among the most common compounds explored by terrorists for
use as biological weapons.
Foodborne Disease
Foodborne illnesses are caused by viruses, bacteria, parasites, toxins, metals, and prions
(microscopic protein particles). Symptoms range from mild gastroenteritis to life-threatening
neurologic, hepatic, and renal syndromes.
Hantavirus
Hantaviruses are transmitted to humans from the dried droppings, urine, or saliva of mice and
rats. Animal laboratory workers and persons working in infested buildings are at increased risk
to this disease.
Legionnaires’ disease
Legionnaires' disease is a bacterial disease commonly associated with water-based aerosols. It is
often the result of poorly maintained air conditioning cooling towers and potable water
systems.

Mold
Molds produce and release millions of spores small enough to be air-, water-, or insect-borne
which may have negative effects on human health including allergic reactions, asthma, and
other respiratory problems.
Plague
The World Health Organization reports 1,000 to 3,000 cases of plague every year. A bioterrorist
release of plague could result in a rapid spread of the pneumonic form of the disease, which
could have devastating consequences.
Ricin
Ricin is one of the most toxic and easily produced plant toxins. It has been used in the past as a
bioterrorist weapon and remains a serious threat.
Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS)
Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) is an emerging, sometimes fatal, respiratory illness.
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the most recent human
cases of SARS were reported in China in April 2004 and there is currently no known
transmission anywhere in the world.
Smallpox
Smallpox is a highly contagious disease unique to humans. It is estimated that no more than 20
percent of the population has any immunity from previous vaccination.
Tularemia
Tularemia is also known as "rabbit fever" or "deer fly fever" and is extremely infectious.
Relatively few bacteria are required to cause the disease, which is why it is an attractive
weapon for use in bioterrorism.
Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers (VHFs)
Along with smallpox, anthrax, plague, botulism, and tularemia, hemorrhagic fever viruses are
among the six agents identified by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) as the
most likely to be used as biological weapons. Many VHFs can cause severe, life-threatening
disease with high fatality rates.

Possible Risks and Suggested Measures
Occupations at Risk Hazards/Risks Preventative Measures
Food (cheese, yogurt, salami) or
food additive production and
bakeries
• Molds/yeasts, bacteria and
mites cause allergies.
• Organic dusts of grain, milk
powder or flour
contaminated with biological
agents.
• Toxins such as
botulinustoxins or aflatoxins
Closed processes
Avoid aerosol formation
Separate contaminated work
areas
Appropriate hygiene measures
Health Care
• Several viral and bacterial
infections such as HIV,
hepatitis, or tuberculosis.
• Needlestick injuries
Safe handling of infectious
specimens, sharps waste,
contaminated linen and other
materials.
Safe handling and cleaning of
blood spills and other body
fluids.
Adequate protective equipment,
gloves, clothing, glasses.
Appropriate hygienic measures

Laboratories
• Infections and allergies
when handling
microorganisms and cell
cultures (human
tissues.)
• Accidental spills and
needlestick injuries.
Microbiological safety cabinets
Dust and aerosol-reducing
measures.
Safe handling and transport of
samples.
Appropriate personal protection
and hygiene measures.
Decontamination and emergency
measures for spills.
Restricted access.
Biosafety labels.
Agriculture
Forestry
Horticulture
Animal food and fodder
production
• Bacteria, fungi, mites
and viruses transmitted
from animals, parasites
and ticks.
• Respiratory problems
due to microorganisms
and mites in organic
dusts of grain, mild
powder, flour, spices.
• Specific allergic diseases
like farmer's lung and
bird breeder's lung.
Dust and aerosol-reducing
measures
Avoid contact with contaminated
animal or equipment
Protection against animal bites
and stings
Preservatives for fodder
Cleaning and maintenance

Metal processing industry
Wood processing industry
• Skin problems due to
bacteria
• Bronchial asthma due to
molds/yeasts in
circulating fluids in
industrial processes such
as grinding, pulp
factories' and metal and
stone cutting fluids.
Local exhaust ventilation
Regular maintenance, filtering
and decontamination of fluids
and machinery.
Skin protection
Appropriate hygiene measures
Working areas with air
conditioning systems and high
humidity (textile industry, print
industry and paper production)
• Allergies and respiratory
disorders due to
molds/yeasts.
• Legionnaires disease
Dust- and aerosol-reducing
measures.
Regular maintenance of
ventilation, machinery and work
areas.
Restrict number of workers.
Maintaining high hot (tap) water
temperatures.
Archives
Museums
Libraries
Molds/yeasts and bacteria cause
allergies and respiratory
disorders
Dust- and aerosol-reduction.
Decontamination
Adequate personal protective
equipment

Building and construction
industry
Processing of natural materials
like clay, straw and reed
Redevelopment of buildings
Molds and bacteria due to
deterioration of building
materials
Dust- and aerosol-reducing
measures
Appropriate personal protection
and hygiene measures

Module 4 Quiz
submitted.
1. Biological hazards include _______ that can cause acute and chronic infections.
a. Formaldehyde, Radon, and pesticides
b. Carbon Dioxide, Nitrogen Oxides, and Ozone
c. bacteria, viruses, fungi, and other living organisms
d. both a and b
2. In occupations where there is potential exposure to biological hazards, workers should
practice proper personal hygiene, particularly: _______.
a. scrubbing their face
b. hand washing
c. combing their hair
d. taking showers
3. Education _______ is an acute infectious disease caused by a spore-forming bacterium
called Bacillus anthracis.
a. Botulism
b. Avian Flu
c. Ricin
d. Anthrax
4. _______ are currently among the most common compounds explored by terrorists for use
as biological weapons.
a. Botulinum toxins
b. Bacillus anthracis
c. Hantavirus
d. Prions

5. _______ are caused by viruses, bacteria, parasites, toxins, metals, and prions (microscopic
protein particles). Symptoms range from mild gastroenteritis to life-threatening neurologic,
hepatic, and renal syndromes.
a. Molds
b. Foodborne Illnesses
c. Ricins
d. Bloodborne pathogens
6. _______ is one of the most toxic and easily produced plant toxins. It has been used in the
past as a bioterrorist weapon and remains a serious threat.
a. Ricin
b. Hantavirus
c. Anthrax
d. Botulism
7. _______ is also known as "rabbit fever" or "deer fly fever" and is extremely infectious.
Relatively few bacteria are required to cause the disease, which is why it is an attractive
weapon for use in bioterrorism.
a. Ricin
b. Hantavirus
c. Anthrax
d. Tularemia
8. John works in a library. What are some of the risks/hazards he faces at work?
a. Needlestick injuries
b. Respiratory problems due to microorganisms and mites in organic dusts of grain,
mild powder, flour and spices.
c. Molds/yeasts and bacteria that can cause allergies and respiratory disorders.
d. Legionnaires disease

Module 5: Physical Hazards
Physical hazards that affect employees in the workplace include excessive levels of ionizing and
nonionizing electromagnetic radiation, noise, vibration, illumination, and temperature.
In occupations where there is exposure to ionizing radiation, time, distance, and shielding are
important tools in ensuring worker safety. Danger from radiation increases with the amount of
time one is exposed to it; hence, the shorter the time of exposure the smaller the radiation
danger.
Distance
Distance also is a valuable tool in controlling exposure to both ionizing and non-ionizing
radiation. Radiation levels from some sources can be estimated by comparing the squares of
the distances between the worker and the source. For example, at a reference point of 10 feet
from a source, the radiation is 1/100 of the intensity at 1 foot from the source.
Shielding
Shielding also is a way to protect against radiation. The greater the protective mass between a
radioactive source and the worker, the lower the radiation exposure.
Nonionizing radiation also is dealt with by shielding workers from the source. Sometimes
limiting exposure times to nonionizing radiation or increasing the distance is not effective. Laser
radiation, for example, cannot be controlled effectively by imposing time limits. An exposure
can be hazardous that is faster than the blinking of an eye. Increasing the distance from a laser
source may require miles before the energy level reaches a point where the exposure would
not be harmful.
Noise Hazards
Noise, another significant physical hazard, can be controlled by various measures. Noise can be
reduced by the following procedures:
• Installing equipment and systems that have been engineered, designed, and built to
operate quietly.
• Enclosing or shielding noisy equipment and making sure equipment is in good repair and
properly maintained with all worn or unbalanced parts replaced.
• Mounting noisy equipment on special mounts to reduce vibration; and by installing
silencers, mufflers, or baffles.
• Substituting quiet work methods for noisy ones is another significant way to reduce
noise, for example, welding parts rather than riveting them. Also, treating floors,

ceilings, and walls with acoustical material can reduce reflected or reverberant noise. In
addition, erecting sound barriers at adjacent work stations around noisy operations will
reduce worker exposure to noise generated at adjacent work stations.
• It is also possible to reduce noise exposure by increasing the distance between the
source and the receiver, by isolating workers in acoustical booths, limiting workers'
exposure time to noise, and by providing hearing protection.
OSHA requires workers in noisy surroundings be periodically tested as a precaution against
hearing loss.
Heat Exposure
Another physical hazard, radiant heat exposure in factories such as steel mills, can be controlled
by installing reflective shields and by providing protective clothing.
Ionizing & Non-Ionizing Radiation
Radiation having a wide range of energies forms the electromagnetic spectrum. This is
illustrated below. The spectrum has two major divisions:
• Non-ionizing radiation
• Ionizing radiation
Radiation that has enough energy to move atoms in a molecule around or cause them to
vibrate, but not enough to remove electrons, is referred to as "non-ionizing radiation."
Examples of this kind of radiation are sound waves, visible light, and microwaves.
Radiation that falls within the ionizing radiation" range has enough energy to remove tightly
bound electrons from atoms, thus creating ions. This is the type of radiation that people usually
think of as 'radiation.' We take advantage of its properties to generate electric power, to kill
cancer cells, and in many manufacturing processes.
The energy of the radiation shown on the spectrum below increases from left to right as the
frequency rises.

Non-Ionizing Radiation
We take advantage of the properties of non-ionizing radiation for common tasks:
• microwave radiation-- telecommunications and heating food
• infrared radiation --infrared lamps to keep food warm in restaurants
• radio waves—broadcasting
Non-ionizing radiation ranges from extremely low frequency radiation, shown on the far left
through the audible, microwave, and visible portions of the spectrum into the ultraviolet range.
Extremely low-frequency radiation has very long wave lengths (on the order of a million meters
or more) and frequencies in the range of 100 Hertz or cycles per second or less. Radio
frequencies have wave lengths of between 1 and 100 meters and frequencies in the range of 1
million to 100 million Hertz. Microwaves that we use to heat food have wavelengths that are
about 1 hundredth of a meter long and have frequencies of about 2.5 billion Hertz.
Ionizing Radiation
Higher frequency ultraviolet radiation begins to have enough energy to break chemical bonds.
X-ray and gamma ray radiation, which are at the upper end of magnetic radiation, have very
high frequency --in the range of 100 billion Hertz--and very short wavelengths--1 million
millionth of a meter. Radiation in this range has extremely high energy. It has enough energy to
strip off electrons or, in the case of very high-energy radiation, break up the nucleus of atoms.

Ionization
Ionization is the process in which a charged portion of a molecule (usually an electron) is given
enough energy to break away from the atom. This process results in the formation of two
charged particles or ions: the molecule with a net positive charge, and the free electron with a
negative charge.
Each ionization releases approximately 33 electron volts (eV) of energy. Material surrounding
the atom absorbs the energy. Compared to other types of radiation that may be absorbed,
ionizing radiation deposits a large amount of energy into a small area. In fact, the 33 eV from
one ionization is more than enough energy to disrupt the chemical bond between two carbon
atoms. All ionizing radiation is capable, directly or indirectly, of removing electrons from most
molecules.
There are three main kinds of ionizing radiation:
• Alpha particles, which include two protons and two neutrons
• Beta particles, which are essentially electrons
• Gamma rays and x-rays, which are pure energy (photons).
Noise
Every year, approximately 30 million people in the United States are occupationally exposed to
hazardous noise. Noise-related hearing loss has been listed as one of the most prevalent
occupational health concerns in the United States for more than 25 years. Thousands of
workers every year suffer from preventable hearing loss due to high workplace noise levels.
Since 2004, the Bureau of Labor Statistics has reported that nearly 125,000 workers have
suffered significant, permanent hearing loss. In 2009 alone, BLS reported more than 21,000
hearing loss cases.
Exposure to high levels of noise can cause permanent hearing loss. Neither surgery nor a
hearing aid can help correct this type of hearing loss. Short term exposure to loud noise can
also cause a temporary change in hearing (your ears may
feel stuffed up) or a ringing in your ears (tinnitus). These
short-term problems may go away within a few minutes
or hours after leaving the noisy area. However, repeated
exposures to loud noise can lead to permanent tinnitus
and/or hearing loss.

Loud noise can also create physical and psychological stress,
reduce productivity, interfere with communication and
concentration, and contribute to workplace accidents and
injuries by making it difficult to hear warning signals. Noise-
induced hearing loss limits your ability to hear high
frequency sounds, understand speech, and seriously impairs
your ability to communicate. The effects of hearing loss can
be profound, as hearing loss can interfere with your ability to
enjoy socializing with friends, playing with your children or
grandchildren, or participating in other social activities you
enjoy. It can eventually lead to psychological and social
isolation.
How does the ear work?
When sound waves enter the outer ear, the vibrations
impact the ear drum and are transmitted to the middle and
inner ear. In the middle ear three small bones called the
malleus (or hammer), the incus (or anvil), and the stapes (or
stirrup) amplify and transmit the vibrations generated by the
sound to the inner ear. The inner ear contains a snail-like
structure called the cochlea which is filled with fluid and
lined with cells with very fine hairs. These microscopic hairs
move with the vibrations and convert the sound waves into
nerve impulses - the result is the sound we hear.
Exposure to loud noise can destroy these hair cells and cause
hearing loss!
What are the warning signs that your workplace may
be too noisy?
Noise may be a problem in your workplace if:
• You hear ringing or humming in your ears when you leave work.
• You have to shout to be heard by a coworker an arm's length away.
• You experience temporary hearing loss when leaving work.

How loud is too loud?
Noise is measured in units of sound pressure levels called decibels, named after Alexander
Graham Bell, using A-weighted sound levels (dBA). The A-weighted sound levels closely match
the perception of loudness by the human ear. Decibels are measured on a logarithmic scale
which means that a small change in the number of decibels results in a huge change in the
amount of noise and the potential damage to a person's hearing.
OSHA sets legal limits on noise exposure in the workplace. These limits are based on a worker's
time weighted average over an 8 hour day. With noise, OSHA's permissible exposure limit (PEL)
is 90 dBA for all workers for an 8 hour day. The OSHA standard uses a 5 dBA exchange rate. This
means that when the noise level is increased by 5 dBA, the amount of time a person can be
exposed to a certain noise level to receive the same dose is cut in half.
The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has recommended all worker
exposures to noise should be controlled below a level equivalent to 85 dBA for eight hours to
minimize occupational noise induced hearing loss. NIOSH has found that significant noise-
induced hearing loss occurs at the exposure levels equivalent to the OSHA PEL based on
updated information obtained from literature reviews. NIOSH also recommends a 3 dBA
exchange rate so that every increase by 3 dBA doubles the amount of the noise and halves the
recommended amount of exposure time.
Here's an example: OSHA allows 8 hours of exposure to 90 dBA but only 2 hours of exposure to
100 dBA sound levels. NIOSH would recommend limiting the 8 hour exposure to less than 85
dBA. At 100 dBA, NIOSH recommends less than 15 minutes of exposure per day.
In 1981, OSHA implemented new requirements to protect all workers in general industry (e.g.
the manufacturing and the service sectors) for employers to implement a Hearing Conservation
Program where workers are exposed to a time weighted average noise level of 85 dBA or higher
over an 8 hour work shift. Hearing Conservation Programs require employers to measure noise
levels, provide free annual hearing exams and free hearing protection, provide training, and
conduct evaluations of the adequacy of the hearing protectors in use unless changes to tools,
equipment and schedules are made so that they are less noisy and worker exposure to noise is
less than the 85 dBA.
What can be done to reduce the hazard from noise?
Noise controls are the first line of defense against excessive noise exposure. The use of these
controls should aim to reduce the hazardous exposure to the point where the risk to hearing is
eliminated or minimized. With the reduction of even a few decibels, the hazard to hearing is
reduced, communication is improved, and noise-related annoyance is reduced. There are

several ways to control and reduce worker exposure to noise in a workplace. Engineering
controls that reduce sound exposure levels are available and technologically feasible for most
noise sources. Engineering controls involve modifying or replacing equipment, or making
related physical changes at the noise source or along the transmission path to reduce the noise
level at the worker's ear. In some instances the application of a relatively simple engineering
noise control solution reduces the noise hazard to the extent that further requirements of the
OSHA Noise standard (e.g., audiometric testing (hearing tests), hearing conservation program,
provision of hearing protectors, etc...) are not necessary.
Examples of inexpensive, effective engineering controls include some of the following:
• Choose low-noise tools and machinery (e.g., Buy Quiet Roadmap (NASA)).
• Maintain and lubricate machinery and equipment (e.g., oil bearings).
• Place a barrier between the noise source and employee (e.g., sound walls or curtains).
• Enclose or isolate the noise source.

Administrative controls are changes in the workplace that reduce or eliminate the worker
exposure to noise. Examples include:
• Operating noisy machines during shifts
when fewer people are exposed.
• Limiting the amount of time a person
spends at a noise source.
• Providing quiet areas where workers can
gain relief from hazardous noise sources
(e.g., construct a sound proof room
where workers' hearing can recover -
depending upon their individual noise
level and duration of exposure, and time
spent in the quiet area).
• Restricting worker presence to a suitable distance away from noisy equipment.
Controlling noise exposure through distance is often an effective, yet simple and inexpensive
administrative control. This control may be applicable when workers are present but are not
actually working with a noise source or equipment. Increasing the distance between the noise
source and the worker, reduces their exposure. In open space, for every doubling of the
distance between the source of noise and the worker, the
noise is decreased by 6 dBA.
Hearing protection devices (HPDs), such as earmuffs and
plugs, are considered an acceptable but less desirable
option to control exposures to noise and are generally used
during the time necessary to implement engineering or
administrative controls, when such controls are not
feasible, or when worker's hearing tests indicate significant
hearing damage.
An effective hearing conservation program must be
implemented by employers in general industry whenever worker noise exposure is equal to or
greater than 85 dBA for an 8 hour exposure or in the construction industry when exposures
exceed 90 dBA for an 8 hour exposure. This program strives to prevent initial occupational
hearing loss, preserve and protect remaining hearing, and equip workers with the knowledge
and hearing protection devices necessary to protect them. Key elements of an effective hearing
conservation program include:

• Workplace noise sampling including personal noise monitoring which identifies which
employees are at risk from hazardous levels of noise.
• Informing workers at risk from hazardous levels of noise exposure of the results of their
noise monitoring.
• Providing affected workers or their authorized representatives with an opportunity to
observe any noise measurements conducted.
• Maintaining a worker audiometric testing program (hearing tests) which is a
professional evaluation of the health effects of noise upon individual worker's hearing.
• Implementing comprehensive hearing protection follow-up procedures for workers who
show a loss of hearing (standard threshold shift) after completing baseline (first) and
yearly audiometric testing.
• Proper selection of hearing protection based upon individual fit and manufacturer's
quality testing indicating the likely protection that they will provide to a properly trained
wearer.
• Evaluate the hearing protector attenuatum and effectiveness for the specific workplace
noise.
• Training and information that ensures the workers are aware of the hazard from
excessive noise exposures and how to properly use the protective equipment that has
been provided.
• Data management of and worker access to records regarding monitoring and noise
sampling.
Vibration
Various kinds of tools may cause vibration that could lead to "white fingers" or hand-arm
vibration syndrome (HAVS). This is especially dangerous when proper damping techniques are
not applied, if machines are not maintained, if tools are not alternated, or if a worker uses a
vibrating tool for consecutive hours during a workday. Workers need to be trained on the
hazards of working with vibrating tools, and should always allow the tool or machine to do the
work.
Hazards and Solutions
Potential Hazards
Both hand-held and stationary tools that transmit vibration through a work piece can cause
vibration "white fingers" or hand-arm vibration syndrome (HAVS). White fingers, or Raynaud's
Syndrome, is a disease of the hands in which the blood vessels in the fingers collapse due to
repeated exposure to vibration. The skin and muscle tissue do not get the oxygen they need

and eventually die. HAVS is a more advanced condition, and the entire hand or arm may be
affected by exposure to vibration. Early signs of HAVS are infrequent feelings of numbness
and/or tingling in the fingers, hands, or arms, or numbness and whiteness in the tip of the
finger when exposed to cold. As the disease progresses, a worker experiences more frequent
attacks of numbness, tingling, and pain and finds it difficult to use his or her hands. A worker
with advanced HAVS may be disabled for a long amount of time.
Possible Solutions
Engineering Controls
Vibration isolators or damping techniques on equipment offer the most effective protection.
Isolate machine vibrations from the surface if it is mounted or by use of vibration isolation
mounts. Vibrating panels of machine housings and guards may be controlled by use of damping
materials applied to the panels. Felts, liquid mastics, and elastomeric damping sheets are
effective damping materials. Determining the correct type and quantity of damping material to
use for a particular machine is a complicated process and should be left to a knowledgeable
person. The frequency emitted by the machine, the noise reduction level desired, and the
weight and size of the machine are factors to consider. A good rule of thumb, however, is that
the damping layer should be the same thickness as the surfaces being treated.
Work Practices
• Maintain machines in proper working order. Unbalanced rotating parts or unsharpened
cutting tools can give off excessive vibration.
• Arrange work tasks so that vibrating and non-vibrating tools can be used alternately.
• Restrict the number of hours a worker uses a vibrating tool during the workday. Allow
employees to take 10 to 15 minute breaks from the source of the vibration every hour.
• Train workers about the hazards of working with vibrating tools. Instruction should
include: the sources of vibration exposure, early signs and symptoms of hand-arm
vibration syndrome, and work practices for minimizing vibration exposure.
• Instruct workers to keep their hands warm and dry, and to not grip a vibrating tool too
tightly. Workers should allow the tool or machine to do the work.

Illumination
OSHA Standard: 1915.92, 1926.26, and 1926.56
Potential Hazards:
Inadequate or poor-quality lighting systems can lead to:
• Slips, trips, and falls.
• Electric shocks and burns.
• The inability to exit the space.
Requirements and Example Solutions:
• Temporary lights must have guards or be recessed to
prevent accidental contact with the bulb.
• Temporary lights must:
o Be equipped with heavy duty electric cords.
o Not be suspended by their electric cords.
o Have splices equal to the insulation of the cable.
• Cords must be protected from damage.
• Exposed non-current-carrying metal parts of temporary lights must be grounded.
• Temporary lighting must be equipped with overcurrent protection such as fuses or
circuit breakers.
• Portable emergency lighting such as flashlights or light sticks must be provided.
• Workers must not enter dark spaces without a suitable portable light.
• Burning torches should not be used to illuminate work areas.

Construction areas, ramps, runways, corridors, offices, shops, and storage areas shall be lighted
to not less than the minimum illumination intensities listed below while any work is in progress:
Heat
Office Temperature/Humidity
As a general rule, office temperature and humidity are matters of human comfort. OSHA has no
regulations specifically addressing temperature and humidity in an office setting. However,
Section III, Chapter 2, Subsection V of the OSHA Technical Manual, "Recommendations for the
Employer," provides engineering and administrative guidance to prevent or alleviate indoor air
quality problems. Air treatment is defined under the engineering recommendations as, "the
removal of air contaminants and/or the control of room temperature and humidity." OSHA
recommends temperature control in the range of 68-76 degrees Fahrenheit and humidity
control in the range of 20%-60%.

Non-Office Work Environments
Operations involving high air temperatures, radiant heat sources, high humidity, direct physical
contact with hot objects, or strenuous physical activities have a high potential for inducing heat
stress in employees engaged in such operations. Such places include:
• iron and steel foundries
• non-ferrous foundries
• brick-firing and ceramic plants
• glass products facilities
• rubber products factories
• electrical utilities (particularly boiler rooms)
• bakeries, confectioneries and commercial kitchens
• laundries
• food canneries
• chemical plants
• mining sites, smelters and steam tunnels
Outdoor operations conducted in hot weather, such as construction, refining, asbestos
removal, and hazardous waste site activities, especially those that require workers to wear
semipermeable or impermeable protective clothing, are also likely to cause heat stress among
exposed workers.
Engineering Controls
Ventilation, air cooling, fans, shielding, and insulation are the five major types of engineering
controls used to reduce heat stress in hot work environments. Heat reduction can also be
achieved by using power assists and tools that reduce the physical demands placed on a
worker.
However, for this approach to be successful, the metabolic effort required for the worker to use
or operate these devices must be less than the effort required without them. Another method
is to reduce the effort necessary to operate power assists. The worker should be allowed to
take frequent rest breaks in a cooler environment.
General Ventilation
This method is used to dilute hot air with cooler air (generally cooler air that is brought in from
the outside). This technique clearly works better in cooler climates than in hot ones. A
permanently installed ventilation system usually handles large areas or entire buildings.
Portable or local exhaust systems may be more effective or practical in smaller areas.

Air treatment/air cooling
This method differs from ventilation because it reduces the temperature of the air by removing
heat (and sometimes humidity) from the air.
Air conditioning
This is a method of air cooling, but it is expensive to
install and operate. An alternative to air conditioning is
the use of chillers to circulate cool water through heat
exchangers over which air from the ventilation system is
then passed; chillers are more efficient in cooler
climates or in dry climates where evaporative cooling
can be used.
Local air cooling
This can be effective in reducing air temperature in specific areas. Two methods have been
used successfully in industrial settings. One type, cool rooms, can be used to enclose a specific
workplace or to offer a recovery area near hot jobs. The second type is a portable blower with
built-in air chiller. The main advantage of a blower, aside from portability, is minimal set-up
time.
Increasing the air flow
Another way to reduce heat stress is to increase the air flow or convection using fans in the
work area (as long as the air temperature is less than the worker's skin temperature). Changes
in air speed can help workers stay cooler by increasing both the convective heat exchange (the
exchange between the skin surface and the surrounding air) and the rate of evaporation.
Because this method does not actually cool the air; any increases in air speed must impact the
worker directly to be effective.
Evaporative cooling
If the dry bulb temperature is higher than 35 degrees Celsius (95 degrees Fahrenheit), the hot
air passing over the skin can actually make the worker hotter. When the temperature is more
than 35°C and the air is dry, evaporative cooling may be improved by air movement, although
this improvement will be offset by the convective heat. When the temperature exceeds 35
degrees Celsius and the relative humidity is 100%, air movement will make the worker hotter.

Increases in air speed have no effect on the body temperature of workers wearing vapor-
barrier clothing.
Heat conduction methods
This method includes insulating the hot surface that generates the heat and changing the
surface itself.
Simple engineering controls
Engineering controls, such as shields, can be used to reduce radiant heat. (heat coming from
hot surfaces) within the worker's line of sight. Surfaces that exceed 35 degrees Celsius (95
degrees Fahrenheit) are sources of infrared radiation that can add to the worker's heat load.
Flat black surfaces absorb heat more than smooth, polished ones. Employers should have
cooler surfaces surrounding the worker to help assist in cooling because the worker's body
radiates heat toward them.
Heating Pipes
With some sources of radiation, such as heating pipes, it is possible to use both insulation and
surface modifications to achieve a substantial reduction in radiant heat. Instead of reducing
radiation from the source, shielding can be used to interrupt the path between the source and
the worker. Polished surfaces make the best barriers, although special glass or metal mesh
surfaces can be used if visibility is a problem.
Shields
Shields should be located so that they do not interfere with air flow, unless they are also being
used to reduce convective heating. The reflective surface of the shield should be kept clean to
maintain its effectiveness.
Administrative Controls and Work Practices
Training is the key to good work practices. Unless all employees understand the reasons for
using new, or changing old, work practices, the chances of such a program succeeding are
greatly reduced.
NIOSH (1986) states a good heat stress training program should include at least the following
components:
• Knowledge of the hazards of heat stress;

• Recognition of predisposing factors, danger signs, and symptoms;
• Awareness of first-aid procedures for, and the potential health effects of, heat stroke;
• Employee responsibilities in avoiding heat stress;
• Dangers of using drugs, including therapeutic ones, and alcohol in hot work
environments;
• Use of protective clothing and equipment; and
• Purpose and coverage of environmental and medical surveillance programs and the
advantages of worker participation in such programs.
Hot jobs should be scheduled for the cooler part of the day, and routine maintenance and
repair work in hot areas should be scheduled for the cooler seasons of the year.
Other Administrative Controls
The following administrative controls can be used to reduce heat stress:
• Reduce the physical demands of work, e.g., excessive lifting or digging with heavy
objects;
• Provide recovery areas, e.g., air-conditioned enclosures and rooms;
• Use shifts, e.g., early morning, cool part of the day, or night work;
• Use intermittent rest periods with water breaks;
• Use relief workers;
• Use worker pacing; and
Assign extra workers and limit worker occupancy, or the number of workers present, especially
in confined or enclosed spaces.

Module 5 Quiz
submitted.
1. The physical hazards employees face in the workplace include: ________.
a. excessive levels of ionizing and nonionizing electromagnetic radiation, and noise
b. vibration, illumination, and temperature
c. bloodborne pathogens
d. both a and b
2. Employees work with non-ionizing radiation for which of these common tasks?
a. telecommunications and heating food
b. infrared lamps to keep food warm in restaurants
c. broadcasting
d. all of the above
3. Jack is leaving work and he hears ringing in his ears. This is a warning sign that his
workplace may be too: _______.
a. stressful
b. noisy
c. quiet
d. all of the above
4. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has recommended
that all worker exposures to noise should be controlled below a level equivalent to
_______ for eight hours to minimize occupational noise induced hearing loss.
a. 60 dBA
b. 75 dBA
c. 85 dBA
d. 100 dBA
5. Placing a barrier between a noise source and an employee is an example of an:
_______.
a. physical control
b. hearing protection device
c. administrative control
d. engineering control

6. Peter frequently works with jack hammers; he has recently been feeling numbness
and tingling in his fingers, hands, and arms. These may be early signs of: _______.
a. White fingers a.k.a Raynaud's Syndrome
b. Legionnaires' Disease
c. Hand-Arm Vibration Syndrome (HAVS)
d. Hantavirus
7. Inadequate or poor-quality lighting systems can lead to: ________.
a. slips, trips, and falls
b. electric shocks and burns
c. the inability to exit the space
d. all of the above
8. _______ are the major types of engineering controls used to reduce heat stress in hot
work environments.
a. Ventilation, air cooling and fans
b. Use of protective clothing and equipment and reducing the physical demands of
the work
c. Shielding and insulation
d. both a and c

Module 6: Ergonomic Hazards
Introduction
The science of ergonomics studies and evaluates a full range of tasks
including, but not limited to, lifting, holding, pushing, walking, and
reaching. Many ergonomic problems result from technological changes
such as increased assembly line speeds, adding specialized tasks, and
increased repetition; some problems arise from poorly designed job
tasks. Any of those conditions can cause ergonomic hazards such as
excessive vibration and noise, eye strain, repetitive motion, and heavy
lifting problems. Improperly designed tools or work areas also can be
ergonomic hazards. Repetitive motions or repeated shocks over
prolonged periods of time as in jobs involving sorting, assembling, and
data entry can often cause irritation and inflammation of the tendon
sheath of the hands and arms, a condition known as carpal tunnel syndrome.
Ergonomic hazards are avoided primarily by the effective design of a job or jobsite and better
designed tools or equipment that meet workers' needs in terms of physical environment and
job tasks.
Through thorough worksite analyses, employers can set up procedures to correct or control
ergonomic hazards by using the appropriate engineering controls:
• Designing or re-designing work stations, lighting, tools and equipment
• Teaching correct work practices, such as proper lifting methods
• Employing proper administrative controls (for example, shifting workers among several
different tasks, reducing production demand, and increasing rest breaks)
• Providing and mandating personal protective equipment
Overall, industrial hygienists point out the benefits of a well-designed, ergonomic work
environment can include increased efficiency, fewer accidents, lower operating costs and more
effective use of personnel.

Ergonomic Guidelines
A major component of ergonomics is the development of industry-specific and task-specific
guidelines to reduce and prevent workplace musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs). These voluntary
guidelines are tools to assist employers in recognizing and controlling ergonomics-related risk
factors. Employers in other industries for which guidelines have not been developed may find
useful information in these guidelines for implementing their own ergonomic programs. See
below for more information on OSHA’s current ergonomics guidelines:
OSHA issued the ergonomic guidelines for the shipyards industry on February 28, 2008.
• Guidelines for Shipyards: Ergonomics for the Prevention of Musculoskeletal Disorders.
OSHA 3341-03N, (2008). Also available as a 2 MB PDF, 52 pages.
OSHA issued the ergonomic guidelines for the poultry processing industry on September 2,
2004.
• Guidelines for Poultry Processing: Ergonomics for the Prevention of Musculoskeletal
Disorders. OSHA 3213-09N, (2004). Also available as a 580 KB PDF, 28 pages.
OSHA issued the ergonomic guidelines for the retail grocery stores industry on May 28, 2004.
• Guidelines for Retail Grocery Stores: Ergonomics for the Prevention of Musculoskeletal
Disorders. OSHA 3192-05N, (2004). Also available as a 921 KB PDF, 29 pages.
OSHA issued the ergonomic guidelines for the nursing home industry on March 13, 2003. The
document was updated on September 12, 2005.
• Guidelines for Nursing Homes: Ergonomics for the Prevention of Musculoskeletal
Disorders. OSHA 3182, (Revised 2009). Also available as a 2 MB PDF, 44 pages.
Future Ergonomic Guidelines
OSHA plans to develop additional voluntary guidelines with the use of a standard protocol.
Previously Completed Ergonomic Guidelines
• Ergonomics Program Management Guidelines for Meatpacking Plants. OSHA, (1993).

Basic Ergonomic Principles
NOTE: For a more thorough introduction to ergonomics refer to OSHAcademy Course 711 -
Introduction to Ergonomics
Ergonomics (er'gÃµ nom'iks):
• The study of work and the relationship of work to the physical and cognitive capabilities
of people.
• Fitting the job (tools, tasks, and environment) to the employee, instead of forcing the
worker to fit the job.
• Ergonomic principles are derived from many areas,
including:
• Biomechanics
• Physiology
• Anthropometry
• Industrial engineering
• Safety
Ergonomic Injuries
Classifications of Ergonomic Injuries
There are two classifications of ergonomic injuries, and they are:
• Cumulative Trauma Disorders (CTD's) - exposure driven
• Strains/Sprains - instantaneous (event driven)
Characteristics of Cumulative Trauma Disorders (CTD's) are:
• Injury to soft tissue caused by prolonged exposure to multiple ergonomic risk factors
• Typically develop in small body segments (i.e. fingers, wrists, elbows, and neck)
Examples of CTD's
Tendon disorders
• Inflammation of tendon and/or tendon sheathing caused by repeated rubbing against
ligaments, bone, etc.
• Lateral epicondylitis (tennis elbow)

Nerve disorders
• Compression of nerves from repeated or sustained exposure to sharp edges, bones,
ligaments, and/or tendons
• Carpal tunnel syndrome
Neurovascular disorders
• Compression of blood vessels and/or nerves from repeated exposure to vibration or
cold temperatures
• Raynaud's phenomenon (white finger syndrome)
Characteristics of Strains & Sprains
• Injury to connective tissue caused by single forceful event: lifting heavy objects in
awkward position
• Common to large body segments (i.e. back, legs, and shoulders)
• Risk of injury increases with the presence of multiple risk factors
Early Reporting of Ergonomic Issues
It is critical for employees to understand the importance of reporting ergonomic issues sooner
rather than later to help prevent serious injuries from occurring.
Proactive Reporting:
• Report suspected ergonomics risk factors to your supervisor and safety committee
representative
Early Reporting Process:
• Report pain or discomfort associated with work to your supervisor and Occupational
Health Services
Benefits to Early Reporting:
• Leads to early care and quicker healing, preventing chronic problems
• Leads to quicker identification of the root cause of the injury
• Will initiate an ergonomics evaluation by trained personnel

Stretching Basics
Stretching helps reduce the likelihood of ergonomic injury from
occurring in the workplace.
The Benefits of Stretching:
• Increases flexibility/elasticity of muscles
• Increases circulation to warm the muscles, improving
mental alertness, reducing fatigue
• Decreases muscle tension and stress
When to Stretch:
• Prior to starting your day
• During short breaks (at least once per hour)
• After breaks or lunch to prevent fatigue
• If tension or stress is apparent
• After a lengthy task duration or an extended awkward
posture
Proper stretching techniques:
• Relax and breathe normally. Do not hold your breath.
• Hold each stretch for a count of 15, or as long as comfort is
maintained.
• Use gentle, controlled motions. Do not
bounce!
• Keep the knees slightly bent for better
balance.
• Stretch until a mild tension is felt, then
relax.
• Stretch by how you feel and not by how
far you can go.

Ergonomic Risk Factors
Risk of injury increases with:
• Prolonged exposure to any of the ergonomic risk factors shown below
• Presence of multiple risk factors within a single job task

Module 6 Quiz
submitted.
1. The science of ergonomics studies and evaluates a full range of tasks including, but not
limited to, ______.
a. lifting, holding, and pushing
b. the creation and use of Material Safety Data Sheets
c. walking, and reaching
d. both a and c
2. Overall, the benefits of a well-designed, ergonomic work environment can include
increased efficiency, fewer accidents, lower operating costs. and more effective use of
personnel.
a. true
b. false
3. Ergonomics is: _______.
a. the study of chemical and biological hazards in the workplace
b. the study of work and the relationship of work to the physical and cognitive
capabilities of people
c. fitting the job (tools, tasks, and environment) to the employee, instead of forcing
the worker to fit the job
d. both b and c
4. There are two classifications of ergonomic injuries, and they are: _______.
a. Cumulative Trauma Disorders (CTD's)
b. strains/sprains – instantaneous
c. radiant heat exposure
d. both a and b

5. A benefit of reporting ergonomic issues sooner rather than later is: _______.
a. it leads to slower identification of the root cause of the injury
b. it will delay an ergonomics evaluation by trained personnel
c. it will lead to early care and quicker healing, preventing chronic problems
d. both a and b
6. Tonya is an employee at ABC Inc. She often sits for long periods of time and her job is
stressful. If she were to stretch when appropriate some of the benefits would be: _______.
a. an increase in flexibility/elasticity of muscles
b. an increase in circulation to warm the muscles, improving mental alertness and
reducing fatigue
c. a decrease in muscle tension and stress
d. all of the above
7. When should you stretch?
a. prior to starting your day and during short breaks (at least once per hour)
b. after breaks or lunch to prevent fatigue and if tension or stress is apparent
c. after a lengthy task duration or an extended awkward posture
d. all of the above
8. Which of the below are ergonomic risk factors?
a. dynamic loading
b. static loading
c. good posture
d. non-contact stress

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