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Types of Learning
Classical conditioning:
learning to link two
stimuli in a way that
helps us anticipate an
event to which we have
a reaction
Operant
conditioning:
changing behavior
choices in response
to consequences
Cognitive learning:
acquiring new behaviors
and information through
observation and
information, rather than
by direct experience

How it works: after repeated
exposure to two stimuli
occurring in sequence, we
associate those stimuli with each
other.
Result: our natural response to
one stimulus now can be
triggered by the new, predictive
stimulus.
Associative Learning:
Classical Conditioning
Here, our response to
thunder becomes
associated with lightning.
Stimulus 1: See
lightning
Stimulus 2: Hear
thunder
After Repetition
Stimulus: See lightning
Response: Cover ears to avoid sound

 Child associates his “response” (behavior) with consequences.
 Child learns to repeat behaviors (saying “please”) which were
followed by desirable results (cookie).
 Child learns to avoid behaviors (yelling “gimme!”) which were
followed by undesirable results (scolding or loss of dessert).
Associative Learning:
Operant Conditioning

Cognitive Learning
Cognitive learning refers to acquiring new behaviors
and information mentally, rather than by direct
experience.
Cognitive learning occurs:
1.by observing events and the behavior of others.
2.by using language to acquire information about
events experienced by others.

Behaviorism
 The term behaviorism was used by John B. Watson
(1878-1958), a proponent of classical conditioning,
as well as by B.F. Skinner (1904-1990), a leader in
research about operant conditioning.
 Both scientists believed the mental life was much
less important than behavior as a foundation for
psychological science.
 Both foresaw applications in controlling human
behavior:
Skinner conceived of
utopian communities.
Watson went into
advertising.

Ivan Pavlov’s Discovery
While studying salivation in dogs,
Ivan Pavlov found that salivation
from eating food was eventually
triggered by what should have
been neutral stimuli such as:
 just seeing the food.
 seeing the dish.
 seeing the person who
brought the food.
 just hearing that person’s
footsteps.

Before Conditioning
No response
Neutral
stimulus
(NS)
Neutral stimulus:
a stimulus which does not trigger a response

Unconditioned
response (UR):
dog salivates
Unconditioned
stimulus (US):
yummy dog food
Before Conditioning
Unconditioned stimulus and response:
a stimulus which triggers a response naturally,
before/without any conditioning

Unconditioned
response (UR):
dog salivates
Neutral
stimulus
(NS)
Unconditioned
stimulus (US)
During Conditioning
The bell/tone (N.S.) is repeatedly presented with
the food (U.S.).

Conditioned
response:
dog salivates
After Conditioning
Conditioned
(formerly
neutral)
stimulus
The dog begins to salivate upon hearing the tone
(neutral stimulus becomes conditioned stimulus).
Did you follow the
changes?
The UR and the CR are the
same response, triggered by
different events.
The difference is
whether conditioning
was necessary for the
response to happen.
The NS and the CS are the
same stimulus.
The difference is
whether the stimulus
triggers the conditioned
response.

Find the US, UR, NS, CS, CR in the following:
Your romantic partner always uses the same
shampoo. Soon, the smell of that shampoo makes
you feel happy.
The door to your house squeaks loudly when you
open it. Soon, your dog begins wagging its tail when
the door squeaks.
The nurse says, “This won’t hurt a bit,” just before
stabbing you with a needle. The next time you hear
“This won’t hurt,” you cringe in fear.
You have a meal at a fast food restaurant that
causes food poisoning. The next time you see a sign
for that restaurant, you feel nauseated.

 If the dog becomes conditioned to salivate at
the sound of a bell, can the dog be conditioned
to salivate when a light flashes…by associating
it with the BELL instead of with food?
 Yes! The conditioned response can be
transferred from the US to a CS, then from
there to another CS.
 This is higher-order conditioning: turning a NS
into a CS by associating it with another CS.
A man who was conditioned to associate joy
with coffee, could then learn to associate joy
with a restaurant if he was served coffee there
every time he walked in to the restaurant.
Higher-Order Conditioning

14
Acquisition
What gets “acquired”?
 The association between a neutral
stimulus (NS) and an unconditioned
stimulus (US).
How can we tell that acquisition has
occurred?
 The UR now gets triggered by a CS
(drooling now gets triggered by a bell).
Timing
For the association to be acquired,
the neutral stimulus (NS) needs to
repeatedly appear before the
unconditioned stimulus (US)…about a
half-second before, in most cases. The
bell must come right before the food.
Acquisition refers to the initial
stage of learning/conditioning.

Acquisition and Extinction
 The strength of a CR grows with conditioning.
 Extinction refers to the diminishing of a conditioned response. If
the US (food) stops appearing with the CS (bell), the CR decreases.

Spontaneous Recovery [Return of the CR]
After a CR (salivation) has been conditioned and then extinguished:
•following a rest period, presenting the tone alone might lead to a
spontaneous recovery (a return of the conditioned response despite a
lack of further conditioning).
•if the CS (tone) is again presented repeatedly without the US, the CR
becomes extinct again.

Generalization and Discrimination
Please notice the narrow, psychological definition .
Ivan Pavlov conditioned
dogs to drool when
rubbed; they then also
drooled when scratched.
Ivan Pavlov conditioned dogs
to drool at bells of a certain
pitch; slightly different
pitches did not trigger
drooling.
Generalization refers to the
tendency to have
conditioned responses
triggered by related stimuli.
MORE stuff makes you drool.
Discrimination refers to the
learned ability to only
respond to a specific stimuli,
preventing generalization.
LESS stuff makes you drool.

John B. Watson and Classical
Conditioning: Playing with Fear
 In 1920, 9-month-old Little Albert was not afraid of rats.
 John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner then clanged a steel
bar every time a rat was presented to Albert.
 Albert acquired a fear of rats, and generalized this fear
to other soft and furry things.
 Watson prided
himself in his ability
to shape people’s
emotions. He later
went into
advertising.

Before
Conditioning
NS: rat
No fear
UCS: steel bar hit
with hammer
Natural reflex:
fear
Little Albert Experiment

During
Conditioning
NS: rat
UCS: steel bar hit
with hammer
Natural reflex:
fear

After
Conditioning
NS: rat
Conditioned
reflex:
fear

How it works:
An act of chosen behavior (a
“response”) is followed by a
reward or punitive feedback
from the environment.
Results:
Reinforced behavior is more
likely to be tried again.
Punished behavior is less likely
to be chosen in the future.
Operant Conditioning
Response:
balancing a ball
Consequence:
receiving food
Behavior
strengthened
Operant conditioning involves
adjusting to the consequences of our
behaviors, so we can easily learn to
do more of what works, and less of
what doesn’t work. Examples 
We may smile more at work after
this repeatedly gets us bigger tips.
We learn how to ride a bike using
the strategies that don’t make us
crash.

Classical conditioning: Operant conditioning:
Operant and Classical Conditioning are
Different Forms of Associative Learning
 involves respondent behavior,
reflexive, automatic reactions
such as fear or craving
 these reactions to
unconditioned stimuli (US)
become associated with
neutral (thenconditioned)
stimuli
 involves operant behavior,
chosen behaviors which
“operate” on the environment
 these behaviors become
associated with consequences
which punish (decrease) or
reinforce (increase) the
operant behavior
There is a contrast in the process of
conditioning.
The experimental (neutral)
stimulus repeatedly precedes the
respondent behavior, and
eventually triggers that behavior.
The experimental (consequence)
stimulus repeatedly follows the
operant behavior, and eventually
punishes or reinforces that
behavior.

B.F. Skinner: Behavioral Control
B. F. Skinner saw potential for
exploring and using Edward
Thorndike’s principles much more
broadly. He wondered:
 how can we more carefully
measure the effect of
consequences on chosen
behavior?
 what else can creatures be
taught to do by controlling
consequences?
 what happens when we change
the timing of reinforcement?
B.F. Skinner
trained pigeons to
play ping pong,
and guide a video
game missile.

B.F. Skinner: The Operant Chamber
 B. F. Skinner, like Ivan Pavlov, pioneered more controlled
methods of studying conditioning.
 The operant chamber, often called “the Skinner box,”
allowed detailed tracking of rates of behavior change in
response to different rates of reinforcement.
Recording
device
Bar or lever
that an animal
presses,
randomly at
first, later for
reward
Food/water dispenser
to provide the reward

Reinforcement
 Reinforcement refers to
any feedback from the
environment that makes
a behavior more likely to
recur.
 Positive (adding)
reinforcement: adding
something desirable
(e.g., warmth)
 Negative (taking away)
reinforcement: ending
something unpleasant
(e.g., the cold)
For the meerkat,
this warm light is
desirable.
This meerkat has just
completed a task out
in the cold

A cycle of mutual
reinforcement
28
Children who have a temper tantrum
when they are frustrated may get
positively reinforced for this behavior
when parents occasionally respond by
giving in to a child’s demands.
Result: stronger, more frequent
tantrums
Parents who occasionally give in to
tantrums may get negatively
reinforced when the child responds by
ending the tantrum.
Result: parents giving-in behavior
is strengthened (giving in sooner
and more often)

Discrimination
 Discrimination refers to the ability to
become more and more specific in
what situations trigger a response.
 Shaping can increase discrimination,
if reinforcement only comes for
certain discriminative stimuli.
 For examples, dogs, rats, and even
spiders can be trained to search for
very specific smells, from drugs to
explosives.
 Pigeons, seals, and manatees have
been trained to respond to specific
shapes, colors, and categories.
Bomb-finding rat
Manatee that
selects shapes

How often should we reinforce?
 Do we need to give a reward every single time? Or is
that even best?
 B.F. Skinner experimented with the effects of giving
reinforcements in different patterns or “schedules”
to determine what worked best to establish and
maintain a target behavior.
 In continuous reinforcement (giving a reward after
the target every single time), the subject acquires
the desired behavior quickly.
 In partial/intermittent reinforcement (giving
rewards part of the time), the target behavior takes
longer to be acquired/established but persists longer
without reward.

 Fixed interval schedule: reward every
hour
 Variable interval schedule: reward
after a changing/random amount of
time passes
We may schedule
our reinforcements
based on an
interval of time
that has gone by.
 Fixed ratio schedule: reward every
five targeted behaviors
 Variable ratio schedule: reward after
a randomly chosen instance of the
target behavior
We may plan for a
certain ratio of
rewards per
number of
instances of the
desired behavior.
Different Schedules of
Partial/Intermittent Reinforcement

Which Schedule of Reinforcement is This?
Ratio or Interval?
Fixed or Variable?
1. Rat gets food every third time it presses the lever
2. Getting paid weekly no matter how much work is done
3. Getting paid for every ten boxes you make
4. Hitting a jackpot sometimes on the slot machine
5. Winning sometimes on the lottery you play once a day
6. Checking cell phone all day; sometimes getting a text
7. Buy eight pizzas, get the next one free
8. Fundraiser averages one donation for every eight houses
visited
9. Kid has tantrum, parents sometimes give in
10. Repeatedly checking mail until paycheck arrives
FR
FI
FR
VR
VI/VR
VI
FR
VR
VR
FI

Rapid responding
near time for
reinforcement
Fixed interval
Rapid
responding
near time for
reinforcement
Fixed interval
Results of the different schedules of reinforcement
Which reinforcements produce more
“responding” (more target behavior)?
 Fixed interval: slow,
unsustained responding
If I’m only paid for my
Saturday work, I’m not
going to work as hard on
the other days.
 Variable interval: slow,
consistent responding
If I never know which day
my lucky lottery number
will pay off, I better play it
every day.
Steady
responding
Variable interval

Reinforcers
Effectiveness of the ratio schedules of
Reinforcement
 Fixed ratio: high rate of
responding
Buy two drinks, get one
free? I’ll buy a lot of them!
 Variable ratio: high,
consistent responding,
even if reinforcement
stops (resists extinction)
If the slot machine
sometimes pays, I’ll pull
the lever as many times as
possible because it may
pay this time!
Variable ratio
Fixed ratio

Operant Effect: Punishment
Punishments have the opposite effects of reinforcement.
These consequences make the target behavior less likely
to occur in the future.
+ Positive
Punishment
You ADD something
unpleasant/aversive
(ex: spank the child)
- Negative Punishment
You TAKE AWAY
something pleasant/
desired (ex: no TV time,
no attention)--MINUS is
the “negative” here
Positive does not mean “good” or “desirable” and
negative does not mean “bad” or “undesirable.”

When is punishment
effective?
 Punishment works best in natural
settings when we encounter
punishing consequences from
actions such as reaching into a fire;
in that case, operant conditioning
helps us to avoid dangers.
 Punishment is effective when we try
to artificially create punishing
consequences for other’s choices;
these work best when
consequences happen as they do in
nature.
Severity of punishments is not as
helpful as making the punishments
immediate and certain.

 Punished behaviors may restart when the
punishment is over; learning is not lasting.
 Instead of learning behaviors, the child
may learn to discriminate among
situations, and avoid those in which
punishment might occur.
 Instead of behaviors, the child might learn
an attitude of fear or hatred, which can
interfere with learning. This can
generalize to a fear/hatred of all adults or
many settings.
 Physical punishment models aggression
and control as a method of dealing with
problems.
Applying operant conditioning to parenting
Problems with Physical Punishment

Don’t think about the beach
Don’t think about the waves, the
sand, the towels and sunscreen,
the sailboats and surfboards.
Don’t think about the beach.
Are you obeying the
instruction? Would you obey
this instruction more if you
were punished for thinking
about the beach?

Problem:
Punishing focuses on what NOT to do, which does not
guide people to a desired behavior.
Even if undesirable behaviors do stop, another
problem behavior may emerge that serves the same
purpose, especially if no replacement behaviors are
taught and reinforced.
Lesson:
In order to teach desired
behavior, reinforce what’s
right more often than
punishing what’s wrong.

More effective forms of operant conditioning
The Power of Rephrasing
 Positive punishment: “You’re
playing video games instead of
practicing the piano, so I am
justified in YELLING at you.”
 Negative punishment: “You’re
avoiding practicing, so I’m turning
off your game.”
 Negative reinforcement: “I will
stop staring at you and bugging
you as soon as I see that you are
practicing.”
 Positive reinforcement: “After
you practice, we’ll play a game!”

Summary: Types of Consequences
Adding stimuli Subtract stimuli Outcome
Positive +
Reinforcement
(You get candy)
Negative –
Reinforcement
(I stop yelling)
Strengthens
target behavior
(You do chores)
Positive +
Punishment
(You get
spanked)
Negative –
Punishment
(No cell phone)
Reduces target
behavior
(cursing)
= uses desirable
stimuli
= uses unpleasant
stimuli

More Operant Conditioning Applications
Parenting
1.Rewarding small improvements toward desired behaviors works
better than expecting complete success, and also works better than
punishing problem behaviors.
2.Giving in to temper tantrums stops them in the short run but
increases them in the long run.
Self-Improvement
Reward yourself for steps you
take toward your goals. As you
establish good habits, then
make your rewards more
infrequent (intermittent).

Role of Biology in Conditioning
Classical Conditioning
 John Garcia and others found it was easier to
learn associations that make sense for survival.
 Food aversions can be acquired even if the UR
(nausea) does NOT immediately follow the NS.
When acquiring food aversions during
pregnancy or illness, the body associates
nausea with whatever food was eaten.
 Males in one study were more likely to see a
pictured woman as attractive if the picture had
a red border.
 Quail can have a sexual response linked to a
fake quail more readily and strongly than to a
red light.

In classical conditioning In operant conditioning
Cognitive Processes
 When the dog salivates at the
bell, it may be due to cognition
(learning to predict, even
expect, the food).
 Conditioned responses can
alter attitudes, even when we
know the change is caused by
conditioning.
 However, knowing that our
reactions are caused by
conditioning gives us the
option of mentally breaking the
association, e.g. deciding that
nausea associated with a food
aversion was actually caused
by an illness.
 Higher-order conditioning
involves some cognition; the
name of a food may trigger
salivation.
 In fixed-interval
reinforcement, animals do
more target
behaviors/responses around
the time that the reward is
more likely, as if expecting the
reward.
 Expectation as a cognitive skill
is even more evident in the
ability of humans to respond
to delayed reinforcers such as
a paycheck.
 Higher-order conditioning can
be enabled with cognition;
e.g., seeing something such as
money as a reward because of
its indirect value.
 Humans can set behavioral
goals for self and others, and
plan their own reinforcers.

Learning, Rewards, and Motivation
 Intrinsic motivation refers to the
desire to perform a behavior well
for its own sake. The reward is
internalized as a feeling of
satisfaction.
 Extrinsic motivation refers to
doing a behavior to receive
rewards from others.
 Intrinsic motivation can
sometimes be reduced by
external rewards, and can be
prevented by using continuous
reinforcement.
 One principle for maintaining
behavior is to use as few rewards
as possible, and fade the rewards
over time.
What might happen
if we begin to
reward a behavior
someone was
already doing and
enjoying?

Learning by Observation
 Can we learn new behaviors and skills without conditioning
and reward?
 Yes, and one of the ways we do so is by observational
learning: watching what happens when other people do a
behavior and learning from their experience.
 Skills required: mirroring, being able to picture ourselves
doing the same action, and cognition, noticing consequences
and associations.
Modeling
The behavior of others serves as a model, an
example of how to respond to a situation; we may
try this model regardless of reinforcement.
Vicarious
Conditioning
 Vicarious: experienced indirectly, through others
 Vicarious reinforcement and punishment means
our choices are affected as we see others get
consequences for their behaviors.
Observational Learning Processes

Albert Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment (1961)
 Kids saw adults punching an inflated doll while narrating
their aggressive behaviors such as “kick him.”
 These kids were then put in a toy-deprived situation…
and acted out the same behaviors they had seen.

Mirroring in the Brain
 When we watch others doing or feeling something,
neurons fire in patterns that would fire if we were
doing the action or having the feeling ourselves.
 These neurons are referred to as mirror neurons,
and they fire only to reflect the actions or feelings of
others.

From Mirroring to Imitation
 Humans are prone to spontaneous imitation of both
behaviors and emotions (“emotional contagion”).
 This includes even overimitating, that is, copying adult
behaviors that have no function and no reward.
 Children with autism are less likely to cognitively “mirror,”
and less likely to follow someone else’s gaze as a
neurotypical toddler (left) is doing below.

Mirroring Plus Vicarious Reinforcement
 Mirroring enables observational learning; we cognitively
practice a behavior just by watching it.
 If you combine this with vicarious reinforcement, we are
even more likely to get imitation.
 Monkey A saw Monkey B getting a banana after pressing
four symbols. Monkey A then pressed the same four
symbols (even though the symbols were in different
locations).

Prosocial Effects of Observational Learning
 Prosocial behavior
refers to actions
which benefit others,
contribute value to
groups, and follow
moral codes and
social norms.
 Parents try to teach
this behavior through
lectures, but it may
be taught best
through modeling…
especially if kids can
see the benefits of
the behavior to
oneself or others.

Antisocial Effects of Observational Learning
 What happens when we learn
from models who demonstrate
antisocial behavior, actions that
are harmful to individuals and
society?
 Children who witness violence in
their homes, but are not physically
harmed themselves, may hate
violence but still may become
violent more often than the
average child.
 Perhaps this is a result of “the
Bobo doll effect”? Under stress,
we do what has been modeled for
us.

Media Models of Violence
Do we learn
antisocial behavior
such as violence
from indirect
observations of
others in the media?
Research shows that viewing media violence leads to
increased aggression (fights) and reduced prosocial behavior
(such as helping an injured person).
This violence-viewing effect might be explained by imitation,
and also by desensitization toward pain in others.

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