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ADVANCED FIBER
ACCESS
NETWORKS

ADVANCED FIBER
ACCESS
NETWORKS
CEDRIC F. LAM
SHUANG YIN
TAO ZHANG

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Preface
After more than 30 years of developments from research to commercializa-
tion, fiber access networks are now mature technologies that have been
widely deployed around the world. Optical access network technologies
in the form of gigabit-capable passive optical networks (G-PONs) have been
commoditized and are shipping in volumes of at least multiple tens of mil-
lions of units per year. Carriers around the world are busy rolling out fiber-
to-the-home (FTTH) networks to prepare for new upcoming internet
applications such as over-the-top (OTT) video streaming, augmented reality
(AR)/virtual reality (VR), collaborative online real-time video gaming, and
billions of new upcoming Internet of Things (IoT). China, the most pop-
ulous nation in the world, boasts an FTTH penetration rate of more than
90%, representing 380 million households connected at the end of 2019,
and they are busy moving into the next-generation PON technologies.
Most people think of fiber access networks as time-division-
multiplexing (TDM)-based PONs. In fact, the word “PON” (almost always
implied as some form of TDM-PON) is mostly used as a synonym of fiber
access networks. However, TDM-PON is only one of the last-mile archi-
tectures most popularly adopted for the FTTH application because of its
simplicity and economic benefits. For some access applications such as
fronthaul in wireless networks, native TDM-PONs have their inherent
challenges and may not be the suitable technology choice. Furthermore,
in a real end-to-end broadband fiber access network, PON only represents
the last mile connection from a carrier’s central office (CO) to the end-user
customer premise. Besides the PON last-mile connection, there are many
other components coming into play for a well-designed broadband fiber
access network. The readers will find out from this book that simply deploy-
ing the next-generation last-mile PON system may not actually address the
right problems arising from the increasing customer bandwidth demands
because of other network bottlenecks and limitations. There are also deploy-
ment scenarios (e.g., thin-fiber cables from COs or cable Multi-Service
Operator network upgrades) that will require new fiber access network
architectures, as we will see in this book.
Although we give a general overview of fiber access networks in this
book, it is not intended as an entry-level text. This book is an advanced text
ix

assuming the audience already possesses the basic knowledge of fiber optic
transmission and traditional PON knowledge such as the ITU-T G-PON
and IEEE E-PON. (For an introductory text on PON, the audience is
referred to Ref. [1].) In addition to covering the advanced next-generation
PON technologies being worked on by standard bodies and the research
community, we describe the overall end-to-end fiber broadband access net-
work architecture and the various network components involved from the
internet backbone to the end-user homes. We examine the scaling proper-
ties and how they affect the overall network performance and economics.
This book is roughly divided into three parts. Chapter 1 is the general
introduction. Chapters 2 through 6 cover fiber access standards and physical
optoelectronic technologies. Chapters 7 and 8 cover the network systems
and the convergence of wireless and wireline access networks. The structure
of the book was conceived when we were making the notes of an OFC
(optical fiber communication conference) short course with the same title.
Through this book, we would like to give the audience a balanced view of
the physical fiber access network technologies and the overall access net-
work structure and their evolutions in the broadband network industry.
We began writing this book when the 2019 Novel Coronavirus (2019
nCoV or COVID-19) pandemic was breaking out in the Hubei Province of
China where Shuang’s family came from. Wuhan, the capital of Hubei
Province, was not only the center of this pandemic but the Optics Valley
of China where most of the optical access components in the world were
manufactured. To prevent the spreading of the virus, governments around
the world implemented quarantines, travel restrictions, and social distancing
everywhere. Civilians were asked to spend most of their time at home. Dur-
ing this special time, the internet, teleconferencing, and videos streaming
delivered through fiber backbones and access networks became essential
for people to stay connected, continue to work, purchase goods online,
and entertain themselves. In China, during the national quarantine time,
state-run cable networks unlocked many premium channels for people to
enjoy at home and those were delivered through internet protocol television
(IPTV) platforms.
Fiber optics is at the core of the internet, and fiber access networks are
becoming more and more important to connect homes, businesses, and the
booming 5G wireless infrastructure. While developing this manuscript dur-
ing the pandemic, we hope the broadband technologies that we are working
x Preface

on will help humanity to (1) more efficiently tackle such emergencies,
(2) improve our lives and productivities with better connections to the out-
side world and better access to the information and entertainment when we
have to stay home, and (3) have the freedom to work from anywhere in
the world.
Cedric, Shuang, and Tao
Silicon Valley, California
September 2020
Reference
[1] C.F. Lam, Passive Optical Networks: Principles and Practice, Elsevier, 2007.
xi
Preface

Foreword
When I started at Google as the head of Google Fiber back in 2010, Cedric
Lam was one of the star engineers in the team and also one of the key drivers
of innovation in the project. Over the years, the team was not content with
simply using whatever vendors in the market offered, but in the tradition of
Google, attempted to innovate in every area. Cedric, Shuang, and Tao led
the way in optical network technology, and now through this book and
efforts in the standards space, the rest of the world can benefit as well.
It is especially important to look at the innovations in the Fiber to the
Home (FTTH) and access space now. The United States and other countries
seek to play catch-up with aggressive national fiber deployments that have
been proceeding briskly in Asia, especially China. Tens of billions of dollars
have been allocated by the US Government to close the gap in connectivity
in rural areas, with a focus on fiber deployment as well as by the investment
community with its newfound love for fiber deployments in urban and sub-
urban areas that serve homes, businesses, and wireless operators.
Rather than “building yesterday’s networks tomorrow,” the learnings
and architectural approaches outlined in Advanced Fiber Access Networks
should be the guide for new builds that will reduce cost, accelerate build
rates, and enable redundancy and multiservice delivery over a common pas-
sive fiber network deployment.
While in many areas people have focused on 5G wireless as the access
technology of the future, it is important to recognize that there is only
one network, the wired network, with a little bit of wireless at the ends.
In the limit, as cell sizes continue to shrink to drive higher and higher net-
work capacity, the wireless network will look like an FTTH network with
small Wi-Fi-like cells at the edge. As network deployments in Asia have
shown, one cannot be a leader in 5G and especially 6G without first being
a leader in fiber access to the home and business.
Informed by real-world experience and world-class optical engineering,
this book is a great resource for those operators seeking to build the next
generation of fiber access networks.
Milo Medin
vii

Acknowledgments
This book is a result of over one decade of the direct experiences of research
and development at Google Fiber [1], a program cofounded by one of the
coauthors of this book. It is a summary of the dedicated hard work and cre-
ativity of many people directly and indirectly involved in Google Fiber.
These include many of our coworkers, managers, our equipment vendors,
friends, and families, so numerous that it is very difficult to list all of them
one-by-one individually.
Nevertheless, we would like to particularly thank the following people
for their significant influences and contributions in the works described in
this book. Milo Medin, Vice President of Wireless Access Services at Goo-
gle, who was also the first VP of Google Fiber; without his strong technical
and executive support, the real production Super-PON network and tech-
nologies would not have come into existence. Milo was also instrumental for
the wireless programs in Google and exposed us to the field of wireless com-
munications while we were working on fiber access networks. Dr. Hong
Liu, Google Fellow at Google Technical Infrastructure, who was a coinitia-
tor of the predecessor of the Super-PON program named Kaleidoscope,
which we built and successfully trialed on the Stanford University campus,
an FTTH testbed carrying live service traffic. James Kelly, the first Product
Manager on the Google Fiber program, who strongly promoted micro-
trenching as a low-cost deployment method even before the Google Fiber
program was officially formed. James was also a strong promoter of our
Kaleidoscope WDM-PON program. Tony Ong, the uber hardware engi-
neering manager at Google Fiber, who led the hardware program and built
many cutting-edge fiber access network systems and CPE equipment. Ke
Dong, who led the software development for our WDM-PON and
Super-PON systems and created the cloud OSS system used by Google
Fiber. Xiangjun Zhao, a key contributor of numerous creative ideas
enabling the realization of Kaleidoscope, Super-PON, and the Muxtender
system described in this book. Yifan Gao, manager of the Google Fiber lab
and the testing team, who led the testing, integration, and verification of
many homegrown and third-party technologies in our network. Jack
Wu, who headed the product definition of our first WDM-PON system
that was deployed in Stanford for production. Claudio de Santi and Liang
Du, who led the developments of Super-PON standard in the IEEE
xiii

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802.3 Ethernet Standard Working Group and ITU-T Study Group 15.
Claudio is the Chairman of the IEEE 802.3cs Super-PON standard task
force. Sasha Petovic, Jhon Gaurin, and Jason Bone in the Google Fiber
San Antonio team, who led the trial and deployment of the first real produc-
tion Super-PON network in the world. Their faith and confidence in us
were tremendous and will never be forgotten.
We would also like to thank the following Google executives: Walt
Drummond (VP), Boon-lock Yeo (VP), and Ben Segura (Strategy Lead
of Google Fiber). Together with Milo, these people recognized the value
of the TWDM Super-PON project, both to Google Fiber itself and to
the industry. They supported the continuation of the Super-PON program
and many other innovation initiatives during a major force reduction in
Google Fiber in 2017.
The first author would like to particularly thank the following people
who worked in the Google Fiber architecture and technology team (in
alphabetical order of last name): Adam Barratte, Pedram Dashti, Claudio
de Santi, Liang Du, Joy Jiang, Scott Li, Muthu Nagarajan, Satrukaan Sivag-
nanasuntharam, Daoyi Wang, Shuang Yin, Tao Zhang, and Xiangjun Zhao.
Last but not least, we are very grateful to Google and its parent Alphabet.
Google provided us with a nourishing ground to fertilize innovative ideas
and necessary resources to test, refine, and realize those new solutions.
We were surrounded by an environment of tremendous talents that coached
and humbled us.
March 2021
Silicon Valley, California
Reference
[1] C.F. Lam, Google fiber deployments: lessons learned and future directions, in: Invited
Paper presented at Optical Fiber Communications Conference 2021, 2021. San
Francisco, CA.
xiv Acknowledgments

CHAPTER 1
Introduction
1.1 Drivers and applications for broadband access
We live in an information society today where connectivity to data has
become a utility like water and electricity to our modern human lives.
Fig. 1.1 shows the annual growth of the Internet traffic between 30% and
37% from 2017 to 2022, as projected by the cisco VNI index [1]. Scalable,
low-cost, and future-proof broad access infrastructure is key to the success in
today’s digital economy, promoting governments around the world to cre-
ate strategies and policies to stimulate investments in broadband infrastruc-
tures and technologies, especially during economic downturns.
The importance of broadband was amplified during the recent COVID-
19 pandemic. After the global outbreak of COVID-19 in the beginning of
the year 2020, in order to curb the spreading of the highly contagious coro-
navirus, people are requested to stay at home by the lockdown orders issued
by governments around the world. The Internet has become the main ave-
nue for people to work remotely from the home, take online lessons, consult
with their physicians, stay connected with their loved ones, and buy food
and necessities. Zoom, the maker of a popular video conferencing tool with
the same name, saw a huge boom in their business and their stock prices rose
through the stratosphere against a free-falling stock market. According to
Ref. [2], the Internet traffic on EU (European Union) telecom operators
grew 30% to 60% in the first 3 weeks since the lockdown. Fig. 1.2 [3] shows
the Internet data and traffic explosion after COVID-19. The prolonged
COVID-19 pandemic will permanently change the way people work, play,
and social, and the importance of the Internet will become even greater.
Optical fiber was originally developed for long-haul transmissions. The
idea of using fiber optic for access was initially proposed in the 1980s, way
before the Internet and broadband access became the norm of our society.
After decades of developments, fiber access networks are now mature tech-
nologies deployed to hundreds of millions of users around the world. In
2019, China alone boasted more than 395 million fiber-to-the-home
(FTTH) users. Besides directly connecting residential households with
FTTH networks, new forms of fiber access networks are indispensable in
1
Advanced Fiber Access Networks Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Inc.
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85499-3.00008-4 All rights reserved.

providing backhaul and fronthaul connectivities to the fourth generation
(4G) and the upcoming fifth generation (5G) wireless networks.
Fiber access networks are deployed at the edge of telecommunication
networks as end nodes. There are two major challenges in deploying fiber
access networks. First, access networks are very cost sensitive, so the equip-
ment cost has to be very low in order for it to be viable as a mass-deployed
technology. The ways to achieve this are economy of scale and low-cost
optoelectronics packaging techniques. The second major challenge in
deploying fiber access networks is labor cost, and speed and ease of deploy-
ments [4]. Significant civil engineering cost is incurred especially in devel-
oped economies where (1) the labor cost is high, and (2) digging and
trenching of infrastructure is not easy. Therefore, traditional incumbent car-
riers in developed nations would like to preserve their legacy copper
Fig. 1.2 Data and traffic explosion after COVID-19.
Fig. 1.1 Global busy hour vs average hour internet traffic Ref. [1].
2 Advanced fiber access networks

infrastructure and delay the deployment of fiber in the last mile (from the
central office) as much as possible. In developing economies or green field
scenarios, there will be fewer architecture constraints, less legacy burdens,
and more flexibility in technology and architecture choices. But those econ-
omies are also very capital cost sensitive and would like to leverage the low
cost of existing, mature, and standard-based technologies. These challenges
are guiding the design principles of fiber access technologies.
Broadband Internet access discussed earlier was the initial driving force
for FTTH fiber access technologies. This was mainly propelled by the
booming Internet applications, especially over-the-top (OTT) video
streaming applications which offers any time and any place viewing experi-
ences of on-demand contents. Higher resolution videos such as 4K will
demand more bandwidths to end users, mainly in the downstream direction
from carrier networks to the end users. New applications such as telecon-
ferencing and high-resolution video surveillance will also command high
uplink return bandwidth from end users to carrier networks and will affect
the architecture of fiber access networks. For example, during COVID-19,
many people worked from home. Broadband access networks with limited
upstream bandwidths, such as DOCSISa
[5], would suffer from upstream
bandwidth contention. People joining video conferences from DOCSIS
cable modems often have poor image and/or sound quality due to the
upstream access bandwidth contention. This was observed in a video con-
ference among the first and second authors of this book and the publisher in
England. The first author and the publisher were on FTTH access network,
and the second author was on a DOCSIS cable network. During the tele-
conference, at the first author’s terminal, the image of the publisher from
London comes out crystal clear while the image from the second author
who lived 20miles away was very blurry. However, at the second author’s
terminal, the images from both the first author and the publisher were crystal
clear because he had no downstream bandwidth problem. This is illustrated
in Fig. 1.3.
One of the purposes of this book is to understand how to scale the overall
end-to-end broadband fiber access network from an overall system
a
Most legacy DOCSIS deployed occupies a very limited upstream bandwidth between 5 and
42 MHz on the coaxial cable RF spectrum [5], which is heavily shared among 500–1000
users. Newer systems can make use of a wider upstream spectrum and have small share
group size. However, this requires significant network capital expenditure to upgrade
the coaxial plant infrastructure.
3
Introduction

perspective. FTTH was mainly provided by passive optical networks
(PONs) [6]. In fact, PON is almost used as a synonym of FTTH although
other FTTH implementations also exist. Most of the deployed residential
FTTH networks are based on the IEEE 802.3ah EPON or ITU-TG.984
based G-PON technologies, with the latter being the most popular
nowadays.
1.2 History and roadmap of broadband access
development
Fig. 1.4 plots the peak bit rate of PON vs wireless (Wi-Fi and cellular) over
the past four decades. Tables 1.1 through 1.3 summarize the major technol-
ogy standards and peak data rate achieved by various generations of Wi-Fi,
cellular, and PON systems. We can see from Fig. 1.4 that wireless access
speed had a low starting point but is catching up very quickly (driven by
the needs of both broadband applications and mobility). FTTH technolo-
gies, as represented by the PON speed development trends, are growing
much more slowly, however. We are just at the point where fiber and wire-
less access speeds are converging. A detailed account of PON standards
development can be found in [7].
Various standard bodies are involved in wireline and wireless access tech-
nology developments. Cellular network provides long-haul end-to-end
wireless connectivity with international roaming functions. It is standardized
by 3GPP (Third Generation Partner Project) under ITU-R (International
Telecommunication Union—Radio). Wi-Fi, also called wireless local area
Publisher
(England)
Author 1
(California)
Author 2
(California)
FTTH
FTTH
DOCSIS
Video Conferencing
over the Internet
Fig. 1.3 The low upstream bandwidth from Author 2 causes his image to be blurred at
Author 1 and Publisher while he perceives both Author 1 and Publisher as crystal clear.

network (WLAN), is the most prevailing indoor wireless access network
technology with semi-mobility capability. It is a fast evolving technology
developed by the IEEE (Institute of Electronic and Electrical Engineering)
802.11 standard group. In an FTTH network, a PON system is usually
Cellular Wi-Fi
PON
1G (FDMA, analog)
2G (TDMA / GSM /
EDGE / GPRS)
3G (UMTS / TD-SCDMA / CDMA2000 / WCDMA)
4G (OFDMA / WiMax / LTE-A)
5G (OFDMA / SDN /
mmWave)
BPON
G-PON
EPON
10G-EPON XG-PON
NG-PON2
XGS-PON
25G/50G-EPON
Legacy
IEEE802.11
IEEE802.11b
IEEE802.11a
IEEE802.11g
IEEE802.11n
IEEE802.11a
x
802.11ac
Fig. 1.4 Development trends of PON and wireless access technologies.
Table 1.1 Wi-Fi development milestones.
Year Standard Frequency band Peak data rate
1997 Legacy IEEE 802.11 2.4GHz 2Mbps
1999 IEEE 802.11b
IEEE 802.11a
2.4GHz
5GHz
11Mbps
54Mbps
2003 IEEE 802.11g 2.4GHz 54Mbps
2009 IEEE 802.11n 2.4 and 5GHz (4 streams) 600Mbps
2014 IEEE 802.11ac 5GHz (8 streams) 6933Mbps
2019 IEEE 802.11ax 2.4 and 5GHz (8 streams) 9608Mbps
Table 1.2 Cellular wireless development milestones.
Year
(generation) Technologies Peak data rate
1980 (1G) FDMA Analog 2.4kbps
1989 (2G) TDMA/GSM/EDGE/GPRS 10–100kbps
2000 (3G) UMTS/TD-SCDMA/CDMA2000/
WCDMA
100kbps–10sMbps
2009 (4G) OFDMA/WiMax/LTE-A 150Mbps-2Gbps
2019 (5G) OFDMA/SDN/mmWave 1–20Gbps
2030 (6G) Terahertz Transmission Tbps?
5
Introduction

terminated into a Wi-Fi access point (AP) at a customer premise, which
provides the connectivity inside the residential home. Wireless signals are
subject to high propagation losses, interferences and blockage by walls
and obstacles. Although modern Wi-Fi systems boast multigigabit peak per-
formance (Table 1.1) that is faster than the deployed G-PON or EPON
FTTH line rates, as in a commercial FTTH network, Wi-Fi is usually the
bottleneck that determines customers’ experiences and perceptions. Carriers
often get the most support calls related to the home Wi-Fi system rather than
PON link issues. Nevertheless, Wi-Fi is not the covered subject of this book.
There are three major organizations working on PON standards. FSAN
(Full Service Access Network) is a telecom carrier consortium that discusses
requirements and ideas for new fiber access initiatives. The proposals will be
submitted to ITU-T (International Telecommunication Union – Telecom)
Study Group 15 (SG-15) for standardization. IEEE 802.3 LAN/MAN
Ethernet Standard Group makes Ethernet standard-based PON (or EPON)
standards, competing with ITU-T SG15.
The most widely deployed PON standards for FTTH or FTTP (fiber-
to-the-premise) are the IEEE 802.3ah EPON and ITU-TG.984 G-PON.
Although carriers have started deploying 10 Gbps based TDM-PON
systems around the world, for residential FTTH uses, G-PON and EPON
networks still offer enough bandwidth for at least another 3–5 years as we
will see in a later chapter. Nevertheless, standard bodies have been busy
working on PON technologies beyond 10Gbps (i.e., 25/50 Gbps). IEEE
802.3 standard group just completed the IEEE802.3ca 25G/50G EPON
in June 2020 [8] and ITU-T SG15 is busy working on a single-wavelength
50 Gbps high-speed PON standard [9]. The major driving forces for these
Table 1.3 PON development milestones.
Year Technology name Standard Peak downlink speed
1998 BPON ITU-TG.983 622Mbps
2003 G-PON ITU-TG.984 2.488Gbps
2004 EPON IEEE 802,3ah 1Gbps
2009 10G-EPON IEEE 802.2av 10Gbps
2010 XG-PON ITU-TG.987 10Gbps
2015 NG-PON2 ITU-TG.989 40Gbps
2016 XGS-PON ITU-TG.9807 10Gbps
2020 25G/50G-EPON IEEE 802.3ca 50Gbps

higher speed PONs are enterprise services and wireless fronthaul and
backhaul applications (Fig. 1.4). Furthermore, besides TDM, WDM
(wavelength division multiplexing) has been introduced to further scale
the speed and coverage of future PON networks [10]. These development
trends will be discussed in the later chapters.
We can see from Fig. 1.4 that initially, the speed of wireline PON
networks was far ahead of that of wireless networks by at least 2 orders of
magnitude. However, there was a lack of killer applications to drive the fast
development of PON access networks for residential users. The fast evolving
wireless networks are now becoming a driving force for the developments of
new fiber access technologies and standards, especially in the WDM domain.
To support very high data rates, the 5G (fifth generation) wireless networks
require cell densification and a pervasive fiber edge network to support the
5G base station infrastructure. PON and WDM will be helpful to solve the
fiber congestion issues in 5G fronthaul networks.
We will see later in this book that in order to improve the cost efficiency
and performance of wireless systems, the new wireless networks are
deployed with distributed RF (radio frequency) front ends called RRHs
(remote radio heads) or AAUs (active antenna units), which are connected
to centralized baseband units (BBUs) by low-cost and high-speed fronthaul
links. Such fronthaul links require very high data rate and play into the
strengths of the next generation fiber access networks. However, wireless
fronthaul requires precision timing control of the fronthauled signal which
is very challenging for TDM-PONs that use traditional dynamic bandwidth
allocations (DBA) algorithms for statistical multiplexing. Although tech-
niques have been devised to accommodate TDM-PONs for wireless
fronthaul [11,12] applications, WDM-PON has also arisen a simpler and
more straightforward approach for wireless fronthaul, for example, in
ITU-T G.698.4 [13].
Lastly, as PON speed and coverage increases, scaling PON systems by
TDM alone is getting harder and harder due to the exponential increases
in the transmission impairments of a single-wavelength high baud rate signal.
Scaling in both the time domain and wavelength domain will help to ease
some of the transmission difficulties at the expense of using the more expen-
sive WDM optics. Electronic digital signal processing techniques [14] have
also been discussed to overcome the physical transmission impairments espe-
cially for future optical access systems with line rates in excess of 25 Gbps.
These techniques will be discussed in Chapter 6.
7
Introduction

1.3 Fiber-to-the-home advantages and its future
One may look at Fig. 1.4 and start to wonder that if wireless communication
is catching up so fast that the speed of wireless access starts to rival that of
FTTH networks, then where the value of fiber access networks is, because
in a wireless access network, there is no need to string fiber to customer
premises, a process which is both time consuming and very costly especially
in developed countries. To answer this question, we need to take a deeper
look into the comparisons between wireless and FTTH systems.
1.3.1 FTTH vs wireless access network architectures
Fig. 1.5 shows a comparison between an FTTH network and a fixed wireless
access (FWA) network. In an FTTH network, a completely passive optical
distribution network (ODN) connects a customer premise to a central office
which can be as far as 20km apart with most FTTH network standards.
The ODN connects an ONU (optical network unit, aka a fiber modem)
to an OLT (optical line terminal) in the central office.
In an FWA network, a customer connects to the broadband wireless net-
work using a CPE (customer premise equipment, aka a wireless modem),
which connects to an RRH (remote radio head) at a cellular site wirelessly.
Metro
Network
OLT
BNG
Internet
Packet
Core
ONU
FWA
BBU
CPE
FTTH Fiber Plant
RG /
AP
RG /
AP
RRH
Front
haul
Backhaul
Central
Office
Peering,
CDN &
Edge
Compute
20km
100m to a
few km
Fig. 1.5 FTTH vs FWA network. AP: access point, BBU: baseband unit, BNG: broadband
network gateway, CDN: content distribution network, CPE: customer premise
equipment, OLT: optical line terminal, ONU: optical network terminal, RAN: radio
access network, RG: residential gateway, RRH: remote radio head.

Wireless signals suffer from free space signal losses, shadowing effects from
buildings in urban environments, as well as scattering from trees and various
obstacles in the propagation paths. Depending on the wavelengths of the
wireless spectrum used for transmission (e.g., mmWave systems), they can
also be affected by weather effects such as rain scattering. So the loss between
the RRH and an FWA CPE is not only large but also varying due to envi-
ronmental effects. This is also why we are comparing FTTH to FWA net-
works rather than mobile wireless access in this section. The quality of
service of a mobile wireless network is even more unpredictable due to
the mobility of the user terminal (called UE or user equipment). Neverthe-
less, mobile networks solve a completely different problem, that is, mobility,
in addition to bringing bandwidth (which is what fixed broadband networks
are designed for). So it is unfair to compare FTTH to mobile wireless
systems.
In an FWA system, the distance between the RRH and CPE is usually
limited to a few hundred meters in an urban environment. Experienced
FTTH practitioners would have noticed that FWA is really replacing the
drop fiber section from a pole or street handhole to a customer’s premise
(which is the last 100m of the connection from the central office), with
an active cellular tower and a wireless CPE. In order to get good system
performance (a few hundred megabits per second) and larger coverage
(e.g., from 400m to 1km by wireless standard), usually an outdoor CPE
with directional antenna such as the one shown in Fig. 1.5 is used in an
FWA network to ensure good signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) at the CPE.
Professional installation of such outdoor CPE is often required, which is
not necessarily cheap either.
In open rural environments, depending on the transmission wavelengths
and required bit rates, wireless network coverage can be as wide as a few tens
of kilometers. In fact, rural communication with sparse population is the
strength of wireless networks because the capital cost of stringing fiber is very
expensive.
To enhance the wireless coverage as well as capacity, other wireless
architectures, such as wireless mesh where multihop connections through
intermediate CPEs to neighboring customer premises, have also been pro-
posed. Wireless mesh architecture is not only a hot active area of research but
also many startup companies have been created to try to profit from it,
because broadband access is so important to the modern digital economy
and the capital cost of building pervasive and ubiquitous FTTH networks
is so high, especially in OECD countries where labor cost is very high.
9
Introduction

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The Project Gutenberg eBook of Pere
Marquette State Park

This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
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ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
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you are located before using this eBook.
Title: Pere Marquette State Park
Creator: Illinois. Department of Conservation
Release date: May 11, 2019 [eBook #59482]
Language: English
Credits: Produced by Stephen Hutcheson, Lisa Corcoran and the
Online
Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PERE MARQUETTE
STATE PARK ***

1
Guest House is attractive and comfortable
Pere Marquette
STATE PARK AND CONSERVATION AREA
The hub of park activities is the rustic lodge
Sprawling picturesque Pere Marquette State Park and Conservation
Area, located on the bluffs overlooking the gentle flowing Illinois river,
offers many diversified forms of recreation and abounds in scenic
beauty. The 5180 acre area is in Jersey county five miles west of
Grafton on Illinois route 100 and approximately 19 miles west and
north of Alton via the scenic Great River Road.

2
The park was named in memory of Father Jacques Marquette, the
French Jesuit missionary priest, who in 1673 along with explorer
Louis Jolliet were the first white men to enter what is now the State
of Illinois at the confluence of the Mighty Mississippi and the Illinois
rivers. A large white cross, east of the park entrance alongside route
100, marks where these two famous men landed.
The park with its 2605.90 acres and the conservation area consisting
of 2574 acres were acquired by the state in 1932. The two areas
adjoin each other. Across the Illinois river to the south and west is
the Federal Wild Life Refuge of more than 8,000 acres.
BEAUTIFUL LODGE
Long popular and much used is the massive Pere Marquette Lodge
built of colorful native stone and rustic timbers, and the seven stone
guest houses back of it, nestling into the hillside. The guest houses
with 29 rooms and the lodge with 18 rooms are all heated,
completely air-conditioned, and each have televisions. The spacious
dining room has maintained a continued reputation for exceptionally
good food and gracious hospitality which spills over to the large
lounge with a huge 700 ton stone fireplace, furnishing the ideal spot
for old-fashioned corn popping or just plain loafing. There are also
many outdoor activities including a swimming pool (open May 15
through September 15), a five-hole, par three, golf course,
shuffleboard and horseshoe courts for lodge guests. Room or dining
reservations should be made with the Pere Marquette Lodge
management, Grafton, Illinois (A.C. 618—Grafton 786-3351).
RECREATION AT ITS BEST
The recreational facilities of the park are many and varied ranging
from camping to hiking the many miles of foot trails, boating and

fishing, picnicking or horseback riding the bridle paths, or viewing the
many scenic wonders from the overlooks atop the bluffs. It’s family
recreation at its best!
Camping is popular and in addition to primitive sites, the park affords
trailer sites with electricity, shower baths, and flush toilets. Camping
permits must be secured from the park ranger who will assign you a
camping site. There are ample picnic areas with good shade, pure
water, and picnic tables at designated areas. No open fires are
permitted and no cooking can be done except on a park or camp
stove. Playground equipment is provided for the children.
If you are a nature lover and wish to commune with nature, the park
provides miles of foot trails. From April to October, a part-time
naturalist is available for scheduled trips on the nature trails. At the
beginning of the trail you will find a nature museum with excellent
exhibits pertaining to animal and plant life, archaeology and geology
of the park. The vast network of foot trails with scattered shelters,
lead you to McAdams Peak where Dr. McAdams recovered 125 Indian
skeletons, Quitt Point the highest point in the park or other popular
overlooks. During the early spring the park abounds with the added
beauty of white blossoming wild dogwood and redbud trees.
The modern new boat docks provide dockage for privately owned
craft. The convenient concession stand has row boats for rent and
arranges for scenic or speedboat rides. Fishing is an extremely
popular pastime and the angler has the opportunity of catching a
variety of fish from the waters of the Illinois.
BRIDLE PATHS
Horseback riding over the 14 miles of bridle paths is another
recreational feature of the park. A stable with good mounts is located
within the park near the entrance.

3
Located in the Conservation Area, the organized youth group
camping area is equipped with kitchens, mess halls, and swimming
pools. These three areas, Camp Piasa, Camp Quatoga, and Camp
Potawatomi are extensively used during the summer months and can
accommodate approximately 365 youths. Reservations for the use of
these facilities are made with the Division of Parks and Memorials,
100 State Office Building, Springfield 62706.

EARLY HISTORY OF PARK AREA
Cross marks site where Marquette and Jolliet entered Illinois in 1673
In Pere Marquette State Park there are 18 sites indicating occupation
by prehistoric Americans and a village once located where the lodge
now stands. It is believed that men, nomadic hunters and fishers,
appeared in the Illinois valley possibly about the beginning of the
Christian Era. Later stone age peoples by 900 A. D. made large leaf-
shaped arrowheads and coarse, heavy pottery. By 1300 A. D. trade

had developed and at Cahokia resulted in village-states. These
peoples made small, finely-chipped arrowheads, pottery with handles
and a variety of wares and cultivated corn, squash and beans.
When the French came to this region, the Illinois, Potawatomie and
Kickapoo Indians were little removed from their ancestors whose
cemeteries, burial mounds, house and village sites dotted the Illinois
Valley as at the park.
Louis Jolliet and Father Jacques Marquette were sent by the French
government over the Wisconsin portage, in the spring of 1673, to
explore the Mississippi River for a passage to the Pacific Ocean. They
coursed as far as the Arkansas River where they turned back and in
September entered the Illinois River. The Marquette Monument, a
large stone cross, alongside Route 100, commemorates this event as
the recorded entrance of white men into Illinois.
Robert Cavilier, sieur de La Salle appeared shortly to govern and
develop the region. His unbounded energy earned him the name
“Prince of Explorers.”
He built Fort Creve Coeur near Peoria, now a state park, and in the
spring of 1680 sent Father Louis Hennepin down the Illinois River to
explore the upper Mississippi. Hennepin and his party spent five days
at or across from the present lodge, waiting for the ice to go out of
the Mississippi. On March 12, the expedition turned up the mighty
Father of Waters. The Iroquois Indians invaded the Illinois valley that
spring and mutinous soldiers destroyed Fort Creve Coeur as La Salle
hiked to Montreal.
INDIAN CRUELTIES
Learning of the wrecking of his enterprise, La Salle hurried to the
Illinois valley to search for his companions, arriving at Pere Marquette
State Park by canoe on December 7, 1680. On the north bank of the

4
Illinois River he viewed the fury of the Iroquois, for here were Illinois
women and children tortured to death by fire, impaled on poles.
Having found no trace of Frenchmen, he stripped the bark from the
trunk of a tree, hung a board with a drawing of his party in a canoe,
tied a letter to Tonti, his trusted lieutenant, to the board directing him
to a cache of supplies hidden nearby.
On December 7, 1681, La Salle with a party of 22 Frenchmen,
reunited with Tonti, rendezvoused with 18 Indians at the mouth
of the Illinois River. This party remained 12 days building elm bark
canoes for the long trip down the Mississippi. Three months later La
Salle stood at the mouth of the river and claimed the Mississippi
valley for France, naming it “Louisiana.”
TONTI SUCCEEDS LA SALLE
La Salle’s successor in the Illinois country was Henri Tonti, an Italian
in the French army. He had lost a hand in some battle, for which he
substituted an iron one, which so impressed the Indians that he
became famed as the man with the Iron Hand.
He served as guide to the Seminary Fathers who founded Cahokia,
today the oldest permanent settlement in the Mississippi valley. This
party stopped overnight at the mouth of the Illinois River on
December 5, 1698.
In 1717 the Regent of France was influenced by John Law, a Scottish
land speculator, to draw a line from the mouth of the Illinois River,
extended east, which created New France (Canada) to the north and
Louisiana to the south. Law’s scheme to colonize Louisiana waxed
until 1720 when the “Mississippi Bubble” burst, nearly wrecking
France.

On October 9, 1721, Pierre Francois de Charlevoix, a Jesuit college
professor, sent by Louis XV’s Regent to search for the still
undiscovered route to the Pacific Ocean passed this way. “For at this
place,” he wrote in polished prose, “The River of the Illinois changes
its course.... One might say, out of regret to its being obliged to pay
the tribute of its waters to another river, it endeavors to return back
to its source.”
A VITAL WATER ROUTE
The fur trade, flourishing with the Indians as middlemen, centered on
the strategic Illinois waterway. The Indians controlled the region from
the Fox War of the 1730’s through the French and Indian War of the
1760’s, the French having possession in name only.
When the British took hold in 1763, illegal fur trading began from the
newly founded St. Louis, Calhoun Point being the place of crossing.
Otter, beaver, wolf, deer and martin are the peltry mentioned as
abounding from the mouth of the Illinois north.
By the Treaty of Greenville, Ohio, in August, 1795, the Indians ceded
a twelve square mile tract at the mouth of the Illinois River, including
free passage of the waterway.
In 1811 trouble with Indians saw the building of a blockhouse near
the mouth of the Illinois River and another at the present Meppen,
across the river from Goat Cliff.
Major Stephan H. Long in September, 1816, went by keelboat from
St. Louis to Peoria with two soldiers and an interpreter, Francis Le
Clair, the founder of Davenport, Iowa. This survey party returned
overland south and west, reaching the Illinois River via the low ridge
east of Quitt Point and Deerlick Hollow.

5
The autumn of 1818 found Gurdon S. Hubbard as a clerk on a bateau
as an agent of Astor’s American Fur Company. Hubbard, only 18, tells
of the party passing Pere Marquette State Park singing Canadian boat
songs and spending the night of November 5 at the mouth of the
Illinois, bound for St. Louis. This party returned in the first week of
December as Illinois was accepted into the Union. Hubbard became a
legendary figure in Illinois, living a full and adventurous life in the
Illinois fur trade.
SETTLERS ARMY VETERANS
Five veterans of the regular army were the first settlers in this region
this same year. One of these, David Gilbert, settled on the bank
of the lake now bearing his family name. George Finney, another
veteran, platted the village of Camden in February, 1821, in the valley
now bearing that name at the mouth of the Illinois river.
Corner of interesting nature museum

James Mason entered land in 1830 just to the east of Camden to
establish a ferry to facilitate trade with St. Louis. Late in April, 1831,
a flatboat drifted past here, manned by four men from the Sangamon
country, bound for the New Orleans market. One of the crew, 22-
year-old Abraham Lincoln, was to be indelibly impressed by the slave
market at New Orleans.
Mason built a home on his land, founding Grafton in 1836. An earth
wharf was built, becoming known as Mason’s Landing. In 1837 the
town of Hartford was platted where the Pere Marquette lodge now
stands. The church and school bearing this name are the sole
reminders of this development today. The flood of 1844 wrecked
Grafton and business shifted east to Alton.
When the Illinois and Michigan canal was opened in 1848 Mason’s
Landing became a wood and coal center for the river traffic. Corded
wood came from the surrounding forests and coal was kept in 2½
bushel boxes to maintain the steamboats. Large rafts of pine logs and
lumber from Wisconsin appeared on the Mississippi River each spring,
were caught at Grafton, and held backed up on the Illinois River, until
needed farther down stream.
Quarrying began in 1857, and the old Lindell Hotel in St. Louis, and
the piers of the Meredosia and Hannibal railroad bridges were built of
Grafton stone. The Underground Railroad was a well kept secret of
the period in Grafton, Calhoun Point being the rendezvous for
escaped slaves.
AGE OF DINOSAURS
The park bluffs command the first attention of the visitor. The four
prominent hollows one views are ravines cut into an elevated plain.
About 200 million years ago, what is now Illinois, was lifted from the
sea for the last time and the age of the lizards followed. As the giant

6
dinosaurs flourished, this region was the scene of earth movements
that resulted in a dislocation of the rocks, producing the Lincoln Fold.
Thus it happens that one is now in the eastern end of the Lincoln
Hills which extend 30 miles from Lincoln County, Missouri, into Jersey
County, Illinois. To the north the bedrock was uplifted 50 feet per
mile, and pulled down steeply hundreds of feet to the south. At Pere
Marquette State Park the Illinois River has cut a section through
these folded beds. Rocks dipping at 45 degrees are plainly visible at
two places along the foot trail and bridle path to Twin Springs. Here
one can climb the Lincoln Fold just to the north of the Nature
Museum on the foot trail to Goat Cliff.
FOSSILS REFLECT HISTORY
The life of those times, preserved as fossils, reveal the development
of the higher invertebrates, then the fishes, and finally land animals
and plants. At the foot of McAdams Peak, Twin Springs flows from
Ordovician-Silurian rocks, deposited in the sea 350 million years ago.
All the ridges are mantled with loess (pronounced “less”), wind blown
dust laid down a million years ago at the time of the Great Ice Age.
The vertical banks of yellow clay seen along the road to the upper
areas are composed of this material, capped by the black topsoil that
supports the present forest.
More than 60 species of trees have been listed; Pecans, Red Cedars
and Butternuts being notable. Spring comes with the flowering of the
Shadbush; Redbud and Wild Plum are succeeded by the even more
lovely Dogwood. Flowers abound, and later berries light up dark
places, and mosses, ferns and lichens, form an agreeable ensemble.
Mushrooms are conspicuous for their number. With autumn the
woods are a never-to-be-forgotten blaze of color.

MANY ANIMALS HERE
The varied habitats support a vast and unusual assemblage of
animals. Fish, as only the Illinois valley knows them, fatten in the
waterways. All four species of lizards known in Illinois scamper over
the lichen-covered rocks. The whole series of fur-bearing animals
now left in Illinois are here to be seen. It may be that in these
endless acres that a Whitetail Deer or Wildcat still lingers, certainly
an occasional Coyote and the re-introduced Beaver.
Hundreds of species of birds, especially in time of migration, can be
seen and studied to great advantage. The Mockingbird sings all day;
the woods ring with the calls of Thrush, Wren and Towhee, and the
fields echo with Meadow Lark and native sparrow songs. Vireo, Oriole
and Cardinal are everywhere. Hawks, Vultures, and the symbol of the
United States, the Bald Eagle, soar over McAdams Peak. Osprey,
Herons, Bitterns, Cormorants, Grebes and Loons are about the water.
Even Pelicans and Ibises appear in the summer. Especially in
migration, Ducks, Geese, Gulls, and all the tribe of Sandpiper, Plover,
Snipe, Cranes and Swans on very rare occasions. All these and many
others frequent this part of the Mississippi Flyway, the migratory
highway of central North America. This was the Indian’s happy
hunting ground, now an American paradise in perpetuity.
For further information concerning Illinois State Parks and
Memorials write to the DIVISION OF PARKS AND MEMORIALS, 100
State Office Building, Springfield, 62706.
Our numerous State Parks and Memorials are of easy access from
every part of the state. Lodges, cabins, and dining rooms are
important features of Illinois Beach, Starved Rock, Pere Marquette,
White Pines Forest, and Giant City State Parks. Reservations for
lodging should be made with lodge managers.
All State Parks are open the year round, except when weather
condition necessitates the closing of park roads during the freezing

7
and thawing periods. Then access to park facilities is by foot traffic
only. All State Memorials open the year round except Thanksgiving,
Christmas, and New Years.
(Printed by authority of the State of Illinois)
Issued by
DEPARTMENT OF CONSERVATION
Division of Parks and Memorials
50M—7-67
Illinois natural beauty sails around

A magnetic charm dominates lodge lounge

8
Excellent food complements dining room
Three-lane boat ramp on Illinois River basin

Docking area on Illinois River basin

TO HARDIN—8 MI.
ILL RT. 100
CAMP PIASA
CAMP QUATOGA
CAMP POTAWATOMI
VACATION AREA
ASST. RANGER
WILLIAMS HOLLOW
GOAT CLIFF STABLES
TUCKER HOLLOW

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