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A Reanalysis of Anatomical Changes for Language

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Richard Littauer

This document reanalyzes anatomical changes that have been attributed to the evolution of language. It argues that the descent of the larynx and loss of laryngeal air sacs were not necessarily driven by speech. The descent of the larynx may have initially occurred for size exaggeration and improved breathing before language. Evidence for when laryngeal air sacs were lost is inconclusive, and their loss could have been advantageous for directional calling and breathing efficiency regardless of language. Overall, the document concludes there are no irrefutable anatomical changes that can be traced specifically to the evolution of language abilities.

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A Reanalysis of Anatomical Changes for LanguageRichard LittauerUniversity of Edinburghrichard.littauer@gmail.com@richLitt
OutlineAnatomical evolution driven by speech
OutlineAnatomical evolution driven by speechDescent of the larynx
OutlineAnatomical evolution driven by speechDescent of the larynxLoss of laryngeal air sacs and the hyoid bone
OutlineAnatomical evolution driven by speechDescent of the larynxLoss of laryngeal air sacs and the hyoid boneOther reasons
OutlineAnatomical evolution driven by speechDescent of the larynxLoss of laryngeal air sacs and the hyoid boneOther reasonsPhonological realisation in whistle languages
OutlineAnatomical evolution driven by speechDescent of the larynxLoss of laryngeal air sacs and the hyoid boneOther reasonsPhonological realisation in whistle languagesConclusion
Evolution of Homo sapiens15mya – Hominidae(from gibbons)
Evolution of Homo sapiens15mya – Hominidae(from gibbons)10mya – Hominini(from gorilla)
Evolution of Homo sapiens15mya – Hominidae(from gibbons)10mya – Hominini(from gorilla)4.6mya – Ardipithicus(arboreal)
Evolution of Homo sapiens15mya – Hominidae(from gibbons)10mya – Hominini(from gorilla)4.6mya – Ardipithicus(arboreal)3.3mya – Austrolopithecusafarensis (bipedal)
Evolution of Homo sapiens15mya – Hominidae(from gibbons)10mya – Hominini(from gorilla)4.6mya – Ardipithicus(arboreal)3.3mya – Austrolopithecusafarensis (bipedal)1.2mya – Homo neanderthalensis
Evolution of Homo sapiens15mya – Hominidae(from gibbons)10mya – Hominini(from gorilla)4.6mya – Ardipithicus(arboreal)3.3mya – Austrolopithecusafarensis (bipedal)1.2mya – Homo neanderthalensis600kya – Homo heidelbergensis
Evolution of Homo sapiens15mya – Hominidae(from gibbons)10mya – Hominini(from gorilla)4.6mya – Ardipithicus(arboreal)3.3mya – Austrolopithecusafarensis (bipedal)1.2mya – Homo neanderthalensis600kya – Homo heidelbergensis200kya – Homo sapiens
Descent of the LarynxLeibermanet al. (1969) – for speech
Descent of the Larynx However, Fitch (1994) argued otherwise:
Descent of the Larynx However, Fitch (1994) argued otherwise:Two reasons for descent of the human larynx:
Descent of the Larynx However, Fitch (1994) argued otherwise:Two reasons for descent of the human larynx: Early, for size exaggeration
Descent of the Larynx However, Fitch (1994) argued otherwise:Two reasons for descent of the human larynx: Early, for size exaggeration Later, giving 2-chamber vocal tract
Descent of the Larynx However, Fitch (1994) argued otherwise:Two reasons for descent of the human larynx: Early, for size exaggeration Later, giving 2-chamber vocal tract“Improved speech is no longer the only plausible evolutionary explanation for laryngeal descent, as previously assumed (Lieberman 1984), and it is possible that the descended larynx in adults evolved before spoken language.” Fitch (2009, 293)
Descent of the LarynxWhat does this mean?
Descent of the LarynxWhat does this mean?That the evolutionary timeline is loose.
Descent of the LarynxWhat does this mean?That the evolutionary timeline is loose.Case and point; the hyoid bone.
Descent of the LarynxWhat does this mean?That the evolutionary timeline is loose.Case and point; the hyoid bone.Specimens from A. afarensisand H. heidelbergensis
Laryngeal Air SacsAir sacs are cavities that are attached to the vocal apparatus. They are present in many mammals (Frey et al., 2007).
Laryngeal Air SacsAir sacs are cavities that are attached to the vocal apparatus. They are present in many mammals (Frey et al., 2007). Only lateral ventricle air sacs occur in the ape line (Hewitt et al., 2002).
Laryngeal Air SacsAir sacs are cavities that are attached to the vocal apparatus. They are present in many mammals (Frey et al., 2007). Only lateral ventricle air sacs occur in the ape line (Hewitt et al., 2002). Homo sapiens no longer have air sacs, except in rare pathological cases and in certain specific circumstances involving irregular behavior-caused modification of the vocal tract.
Laryngeal Air Sacs
Laryngeal Air SacsJustifications for loss:
Laryngeal Air SacsJustifications for loss:‘Airsacculitis’: infection of the air sac.
Laryngeal Air SacsJustifications for loss:‘Airsacculitis’: infection of the air sac.The ability to modify breathing patterns
Laryngeal Air SacsJustifications for loss:‘Airsacculitis’: infection of the air sac.The ability to modify breathing patternsReduction of the need for a device that would prevent hyperventilating (Hewitt et al., 2002)
Laryngeal Air SacsJustifications for loss:‘Airsacculitis’: infection of the air sac.The ability to modify breathing patternsReduction of the need for a device that would prevent hyperventilating (Hewitt et al., 2002)Disadvantageous for subtle, timed, and distinct sounds, which are necessary for human speech. (de Boer 2010)
Laryngeal Air SacsTwo arguments for recent loss (less than 600kya):
Laryngeal Air SacsTwo arguments for recent loss (less than 600kya):Anatomical herniation
Laryngeal Air SacsTwo arguments for recent loss (less than 600kya):Anatomical herniationSize/Loss correlation
Laryngeal Air SacsAnatomical evidence for the hyoid bone and the bulla as the sole indicators of air sacs is poor.
Laryngeal Air SacsAnatomical evidence for the hyoid bone and the bulla as the sole indicators of air sacs is poor.Laryngeal air sacs can regularly project between, reposition, and herniate muscles in the larynx (Giovannielloet al., 1970)
Laryngeal Air SacsAnatomical evidence for the hyoid bone and the bulla as the sole indicators of air sacs is poor.Laryngeal air sacs can regularly project between, reposition, and herniate muscles in the larynx (Giovannielloet al., 1970)In primates, “A maximum of four types of [laryngeal] air sac (lateral ventricular, subhyoid, infraglottal and dorsal) have been identified, but no single source describes the morphology and summarises the distribution of all the types of air sac.” (Hewitt et al., 2002; 71)
Laryngeal Air SacsAnatomical evidence for the hyoid bone and the bulla as the sole indicators of air sacs is poor.Laryngeal air sacs can regularly project between, reposition, and herniate muscles in the larynx (Giovannielloet al., 1970)In primates, “A maximum of four types of [laryngeal] air sac (lateral ventricular, subhyoid, infraglottal and dorsal) have been identified, but no single source describes the morphology and summarises the distribution of all the types of air sac.” (Hewitt et al., 2002; 71) Laryngocoeles can occur due to excessive build up in pressure in the glottis, which stretches the internal wall to form a sac.
Laryngeal Air SacsIn 75% of studies involving air sac loss in primates, they were lost coincidentally with size reduction. (Hewitt et al. 2002)
Laryngeal Air SacsIn 75% of studies involving air sac loss in primates, they were lost coincidentally with size reduction. (Hewitt et al. 2002)This was a synchronic study, and so Homo sapiens was considered an exception
Laryngeal Air SacsIn 75% of studies involving air sac loss in primates, they were lost coincidentally with size reduction. (Hewitt et al. 2002)This was a synchronic study, and so Homo sapiens was considered an exceptionBut – Homo heidelbergensiswas taller and more robust than Homo sapiens. (Churchhillet al. 2000)
Laryngeal Air SacsTwo justifications for loss itself:
Laryngeal Air SacsTwo justifications for loss itself:Call directionality
Laryngeal Air SacsTwo justifications for loss itself:Call directionalityRegular breathing
Laryngeal Air SacsCall directionality:
Laryngeal Air SacsCall directionality:The linguistic niche of hunting in the environment in which early hominin hunters (1.2mya) have been posited to exist is the savannah.
Laryngeal Air SacsCall directionality:The linguistic niche of hunting in the environment in which early hominin hunters (1.2mya) have been posited to exist is the savannah.This would have been better suited to higher frequency, directional calls as opposed to lower frequency, multidirectional calls.
Laryngeal Air SacsCall directionality:The loss of air sacs would have then been directly advantageous, as lower frequencies produced by air sac vocalisations over bare ground have been shown to favor multidirectional over targeted utterances (Frey and Gebler, 2003; 469).
Laryngeal Air SacsRegulated Breathing:
Laryngeal Air SacsRegulated Breathing:Laryngeal ventricular air sacs, as seen in apes, open into the vocal tract above the vocal folds.
Laryngeal Air SacsRegulated Breathing:Laryngeal ventricular air sacs, as seen in apes, open into the vocal tract above the vocal folds.This means that, as air is passed into the lungs, air is drawn from the sac, and as it is exhaled, the sac fills with air.
Laryngeal Air SacsRegulated Breathing:Laryngeal ventricular air sacs, as seen in apes, open into the vocal tract above the vocal folds.This means that, as air is passed into the lungs, air is drawn from the sac, and as it is exhaled, the sac fills with air. The air sac would serve as a sink of already-used air that would continually be reused while breathing, an inefficient mechanism that would be disadvantageous in cases of sustained oxygen depletion.
Laryngeal Air SacsThe point being?
Laryngeal Air SacsThe point being?There are paralinguistic reasons for loss of air sacs, as well. Claims otherwise are speculative.
Other Anatomical ChangesOther anatomical changes for speech:
Other Anatomical ChangesOther anatomical changes for speech:Hypoglossal canal
Other Anatomical ChangesOther anatomical changes for speech:Hypoglossal canal (debunked: DeGustaet al. 1999)
Other Anatomical ChangesOther anatomical changes for speech:Hypoglossal canal (debunked: DeGustaet al. 1999)Voluntary breathing control
Other Anatomical ChangesOther anatomical changes for speech:Hypoglossal canal (debunked: DeGustaet al. 1999)Voluntary breathing control (1.2–100kya: McLarnon and Hewitt 1999)
Other Anatomical ChangesOther anatomical changes for speech:Hypoglossal canal (debunked: DeGustaet al. 1999)Voluntary breathing control (1.2–100kya: McLarnon and Hewitt 1999)Specialisedhearing
Other Anatomical ChangesOther anatomical changes for speech:Hypoglossal canal (debunked: DeGustaet al. 1999)Voluntary breathing control (1.2–100kya: McLarnon and Hewitt 1999)Specialised hearing (Related to what you produce: Hauser and Anderson 1994)
Other Anatomical ChangesOther anatomical changes for speech:Hypoglossal canal (debunked: DeGustaet al. 1999)Voluntary breathing control (1.2–100kya: McLarnon and Hewitt 1999)Specialised hearing (Related to what you produce: Hauser and Anderson 1994)Mirror neurons
Other Anatomical ChangesOther anatomical changes for speech:Hypoglossal canal (debunked: DeGustaet al. 1999)Voluntary breathing control (1.2–100kya: McLarnon and Hewitt 1999)Specialised hearing (Related to what you produce: Hauser and Anderson 1994)Mirror neurons (As far back as Pan)
Other Anatomical ChangesOther anatomical changes for speech:Hypoglossal canal (debunked: DeGustaet al. 1999)Voluntary breathing control (1.2–100kya: McLarnon and Hewitt 1999)Specialised hearing (Related to what you produce: Hauser and Anderson 1994)Mirror neurons (As far back as Pan)FOX2P
Other Anatomical ChangesOther anatomical changes for speech:Hypoglossal canal (debunked: DeGustaet al. 1999)Voluntary breathing control (1.2–100kya: McLarnon and Hewitt 1999)Specialised hearing (Related to what you produce: Hauser and Anderson 1994)Mirror neurons (As far back as Pan)FOX2P (In mice and orangutans.)
Other Anatomical ChangesSo, what remains?
Other Anatomical ChangesSo, what remains?The conclusion that there are no major specific anatomical changes that can be traced irrefutably to language.
Phonological ImplicationsCurrent theoretical studies on the evolution of sounds depend almost entirely on complex phonemic inventories
Phonological ImplicationsCurrent theoretical studies on the evolution of sounds depend almost entirely on complex phonemic inventoriesThese do not exist a priori, but rather appear through cultural evolutionary processes
Phonological ImplicationsCurrent theoretical studies on the evolution of sounds depend almost entirely on complex phonemic inventoriesThese do not exist a priori, but rather appear through cultural evolutionary processesSelf-organisation
Phonological ImplicationsCurrent theoretical studies on the evolution of sounds depend almost entirely on complex phonemic inventoriesThese do not exist a priori, but rather appear through cultural evolutionary processesSelf-organisationPhenomena of the third kind (Invisible hand)
Phonological ImplicationsMost current theoretical studies on the evolution of sounds depend almost entirely on complex phonemic inventoriesThese do not exist a priori, but rather appear through cultural evolutionary processesSelf-organisationPhenomena of the third kind (Invisible hand)With bounded constraints (production, perception)
Phonological ImplicationsHowever, they take it for a given that these sounds shaped anatomy, rather than are artefacts of it.
Phonological ImplicationsHowever, they take it for a given that these sounds shaped anatomy, rather than are artefacts of it.“The investigation of the interaction between vocal fold interactions and vocal tracts with air sacs presented here, although preliminary and incomplete, supports the hypothesis that the evolutionary disappearance of air sacs is related to the emergence of complex vocal communication.” (de Boer, 2010)
Phonological ImplicationsIf complex phonemic inventories did not shape their anatomical mechanisms of production (as I’ve suggested), then other modes of communication may be equally weighted in protolanguage theories
Phonological ImplicationsIf complex phonemic inventories did not shape their anatomical mechanisms of production (as I’ve suggested), then other modes of communication may be equally weighted in protolanguage theoriesThese would include:
Phonological ImplicationsIf complex phonemic inventories did not shape their anatomical mechanisms of production (as I’ve suggested), then other modes of communication may be equally weighted in protolanguage theoriesThese would include:Whistled/hummed language
Phonological ImplicationsIf complex phonemic inventories did not shape their anatomical mechanisms of production (as I’ve suggested), then other modes of communication may be equally weighted in protolanguage theoriesThese would include:Whistled/hummed languageGesture and signed language
Phonological ImplicationsIf complex phonemic inventories did not shape their anatomical mechanisms of production (as I’ve suggested), then other modes of communication may be equally weighted in protolanguage theoriesThese would include:Whistled/hummed languageGesture and signed languageNon-arbitrary phonemic language
Phonological ImplicationsWhistled languages:
Phonological ImplicationsWhistled languages:Copy the tone, formants, intonation of regular language
Phonological ImplicationsWhistled languages: (Meyer 2008)Copy the tone, formants, intonation of regular languageAre more common and more unimodal in tonal languages
Phonological ImplicationsWhistled languages: (Meyer 2008)Copy the tone, formants, intonation of regular languageAre more common and more unimodal in tonal languagesSuitable for different environments (as clicks are (Knight et al. 2003)
Phonological ImplicationsWhistled languages: (Meyer 2008)Copy the tone, formants, intonation of regular languageAre more common and more unimodal in tonal languagesSuitable for different environments (as clicks are (Knight et al. 2003)Interchangeable with regular language
Phonological ImplicationsNon-arbitrariness in language: (Cuskley 2008)
Phonological ImplicationsNon-arbitrariness in language: (Cuskley 2008)Iconicity
Phonological ImplicationsNon-arbitrariness in language: (Cuskley 2008)IconicityPhonesthemes
Phonological ImplicationsNon-arbitrariness in language: (Cuskley 2008)IconicityPhonesthemesInfant directed speech
Phonological ImplicationsNon-arbitrariness in language: (Cuskley 2008)Ideophones (Voeltz & Killian-Hatz, 2001)Phonesthemes (Bergen, 2001)Infant directed speech (Nygaard et al, 2009)Statistical correspondences (Tamariz, 2005)
ConclusionTo sum up:
ConclusionTo sum up:The major reasons cited for the evolution of speech mechanisms are somewhat unsubstantiated
ConclusionTo sum up:The major reasons cited for the evolution of speech mechanisms are somewhat unsubstantiatedThis results in a re-appraisal of language evolution to a more recent time period – or suggests that different language-internal pressures were present in protolanguage
ConclusionTo sum up:Multimodality is an integral part of otherwise solely-phonological speech
ConclusionTo sum up:Multimodality is an integral part of otherwise solely-phonological speechGiven this, reducing justifications for anatomical change to phonemic systems is unjustified, and a reanalysis of evolutionary phonology is warranted.
ConclusionThank you.References available upon request.

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A Reanalysis of Anatomical Changes for Language

  • 1. A Reanalysis of Anatomical Changes for LanguageRichard LittauerUniversity of Edinburghrichard.littauer@gmail.com@richLitt
  • 3. OutlineAnatomical evolution driven by speechDescent of the larynx
  • 4. OutlineAnatomical evolution driven by speechDescent of the larynxLoss of laryngeal air sacs and the hyoid bone
  • 5. OutlineAnatomical evolution driven by speechDescent of the larynxLoss of laryngeal air sacs and the hyoid boneOther reasons
  • 6. OutlineAnatomical evolution driven by speechDescent of the larynxLoss of laryngeal air sacs and the hyoid boneOther reasonsPhonological realisation in whistle languages
  • 7. OutlineAnatomical evolution driven by speechDescent of the larynxLoss of laryngeal air sacs and the hyoid boneOther reasonsPhonological realisation in whistle languagesConclusion
  • 8. Evolution of Homo sapiens15mya – Hominidae(from gibbons)
  • 9. Evolution of Homo sapiens15mya – Hominidae(from gibbons)10mya – Hominini(from gorilla)
  • 10. Evolution of Homo sapiens15mya – Hominidae(from gibbons)10mya – Hominini(from gorilla)4.6mya – Ardipithicus(arboreal)
  • 11. Evolution of Homo sapiens15mya – Hominidae(from gibbons)10mya – Hominini(from gorilla)4.6mya – Ardipithicus(arboreal)3.3mya – Austrolopithecusafarensis (bipedal)
  • 12. Evolution of Homo sapiens15mya – Hominidae(from gibbons)10mya – Hominini(from gorilla)4.6mya – Ardipithicus(arboreal)3.3mya – Austrolopithecusafarensis (bipedal)1.2mya – Homo neanderthalensis
  • 13. Evolution of Homo sapiens15mya – Hominidae(from gibbons)10mya – Hominini(from gorilla)4.6mya – Ardipithicus(arboreal)3.3mya – Austrolopithecusafarensis (bipedal)1.2mya – Homo neanderthalensis600kya – Homo heidelbergensis
  • 14. Evolution of Homo sapiens15mya – Hominidae(from gibbons)10mya – Hominini(from gorilla)4.6mya – Ardipithicus(arboreal)3.3mya – Austrolopithecusafarensis (bipedal)1.2mya – Homo neanderthalensis600kya – Homo heidelbergensis200kya – Homo sapiens
  • 15. Descent of the LarynxLeibermanet al. (1969) – for speech
  • 16. Descent of the Larynx However, Fitch (1994) argued otherwise:
  • 17. Descent of the Larynx However, Fitch (1994) argued otherwise:Two reasons for descent of the human larynx:
  • 18. Descent of the Larynx However, Fitch (1994) argued otherwise:Two reasons for descent of the human larynx: Early, for size exaggeration
  • 19. Descent of the Larynx However, Fitch (1994) argued otherwise:Two reasons for descent of the human larynx: Early, for size exaggeration Later, giving 2-chamber vocal tract
  • 20. Descent of the Larynx However, Fitch (1994) argued otherwise:Two reasons for descent of the human larynx: Early, for size exaggeration Later, giving 2-chamber vocal tract“Improved speech is no longer the only plausible evolutionary explanation for laryngeal descent, as previously assumed (Lieberman 1984), and it is possible that the descended larynx in adults evolved before spoken language.” Fitch (2009, 293)
  • 21. Descent of the LarynxWhat does this mean?
  • 22. Descent of the LarynxWhat does this mean?That the evolutionary timeline is loose.
  • 23. Descent of the LarynxWhat does this mean?That the evolutionary timeline is loose.Case and point; the hyoid bone.
  • 24. Descent of the LarynxWhat does this mean?That the evolutionary timeline is loose.Case and point; the hyoid bone.Specimens from A. afarensisand H. heidelbergensis
  • 25. Laryngeal Air SacsAir sacs are cavities that are attached to the vocal apparatus. They are present in many mammals (Frey et al., 2007).
  • 26. Laryngeal Air SacsAir sacs are cavities that are attached to the vocal apparatus. They are present in many mammals (Frey et al., 2007). Only lateral ventricle air sacs occur in the ape line (Hewitt et al., 2002).
  • 27. Laryngeal Air SacsAir sacs are cavities that are attached to the vocal apparatus. They are present in many mammals (Frey et al., 2007). Only lateral ventricle air sacs occur in the ape line (Hewitt et al., 2002). Homo sapiens no longer have air sacs, except in rare pathological cases and in certain specific circumstances involving irregular behavior-caused modification of the vocal tract.
  • 30. Laryngeal Air SacsJustifications for loss:‘Airsacculitis’: infection of the air sac.
  • 31. Laryngeal Air SacsJustifications for loss:‘Airsacculitis’: infection of the air sac.The ability to modify breathing patterns
  • 32. Laryngeal Air SacsJustifications for loss:‘Airsacculitis’: infection of the air sac.The ability to modify breathing patternsReduction of the need for a device that would prevent hyperventilating (Hewitt et al., 2002)
  • 33. Laryngeal Air SacsJustifications for loss:‘Airsacculitis’: infection of the air sac.The ability to modify breathing patternsReduction of the need for a device that would prevent hyperventilating (Hewitt et al., 2002)Disadvantageous for subtle, timed, and distinct sounds, which are necessary for human speech. (de Boer 2010)
  • 34. Laryngeal Air SacsTwo arguments for recent loss (less than 600kya):
  • 35. Laryngeal Air SacsTwo arguments for recent loss (less than 600kya):Anatomical herniation
  • 36. Laryngeal Air SacsTwo arguments for recent loss (less than 600kya):Anatomical herniationSize/Loss correlation
  • 37. Laryngeal Air SacsAnatomical evidence for the hyoid bone and the bulla as the sole indicators of air sacs is poor.
  • 38. Laryngeal Air SacsAnatomical evidence for the hyoid bone and the bulla as the sole indicators of air sacs is poor.Laryngeal air sacs can regularly project between, reposition, and herniate muscles in the larynx (Giovannielloet al., 1970)
  • 39. Laryngeal Air SacsAnatomical evidence for the hyoid bone and the bulla as the sole indicators of air sacs is poor.Laryngeal air sacs can regularly project between, reposition, and herniate muscles in the larynx (Giovannielloet al., 1970)In primates, “A maximum of four types of [laryngeal] air sac (lateral ventricular, subhyoid, infraglottal and dorsal) have been identified, but no single source describes the morphology and summarises the distribution of all the types of air sac.” (Hewitt et al., 2002; 71)
  • 40. Laryngeal Air SacsAnatomical evidence for the hyoid bone and the bulla as the sole indicators of air sacs is poor.Laryngeal air sacs can regularly project between, reposition, and herniate muscles in the larynx (Giovannielloet al., 1970)In primates, “A maximum of four types of [laryngeal] air sac (lateral ventricular, subhyoid, infraglottal and dorsal) have been identified, but no single source describes the morphology and summarises the distribution of all the types of air sac.” (Hewitt et al., 2002; 71) Laryngocoeles can occur due to excessive build up in pressure in the glottis, which stretches the internal wall to form a sac.
  • 41. Laryngeal Air SacsIn 75% of studies involving air sac loss in primates, they were lost coincidentally with size reduction. (Hewitt et al. 2002)
  • 42. Laryngeal Air SacsIn 75% of studies involving air sac loss in primates, they were lost coincidentally with size reduction. (Hewitt et al. 2002)This was a synchronic study, and so Homo sapiens was considered an exception
  • 43. Laryngeal Air SacsIn 75% of studies involving air sac loss in primates, they were lost coincidentally with size reduction. (Hewitt et al. 2002)This was a synchronic study, and so Homo sapiens was considered an exceptionBut – Homo heidelbergensiswas taller and more robust than Homo sapiens. (Churchhillet al. 2000)
  • 44. Laryngeal Air SacsTwo justifications for loss itself:
  • 45. Laryngeal Air SacsTwo justifications for loss itself:Call directionality
  • 46. Laryngeal Air SacsTwo justifications for loss itself:Call directionalityRegular breathing
  • 47. Laryngeal Air SacsCall directionality:
  • 48. Laryngeal Air SacsCall directionality:The linguistic niche of hunting in the environment in which early hominin hunters (1.2mya) have been posited to exist is the savannah.
  • 49. Laryngeal Air SacsCall directionality:The linguistic niche of hunting in the environment in which early hominin hunters (1.2mya) have been posited to exist is the savannah.This would have been better suited to higher frequency, directional calls as opposed to lower frequency, multidirectional calls.
  • 50. Laryngeal Air SacsCall directionality:The loss of air sacs would have then been directly advantageous, as lower frequencies produced by air sac vocalisations over bare ground have been shown to favor multidirectional over targeted utterances (Frey and Gebler, 2003; 469).
  • 52. Laryngeal Air SacsRegulated Breathing:Laryngeal ventricular air sacs, as seen in apes, open into the vocal tract above the vocal folds.
  • 53. Laryngeal Air SacsRegulated Breathing:Laryngeal ventricular air sacs, as seen in apes, open into the vocal tract above the vocal folds.This means that, as air is passed into the lungs, air is drawn from the sac, and as it is exhaled, the sac fills with air.
  • 54. Laryngeal Air SacsRegulated Breathing:Laryngeal ventricular air sacs, as seen in apes, open into the vocal tract above the vocal folds.This means that, as air is passed into the lungs, air is drawn from the sac, and as it is exhaled, the sac fills with air. The air sac would serve as a sink of already-used air that would continually be reused while breathing, an inefficient mechanism that would be disadvantageous in cases of sustained oxygen depletion.
  • 55. Laryngeal Air SacsThe point being?
  • 56. Laryngeal Air SacsThe point being?There are paralinguistic reasons for loss of air sacs, as well. Claims otherwise are speculative.
  • 57. Other Anatomical ChangesOther anatomical changes for speech:
  • 58. Other Anatomical ChangesOther anatomical changes for speech:Hypoglossal canal
  • 59. Other Anatomical ChangesOther anatomical changes for speech:Hypoglossal canal (debunked: DeGustaet al. 1999)
  • 60. Other Anatomical ChangesOther anatomical changes for speech:Hypoglossal canal (debunked: DeGustaet al. 1999)Voluntary breathing control
  • 61. Other Anatomical ChangesOther anatomical changes for speech:Hypoglossal canal (debunked: DeGustaet al. 1999)Voluntary breathing control (1.2–100kya: McLarnon and Hewitt 1999)
  • 62. Other Anatomical ChangesOther anatomical changes for speech:Hypoglossal canal (debunked: DeGustaet al. 1999)Voluntary breathing control (1.2–100kya: McLarnon and Hewitt 1999)Specialisedhearing
  • 63. Other Anatomical ChangesOther anatomical changes for speech:Hypoglossal canal (debunked: DeGustaet al. 1999)Voluntary breathing control (1.2–100kya: McLarnon and Hewitt 1999)Specialised hearing (Related to what you produce: Hauser and Anderson 1994)
  • 64. Other Anatomical ChangesOther anatomical changes for speech:Hypoglossal canal (debunked: DeGustaet al. 1999)Voluntary breathing control (1.2–100kya: McLarnon and Hewitt 1999)Specialised hearing (Related to what you produce: Hauser and Anderson 1994)Mirror neurons
  • 65. Other Anatomical ChangesOther anatomical changes for speech:Hypoglossal canal (debunked: DeGustaet al. 1999)Voluntary breathing control (1.2–100kya: McLarnon and Hewitt 1999)Specialised hearing (Related to what you produce: Hauser and Anderson 1994)Mirror neurons (As far back as Pan)
  • 66. Other Anatomical ChangesOther anatomical changes for speech:Hypoglossal canal (debunked: DeGustaet al. 1999)Voluntary breathing control (1.2–100kya: McLarnon and Hewitt 1999)Specialised hearing (Related to what you produce: Hauser and Anderson 1994)Mirror neurons (As far back as Pan)FOX2P
  • 67. Other Anatomical ChangesOther anatomical changes for speech:Hypoglossal canal (debunked: DeGustaet al. 1999)Voluntary breathing control (1.2–100kya: McLarnon and Hewitt 1999)Specialised hearing (Related to what you produce: Hauser and Anderson 1994)Mirror neurons (As far back as Pan)FOX2P (In mice and orangutans.)
  • 69. Other Anatomical ChangesSo, what remains?The conclusion that there are no major specific anatomical changes that can be traced irrefutably to language.
  • 70. Phonological ImplicationsCurrent theoretical studies on the evolution of sounds depend almost entirely on complex phonemic inventories
  • 71. Phonological ImplicationsCurrent theoretical studies on the evolution of sounds depend almost entirely on complex phonemic inventoriesThese do not exist a priori, but rather appear through cultural evolutionary processes
  • 72. Phonological ImplicationsCurrent theoretical studies on the evolution of sounds depend almost entirely on complex phonemic inventoriesThese do not exist a priori, but rather appear through cultural evolutionary processesSelf-organisation
  • 73. Phonological ImplicationsCurrent theoretical studies on the evolution of sounds depend almost entirely on complex phonemic inventoriesThese do not exist a priori, but rather appear through cultural evolutionary processesSelf-organisationPhenomena of the third kind (Invisible hand)
  • 74. Phonological ImplicationsMost current theoretical studies on the evolution of sounds depend almost entirely on complex phonemic inventoriesThese do not exist a priori, but rather appear through cultural evolutionary processesSelf-organisationPhenomena of the third kind (Invisible hand)With bounded constraints (production, perception)
  • 75. Phonological ImplicationsHowever, they take it for a given that these sounds shaped anatomy, rather than are artefacts of it.
  • 76. Phonological ImplicationsHowever, they take it for a given that these sounds shaped anatomy, rather than are artefacts of it.“The investigation of the interaction between vocal fold interactions and vocal tracts with air sacs presented here, although preliminary and incomplete, supports the hypothesis that the evolutionary disappearance of air sacs is related to the emergence of complex vocal communication.” (de Boer, 2010)
  • 77. Phonological ImplicationsIf complex phonemic inventories did not shape their anatomical mechanisms of production (as I’ve suggested), then other modes of communication may be equally weighted in protolanguage theories
  • 78. Phonological ImplicationsIf complex phonemic inventories did not shape their anatomical mechanisms of production (as I’ve suggested), then other modes of communication may be equally weighted in protolanguage theoriesThese would include:
  • 79. Phonological ImplicationsIf complex phonemic inventories did not shape their anatomical mechanisms of production (as I’ve suggested), then other modes of communication may be equally weighted in protolanguage theoriesThese would include:Whistled/hummed language
  • 80. Phonological ImplicationsIf complex phonemic inventories did not shape their anatomical mechanisms of production (as I’ve suggested), then other modes of communication may be equally weighted in protolanguage theoriesThese would include:Whistled/hummed languageGesture and signed language
  • 81. Phonological ImplicationsIf complex phonemic inventories did not shape their anatomical mechanisms of production (as I’ve suggested), then other modes of communication may be equally weighted in protolanguage theoriesThese would include:Whistled/hummed languageGesture and signed languageNon-arbitrary phonemic language
  • 83. Phonological ImplicationsWhistled languages:Copy the tone, formants, intonation of regular language
  • 84. Phonological ImplicationsWhistled languages: (Meyer 2008)Copy the tone, formants, intonation of regular languageAre more common and more unimodal in tonal languages
  • 85. Phonological ImplicationsWhistled languages: (Meyer 2008)Copy the tone, formants, intonation of regular languageAre more common and more unimodal in tonal languagesSuitable for different environments (as clicks are (Knight et al. 2003)
  • 86. Phonological ImplicationsWhistled languages: (Meyer 2008)Copy the tone, formants, intonation of regular languageAre more common and more unimodal in tonal languagesSuitable for different environments (as clicks are (Knight et al. 2003)Interchangeable with regular language
  • 88. Phonological ImplicationsNon-arbitrariness in language: (Cuskley 2008)Iconicity
  • 89. Phonological ImplicationsNon-arbitrariness in language: (Cuskley 2008)IconicityPhonesthemes
  • 90. Phonological ImplicationsNon-arbitrariness in language: (Cuskley 2008)IconicityPhonesthemesInfant directed speech
  • 91. Phonological ImplicationsNon-arbitrariness in language: (Cuskley 2008)Ideophones (Voeltz & Killian-Hatz, 2001)Phonesthemes (Bergen, 2001)Infant directed speech (Nygaard et al, 2009)Statistical correspondences (Tamariz, 2005)
  • 93. ConclusionTo sum up:The major reasons cited for the evolution of speech mechanisms are somewhat unsubstantiated
  • 94. ConclusionTo sum up:The major reasons cited for the evolution of speech mechanisms are somewhat unsubstantiatedThis results in a re-appraisal of language evolution to a more recent time period – or suggests that different language-internal pressures were present in protolanguage
  • 95. ConclusionTo sum up:Multimodality is an integral part of otherwise solely-phonological speech
  • 96. ConclusionTo sum up:Multimodality is an integral part of otherwise solely-phonological speechGiven this, reducing justifications for anatomical change to phonemic systems is unjustified, and a reanalysis of evolutionary phonology is warranted.