Activity 2.1 project design
- 1. METHODOLOGY AND DESIGN LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.1
- 3. DEFINING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH Natural and holistic representation: Qualitative researchers aim to study individuals and events in their natural setting Ernie perspectives: Qualitative researchers aim to interpret phenomena in terms of the meanings people attach to them Rich description: The aims of qualitative researchers often involve the provision of careful and detailed descriptions as opposed to the quantification of data through measurements, frequencies, scores, and ratings. Cyclical and open-ended processes: Qualitative research is often process- oriented, or open ended, with categories that emerge.
- 5. Ethnographies • to describe and interpret the cultural behavior, including communicative behavior, of a group Case Studies • they allow the researcher to focus on the individual in a way that is rarely possible in group research. Interviews • Interviews can allow researchers to investigate phenomena that are not directly observable, such as learners' self-reported perceptions or attitudes.
- 6. Observations • Observations are useful in that they provide the researcher with the opportunity to collect large amounts of rich data on the participants' behavior and actions within a particular context. Diaries/Journals • In many diary studies, learners are able to record their impressions or perceptions about learning, unconstrained by predetermined areas of interest.
- 7. Comprehensive: Topic oriented: Hypothesis oriented: • In which all possible aspects of a chosen context are researched. • In which the topic is clarified through preliminary analysis and focused data collection. • In which hypotheses are generated based on data. ANALYZING QUALITATIVE DATA
- 8. theoretical triangulation investigator triangulation TRIANGULATION methodological triangulation using multiple perspectives to analyze the same set of data. using multiple observers or interviewers. using different measures or research methods to investigate a particular phenomenon. Use of multiple, independent methods of obtaining data in a single investigation in order to arrive at the same research findings.
- 10. Conducting Classroom Observations An obtrusive observer may also be problematic for the instructor and students in terms of compromising the quality of the lesson. The Hawthorne Effect..- The workers were apparently happy to receive attention from researchers who expressed an interest in them by observing them, and this impacted their behavior. Instructors often observe each other's classes for professional development as well as for research purposes, and they may also carry out observations of their own classes, usually using audio or videotapes to assist with this process.
- 11. INTROSPECTIVE METHODS IN CLASSROOM RESEARCH Techniques that encourage learners to communicate their internal processing and perspectives about language learning experiences It can afford researchers access to information unavailable from observational approaches
- 12. UptakeSheets Uptake sheets were initially developed as a method of data collection following interest in learners' perceptions about what they learned in their language classes. StimulatedRecall Stimulated recall can be used to provide the researcher with access to the learners‘ interpretations of the events that were observed and can be a valuable source of information. DiaryResearchinClassroom Contexts Diary studies have the additional advantage of time sensitivity. Because most diary research is longitudinal, it can illuminate how perceptions develop over time. INTROSPECTIVE METHODS IN CLASSROOM RESEARCH
- 13. PREPARING DATA FOR CODING Coding involves making decisions about how to classify or categorize particular pieces or parts of data. Coding represents an attempt to reduce a complex, messy, context- laden and quantification resistant reality to a matrix of numbers Oral data may come from a range of sources, including, for example, native speaker learner interviews.
- 14. CHAPTER 8 CODING
- 15. Transcribing Oral Data Transcription Conventions Transcriptions are often referred to as broad, including less detail, or narrow—meaning that they are very finely detailed. Transcription Machines Transcription machines make the process of transcribing data significantly easier. Transcription machines usually have a foot pedal so that both hands are free for typing; Technology and Transcription Technology is also changing the process and product of transcriptions. Digital recording equipment is becoming more reasonably priced and accessible.
- 16. Coding Nominal Data • Nominal data include cases in which "entities may be the same or different but not 'more' or less. Coding Ordinal Data • Ordinal data are usually coded in terms of a ranking. Coding Interval Data • Interval scales, like ordinal scales, also represent a rank ordering.. DATA CODING
- 17. Common Coding Systems and Categories T-units. Suppliance in obligatory context (SOC) counts. CHAT convention. Turns. Utterances. Sentences. Communication units. Tone units. Analysis of speech units. Idea units. Clauses. S-nodes per sentence. Type-token ratios. Type-token ratios.
- 18. CHAPTER 9 Analyzing Quantitative Data
- 19. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS Measures of Frequency Measures of frequency are used to indicate how often a particular behavior or phenomenon occurs. In addition to tables, frequencies may also be represented graphically in forms such as histograms, bar graphs, or frequency polygons Frequencies and measures of central tendency can help researchers determine which sorts of statistical analyses are appropriate for the data.
- 20. Mode Median Mean Outliers • The mode is the most frequent score obtained by a particular group of learners. • The median is the score at the center of the distribution • These represent data that seem to be atypical of the rest of the data set. Measures of Central Tendency The mean may be represented visually through the use of graphics.
- 21. Prerequisites INFERENTIAL STATISTICS Standard Error of the Mean Standard error of the mean (SEM) is the standard deviation of sample means. Standard Error of the Difference Between Sample Means It is based on the assumption that the distribution of differences between sample means is normal. Degrees of Freedom The determination of significance of statistical tests. Critical Values To determine whether our hypothesis can be substantiated. One-Tailed Versus Two-Tailed Hypotheses This hypothesis predicts a difference in the performance of the two groups.
- 22. • Can be used when one wants to determine if the means of two groups are significantly different from one another..t-tests • ANOVA results provide an F value, which is a ratio of the amount of variation between the groups to the amount of variation within the groups. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) • Effect of one independent variable that is dependent on the other independent variable.Two-way ANOVA • The preexisting difference will need to be controlled for and is referred to as the covariate. Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA). • It differs from an ANOVA in that it has more than one dependent variable. Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) • To compare participants' performance on more than one task. Repeated Measures ANOVA Parametric Statistics
- 23. Effect size is a measure that gives an indication of the strength of one's findings. It enables readers to evaluate the stability of research across samples It allows evaluation of the practical relevance of the research outcomes. It provides the basis of power analyses and meta-analyses needed in future research EFFECT SIZE
- 24. CORRELATION Linear Regression A theoretically sound explanation for suspecting a relationship between the variables. Multiple Regression To test the validity of the predictor variables for predicting the third variable. Pearson Product- Moment Correlation
- 25. It can be used with either Macintoshes or PCs. STATISTICAL PACKAGES SPSS SPSS is a basic analytic program. There are add-on packages for more sophisticated statistical. VARBRUL It is a statistical package that is designed for analyzing variation data.
- 26. CHAPTER 10 ◦Concluding and Reporting Research
- 27. THE IMPORTANCE OF REPORTING RESEARCH The purpose of research is to discover answers to pertinent questions. The nature of research reports often differs for quantitative and qualitative studies In order for answers to be meaningful, they must be reported to an audience Reports of research generally involve a clear description of the problem and the methodology
- 28. THE FINAL STAGES IN REPORTING QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
- 29. The Research Problem and Questions The Research Hypotheses The Audience The Abstract CHECKLIST FOR COMPLETING REPORTS OF RESEARCH The problem and questions need to be clearly stated and presented as part of a theoretical framework. It needs to be clearly stated and presented as part of a theoretical framework in the research report.. It takes into consideration the needs, interests, and expectations of the audience. It provides a brief overview, that readers will usually use to determine whether the study is relevant.
- 30. The Literature Review The Design of the Study Logistics Participants Data Gathering It explains the context for the research, together with details about the findings, strengths, and weaknesses The researchers to replicate the study and to be able to understand and evaluate the validity of the results. The researchers should also carefully address practical issues with a series of checks. Important questions involving the study's participants Questions addressing how the data were gathered should also be considered. CHECKLIST FOR COMPLETING REPORTS OF RESEARCH