Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning.ppt

1. If someone has encounters with a cat who
scratches them as a child, they may
develop a fear response to cats.
2. A mother is giving a piece of candy to her
children when they clean their room.
3. a child learns to associate a bell sound with
receiving a treat, and then light is
repeatedly presented with the bell sound,
the child may start to respond to the light
as if it predicts the treat.

1. If someone has encounters with a cat
who scratches them as a child, they
may develop a fear response to cats.
2. A mother is giving a piece of candy to
her children when they clean their room.
3. a child learns to associate a bell sound
with receiving a treat, and then light is
repeatedly presented with the bell
sound, the child may start to respond to
the light as if it predicts the treat.
CC
OC
CC

Learning is more than school, books and
tests. Without learning our lives would
simply be a series of reflexes and instincts.
We would not be able to communicate, we
would have no memory of our past or goals for
the future.

LEARNING
 Learning is a lasting change in behavior or mental process as
the result of an experience.
There are two important parts:
 a lasting change…a simple reflexive reaction is not
learning
 learning regarding mental process is much harder to
observe and study.

LEARNING & IT’S EFFECT
ON BEHAVIOR
In humans, learning has a much larger
influence on behavior than say instincts.

SIMPLE LEARNING
Habituation: Learning not to respond to the
repeated presentation of a stimulus.
Example: Emergency sirens in the city
How often do
you look when
a car alarm
goes off?

SIMPLE LEARNING
Mere Exposure Effect: A learned preference
for stimuli to which we have been previously
exposed.
Ex-A coach/parent’s voice
Which do you
prefer?
Which did your
parents drink when
you were a little kid?

COMPLEX LEARNING
Behavioral Learning: Forms of learning,
such as classical and operant conditioning
which can be described in terms of stimuli
and responses.
 Classical conditioning is more simple learning,
operant conditioning is more complex learning.

IVAN PAVLOV AND CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING
 One of most famous people in the study of learning is
Ivan Pavlov.
 Originally studying salivation and digestion, Pavlov
stumbled upon classical conditioning while he was
experimenting on his dog.
 Classical Conditioning: A form of learning in which a previously
neutral stimulus (stimuli w/o reflex provoking power) acquires the
power to elicit the same innate reflex produced by another
stimulus.

PAVLOV’S FINDINGS
EXPLAINED
 Pavlov discovered that a neutral stimulus, when
paired with a natural reflex-producing stimulus,
will begin to produce a learned response, even when
it is presented by itself.
 Neutral Stimulus: Any stimulus that produces no
conditioned response prior to learning.

COMPONENTS OF
CONDITIONING
 There are 5 main components of conditioning. Classical
Conditioning always involves these parts. They are:
 Neutral Stimulus
 Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
 Unconditioned Response (UCR)
 Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
 Conditioned Response (CR)

UNCONDITIONED
STIMULUS (UCS)
UCS: A stimulus that
automatically-without conditioning
or learning- provokes a reflexive
response.
In Pavlov’s experiment, food was
used as the UCS because it
produced a salivation reflex.

UNCONDITIONED
RESPONSE (UCR)
 UCR: A response resulting from
an unconditioned stimulus
without prior learning.
 In Pavlov’s experiment, the UCR
was the dog salivating when its
tongue touched food.
 Realize that the UCS-UCR
connection involves no learning
or acquisition.

FROM UNCONDITIONED TO
CONDITIONED
 During acquisition, a neutral stimulus is paired with the
unconditioned stimulus.
 After several trials the neutral stimulus will gradually begin to
elicit the same response as the UCS.
 Acquisition: The learning stage during which a conditioned
response comes to be elicited by the conditioned stimulus.
=

CONDITIONED STIMULUS
 A CS is the originally neutral stimulus that
gains the power to cause the response.
 In Pavlov’s experiment, the bell/tone began to
produce the same response that the food once
did.

CONDITIONED RESPONSE
 A CR is a response elicited by a previously neutral
stimulus that has become associated with the
unconditioned stimulus.
 Although the response to the CS is essentially the
same as the response originally produced by the
UCS, we now call it a conditioned response.

EXTINCTION
 Extinction: The diminishing (or lessening) of a
learned response, when an unconditioned
stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus.
 To acquire a CR, we repeatedly pair a neutral stimulus
with the UCS. But, if we want to reverse this learning,
we must weaken the strength of the connection between
the two stimuli.
 It is important to realize that extinction does not mean
complete elimination of a response.

SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY
 Extinction merely suppresses the conditioned
response, and the CR can reappear during
spontaneous recovery.
 Spontaneous Recovery: The response after a rest
period of an extinguished conditioned response.
 Spontaneous recovery is weaker than the original CR.

CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING
Strength
of CR
Pause
Acquisition
(CS+UCS)
Extinction
(CS alone)
Extinction
(CS alone)
Spontaneous
recovery of
CR

REINFORCEMENT
PROCEDURES
 What if we could not distinguish between stimuli
that were similar?
 The bell ending class vs. fire alarm
 The door bell vs. our cell phones
 Discrimination: The ability to distinguish between
two similar signals stimulus.

Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning.ppt

CLASSICAL VS. OPERANT
CONDITIONING
With classical conditioning you can teach a
dog to salivate, but you cannot teach it to sit
up or roll over. Why?
Salivation is an involuntary reflex, while
sitting up and rolling over are far more
complex responses that we think of as
voluntary.

OPERANT CONDITIONING
An operant is an observable behavior that
an organism uses to “operate” in the
environment.
Operant Conditioning: A form of learning in
which the probability of a response is
changed by its consequences…that is, by the
stimuli that follows the response.

B.F. SKINNER
 B.F. Skinner became famous
for his ideas in behaviorism
and his work with rats.
 Law of Effect: The idea that
responses that produced
desirable results would be
learned, or “stamped” into the
organism.

B.F. SKINNER AND THE
SKINNER BOX

REINFORCEMENT
 A reinforcer is a condition in which the
presentation or removal of a stimulus, that
occurs after a response (behavior) and
strengthens that response, or makes it more
likely to happen again in the future.
 Positive Reinforcement: A stimulus presented
after a response that increases the probability of
that response happening again.
 Ex: Getting paid for good grades

NEGATIVE
REINFORCEMENT
 Negative Reinforcement: The removal of an
unpleasant or averse stimulus that increases
the probability of that response happening
again.
 Ex: Taking Advil to get rid of a headache.
 Ex: Putting on a seatbelt to make the annoying
seatbelt buzzer stop.
 The word “positive” means add or apply;
“negative” is used to mean subtract or
remove.

REINFORCEMENT
SCHEDULES
Continuous Reinforcement: A reinforcement
schedule under which all correct responses
are reinforced.
This is a useful tactic early in the learning
process. It also helps when “shaping” new
behavior.
Shaping: A technique where new behavior is
produced by reinforcing responses that are
similar to the desired response.

PUNISHMENT
A punishment is an averse/disliked stimulus
which occurs after a behavior, and decreases
the probability it will occur again.

PUNISHMENT
 Negative Punishment: When a desirable event ends or is taken
away after a behavior.
 Example: getting grounded from your cell phone
after failing your progress report, it is the taking
away from a fun activity

The consequence
provides something
($, a spanking…)
The consequence
takes something away
(removes headache,
timeout)
Positive
Reinforcement
Negative
Reinforcement
The consequence
makes the behavior
more likely to happen
in the future.
Positive
Punishment
Negative
Punishment
The consequence
makes the behavior
less likely to happen in
the future.
Reinforcement/Punishment Matrix

REINFORCEMENT VS.
PUNISHMENT
 Unlike reinforcement, punishment must be administered
consistently. Intermittent punishment is far less effective than
punishment delivered after every undesired behavior.
 In fact, not punishing every misbehavior can have the effect of
rewarding the behavior.

PUNISHMENT VS. NEGATIVE
REINFORCEMENT
Punishment and negative reinforcement are
used to produce opposite effects on behavior.
 Punishment is used to decrease a behavior or reduce its probability of
reoccurring.
 Negative reinforcement always increases a behavior’s probability of
happening in the future (by taking away an unwanted stimuli).
 Remember, “positive” means adding something and
“negative means removing something.

USES AND ABUSES OF
PUNISHMENT
 Punishment often produces an immediate change in
behavior, which ironically reinforces the punisher.
 However, punishment rarely works in the long run for four reasons:
1. The power of punishment to suppress behavior usually disappears
when the threat of punishment is gone.
2. Punishment triggers escape or aggression
3. Punishment makes the learner apprehensive: inhibits learning.
4. Punishment is often applied unequally.

MAKING PUNISHMENT
WORK
 To make punishment work:
 Punishment should be swift.
 Punishment should be certain-every time.
 Punishment should be limited in time and intensity.
 Punishment should clearly target the behavior, not the person.
 Punishment should not give mixed messages.
 The most effective punishment is often omission training-negative
punishment.

REINFORCEMENT
SCHEDULES
 Intermittent Reinforcement: A type of reinforcement schedule
by which some, but not all, correct responses are reinforced.
 Intermittent reinforcement is the most effective way to
maintain a desired behavior that has already been learned.

 Continuous Reinforcement:
A schedule of reinforcement that rewards
every correct response given.
 Example: A vending machine.
 What are other examples?

SCHEDULES OF INTERMITTENT
REINFORCEMENT
 Interval schedule: rewards subjects after a
certain time interval.
 Ratio schedule: rewards subjects after a certain
number of responses.
 There are 4 types of intermittent reinforcement:
 Fixed Interval Schedule (FI)
 Variable Interval Schedule (VI)
 Fixed Ratio Schedule (FR)
 Variable Ratio Schedule (VR)

INTERVAL SCHEDULES
 Fixed Interval Schedule (FI):
 A schedule that a rewards a learner only for the first correct
response after some defined period of time.
 Example: B.F. Skinner put rats in a box with a lever connected to a
feeder. It only provided a reinforcement after 60 seconds. The rats
quickly learned that it didn’t matter how early or often it pushed the
lever, it had to wait a set amount of time. As the set amount of time
came to an end, the rats became more active in hitting the lever.

INTERVAL SCHEDULES
 Variable Interval Schedule (VI):
A reinforcement system that rewards a correct response after
an unpredictable amount of time.
 Example: A pop-quiz

RATIO SCHEDULES
 Fixed Ratio Schedule (FR):
A reinforcement schedule that rewards a response only after a
defined number of correct answers.
 Example: At Safeway, if you use your Club Card to buy 7 Starbucks
coffees, you get the 8th one for free.

RATIO SCHEDULES
 Variable Ratio Schedule (VR):
A reinforcement schedule that rewards an unpredictable
number of correct responses.
 Example: Buying lottery tickets

PRIMARY AND
SECONDARY
REINFORCEMENT
 Primary reinforcement: something that is naturally
reinforcing: food, warmth, water…
 Secondary reinforcement: something you have learned is
a reward because it is paired with a primary
reinforcement in the long run: good grades.

TWO IMPORTANT
THEORIES
 Token Economy: A therapeutic method based on
operant conditioning that where individuals are
rewarded with tokens, which act as a secondary
reinforcer. The tokens can be redeemed for a variety
of rewards.
 Premack Principle: The idea that a more preferred
activity can be used to reinforce a less-preferred
activity.

A THIRD TYPE OF
LEARNING
 Sometimes we have “flashes of insight” when dealing with a
problem where we have been experiencing trial and error.
 This type of learning is called cognitive learning, which is
explained as changes in mental processes, rather than as
changes in behavior alone.

COGNITIVE LEARNING
 Cognitive learning is a powerful mechanism that
provides the means of knowledge, and goes well
beyond simple imitation of others.
 Conditioning can never fully explain what you are
learning
 Cognitive learning is defined as the acquisition of
knowledge and skill by mental or cognitive
processes — ;the procedures we have for
manipulating information 'in our heads'. Cognitive
processes include creating mental representations of
physical objects and events, and other forms of
information processing

LATENT LEARNING
In a similar study, rats were allowed to wander
around a maze, without reinforcements, for
several hours. It formerly was thought that
reinforcements were essential for learning.
However, the rats later were able to negotiate
the maze for food more quickly than rats that
had never seen the maze before.
 Latent learning: Learning that occurs but is not
apparent until the learner has an incentive to
demonstrate it.

OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
You can think of observational learning as
an extension of operant conditioning, in
which we observe someone else getting
rewarded but act as thought we had also
received the reward.
 Observational learning: Learning in which new
responses are acquired after other’s behavior and
the consequences of their behavior are observed.

MEDIA AND VIOLENCE
 Does violence on TV/movies/video games have an
impact on the learning of children?
 Correlation evidence from over 50 studies shows
that observing violence is associated with violent
behavior.
 In addition, experiment evidence shows that
viewers of media violence show a reduction in
emotional arousal and distress when they
subsequently observe violent acts-a condition
known as psychic numbing.

 Reinforcing one particular behavior may actually be
reinforcing the opposite behavior.
 Ignoring students who misbehave in class rather than yelling
at them (works most generally in the elementary level).
 Peer approval= more powerful than teacher approval

 Learning is purposeful & not mechanical.
 Person can learn by thinking about something or watching
others.
 People search for information, weigh evidence, & then make
decisions.
Exercise That
Brain!!

 People set up personal systems of rewards and punishment to
shape their own thoughts and actions.
 First step to develop some self control is to define the problem.
 Set up a behavioral contract.

What do all of these
behaviors have in
common? What
kinds of behaviors
are they?

 Pay attention, read/recite information you have heard.
 Make flash cards—USE THEM
 Redo problems or questions on a lengthy assignment or test.
 Make meaningful connections with the information you are
learning.
 Find a study partner—you haven’t mastered something until
you can teach it to someone else.
 Study material in small dose—not the night of the exam.

 Primary: stimuli that increases the probability of a
response because they satisfy a biological need, such
as food or water.
 Secondary: stimuli that increases the probability of a
response because of their learned value, such as
money and material possessions.
 Positive: adding or presenting a stimulus which
strengthens a response and makes it more likely to
occur.
 Negative: taking away or removing a stimulus, which
strengthens a response and makes it more likely to
occur.

 Fixed Ratio: employee receives $10 for every 4 customers
he/she helps at Best Buy.
 Variable Ratio: slot machine at Caesars’ Palace pays out after
an average number of responses, maybe every 15 minutes.
 Fixed Interval: Intel employee receives a paycheck every two
weeks for their service as an engineer.
 Variable Interval: Chemistry class gives pop quizzes, student
studies at a slow but steady rate because they can’t anticipate
the next quiz.

 You want to teach a dog to shake hands. One way would be to
give the animal a treat every time it lifts its paws up to you. The
treat is called a positive reinforcer.
 Your dog will stop shaking hands when you forget to reward it for
the trick as extinction will occur because the reinforcement is
withheld; But will take a period of time

 Learned reactions that follow one another in sequence, each
reaction producing the signal for the next.
Example—in swimming, you would have three separate chains
to make up the pattern (arm stroke, breathing, leg kick).

 The most obvious form of aversive control.
 An unpleasant consequence occurs & decreases the frequency of
the behavior that produced it.
 Behavior that is punished decreases or is not repeated—that is
the goal of punishment.

1. Aversive stimuli can produce unwanted side effects—
rage, aggression, fear.
2. Instead of one behavior to change, multiple behaviors
could emerge.
3. People learn to avoid the person delivering the
aversive consequences—children learn to stay away
from parents or teachers who often punish them.
4. Can just merely “suppress” the undesired behavior,
not totally eliminate it.
5. A child may not learn “correct” behaviors by
punishment alone—coaching/training is needed.

1. How do you learn?
2. What environment is most suitable for you to learn?
3. Are you a visual or auditory learner?
4. What can you do to improve your ability to learn new
material?
5. What causes you not to learn?
6. Is there some material or information that people just
simply cannot grasp?

 Personal systems of rewards and punishments—helps shape
one’s own thoughts and actions.
 First step in self-control is to define the problem.
 People who have a very poor opinion of themselves would have
to define the problem more concretely.
 Keep track of self-deprecating thoughts and remarks you
make—may lead to a start in changing behavior.

 Studying in a new place—free from distractions.
 Don’t study too much at any one given time.
 Attempt to study at the same time each day.
 Set specific goals.
 Tell friends not to call during study times.

1. Human behavior influenced by one’s history of rewards and
punishments.
2. Behavior can be reinforced according to continuous or
partial reinforcement schedules.
3. Punishments are stimuli that actually decrease the
likelihood of certain behaviors from repeating themselves.

1. What are appropriate punishments for teenagers who
commit crimes?
2. How would you go about “modifying” teenagers or even
younger children’s behavior?
3. What are two advantages and two disadvantages of
punishment

Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning.ppt

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