![assuming the audience already possesses the basic knowledge of fiber optic
transmission and traditional PON knowledge such as the ITU-T G-PON
and IEEE E-PON. (For an introductory text on PON, the audience is
referred to Ref. [1].) In addition to covering the advanced next-generation
PON technologies being worked on by standard bodies and the research
community, we describe the overall end-to-end fiber broadband access net-
work architecture and the various network components involved from the
internet backbone to the end-user homes. We examine the scaling proper-
ties and how they affect the overall network performance and economics.
This book is roughly divided into three parts. Chapter 1 is the general
introduction. Chapters 2 through 6 cover fiber access standards and physical
optoelectronic technologies. Chapters 7 and 8 cover the network systems
and the convergence of wireless and wireline access networks. The structure
of the book was conceived when we were making the notes of an OFC
(optical fiber communication conference) short course with the same title.
Through this book, we would like to give the audience a balanced view of
the physical fiber access network technologies and the overall access net-
work structure and their evolutions in the broadband network industry.
We began writing this book when the 2019 Novel Coronavirus (2019
nCoV or COVID-19) pandemic was breaking out in the Hubei Province of
China where Shuang’s family came from. Wuhan, the capital of Hubei
Province, was not only the center of this pandemic but the Optics Valley
of China where most of the optical access components in the world were
manufactured. To prevent the spreading of the virus, governments around
the world implemented quarantines, travel restrictions, and social distancing
everywhere. Civilians were asked to spend most of their time at home. Dur-
ing this special time, the internet, teleconferencing, and videos streaming
delivered through fiber backbones and access networks became essential
for people to stay connected, continue to work, purchase goods online,
and entertain themselves. In China, during the national quarantine time,
state-run cable networks unlocked many premium channels for people to
enjoy at home and those were delivered through internet protocol television
(IPTV) platforms.
Fiber optics is at the core of the internet, and fiber access networks are
becoming more and more important to connect homes, businesses, and the
booming 5G wireless infrastructure. While developing this manuscript dur-
ing the pandemic, we hope the broadband technologies that we are working
x Preface](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/31311-250410034206-ed5b11c4/85/Advanced-Fiber-Access-Networks-Cedric-F-Lam-11-320.jpg)
![on will help humanity to (1) more efficiently tackle such emergencies,
(2) improve our lives and productivities with better connections to the out-
side world and better access to the information and entertainment when we
have to stay home, and (3) have the freedom to work from anywhere in
the world.
Cedric, Shuang, and Tao
Silicon Valley, California
September 2020
Reference
[1] C.F. Lam, Passive Optical Networks: Principles and Practice, Elsevier, 2007.
xi
Preface](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/31311-250410034206-ed5b11c4/85/Advanced-Fiber-Access-Networks-Cedric-F-Lam-12-320.jpg)
![Acknowledgments
This book is a result of over one decade of the direct experiences of research
and development at Google Fiber [1], a program cofounded by one of the
coauthors of this book. It is a summary of the dedicated hard work and cre-
ativity of many people directly and indirectly involved in Google Fiber.
These include many of our coworkers, managers, our equipment vendors,
friends, and families, so numerous that it is very difficult to list all of them
one-by-one individually.
Nevertheless, we would like to particularly thank the following people
for their significant influences and contributions in the works described in
this book. Milo Medin, Vice President of Wireless Access Services at Goo-
gle, who was also the first VP of Google Fiber; without his strong technical
and executive support, the real production Super-PON network and tech-
nologies would not have come into existence. Milo was also instrumental for
the wireless programs in Google and exposed us to the field of wireless com-
munications while we were working on fiber access networks. Dr. Hong
Liu, Google Fellow at Google Technical Infrastructure, who was a coinitia-
tor of the predecessor of the Super-PON program named Kaleidoscope,
which we built and successfully trialed on the Stanford University campus,
an FTTH testbed carrying live service traffic. James Kelly, the first Product
Manager on the Google Fiber program, who strongly promoted micro-
trenching as a low-cost deployment method even before the Google Fiber
program was officially formed. James was also a strong promoter of our
Kaleidoscope WDM-PON program. Tony Ong, the uber hardware engi-
neering manager at Google Fiber, who led the hardware program and built
many cutting-edge fiber access network systems and CPE equipment. Ke
Dong, who led the software development for our WDM-PON and
Super-PON systems and created the cloud OSS system used by Google
Fiber. Xiangjun Zhao, a key contributor of numerous creative ideas
enabling the realization of Kaleidoscope, Super-PON, and the Muxtender
system described in this book. Yifan Gao, manager of the Google Fiber lab
and the testing team, who led the testing, integration, and verification of
many homegrown and third-party technologies in our network. Jack
Wu, who headed the product definition of our first WDM-PON system
that was deployed in Stanford for production. Claudio de Santi and Liang
Du, who led the developments of Super-PON standard in the IEEE
xiii](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/31311-250410034206-ed5b11c4/85/Advanced-Fiber-Access-Networks-Cedric-F-Lam-14-320.jpg)
![802.3 Ethernet Standard Working Group and ITU-T Study Group 15.
Claudio is the Chairman of the IEEE 802.3cs Super-PON standard task
force. Sasha Petovic, Jhon Gaurin, and Jason Bone in the Google Fiber
San Antonio team, who led the trial and deployment of the first real produc-
tion Super-PON network in the world. Their faith and confidence in us
were tremendous and will never be forgotten.
We would also like to thank the following Google executives: Walt
Drummond (VP), Boon-lock Yeo (VP), and Ben Segura (Strategy Lead
of Google Fiber). Together with Milo, these people recognized the value
of the TWDM Super-PON project, both to Google Fiber itself and to
the industry. They supported the continuation of the Super-PON program
and many other innovation initiatives during a major force reduction in
Google Fiber in 2017.
The first author would like to particularly thank the following people
who worked in the Google Fiber architecture and technology team (in
alphabetical order of last name): Adam Barratte, Pedram Dashti, Claudio
de Santi, Liang Du, Joy Jiang, Scott Li, Muthu Nagarajan, Satrukaan Sivag-
nanasuntharam, Daoyi Wang, Shuang Yin, Tao Zhang, and Xiangjun Zhao.
Last but not least, we are very grateful to Google and its parent Alphabet.
Google provided us with a nourishing ground to fertilize innovative ideas
and necessary resources to test, refine, and realize those new solutions.
We were surrounded by an environment of tremendous talents that coached
and humbled us.
March 2021
Silicon Valley, California
Reference
[1] C.F. Lam, Google fiber deployments: lessons learned and future directions, in: Invited
Paper presented at Optical Fiber Communications Conference 2021, 2021. San
Francisco, CA.
xiv Acknowledgments](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/31311-250410034206-ed5b11c4/85/Advanced-Fiber-Access-Networks-Cedric-F-Lam-16-320.jpg)
![CHAPTER 1
Introduction
1.1 Drivers and applications for broadband access
We live in an information society today where connectivity to data has
become a utility like water and electricity to our modern human lives.
Fig. 1.1 shows the annual growth of the Internet traffic between 30% and
37% from 2017 to 2022, as projected by the cisco VNI index [1]. Scalable,
low-cost, and future-proof broad access infrastructure is key to the success in
today’s digital economy, promoting governments around the world to cre-
ate strategies and policies to stimulate investments in broadband infrastruc-
tures and technologies, especially during economic downturns.
The importance of broadband was amplified during the recent COVID-
19 pandemic. After the global outbreak of COVID-19 in the beginning of
the year 2020, in order to curb the spreading of the highly contagious coro-
navirus, people are requested to stay at home by the lockdown orders issued
by governments around the world. The Internet has become the main ave-
nue for people to work remotely from the home, take online lessons, consult
with their physicians, stay connected with their loved ones, and buy food
and necessities. Zoom, the maker of a popular video conferencing tool with
the same name, saw a huge boom in their business and their stock prices rose
through the stratosphere against a free-falling stock market. According to
Ref. [2], the Internet traffic on EU (European Union) telecom operators
grew 30% to 60% in the first 3 weeks since the lockdown. Fig. 1.2 [3] shows
the Internet data and traffic explosion after COVID-19. The prolonged
COVID-19 pandemic will permanently change the way people work, play,
and social, and the importance of the Internet will become even greater.
Optical fiber was originally developed for long-haul transmissions. The
idea of using fiber optic for access was initially proposed in the 1980s, way
before the Internet and broadband access became the norm of our society.
After decades of developments, fiber access networks are now mature tech-
nologies deployed to hundreds of millions of users around the world. In
2019, China alone boasted more than 395 million fiber-to-the-home
(FTTH) users. Besides directly connecting residential households with
FTTH networks, new forms of fiber access networks are indispensable in
1
Advanced Fiber Access Networks Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Inc.
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85499-3.00008-4 All rights reserved.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/31311-250410034206-ed5b11c4/85/Advanced-Fiber-Access-Networks-Cedric-F-Lam-17-320.jpg)
![providing backhaul and fronthaul connectivities to the fourth generation
(4G) and the upcoming fifth generation (5G) wireless networks.
Fiber access networks are deployed at the edge of telecommunication
networks as end nodes. There are two major challenges in deploying fiber
access networks. First, access networks are very cost sensitive, so the equip-
ment cost has to be very low in order for it to be viable as a mass-deployed
technology. The ways to achieve this are economy of scale and low-cost
optoelectronics packaging techniques. The second major challenge in
deploying fiber access networks is labor cost, and speed and ease of deploy-
ments [4]. Significant civil engineering cost is incurred especially in devel-
oped economies where (1) the labor cost is high, and (2) digging and
trenching of infrastructure is not easy. Therefore, traditional incumbent car-
riers in developed nations would like to preserve their legacy copper
Fig. 1.2 Data and traffic explosion after COVID-19.
Fig. 1.1 Global busy hour vs average hour internet traffic Ref. [1].
2 Advanced fiber access networks](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/31311-250410034206-ed5b11c4/85/Advanced-Fiber-Access-Networks-Cedric-F-Lam-18-320.jpg)
![infrastructure and delay the deployment of fiber in the last mile (from the
central office) as much as possible. In developing economies or green field
scenarios, there will be fewer architecture constraints, less legacy burdens,
and more flexibility in technology and architecture choices. But those econ-
omies are also very capital cost sensitive and would like to leverage the low
cost of existing, mature, and standard-based technologies. These challenges
are guiding the design principles of fiber access technologies.
Broadband Internet access discussed earlier was the initial driving force
for FTTH fiber access technologies. This was mainly propelled by the
booming Internet applications, especially over-the-top (OTT) video
streaming applications which offers any time and any place viewing experi-
ences of on-demand contents. Higher resolution videos such as 4K will
demand more bandwidths to end users, mainly in the downstream direction
from carrier networks to the end users. New applications such as telecon-
ferencing and high-resolution video surveillance will also command high
uplink return bandwidth from end users to carrier networks and will affect
the architecture of fiber access networks. For example, during COVID-19,
many people worked from home. Broadband access networks with limited
upstream bandwidths, such as DOCSISa
[5], would suffer from upstream
bandwidth contention. People joining video conferences from DOCSIS
cable modems often have poor image and/or sound quality due to the
upstream access bandwidth contention. This was observed in a video con-
ference among the first and second authors of this book and the publisher in
England. The first author and the publisher were on FTTH access network,
and the second author was on a DOCSIS cable network. During the tele-
conference, at the first author’s terminal, the image of the publisher from
London comes out crystal clear while the image from the second author
who lived 20miles away was very blurry. However, at the second author’s
terminal, the images from both the first author and the publisher were crystal
clear because he had no downstream bandwidth problem. This is illustrated
in Fig. 1.3.
One of the purposes of this book is to understand how to scale the overall
end-to-end broadband fiber access network from an overall system
a
Most legacy DOCSIS deployed occupies a very limited upstream bandwidth between 5 and
42 MHz on the coaxial cable RF spectrum [5], which is heavily shared among 500–1000
users. Newer systems can make use of a wider upstream spectrum and have small share
group size. However, this requires significant network capital expenditure to upgrade
the coaxial plant infrastructure.
3
Introduction](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/31311-250410034206-ed5b11c4/85/Advanced-Fiber-Access-Networks-Cedric-F-Lam-19-320.jpg)
![perspective. FTTH was mainly provided by passive optical networks
(PONs) [6]. In fact, PON is almost used as a synonym of FTTH although
other FTTH implementations also exist. Most of the deployed residential
FTTH networks are based on the IEEE 802.3ah EPON or ITU-TG.984
based G-PON technologies, with the latter being the most popular
nowadays.
1.2 History and roadmap of broadband access
development
Fig. 1.4 plots the peak bit rate of PON vs wireless (Wi-Fi and cellular) over
the past four decades. Tables 1.1 through 1.3 summarize the major technol-
ogy standards and peak data rate achieved by various generations of Wi-Fi,
cellular, and PON systems. We can see from Fig. 1.4 that wireless access
speed had a low starting point but is catching up very quickly (driven by
the needs of both broadband applications and mobility). FTTH technolo-
gies, as represented by the PON speed development trends, are growing
much more slowly, however. We are just at the point where fiber and wire-
less access speeds are converging. A detailed account of PON standards
development can be found in [7].
Various standard bodies are involved in wireline and wireless access tech-
nology developments. Cellular network provides long-haul end-to-end
wireless connectivity with international roaming functions. It is standardized
by 3GPP (Third Generation Partner Project) under ITU-R (International
Telecommunication Union—Radio). Wi-Fi, also called wireless local area
Publisher
(England)
Author 1
(California)
Author 2
(California)
FTTH
FTTH
DOCSIS
Video Conferencing
over the Internet
Fig. 1.3 The low upstream bandwidth from Author 2 causes his image to be blurred at
Author 1 and Publisher while he perceives both Author 1 and Publisher as crystal clear.
4 Advanced fiber access networks](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/31311-250410034206-ed5b11c4/85/Advanced-Fiber-Access-Networks-Cedric-F-Lam-20-320.jpg)
![terminated into a Wi-Fi access point (AP) at a customer premise, which
provides the connectivity inside the residential home. Wireless signals are
subject to high propagation losses, interferences and blockage by walls
and obstacles. Although modern Wi-Fi systems boast multigigabit peak per-
formance (Table 1.1) that is faster than the deployed G-PON or EPON
FTTH line rates, as in a commercial FTTH network, Wi-Fi is usually the
bottleneck that determines customers’ experiences and perceptions. Carriers
often get the most support calls related to the home Wi-Fi system rather than
PON link issues. Nevertheless, Wi-Fi is not the covered subject of this book.
There are three major organizations working on PON standards. FSAN
(Full Service Access Network) is a telecom carrier consortium that discusses
requirements and ideas for new fiber access initiatives. The proposals will be
submitted to ITU-T (International Telecommunication Union – Telecom)
Study Group 15 (SG-15) for standardization. IEEE 802.3 LAN/MAN
Ethernet Standard Group makes Ethernet standard-based PON (or EPON)
standards, competing with ITU-T SG15.
The most widely deployed PON standards for FTTH or FTTP (fiber-
to-the-premise) are the IEEE 802.3ah EPON and ITU-TG.984 G-PON.
Although carriers have started deploying 10 Gbps based TDM-PON
systems around the world, for residential FTTH uses, G-PON and EPON
networks still offer enough bandwidth for at least another 3–5 years as we
will see in a later chapter. Nevertheless, standard bodies have been busy
working on PON technologies beyond 10Gbps (i.e., 25/50 Gbps). IEEE
802.3 standard group just completed the IEEE802.3ca 25G/50G EPON
in June 2020 [8] and ITU-T SG15 is busy working on a single-wavelength
50 Gbps high-speed PON standard [9]. The major driving forces for these
Table 1.3 PON development milestones.
Year Technology name Standard Peak downlink speed
1998 BPON ITU-TG.983 622Mbps
2003 G-PON ITU-TG.984 2.488Gbps
2004 EPON IEEE 802,3ah 1Gbps
2009 10G-EPON IEEE 802.2av 10Gbps
2010 XG-PON ITU-TG.987 10Gbps
2015 NG-PON2 ITU-TG.989 40Gbps
2016 XGS-PON ITU-TG.9807 10Gbps
2020 25G/50G-EPON IEEE 802.3ca 50Gbps
6 Advanced fiber access networks](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/31311-250410034206-ed5b11c4/85/Advanced-Fiber-Access-Networks-Cedric-F-Lam-22-320.jpg)
![higher speed PONs are enterprise services and wireless fronthaul and
backhaul applications (Fig. 1.4). Furthermore, besides TDM, WDM
(wavelength division multiplexing) has been introduced to further scale
the speed and coverage of future PON networks [10]. These development
trends will be discussed in the later chapters.
We can see from Fig. 1.4 that initially, the speed of wireline PON
networks was far ahead of that of wireless networks by at least 2 orders of
magnitude. However, there was a lack of killer applications to drive the fast
development of PON access networks for residential users. The fast evolving
wireless networks are now becoming a driving force for the developments of
new fiber access technologies and standards, especially in the WDM domain.
To support very high data rates, the 5G (fifth generation) wireless networks
require cell densification and a pervasive fiber edge network to support the
5G base station infrastructure. PON and WDM will be helpful to solve the
fiber congestion issues in 5G fronthaul networks.
We will see later in this book that in order to improve the cost efficiency
and performance of wireless systems, the new wireless networks are
deployed with distributed RF (radio frequency) front ends called RRHs
(remote radio heads) or AAUs (active antenna units), which are connected
to centralized baseband units (BBUs) by low-cost and high-speed fronthaul
links. Such fronthaul links require very high data rate and play into the
strengths of the next generation fiber access networks. However, wireless
fronthaul requires precision timing control of the fronthauled signal which
is very challenging for TDM-PONs that use traditional dynamic bandwidth
allocations (DBA) algorithms for statistical multiplexing. Although tech-
niques have been devised to accommodate TDM-PONs for wireless
fronthaul [11,12] applications, WDM-PON has also arisen a simpler and
more straightforward approach for wireless fronthaul, for example, in
ITU-T G.698.4 [13].
Lastly, as PON speed and coverage increases, scaling PON systems by
TDM alone is getting harder and harder due to the exponential increases
in the transmission impairments of a single-wavelength high baud rate signal.
Scaling in both the time domain and wavelength domain will help to ease
some of the transmission difficulties at the expense of using the more expen-
sive WDM optics. Electronic digital signal processing techniques [14] have
also been discussed to overcome the physical transmission impairments espe-
cially for future optical access systems with line rates in excess of 25 Gbps.
These techniques will be discussed in Chapter 6.
7
Introduction](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/31311-250410034206-ed5b11c4/85/Advanced-Fiber-Access-Networks-Cedric-F-Lam-23-320.jpg)
![GRIEG
(Edvard Grieg:[61] born in Bergen, Norway, June 15, 1843; died in
Bergen, September 4, 1907)
SUITE (No. 1), "PEER GYNT" [62]
1. MORNING MOOD
(Allegretto pastorale)
2. THE DEATH OF AASE
(Andante doloroso)
3. ANITRA'S DANCE
(Tempo di Mazurka)
4. IN THE HALL OF THE MOUNTAIN KING
(Marcia e molto marcato)
This is the first, as it is the more famous and frequently played, of
the two orchestral suites arranged by Grieg from the incidental
music which he wrote, at Ibsen's suggestion, for the latter's singular
drama, "Peer Gynt." The story of the play, in the form in which it
was given by Ibsen to Grieg for musical accentuation, is thus](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/31311-250410034206-ed5b11c4/85/Advanced-Fiber-Access-Networks-Cedric-F-Lam-29-320.jpg)
![there he finds Solvejg faithfully awaiting his return, and dies as
she sings the tearful melody known as 'Solvejg's Cradle Song.'"
In Grieg's suite, the "Morning Mood" (Morgenstimmung) music forms
the prelude to the fourth act of the play. It is a piece of serene and
idyllic tone-painting, with no dramatic suggestions.
"The Death of Aase" is a brief and sombre dirge on the death of
Peer's mother, scored entirely for muted[63] strings.
"Anitra's Dance" is the music of the dance with which the daughter
of the Bedouin chief tries to beguile the inconstant Peer.
"In the Hall of the Mountain King" is taken from the accompaniment
to the scene in which Peer, in the dwelling of the trolls, is beset and
tormented by gnomes and imps. The music of this number has been
characterized as "a veritable hornets' nest."](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/31311-250410034206-ed5b11c4/85/Advanced-Fiber-Access-Networks-Cedric-F-Lam-31-320.jpg)
![FOOTNOTES:
[61] "In cyclopædias," says Mr. H. T. Finck, "we generally find his
name given as Edvard Hagerup Grieg, but he does not sanction
the middle name, and never uses it in his correspondence. 'It is
true,' he writes to me, 'that my baptismal name includes the
Hagerup. My artist name, however, is simply E. G. The Hagerup
which is to be found in most of the encyclopædias is derived in all
probability from the archives of the Leipsic Conservatory.'"
[62] Without opus number.
[63] See page 12 (foot-note).](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/31311-250410034206-ed5b11c4/85/Advanced-Fiber-Access-Networks-Cedric-F-Lam-32-320.jpg)
![HADLEY
(Henry Hadley: born in Somerville, Massachusetts, December 20,
1871; now living in Germany)
TONE-POEM, "SALOME": Op. 55
This tone-poem, "after Oscar Wilde's tragedy," is said to have been
completed before the production of Richard Strauss's music-drama
on the same subject.[64] It is alleged that when Mr. Hadley's music
was composed (it was published at Berlin in the latter part of 1906),
the "Salome" of Strauss was unknown to him.
The score contains the following programme, printed in German and
English:
"Oscar Wilde's tragedy, 'Salome,' presents first a moonlight scene of Oriental
beauty. Without the palace the soldiers are keeping guard; within, a feast is in
progress. Salome leaves Herod's banquet and seeks the grateful cool of the
lovely night. John the Baptist (Iokanaan) has been made prisoner by Herod in
an old well. On hearing his voice proclaiming the Christ, Salome is deeply
moved and determines to see him. She prevails upon the captain, Narraboth,
who is in love with her, to have Iokanaan brought forth. When Salome
beholds him, Salome, the wilful and haughty, who has always triumphed in
her loves, finally herself falls a victim to a consuming passion for Iokanaan.
Notwithstanding her pleadings, he repulses and condemns her as the
daughter of a wicked woman, while the soldiers reconduct him to his
imprisonment. The music and revelry of Herod's banqueters are heard.
Missing Salome at the feast, Herod leaves the palace and seeks her. Upon](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/31311-250410034206-ed5b11c4/85/Advanced-Fiber-Access-Networks-Cedric-F-Lam-34-320.jpg)
![finding her cold and silent to his advances, he asks her to partake of fruits
and wine with him. This she refuses to do. Finally he begs her to dance,
promising her anything her heart desires, if she will but consent. At last
Salome is persuaded, and dances the dance of the seven veils for Herod.
Delighted and enchanted with Salome's charms and maddening dance, he
lays half his kingdom at her feet. She will have none of it, but, reminding him
of his promise, demands the head of Iokanaan in a silver plate. Herod,
superstitious and now thoroughly alarmed at so extraordinary a request,
pleads with Salome. It is of no avail. She will have only what she demanded.
At last, to the utter collapse of Herod, he is bound to keep his promise.
Salome, on being presented with the head of Iokanaan, fondles and caresses
it, breathing words of passion into its deaf ears. Herod, in fright of what has
been done and in rage and disgust with Salome, orders her instant death. The
soldiers rush upon her with their spears and put her to death. [65]
At the time of the first American performance of this tone-poem by
the Boston Symphony Orchestra, on April 12, 1907, Mr. Philip Hale
published in the programme-books this exposition of the significance
of the music:
"'Salome' begins ... Lento e molto tranquillo, ... with a
description of the moonlit scene. The music follows the course
of the argument, but how literally, how imaginatively, must be
determined by each hearer. It will be remarked that a theme,
which might be called Salome's desire, introduced early in the
work after a passage for solo violoncello (for horns and then for
clarinets, oboes, and English horns), is used at the end of the
tone-poem, 'con adore' (sic), to accentuate the address of
Salome to Iokanaan's head. 'Salome's Dance,' Allegretto ben
ritmato, with a 'stretto con delirio,' is specified by the composer
with a title. The chief motives elsewhere are unidentified by
him. One hearer, then, may take the motive, poco largamente,
early in the work, given to trombones and tuba fortissimo with
drum-roll, for Iokanaan's denunciation, and recognize the
significance of its entrance after the dance, while to another the
motive may have another meaning. So, too, there may be
various opinions concerning the precise significance of other
themes. It is enough to say that the music follows the course of](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/31311-250410034206-ed5b11c4/85/Advanced-Fiber-Access-Networks-Cedric-F-Lam-35-320.jpg)
![FOOTNOTES:
[64] The first production anywhere of Strauss's "Salome" was at
Dresden, December 9, 1905, a little more than a year before the
first American production (at the Metropolitan Opera House, New
York, January 22, 1907).
[65] Mr. Hadley, in this description, gives a slightly inaccurate
account of Wilde's drama. Salome, in the play, has not "always
triumphed in her loves," for Wilde makes her out to be a virgin,
and Iokanaan her first love. Nor do the soldiers, at the end of the
tragedy, "rush upon her with their spears." The stage direction at
this point reads: "The soldiers rush forward and crush beneath
their shields Salome, daughter of Herodias, Princess of Judæa."](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/31311-250410034206-ed5b11c4/85/Advanced-Fiber-Access-Networks-Cedric-F-Lam-37-320.jpg)
![two young girls in a meadow plucking flowers, while others stand
about in various postures, one playing a lute[66]; that the second
movement, the Scherzo—in a Dionysiac mood of revelry—is said to
suggest the play of fauns and satyrs of the kind that Böcklin loved to
paint; and that the third movement hints at moods inspired by his
"Sacred Grove," "Hymn of Spring," and "Venus Anadyomene."
The Finale is in form a theme with variations, and each variation is
named after a picture by Böcklin. I quote Mr. Philip Hale's concise
and vivid characterizations of the different sections and the subjects
which inspired them:
"I. THE SILENCE OF THE OCEAN
(In the museum at Bern)
"Adagio molto, E major, 8-8. A dark woman—woman only to the
waist—of unearthly beauty lies on a lonely rock far out at sea.
Three sea-birds listen with her. A strange sea-creature, with
man's face, is stretched beneath the wave. His eyes are without
speculation. His tail floats above the surface, and is brushed by
the woman's hair.
"II. PROMETHEUS CHAINED
(1882; owned by Arnhold of Berlin)
"The god-defying hero, a giant in form, is bound on the summit
of Caucasus, which rises abruptly from the foaming sea. Allegro
molto, 4-4. The theme is taken from the first movement.... The
wild orchestra surges until the end comes, in six syncopated
blows, in extreme fortissimo.
"III. THE FLUTING NYMPH
(1881; owned by von Heyl of Darmstadt)
"Allegretto grazioso, E major, 3-4. A flute solo that, in
alternation with the clarinet, leads into the familiar theme, in its
first transformation, of the first movement.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/31311-250410034206-ed5b11c4/85/Advanced-Fiber-Access-Networks-Cedric-F-Lam-40-320.jpg)
![FOOTNOTES:
[66] This canvas, painted in 1887, is in a private collection in
Dresden.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/31311-250410034206-ed5b11c4/85/Advanced-Fiber-Access-Networks-Cedric-F-Lam-44-320.jpg)
![d'INDY
(Vincent d'Indy: born in Paris, March 27, 1852; now living there)
ORCHESTRAL LEGEND, "THE ENCHANTED FOREST":
Op. 8
This work, which the composer calls a Legende-symphonie, is based
on a ballad by Uhland entitled "Harald." It was composed in 1878.
On a fly-leaf of the score is printed, in French, this paraphrase of
Uhland's ballad:
"Harald, the brave hero, rides at the head of his warriors. They go by the light
of the moon through the wild forest, singing many a song of war.
"Who rustle in ambush in the thickets? Who come down from the clouds and
start from the torrent's foam? Who murmur in such harmonious tones and
give such sweet kisses? Who hold the knights in such voluptuous embrace?
The nimble troop of Elves; resistance is in vain. The warriors have gone away,
gone to Elfland.
"He alone has remained—Harald, the hero, the brave Harald; he goes on by
the light of the moon through the wild forest.
"A clear spring bubbles at the foot of a rock; scarcely has Harald drunk of the
magic water than a strong sleep overpowers his whole being; he falls asleep
on the black rocks.
"Seated on this same rock, he has slept for many centuries—and for many
centuries, by the moonlight, the elves have circled slowly round about Harald,
the old hero."[67]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/31311-250410034206-ed5b11c4/85/Advanced-Fiber-Access-Networks-Cedric-F-Lam-46-320.jpg)
!["SAUGEFLEURIE" ["WILD SAGE"], LEGEND FOR
ORCHESTRA: Op. 21
Saugefleurie, Legende d'après un conte de Robert de Bonnière, was
composed in 1884. The tale upon which it is based is from the
Contes des Fées of de Bonnière, excerpts from which are prefaced to
the score. The story has been retold in English prose as follows:
"Once upon a time a young and beautiful fairy, Saugefleurie, lived humbly and
alone by the edge of a lake. The bank was covered with jonquils. She lived
quietly in the trunk of a willow, and stirred from it no more than a pearl from
its shell. One day the king's son passed by a-hunting, and she left her tree to
see the horses, dogs, and cavaliers. The prince, seeing so fair a face, drew
rein and gazed on her. She saw that he was handsome; and, as her modesty
was emboldened by naïve love, she looked straight into his eyes. They loved
each other at first sight, but not a word was spoken. Now it was death for
Saugefleurie to love a mortal man, yet she wished to love the prince, and was
willing, loving, to die. Nor was there any kindly power to save her. 'My lord,'
she said, 'the fine days are past; do you not find solitude beautiful, and do not
lovers love more warmly when their love is hidden? If it seem good to you, let
us stay here without fear; our eyes can speak at leisure, and we shall find
pleasure only in dwelling together. My heart will be light if it be near you. My
lord, I give you my life. Take it, and without a question.' Love and death are
always ready and waiting. Do not think that Saugefleurie, whose fate I mourn,
was spared. She withered at once, for she was Saugefleurie." [68]
The music opens quietly; there is a violin solo; then the approach of
the prince's hunting-party is suggested. The love-scene follows—solo
first and second violins, solo viola, and flutes; there is an increase of
intensity, and the music becomes passionate and stressful. The hunt
music returns, followed by a reminiscence of the love-theme; then
the end.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/31311-250410034206-ed5b11c4/85/Advanced-Fiber-Access-Networks-Cedric-F-Lam-47-320.jpg)
!["ISTAR," SYMPHONIC VARIATIONS: Op. 42
"Istar" was first performed in Brussels, under the direction of Eugène
Ysaye, January 10, 1897. The music illustrates a French version of an
ancient Babylonian poem, "Istar's Descent into Hades," the original
of which is believed to have been in the library of Sardanapalus. The
French version of the poem, which is printed as a preface to the
score, has been translated as follows by Mr. W. F. Apthorp:
"Towards the immutable land Istar, daughter of Sin, bent her steps, towards
the abode of the dead, towards the seven-gated abode where HE entered,
towards the abode whence there is no return.
"At the first gate, the warder stripped her; he took the high tiara from her
head.
"At the second gate, the warder stripped her; he took the pendants from her
ears.
"At the third gate, the warder stripped her; he took off the precious stones
that adorn her neck.
"At the fourth gate, the warder stripped her; he took off the jewels that adorn
her breast.
"At the fifth gate, the warder stripped her; he took off the girdle that
encompasses her waist.
"At the sixth gate, the warder stripped her; he took the rings from her feet,
the rings from her hands.
"At the seventh gate, the warder stripped her; he took off the last veil that
covers her body.
"Istar, daughter of Sin, went into the immutable land, she took and received
the Waters of Life. She gave the sublime Waters, and thus, in the presence of
all, delivered the SON OF LIFE, her young lover." [69]
Mr. Apthorp has thus set forth the peculiarity of d'Indy's tone-poem
(for such it virtually is): "The theme is not given out simply at the
beginning, neither is it heard in its entirety until the last variation, in](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/31311-250410034206-ed5b11c4/85/Advanced-Fiber-Access-Networks-Cedric-F-Lam-48-320.jpg)
!["SUMMER DAY ON THE MOUNTAIN": Op. 61
1. DAWN (Aurore)
2. DAY (Jour)
3. EVENING (Soir)
Jour d'été à la montagne, a tone-poem in three parts (dated 1905,
published in 1906, first performed in Paris, February 18, 1906), is
based on a prose poem by Roger de Pampelonne. These quotations,
in French, are prefaced to the score:
"I. DAWN
"Awake, dark phantoms! smile to heaven, majestically, for a ray in the Infinite
rises and strikes your brow. One by one the folds of your great mantle are
unrolled, and the first gleams, caressing the proud furrows [on your brow],
spread over them an instant of sweetness and serenity.
"Awake, mountains! The king of space appears!
"Awake, valley! who concealest the happy nests and sleeping cottages;
awake, singing. And if, in thy chant, sighs also reach me, may the light wind
of the morning hours gather them and bear them to God.
"Awake, cities! to which the pure rays penetrate regretfully! Sciences,
turmoils, human degradations, awake!... Up, artificial worlds!
"The shadows melt away little by little, before the invading light....
"Laugh or weep, creatures who people this world.
"Awake, harmonies! God hearkens!
"II. DAY (Afternoon, under the pines)
"How sweet it is to cling to the mountain-sides, broad staircase of heaven!
"How sweet it is to dream, far from the turmoil of man, in the smiling majesty
of the mountain-tops!
"Let us mount towards the summits; man deserts them, and there, where
man is no longer, God makes His great voice heard; let us view His ephemeral
creatures from afar, in order that we may be able to serve and love them.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/31311-250410034206-ed5b11c4/85/Advanced-Fiber-Access-Networks-Cedric-F-Lam-50-320.jpg)
![FOOTNOTES:
[67] Translated by Mr. Philip Hale.
[68] Paraphrased by Mr. Philip Hale.
[69] It has been said that the concluding passage of this version
(in Mr. Apthorp's prose translation the last four lines) is not in the
original Babylonian poem, but is an arbitrary addition by the
French translator. Moreover, the French version is credited to the
Gilgamesh epic (the Assyrio-Babylonian epic of which Izdubar, or
Gilgamesh, is the hero), with which, it has been pointed out, the
story of Istar's descent into Hades has nothing to do. Istar (or
Ishtar) was the chief deity of the Babylonians and Assyrians. At
first a merely local deity, she ultimately came to be regarded as
the personification of fertility (both of the soil and of human and
animal life) and of war. She corresponded in general to the
Ashtoreth (Astarte) of the Syrio-Canaanites, save that she was
conceived as ruling the planet Venus, rather than the moon, over
which Ashtoreth held sway. Being the representative of the
principle of fertility, Istar was regarded also as the goddess of
sexual love.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/31311-250410034206-ed5b11c4/85/Advanced-Fiber-Access-Networks-Cedric-F-Lam-52-320.jpg)
![LISZT
(Franz Liszt: born in Raiding, near Ödenburg, Hungary, October 22,
1811; died in Bayreuth, July 31, 1886)
"TASSO: LAMENT AND TRIUMPH," SYMPHONIC
POEM (No. 2) [70]
Tasso: Lamento e Trionfo, was conceived as a "symphonic prelude"
to Goethe's drama "Tasso," and performed during the celebration at
Weimar in 1849 of the centenary of the poet's birth. It was revised
by Liszt in 1854, and published, in its present form, two years later.
The score contains this preface by the composer:
"In 1849 all Germany celebrated brilliantly the one-hundredth anniversary of
Goethe's birth. At Weimar, where we then happened to dwell, the programme
of the festival included a performance of his drama 'Tasso,' appointed for the
evening of August 28th. The sad fate of the most unfortunate of poets had
excited the imagination of the mightiest poetic geniuses of our time—Goethe
and Byron: Goethe, whose career was one of brilliant prosperity; Byron,
whose keen sufferings counterbalanced the advantages of his birth and
fortune. We shall not conceal the fact that, when in 1849 we were
commissioned to write an overture for Goethe's drama, we were inspired
more directly by the respectful compassion of Byron for the manes of the
great man whom he invoked than by the work of the German poet. At the
same time, although Byron gave us the groans of Tasso in his prison, he did
not join to the recollection of the keen sorrows so nobly and eloquently
expressed in his 'Lamentation' the thought of the triumph that awaited, by an
act of tardy yet striking justice, the chivalric author of 'Jerusalem Delivered.'](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/31311-250410034206-ed5b11c4/85/Advanced-Fiber-Access-Networks-Cedric-F-Lam-54-320.jpg)
!["We have wished to indicate this contrast even in the title of the work, and we
have endeavored to succeed in formulating this grand antithesis of genius, ill
treated during life, but after death resplendent with a light that dazzled his
persecutors. Tasso loved and suffered at Ferrara; he was avenged at Rome;
his glory still lives in the people's songs of Venice. These three points are
inseparably connected with his undying memory. To express them in music,
we first invoked the mighty shadow of the hero, as it now appears, haunting
the lagoons of Venice; we have caught a glimpse of his proud, sad face at the
feasts in Ferrara, where he produced his masterpieces; and we have followed
him to Rome, the Eternal City, which crowned him with the crown of glory and
glorified in him the martyr and the poet.
"'Lamento e Trionfo'—these are the two great contrasts in the fate of poets, of
whom it has been justly said that, while curses may weigh heavily on their
life, blessings are always on their tomb. In order to give this idea not only the
authority but the brilliance of fact, we have borrowed even the form from fact,
and to that end chosen as the theme of our musical poem the melody to
which we have heard the Venetian gondoliers sing on the lagoons three
centuries after his death the first strophes of Tasso's 'Jerusalem':
"'Canto l' armi pietose e 'l Capitano,
Che 'l gran Sepolcro liberò di Cristo!'
"The motive [first given out with sombre effect by the bass clarinet and three
solo 'cellos, accompanied by harp, horns, and low strings pizzicato], is in itself
plaintive, of a groaning slowness, monotonous in mourning; but the
gondoliers give it a peculiar coloring by drawling certain notes, by prolonging
tones, which, heard from afar, produce an effect not unlike the reflection of
long stripes of fading light upon a looking-glass of water. This song once
made a deep impression on us, and when we attempted to speak of Tasso our
emotion could not refrain from taking as the text of our thoughts this
persistent homage paid by his country to the genius of whose devotion and
fidelity the court of Ferrara was not worthy. The Venetian melody is so
charged with inconsolable mourning, with such hopeless sorrow, that it
suffices to portray Tasso's soul; and again it lends itself as the imagination of
the poet to the picturing of the brilliant illusions of the world, to the deceitful,
fallacious coquetry of those smiles whose treacherous poison brought on the
horrible catastrophe for which there seemed to be no earthly recompense, but
which was clothed eventually at the capital with a purer purple than that of
Alphonse."
The second portion of the symphonic poem, the "Triumph," is
introduced by trumpet calls and by brilliant passages in the strings.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/31311-250410034206-ed5b11c4/85/Advanced-Fiber-Access-Networks-Cedric-F-Lam-55-320.jpg)
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- 8. ADVANCED FIBER ACCESS NETWORKS CEDRIC F. LAM SHUANG YIN TAO ZHANG
- 9. Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier 125 London Wall, London EC2Y 5AS, United Kingdom 525 B Street, Suite 1650, San Diego, CA 92101, United States 50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions. This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein). Notices Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary. Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility. To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein. ISBN 978-0-323-85499-3 For information on all Academic Press publications visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals Publisher: Mara E. Conner Acquisitions Editor: Tim Pitts Editorial Project Manager: Judith Clarisse Punzalan Production Project Manager: Kamesh R Cover Designer: Greg Harris Typeset by STRAIVE, India
- 10. Preface After more than 30 years of developments from research to commercializa- tion, fiber access networks are now mature technologies that have been widely deployed around the world. Optical access network technologies in the form of gigabit-capable passive optical networks (G-PONs) have been commoditized and are shipping in volumes of at least multiple tens of mil- lions of units per year. Carriers around the world are busy rolling out fiber- to-the-home (FTTH) networks to prepare for new upcoming internet applications such as over-the-top (OTT) video streaming, augmented reality (AR)/virtual reality (VR), collaborative online real-time video gaming, and billions of new upcoming Internet of Things (IoT). China, the most pop- ulous nation in the world, boasts an FTTH penetration rate of more than 90%, representing 380 million households connected at the end of 2019, and they are busy moving into the next-generation PON technologies. Most people think of fiber access networks as time-division- multiplexing (TDM)-based PONs. In fact, the word “PON” (almost always implied as some form of TDM-PON) is mostly used as a synonym of fiber access networks. However, TDM-PON is only one of the last-mile archi- tectures most popularly adopted for the FTTH application because of its simplicity and economic benefits. For some access applications such as fronthaul in wireless networks, native TDM-PONs have their inherent challenges and may not be the suitable technology choice. Furthermore, in a real end-to-end broadband fiber access network, PON only represents the last mile connection from a carrier’s central office (CO) to the end-user customer premise. Besides the PON last-mile connection, there are many other components coming into play for a well-designed broadband fiber access network. The readers will find out from this book that simply deploy- ing the next-generation last-mile PON system may not actually address the right problems arising from the increasing customer bandwidth demands because of other network bottlenecks and limitations. There are also deploy- ment scenarios (e.g., thin-fiber cables from COs or cable Multi-Service Operator network upgrades) that will require new fiber access network architectures, as we will see in this book. Although we give a general overview of fiber access networks in this book, it is not intended as an entry-level text. This book is an advanced text ix
- 11. assuming the audience already possesses the basic knowledge of fiber optic transmission and traditional PON knowledge such as the ITU-T G-PON and IEEE E-PON. (For an introductory text on PON, the audience is referred to Ref. [1].) In addition to covering the advanced next-generation PON technologies being worked on by standard bodies and the research community, we describe the overall end-to-end fiber broadband access net- work architecture and the various network components involved from the internet backbone to the end-user homes. We examine the scaling proper- ties and how they affect the overall network performance and economics. This book is roughly divided into three parts. Chapter 1 is the general introduction. Chapters 2 through 6 cover fiber access standards and physical optoelectronic technologies. Chapters 7 and 8 cover the network systems and the convergence of wireless and wireline access networks. The structure of the book was conceived when we were making the notes of an OFC (optical fiber communication conference) short course with the same title. Through this book, we would like to give the audience a balanced view of the physical fiber access network technologies and the overall access net- work structure and their evolutions in the broadband network industry. We began writing this book when the 2019 Novel Coronavirus (2019 nCoV or COVID-19) pandemic was breaking out in the Hubei Province of China where Shuang’s family came from. Wuhan, the capital of Hubei Province, was not only the center of this pandemic but the Optics Valley of China where most of the optical access components in the world were manufactured. To prevent the spreading of the virus, governments around the world implemented quarantines, travel restrictions, and social distancing everywhere. Civilians were asked to spend most of their time at home. Dur- ing this special time, the internet, teleconferencing, and videos streaming delivered through fiber backbones and access networks became essential for people to stay connected, continue to work, purchase goods online, and entertain themselves. In China, during the national quarantine time, state-run cable networks unlocked many premium channels for people to enjoy at home and those were delivered through internet protocol television (IPTV) platforms. Fiber optics is at the core of the internet, and fiber access networks are becoming more and more important to connect homes, businesses, and the booming 5G wireless infrastructure. While developing this manuscript dur- ing the pandemic, we hope the broadband technologies that we are working x Preface
- 12. on will help humanity to (1) more efficiently tackle such emergencies, (2) improve our lives and productivities with better connections to the out- side world and better access to the information and entertainment when we have to stay home, and (3) have the freedom to work from anywhere in the world. Cedric, Shuang, and Tao Silicon Valley, California September 2020 Reference [1] C.F. Lam, Passive Optical Networks: Principles and Practice, Elsevier, 2007. xi Preface
- 13. Foreword When I started at Google as the head of Google Fiber back in 2010, Cedric Lam was one of the star engineers in the team and also one of the key drivers of innovation in the project. Over the years, the team was not content with simply using whatever vendors in the market offered, but in the tradition of Google, attempted to innovate in every area. Cedric, Shuang, and Tao led the way in optical network technology, and now through this book and efforts in the standards space, the rest of the world can benefit as well. It is especially important to look at the innovations in the Fiber to the Home (FTTH) and access space now. The United States and other countries seek to play catch-up with aggressive national fiber deployments that have been proceeding briskly in Asia, especially China. Tens of billions of dollars have been allocated by the US Government to close the gap in connectivity in rural areas, with a focus on fiber deployment as well as by the investment community with its newfound love for fiber deployments in urban and sub- urban areas that serve homes, businesses, and wireless operators. Rather than “building yesterday’s networks tomorrow,” the learnings and architectural approaches outlined in Advanced Fiber Access Networks should be the guide for new builds that will reduce cost, accelerate build rates, and enable redundancy and multiservice delivery over a common pas- sive fiber network deployment. While in many areas people have focused on 5G wireless as the access technology of the future, it is important to recognize that there is only one network, the wired network, with a little bit of wireless at the ends. In the limit, as cell sizes continue to shrink to drive higher and higher net- work capacity, the wireless network will look like an FTTH network with small Wi-Fi-like cells at the edge. As network deployments in Asia have shown, one cannot be a leader in 5G and especially 6G without first being a leader in fiber access to the home and business. Informed by real-world experience and world-class optical engineering, this book is a great resource for those operators seeking to build the next generation of fiber access networks. Milo Medin vii
- 14. Acknowledgments This book is a result of over one decade of the direct experiences of research and development at Google Fiber [1], a program cofounded by one of the coauthors of this book. It is a summary of the dedicated hard work and cre- ativity of many people directly and indirectly involved in Google Fiber. These include many of our coworkers, managers, our equipment vendors, friends, and families, so numerous that it is very difficult to list all of them one-by-one individually. Nevertheless, we would like to particularly thank the following people for their significant influences and contributions in the works described in this book. Milo Medin, Vice President of Wireless Access Services at Goo- gle, who was also the first VP of Google Fiber; without his strong technical and executive support, the real production Super-PON network and tech- nologies would not have come into existence. Milo was also instrumental for the wireless programs in Google and exposed us to the field of wireless com- munications while we were working on fiber access networks. Dr. Hong Liu, Google Fellow at Google Technical Infrastructure, who was a coinitia- tor of the predecessor of the Super-PON program named Kaleidoscope, which we built and successfully trialed on the Stanford University campus, an FTTH testbed carrying live service traffic. James Kelly, the first Product Manager on the Google Fiber program, who strongly promoted micro- trenching as a low-cost deployment method even before the Google Fiber program was officially formed. James was also a strong promoter of our Kaleidoscope WDM-PON program. Tony Ong, the uber hardware engi- neering manager at Google Fiber, who led the hardware program and built many cutting-edge fiber access network systems and CPE equipment. Ke Dong, who led the software development for our WDM-PON and Super-PON systems and created the cloud OSS system used by Google Fiber. Xiangjun Zhao, a key contributor of numerous creative ideas enabling the realization of Kaleidoscope, Super-PON, and the Muxtender system described in this book. Yifan Gao, manager of the Google Fiber lab and the testing team, who led the testing, integration, and verification of many homegrown and third-party technologies in our network. Jack Wu, who headed the product definition of our first WDM-PON system that was deployed in Stanford for production. Claudio de Santi and Liang Du, who led the developments of Super-PON standard in the IEEE xiii
- 15. Visit https://ebookmass.com today to explore a vast collection of ebooks across various genres, available in popular formats like PDF, EPUB, and MOBI, fully compatible with all devices. Enjoy a seamless reading experience and effortlessly download high- quality materials in just a few simple steps. Plus, don’t miss out on exciting offers that let you access a wealth of knowledge at the best prices!
- 16. 802.3 Ethernet Standard Working Group and ITU-T Study Group 15. Claudio is the Chairman of the IEEE 802.3cs Super-PON standard task force. Sasha Petovic, Jhon Gaurin, and Jason Bone in the Google Fiber San Antonio team, who led the trial and deployment of the first real produc- tion Super-PON network in the world. Their faith and confidence in us were tremendous and will never be forgotten. We would also like to thank the following Google executives: Walt Drummond (VP), Boon-lock Yeo (VP), and Ben Segura (Strategy Lead of Google Fiber). Together with Milo, these people recognized the value of the TWDM Super-PON project, both to Google Fiber itself and to the industry. They supported the continuation of the Super-PON program and many other innovation initiatives during a major force reduction in Google Fiber in 2017. The first author would like to particularly thank the following people who worked in the Google Fiber architecture and technology team (in alphabetical order of last name): Adam Barratte, Pedram Dashti, Claudio de Santi, Liang Du, Joy Jiang, Scott Li, Muthu Nagarajan, Satrukaan Sivag- nanasuntharam, Daoyi Wang, Shuang Yin, Tao Zhang, and Xiangjun Zhao. Last but not least, we are very grateful to Google and its parent Alphabet. Google provided us with a nourishing ground to fertilize innovative ideas and necessary resources to test, refine, and realize those new solutions. We were surrounded by an environment of tremendous talents that coached and humbled us. March 2021 Silicon Valley, California Reference [1] C.F. Lam, Google fiber deployments: lessons learned and future directions, in: Invited Paper presented at Optical Fiber Communications Conference 2021, 2021. San Francisco, CA. xiv Acknowledgments
- 17. CHAPTER 1 Introduction 1.1 Drivers and applications for broadband access We live in an information society today where connectivity to data has become a utility like water and electricity to our modern human lives. Fig. 1.1 shows the annual growth of the Internet traffic between 30% and 37% from 2017 to 2022, as projected by the cisco VNI index [1]. Scalable, low-cost, and future-proof broad access infrastructure is key to the success in today’s digital economy, promoting governments around the world to cre- ate strategies and policies to stimulate investments in broadband infrastruc- tures and technologies, especially during economic downturns. The importance of broadband was amplified during the recent COVID- 19 pandemic. After the global outbreak of COVID-19 in the beginning of the year 2020, in order to curb the spreading of the highly contagious coro- navirus, people are requested to stay at home by the lockdown orders issued by governments around the world. The Internet has become the main ave- nue for people to work remotely from the home, take online lessons, consult with their physicians, stay connected with their loved ones, and buy food and necessities. Zoom, the maker of a popular video conferencing tool with the same name, saw a huge boom in their business and their stock prices rose through the stratosphere against a free-falling stock market. According to Ref. [2], the Internet traffic on EU (European Union) telecom operators grew 30% to 60% in the first 3 weeks since the lockdown. Fig. 1.2 [3] shows the Internet data and traffic explosion after COVID-19. The prolonged COVID-19 pandemic will permanently change the way people work, play, and social, and the importance of the Internet will become even greater. Optical fiber was originally developed for long-haul transmissions. The idea of using fiber optic for access was initially proposed in the 1980s, way before the Internet and broadband access became the norm of our society. After decades of developments, fiber access networks are now mature tech- nologies deployed to hundreds of millions of users around the world. In 2019, China alone boasted more than 395 million fiber-to-the-home (FTTH) users. Besides directly connecting residential households with FTTH networks, new forms of fiber access networks are indispensable in 1 Advanced Fiber Access Networks Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Inc. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85499-3.00008-4 All rights reserved.
- 18. providing backhaul and fronthaul connectivities to the fourth generation (4G) and the upcoming fifth generation (5G) wireless networks. Fiber access networks are deployed at the edge of telecommunication networks as end nodes. There are two major challenges in deploying fiber access networks. First, access networks are very cost sensitive, so the equip- ment cost has to be very low in order for it to be viable as a mass-deployed technology. The ways to achieve this are economy of scale and low-cost optoelectronics packaging techniques. The second major challenge in deploying fiber access networks is labor cost, and speed and ease of deploy- ments [4]. Significant civil engineering cost is incurred especially in devel- oped economies where (1) the labor cost is high, and (2) digging and trenching of infrastructure is not easy. Therefore, traditional incumbent car- riers in developed nations would like to preserve their legacy copper Fig. 1.2 Data and traffic explosion after COVID-19. Fig. 1.1 Global busy hour vs average hour internet traffic Ref. [1]. 2 Advanced fiber access networks
- 19. infrastructure and delay the deployment of fiber in the last mile (from the central office) as much as possible. In developing economies or green field scenarios, there will be fewer architecture constraints, less legacy burdens, and more flexibility in technology and architecture choices. But those econ- omies are also very capital cost sensitive and would like to leverage the low cost of existing, mature, and standard-based technologies. These challenges are guiding the design principles of fiber access technologies. Broadband Internet access discussed earlier was the initial driving force for FTTH fiber access technologies. This was mainly propelled by the booming Internet applications, especially over-the-top (OTT) video streaming applications which offers any time and any place viewing experi- ences of on-demand contents. Higher resolution videos such as 4K will demand more bandwidths to end users, mainly in the downstream direction from carrier networks to the end users. New applications such as telecon- ferencing and high-resolution video surveillance will also command high uplink return bandwidth from end users to carrier networks and will affect the architecture of fiber access networks. For example, during COVID-19, many people worked from home. Broadband access networks with limited upstream bandwidths, such as DOCSISa [5], would suffer from upstream bandwidth contention. People joining video conferences from DOCSIS cable modems often have poor image and/or sound quality due to the upstream access bandwidth contention. This was observed in a video con- ference among the first and second authors of this book and the publisher in England. The first author and the publisher were on FTTH access network, and the second author was on a DOCSIS cable network. During the tele- conference, at the first author’s terminal, the image of the publisher from London comes out crystal clear while the image from the second author who lived 20miles away was very blurry. However, at the second author’s terminal, the images from both the first author and the publisher were crystal clear because he had no downstream bandwidth problem. This is illustrated in Fig. 1.3. One of the purposes of this book is to understand how to scale the overall end-to-end broadband fiber access network from an overall system a Most legacy DOCSIS deployed occupies a very limited upstream bandwidth between 5 and 42 MHz on the coaxial cable RF spectrum [5], which is heavily shared among 500–1000 users. Newer systems can make use of a wider upstream spectrum and have small share group size. However, this requires significant network capital expenditure to upgrade the coaxial plant infrastructure. 3 Introduction
- 20. perspective. FTTH was mainly provided by passive optical networks (PONs) [6]. In fact, PON is almost used as a synonym of FTTH although other FTTH implementations also exist. Most of the deployed residential FTTH networks are based on the IEEE 802.3ah EPON or ITU-TG.984 based G-PON technologies, with the latter being the most popular nowadays. 1.2 History and roadmap of broadband access development Fig. 1.4 plots the peak bit rate of PON vs wireless (Wi-Fi and cellular) over the past four decades. Tables 1.1 through 1.3 summarize the major technol- ogy standards and peak data rate achieved by various generations of Wi-Fi, cellular, and PON systems. We can see from Fig. 1.4 that wireless access speed had a low starting point but is catching up very quickly (driven by the needs of both broadband applications and mobility). FTTH technolo- gies, as represented by the PON speed development trends, are growing much more slowly, however. We are just at the point where fiber and wire- less access speeds are converging. A detailed account of PON standards development can be found in [7]. Various standard bodies are involved in wireline and wireless access tech- nology developments. Cellular network provides long-haul end-to-end wireless connectivity with international roaming functions. It is standardized by 3GPP (Third Generation Partner Project) under ITU-R (International Telecommunication Union—Radio). Wi-Fi, also called wireless local area Publisher (England) Author 1 (California) Author 2 (California) FTTH FTTH DOCSIS Video Conferencing over the Internet Fig. 1.3 The low upstream bandwidth from Author 2 causes his image to be blurred at Author 1 and Publisher while he perceives both Author 1 and Publisher as crystal clear. 4 Advanced fiber access networks
- 21. network (WLAN), is the most prevailing indoor wireless access network technology with semi-mobility capability. It is a fast evolving technology developed by the IEEE (Institute of Electronic and Electrical Engineering) 802.11 standard group. In an FTTH network, a PON system is usually Cellular Wi-Fi PON 1G (FDMA, analog) 2G (TDMA / GSM / EDGE / GPRS) 3G (UMTS / TD-SCDMA / CDMA2000 / WCDMA) 4G (OFDMA / WiMax / LTE-A) 5G (OFDMA / SDN / mmWave) BPON G-PON EPON 10G-EPON XG-PON NG-PON2 XGS-PON 25G/50G-EPON Legacy IEEE802.11 IEEE802.11b IEEE802.11a IEEE802.11g IEEE802.11n IEEE802.11a x 802.11ac Fig. 1.4 Development trends of PON and wireless access technologies. Table 1.1 Wi-Fi development milestones. Year Standard Frequency band Peak data rate 1997 Legacy IEEE 802.11 2.4GHz 2Mbps 1999 IEEE 802.11b IEEE 802.11a 2.4GHz 5GHz 11Mbps 54Mbps 2003 IEEE 802.11g 2.4GHz 54Mbps 2009 IEEE 802.11n 2.4 and 5GHz (4 streams) 600Mbps 2014 IEEE 802.11ac 5GHz (8 streams) 6933Mbps 2019 IEEE 802.11ax 2.4 and 5GHz (8 streams) 9608Mbps Table 1.2 Cellular wireless development milestones. Year (generation) Technologies Peak data rate 1980 (1G) FDMA Analog 2.4kbps 1989 (2G) TDMA/GSM/EDGE/GPRS 10–100kbps 2000 (3G) UMTS/TD-SCDMA/CDMA2000/ WCDMA 100kbps–10sMbps 2009 (4G) OFDMA/WiMax/LTE-A 150Mbps-2Gbps 2019 (5G) OFDMA/SDN/mmWave 1–20Gbps 2030 (6G) Terahertz Transmission Tbps? 5 Introduction
- 22. terminated into a Wi-Fi access point (AP) at a customer premise, which provides the connectivity inside the residential home. Wireless signals are subject to high propagation losses, interferences and blockage by walls and obstacles. Although modern Wi-Fi systems boast multigigabit peak per- formance (Table 1.1) that is faster than the deployed G-PON or EPON FTTH line rates, as in a commercial FTTH network, Wi-Fi is usually the bottleneck that determines customers’ experiences and perceptions. Carriers often get the most support calls related to the home Wi-Fi system rather than PON link issues. Nevertheless, Wi-Fi is not the covered subject of this book. There are three major organizations working on PON standards. FSAN (Full Service Access Network) is a telecom carrier consortium that discusses requirements and ideas for new fiber access initiatives. The proposals will be submitted to ITU-T (International Telecommunication Union – Telecom) Study Group 15 (SG-15) for standardization. IEEE 802.3 LAN/MAN Ethernet Standard Group makes Ethernet standard-based PON (or EPON) standards, competing with ITU-T SG15. The most widely deployed PON standards for FTTH or FTTP (fiber- to-the-premise) are the IEEE 802.3ah EPON and ITU-TG.984 G-PON. Although carriers have started deploying 10 Gbps based TDM-PON systems around the world, for residential FTTH uses, G-PON and EPON networks still offer enough bandwidth for at least another 3–5 years as we will see in a later chapter. Nevertheless, standard bodies have been busy working on PON technologies beyond 10Gbps (i.e., 25/50 Gbps). IEEE 802.3 standard group just completed the IEEE802.3ca 25G/50G EPON in June 2020 [8] and ITU-T SG15 is busy working on a single-wavelength 50 Gbps high-speed PON standard [9]. The major driving forces for these Table 1.3 PON development milestones. Year Technology name Standard Peak downlink speed 1998 BPON ITU-TG.983 622Mbps 2003 G-PON ITU-TG.984 2.488Gbps 2004 EPON IEEE 802,3ah 1Gbps 2009 10G-EPON IEEE 802.2av 10Gbps 2010 XG-PON ITU-TG.987 10Gbps 2015 NG-PON2 ITU-TG.989 40Gbps 2016 XGS-PON ITU-TG.9807 10Gbps 2020 25G/50G-EPON IEEE 802.3ca 50Gbps 6 Advanced fiber access networks
- 23. higher speed PONs are enterprise services and wireless fronthaul and backhaul applications (Fig. 1.4). Furthermore, besides TDM, WDM (wavelength division multiplexing) has been introduced to further scale the speed and coverage of future PON networks [10]. These development trends will be discussed in the later chapters. We can see from Fig. 1.4 that initially, the speed of wireline PON networks was far ahead of that of wireless networks by at least 2 orders of magnitude. However, there was a lack of killer applications to drive the fast development of PON access networks for residential users. The fast evolving wireless networks are now becoming a driving force for the developments of new fiber access technologies and standards, especially in the WDM domain. To support very high data rates, the 5G (fifth generation) wireless networks require cell densification and a pervasive fiber edge network to support the 5G base station infrastructure. PON and WDM will be helpful to solve the fiber congestion issues in 5G fronthaul networks. We will see later in this book that in order to improve the cost efficiency and performance of wireless systems, the new wireless networks are deployed with distributed RF (radio frequency) front ends called RRHs (remote radio heads) or AAUs (active antenna units), which are connected to centralized baseband units (BBUs) by low-cost and high-speed fronthaul links. Such fronthaul links require very high data rate and play into the strengths of the next generation fiber access networks. However, wireless fronthaul requires precision timing control of the fronthauled signal which is very challenging for TDM-PONs that use traditional dynamic bandwidth allocations (DBA) algorithms for statistical multiplexing. Although tech- niques have been devised to accommodate TDM-PONs for wireless fronthaul [11,12] applications, WDM-PON has also arisen a simpler and more straightforward approach for wireless fronthaul, for example, in ITU-T G.698.4 [13]. Lastly, as PON speed and coverage increases, scaling PON systems by TDM alone is getting harder and harder due to the exponential increases in the transmission impairments of a single-wavelength high baud rate signal. Scaling in both the time domain and wavelength domain will help to ease some of the transmission difficulties at the expense of using the more expen- sive WDM optics. Electronic digital signal processing techniques [14] have also been discussed to overcome the physical transmission impairments espe- cially for future optical access systems with line rates in excess of 25 Gbps. These techniques will be discussed in Chapter 6. 7 Introduction
- 24. 1.3 Fiber-to-the-home advantages and its future One may look at Fig. 1.4 and start to wonder that if wireless communication is catching up so fast that the speed of wireless access starts to rival that of FTTH networks, then where the value of fiber access networks is, because in a wireless access network, there is no need to string fiber to customer premises, a process which is both time consuming and very costly especially in developed countries. To answer this question, we need to take a deeper look into the comparisons between wireless and FTTH systems. 1.3.1 FTTH vs wireless access network architectures Fig. 1.5 shows a comparison between an FTTH network and a fixed wireless access (FWA) network. In an FTTH network, a completely passive optical distribution network (ODN) connects a customer premise to a central office which can be as far as 20km apart with most FTTH network standards. The ODN connects an ONU (optical network unit, aka a fiber modem) to an OLT (optical line terminal) in the central office. In an FWA network, a customer connects to the broadband wireless net- work using a CPE (customer premise equipment, aka a wireless modem), which connects to an RRH (remote radio head) at a cellular site wirelessly. Metro Network OLT BNG Internet Packet Core ONU FWA BBU CPE FTTH Fiber Plant RG / AP RG / AP RRH Front haul Backhaul Central Office Peering, CDN & Edge Compute 20km 100m to a few km Fig. 1.5 FTTH vs FWA network. AP: access point, BBU: baseband unit, BNG: broadband network gateway, CDN: content distribution network, CPE: customer premise equipment, OLT: optical line terminal, ONU: optical network terminal, RAN: radio access network, RG: residential gateway, RRH: remote radio head. 8 Advanced fiber access networks
- 25. Wireless signals suffer from free space signal losses, shadowing effects from buildings in urban environments, as well as scattering from trees and various obstacles in the propagation paths. Depending on the wavelengths of the wireless spectrum used for transmission (e.g., mmWave systems), they can also be affected by weather effects such as rain scattering. So the loss between the RRH and an FWA CPE is not only large but also varying due to envi- ronmental effects. This is also why we are comparing FTTH to FWA net- works rather than mobile wireless access in this section. The quality of service of a mobile wireless network is even more unpredictable due to the mobility of the user terminal (called UE or user equipment). Neverthe- less, mobile networks solve a completely different problem, that is, mobility, in addition to bringing bandwidth (which is what fixed broadband networks are designed for). So it is unfair to compare FTTH to mobile wireless systems. In an FWA system, the distance between the RRH and CPE is usually limited to a few hundred meters in an urban environment. Experienced FTTH practitioners would have noticed that FWA is really replacing the drop fiber section from a pole or street handhole to a customer’s premise (which is the last 100m of the connection from the central office), with an active cellular tower and a wireless CPE. In order to get good system performance (a few hundred megabits per second) and larger coverage (e.g., from 400m to 1km by wireless standard), usually an outdoor CPE with directional antenna such as the one shown in Fig. 1.5 is used in an FWA network to ensure good signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) at the CPE. Professional installation of such outdoor CPE is often required, which is not necessarily cheap either. In open rural environments, depending on the transmission wavelengths and required bit rates, wireless network coverage can be as wide as a few tens of kilometers. In fact, rural communication with sparse population is the strength of wireless networks because the capital cost of stringing fiber is very expensive. To enhance the wireless coverage as well as capacity, other wireless architectures, such as wireless mesh where multihop connections through intermediate CPEs to neighboring customer premises, have also been pro- posed. Wireless mesh architecture is not only a hot active area of research but also many startup companies have been created to try to profit from it, because broadband access is so important to the modern digital economy and the capital cost of building pervasive and ubiquitous FTTH networks is so high, especially in OECD countries where labor cost is very high. 9 Introduction
- 26. Visit https://ebookmass.com today to explore a vast collection of ebooks across various genres, available in popular formats like PDF, EPUB, and MOBI, fully compatible with all devices. Enjoy a seamless reading experience and effortlessly download high- quality materials in just a few simple steps. Plus, don’t miss out on exciting offers that let you access a wealth of knowledge at the best prices!
- 27. Exploring the Variety of Random Documents with Different Content
- 29. GRIEG (Edvard Grieg:[61] born in Bergen, Norway, June 15, 1843; died in Bergen, September 4, 1907) SUITE (No. 1), "PEER GYNT" [62] 1. MORNING MOOD (Allegretto pastorale) 2. THE DEATH OF AASE (Andante doloroso) 3. ANITRA'S DANCE (Tempo di Mazurka) 4. IN THE HALL OF THE MOUNTAIN KING (Marcia e molto marcato) This is the first, as it is the more famous and frequently played, of the two orchestral suites arranged by Grieg from the incidental music which he wrote, at Ibsen's suggestion, for the latter's singular drama, "Peer Gynt." The story of the play, in the form in which it was given by Ibsen to Grieg for musical accentuation, is thus
- 30. succinctly told by Mr. Henry T. Finck in his comprehensive and authoritative monograph on the Norwegian master: "Peer Gynt is a rough Norwegian peasant youth, who, in the first act, drives his mother Aase (Ohse) to distraction by his fantastic talk and ruffianly actions. "His dream is to become emperor of the world. Everybody dreads and avoids him. He hears that the beautiful Ingrid is to be married, goes uninvited to the wedding, and carries the bride into the mountain wilderness. The next day, deaf to her laments, he deserts her, after taunting her with not having the golden locks or the meekness of the tender-hearted Solvejg, who, at the wedding, loved him at sight, notwithstanding his ruffianly appearance and behavior. After divers adventures Peer finds himself in the Hall of the Mountain King, where he is tortured by gnomes and sprites, who alternate their wild dances with deadly threats; he is rescued at the last moment by the sound of bells in the distance, which make the hall of the goblins collapse. Then he builds a hut in the forest, and Solvejg comes to him on her snow-shoes of her own free will. Weeping, she tells him she has left her sister and parents to share his hut and be his wife. Happiness seems to be his at last, but he is haunted by the gnomes, who threaten to torture him every moment of his life, whereat, without saying a word to his bride, he leaves her and returns to his mother. Aase is on her death- bed, and soon expires in his arms. Later, he turns up in Africa, where he has divers adventures. Having succeeded in stealing from robbers a horse and a royal garment, he goes among the Arabs and plays the rôle of a prophet. He makes love to the beautiful Anitra, daughter of a Bedouin chief, and elopes with her on horseback; but she, after cajoling all his stolen jewels from him, suddenly turns her horse and gallops back home. In the last act, Peer Gynt, after suffering shipwreck on the Norwegian coast, returns to the hut he has built in the forest;
- 31. there he finds Solvejg faithfully awaiting his return, and dies as she sings the tearful melody known as 'Solvejg's Cradle Song.'" In Grieg's suite, the "Morning Mood" (Morgenstimmung) music forms the prelude to the fourth act of the play. It is a piece of serene and idyllic tone-painting, with no dramatic suggestions. "The Death of Aase" is a brief and sombre dirge on the death of Peer's mother, scored entirely for muted[63] strings. "Anitra's Dance" is the music of the dance with which the daughter of the Bedouin chief tries to beguile the inconstant Peer. "In the Hall of the Mountain King" is taken from the accompaniment to the scene in which Peer, in the dwelling of the trolls, is beset and tormented by gnomes and imps. The music of this number has been characterized as "a veritable hornets' nest."
- 32. FOOTNOTES: [61] "In cyclopædias," says Mr. H. T. Finck, "we generally find his name given as Edvard Hagerup Grieg, but he does not sanction the middle name, and never uses it in his correspondence. 'It is true,' he writes to me, 'that my baptismal name includes the Hagerup. My artist name, however, is simply E. G. The Hagerup which is to be found in most of the encyclopædias is derived in all probability from the archives of the Leipsic Conservatory.'" [62] Without opus number. [63] See page 12 (foot-note).
- 34. HADLEY (Henry Hadley: born in Somerville, Massachusetts, December 20, 1871; now living in Germany) TONE-POEM, "SALOME": Op. 55 This tone-poem, "after Oscar Wilde's tragedy," is said to have been completed before the production of Richard Strauss's music-drama on the same subject.[64] It is alleged that when Mr. Hadley's music was composed (it was published at Berlin in the latter part of 1906), the "Salome" of Strauss was unknown to him. The score contains the following programme, printed in German and English: "Oscar Wilde's tragedy, 'Salome,' presents first a moonlight scene of Oriental beauty. Without the palace the soldiers are keeping guard; within, a feast is in progress. Salome leaves Herod's banquet and seeks the grateful cool of the lovely night. John the Baptist (Iokanaan) has been made prisoner by Herod in an old well. On hearing his voice proclaiming the Christ, Salome is deeply moved and determines to see him. She prevails upon the captain, Narraboth, who is in love with her, to have Iokanaan brought forth. When Salome beholds him, Salome, the wilful and haughty, who has always triumphed in her loves, finally herself falls a victim to a consuming passion for Iokanaan. Notwithstanding her pleadings, he repulses and condemns her as the daughter of a wicked woman, while the soldiers reconduct him to his imprisonment. The music and revelry of Herod's banqueters are heard. Missing Salome at the feast, Herod leaves the palace and seeks her. Upon
- 35. finding her cold and silent to his advances, he asks her to partake of fruits and wine with him. This she refuses to do. Finally he begs her to dance, promising her anything her heart desires, if she will but consent. At last Salome is persuaded, and dances the dance of the seven veils for Herod. Delighted and enchanted with Salome's charms and maddening dance, he lays half his kingdom at her feet. She will have none of it, but, reminding him of his promise, demands the head of Iokanaan in a silver plate. Herod, superstitious and now thoroughly alarmed at so extraordinary a request, pleads with Salome. It is of no avail. She will have only what she demanded. At last, to the utter collapse of Herod, he is bound to keep his promise. Salome, on being presented with the head of Iokanaan, fondles and caresses it, breathing words of passion into its deaf ears. Herod, in fright of what has been done and in rage and disgust with Salome, orders her instant death. The soldiers rush upon her with their spears and put her to death. [65] At the time of the first American performance of this tone-poem by the Boston Symphony Orchestra, on April 12, 1907, Mr. Philip Hale published in the programme-books this exposition of the significance of the music: "'Salome' begins ... Lento e molto tranquillo, ... with a description of the moonlit scene. The music follows the course of the argument, but how literally, how imaginatively, must be determined by each hearer. It will be remarked that a theme, which might be called Salome's desire, introduced early in the work after a passage for solo violoncello (for horns and then for clarinets, oboes, and English horns), is used at the end of the tone-poem, 'con adore' (sic), to accentuate the address of Salome to Iokanaan's head. 'Salome's Dance,' Allegretto ben ritmato, with a 'stretto con delirio,' is specified by the composer with a title. The chief motives elsewhere are unidentified by him. One hearer, then, may take the motive, poco largamente, early in the work, given to trombones and tuba fortissimo with drum-roll, for Iokanaan's denunciation, and recognize the significance of its entrance after the dance, while to another the motive may have another meaning. So, too, there may be various opinions concerning the precise significance of other themes. It is enough to say that the music follows the course of
- 36. the published argument. After the dance and the scene in which Herod consents to the beheading of the holy man there is a return to the opening tonality, tempo, and mood. Themes already typical of Salome are again used. There is a suddenly introduced and short Allegro con fuoco. Grand pause: Lento. The English horn sighs the love theme of Salome."
- 37. FOOTNOTES: [64] The first production anywhere of Strauss's "Salome" was at Dresden, December 9, 1905, a little more than a year before the first American production (at the Metropolitan Opera House, New York, January 22, 1907). [65] Mr. Hadley, in this description, gives a slightly inaccurate account of Wilde's drama. Salome, in the play, has not "always triumphed in her loves," for Wilde makes her out to be a virgin, and Iokanaan her first love. Nor do the soldiers, at the end of the tragedy, "rush upon her with their spears." The stage direction at this point reads: "The soldiers rush forward and crush beneath their shields Salome, daughter of Herodias, Princess of Judæa."
- 39. HUBER (Hans Huber: born in Schönewerd, Switzerland, June 28, 1852; now living in Bâle) SYMPHONY No. 2, in E MINOR: Op. 115 1. Allegro con fuoco 2. Scherzo; allegro con fuoco non troppo 3. Adagio ma non troppo 4. Finale: "METAMORPHOSES, SUGGESTED BY PICTURES BY BÖCKLIN" This symphony was written in eulogy of the Swiss painter Arnold Böcklin (born in Bâle, October 16, 1827; died in San Domenico, near Florence, January 16, 1901), and in glorification of his highly imaginative and individual art. The original intention of the composer, it is said, was to name his score a "Böcklin" symphony, and to give to various portions of the music the titles of certain of Böcklin's best-known canvases. This plan was, however, not adhered to, and now only the last movement—the finale—is avowedly an endeavor to compose a tonal commentary on various paintings by the Swiss artist. There is, therefore, no authorization for an attempt to find definite translations of Böcklin into tone anywhere save in the concluding movement; yet it may be worth mentioning that the first movement is said to have been suggested by Böcklin's picture, "Sieh, es lacht die Au" ("See, the Meadow Laughs"), which pictures
- 40. two young girls in a meadow plucking flowers, while others stand about in various postures, one playing a lute[66]; that the second movement, the Scherzo—in a Dionysiac mood of revelry—is said to suggest the play of fauns and satyrs of the kind that Böcklin loved to paint; and that the third movement hints at moods inspired by his "Sacred Grove," "Hymn of Spring," and "Venus Anadyomene." The Finale is in form a theme with variations, and each variation is named after a picture by Böcklin. I quote Mr. Philip Hale's concise and vivid characterizations of the different sections and the subjects which inspired them: "I. THE SILENCE OF THE OCEAN (In the museum at Bern) "Adagio molto, E major, 8-8. A dark woman—woman only to the waist—of unearthly beauty lies on a lonely rock far out at sea. Three sea-birds listen with her. A strange sea-creature, with man's face, is stretched beneath the wave. His eyes are without speculation. His tail floats above the surface, and is brushed by the woman's hair. "II. PROMETHEUS CHAINED (1882; owned by Arnhold of Berlin) "The god-defying hero, a giant in form, is bound on the summit of Caucasus, which rises abruptly from the foaming sea. Allegro molto, 4-4. The theme is taken from the first movement.... The wild orchestra surges until the end comes, in six syncopated blows, in extreme fortissimo. "III. THE FLUTING NYMPH (1881; owned by von Heyl of Darmstadt) "Allegretto grazioso, E major, 3-4. A flute solo that, in alternation with the clarinet, leads into the familiar theme, in its first transformation, of the first movement.
- 41. "IV. THE NIGHT (Painted before 1888, and owned by Henneberg of Zurich) "Adagio ma non troppo, D-flat major, 3-4. A woman draped in black, but with a shoulder exposed, floats over a peaceful land, and slowly drops poppy-heads from a cornucopia. The melody is played by the violoncellos. Harp, bassoons, double bassoons, violas, and double-basses accompany. "Va. SPORT OF THE WAVES (1883; in the New Pinakothek, Munich) "Quasi presto, E minor, 2-4, 3-4. Water-men and water-women frolic in the waves. One woman gayly dives. Another, frightened, is laughed at by a bearded and rubicund old fellow, whose head is wreathed with pond-lilies. A caprice for the wood-wind. In the section 2-4 the violins continue the melody, while violin and viola solos ornament, and harp and triangle add color. "Vb. THE HERMIT FIDDLING BEFORE THE STATUE OF THE MADONNA (Painted after 1882; in the National Gallery, Berlin) "Molto moderato, E major, 3-4. An aged man in his cell plays with bowed head before the Madonna, while little angels listen. The strings are hushed. Organ relieved here and there by flutes, oboes, clarinets. "VI. THE ELYSIAN FIELDS (1878; in the National Gallery, Berlin) "Allegretto tranquillo, G major, 6-8. One of Böcklin's most celebrated paintings. A landscape of diversified and wondrous beauty, with mermaids, swans, a fair woman on the back of a centaur crossing a stream, a group in the distance around an altar. Long-sustained trombone chords furnish the harmonic foundation. The melody, of a soft and lightly flowing dance character, is maintained by the wood-wind and violins, and a horn reminds one of an expressive theme in the first movement.
- 42. "VII. THE DAWN OF LOVE (1868; owned by von Heyl of Darmstadt) "Andante molto espressivo ed appassionato, E major, 3-4. Nymphs and young loves in a smiling and watered landscape. The passionate melody is given to the strings. Wood-wind and horns take part in this as well as in the accompaniment. A short and vigorous crescendo leads to the last variation. "VIII. BACCHANALE (Owned by Knorr of Munich) "Tempo di valse, ma quasi presto, E major, 3-4. Men and women are rioting about a tavern near Rome. Some, overcome by wine, sprawl on the ground. The theme is developed in waltz form. A rapid violin passage leads to the close, maestoso ma non troppo. The organ joins the orchestra in thundering out the chief theme." A graphic suggestion of that which Huber has sought to express in his music is conveyed by this felicitous comment on the art and temperament of Böcklin, written by Mr. Christian Brinton: "Arnold Böcklin was able to develop a national art, an art specifically Germanic, because he had the magic to impose his dream upon his fellow-countrymen, and because that dream was the reflex, the embodiment, of all the ineffable nostalgia of his race, not alone for the cream-white villas of Italy, the fountains and the cypresses, but for the gleaming marbles and golden myths of Greece. His art is merely another version of that Sehnsucht which finds voice in the ballads of Goethe, the prose fancies of Heine, or the chiselled periods of Winckelmann. Once again it is the German viewing Greece through Renaissance eyes. The special form under which Böcklin's appeal was made implied a reincarnation, under actual conditions, of the classic spirit. He realized from the outset that the one way to treat such themes was to retouch them with
- 43. modern poetry and modern passion. Pan, Diana, Prometheus, monsters of the deep and grotesques of the forest, were made vital and convincing.... The persuasive charm of his classic scenes is chiefly due to the anti-classic and often frankly humorous, Dionysian manner in which they are presented.... The formula of Böcklin's art consists in peopling sea or sky, shore or wood, with creatures of tradition or of sheer imagination. Its animus is a pantheistische Naturpoesie, illustrating the kinship of man and nature, a conception both Hellenic and Germanic, which arose from a blending of that which his spirit caught at in the world about him and that which came through the gates of fancy and of fable...."
- 44. FOOTNOTES: [66] This canvas, painted in 1887, is in a private collection in Dresden.
- 46. d'INDY (Vincent d'Indy: born in Paris, March 27, 1852; now living there) ORCHESTRAL LEGEND, "THE ENCHANTED FOREST": Op. 8 This work, which the composer calls a Legende-symphonie, is based on a ballad by Uhland entitled "Harald." It was composed in 1878. On a fly-leaf of the score is printed, in French, this paraphrase of Uhland's ballad: "Harald, the brave hero, rides at the head of his warriors. They go by the light of the moon through the wild forest, singing many a song of war. "Who rustle in ambush in the thickets? Who come down from the clouds and start from the torrent's foam? Who murmur in such harmonious tones and give such sweet kisses? Who hold the knights in such voluptuous embrace? The nimble troop of Elves; resistance is in vain. The warriors have gone away, gone to Elfland. "He alone has remained—Harald, the hero, the brave Harald; he goes on by the light of the moon through the wild forest. "A clear spring bubbles at the foot of a rock; scarcely has Harald drunk of the magic water than a strong sleep overpowers his whole being; he falls asleep on the black rocks. "Seated on this same rock, he has slept for many centuries—and for many centuries, by the moonlight, the elves have circled slowly round about Harald, the old hero."[67]
- 47. "SAUGEFLEURIE" ["WILD SAGE"], LEGEND FOR ORCHESTRA: Op. 21 Saugefleurie, Legende d'après un conte de Robert de Bonnière, was composed in 1884. The tale upon which it is based is from the Contes des Fées of de Bonnière, excerpts from which are prefaced to the score. The story has been retold in English prose as follows: "Once upon a time a young and beautiful fairy, Saugefleurie, lived humbly and alone by the edge of a lake. The bank was covered with jonquils. She lived quietly in the trunk of a willow, and stirred from it no more than a pearl from its shell. One day the king's son passed by a-hunting, and she left her tree to see the horses, dogs, and cavaliers. The prince, seeing so fair a face, drew rein and gazed on her. She saw that he was handsome; and, as her modesty was emboldened by naïve love, she looked straight into his eyes. They loved each other at first sight, but not a word was spoken. Now it was death for Saugefleurie to love a mortal man, yet she wished to love the prince, and was willing, loving, to die. Nor was there any kindly power to save her. 'My lord,' she said, 'the fine days are past; do you not find solitude beautiful, and do not lovers love more warmly when their love is hidden? If it seem good to you, let us stay here without fear; our eyes can speak at leisure, and we shall find pleasure only in dwelling together. My heart will be light if it be near you. My lord, I give you my life. Take it, and without a question.' Love and death are always ready and waiting. Do not think that Saugefleurie, whose fate I mourn, was spared. She withered at once, for she was Saugefleurie." [68] The music opens quietly; there is a violin solo; then the approach of the prince's hunting-party is suggested. The love-scene follows—solo first and second violins, solo viola, and flutes; there is an increase of intensity, and the music becomes passionate and stressful. The hunt music returns, followed by a reminiscence of the love-theme; then the end.
- 48. "ISTAR," SYMPHONIC VARIATIONS: Op. 42 "Istar" was first performed in Brussels, under the direction of Eugène Ysaye, January 10, 1897. The music illustrates a French version of an ancient Babylonian poem, "Istar's Descent into Hades," the original of which is believed to have been in the library of Sardanapalus. The French version of the poem, which is printed as a preface to the score, has been translated as follows by Mr. W. F. Apthorp: "Towards the immutable land Istar, daughter of Sin, bent her steps, towards the abode of the dead, towards the seven-gated abode where HE entered, towards the abode whence there is no return. "At the first gate, the warder stripped her; he took the high tiara from her head. "At the second gate, the warder stripped her; he took the pendants from her ears. "At the third gate, the warder stripped her; he took off the precious stones that adorn her neck. "At the fourth gate, the warder stripped her; he took off the jewels that adorn her breast. "At the fifth gate, the warder stripped her; he took off the girdle that encompasses her waist. "At the sixth gate, the warder stripped her; he took the rings from her feet, the rings from her hands. "At the seventh gate, the warder stripped her; he took off the last veil that covers her body. "Istar, daughter of Sin, went into the immutable land, she took and received the Waters of Life. She gave the sublime Waters, and thus, in the presence of all, delivered the SON OF LIFE, her young lover." [69] Mr. Apthorp has thus set forth the peculiarity of d'Indy's tone-poem (for such it virtually is): "The theme is not given out simply at the beginning, neither is it heard in its entirety until the last variation, in
- 49. which it is sung by various groups of instruments in unison and octaves, and worked up later in full harmony. Each one of the variations represents one of the seven stages of Istar's being disrobed at the gates of the 'immutable land,' until in the last she stands forth in the full splendor of nudity.... By following the poem, and noting the garment or ornament taken off, the listener can appreciate the composer's poetic or picturesque suggestiveness in his music." Another commentator has observed that d'Indy has here "reversed the customary process.... He by degrees unfolds from initial complexity the simple idea which was wrapped up therein, and appears only at the close, like Isis unveiled, like a scientific law discovered and formulated."
- 50. "SUMMER DAY ON THE MOUNTAIN": Op. 61 1. DAWN (Aurore) 2. DAY (Jour) 3. EVENING (Soir) Jour d'été à la montagne, a tone-poem in three parts (dated 1905, published in 1906, first performed in Paris, February 18, 1906), is based on a prose poem by Roger de Pampelonne. These quotations, in French, are prefaced to the score: "I. DAWN "Awake, dark phantoms! smile to heaven, majestically, for a ray in the Infinite rises and strikes your brow. One by one the folds of your great mantle are unrolled, and the first gleams, caressing the proud furrows [on your brow], spread over them an instant of sweetness and serenity. "Awake, mountains! The king of space appears! "Awake, valley! who concealest the happy nests and sleeping cottages; awake, singing. And if, in thy chant, sighs also reach me, may the light wind of the morning hours gather them and bear them to God. "Awake, cities! to which the pure rays penetrate regretfully! Sciences, turmoils, human degradations, awake!... Up, artificial worlds! "The shadows melt away little by little, before the invading light.... "Laugh or weep, creatures who people this world. "Awake, harmonies! God hearkens! "II. DAY (Afternoon, under the pines) "How sweet it is to cling to the mountain-sides, broad staircase of heaven! "How sweet it is to dream, far from the turmoil of man, in the smiling majesty of the mountain-tops! "Let us mount towards the summits; man deserts them, and there, where man is no longer, God makes His great voice heard; let us view His ephemeral creatures from afar, in order that we may be able to serve and love them.
- 51. "Here, all earthly sounds mount in harmony towards my rested heart; here, all becomes hymn and prayer; Life and Death hold each other by the hand, to cry towards heaven: Providence and Goodness. I no longer see what perishes, but what is born again on the ruins; the great Guide seems to reign there alone. "All grows still. Crossing the sun-lit plain, a sweet, innocent song reaches me, borne by the wind, which glides through the depths of the woods. "Oh, wrap me wholly in thy sublime accents, wind, whose wild breath gives life to the organ of Creation! Gather the birds' songs on the dark pines; bring to me the rustic sounds, the joyous laughs of the maidens of the valley, the murmur of the waves, and the breath of plants. Hide in thy great sob all the sobs of the earth; let only the purest harmonies reach me, works of the divine Good! "III. EVENING "Night steals across the all-covering sky, and the waning light sends forth a fresh breath swiftly over the weary world. The flowers stir, their heads seek one another, to prop themselves one against another and sleep. A last ray caresses the mountain-tops, whilst, happy after his rude day's work, the mountaineer seeks his rustic abode, whose smoke rises from a fold of the vale. "The sound of bells, sign of life, ceases little by little; the lambs crowd into the fold, and before the crackling fire the peasant woman rocks to sleep her child whose timid soul is dreaming of mists, the daring wolf, and the black verge of the woods. "Soon all things sleep beneath the shadows, all appears ghostly in the valley; yet all still lives. "O Night! Eternal Harmony dwells beneath thy veil; joy and grief are but sleeping. "O Night! consuming Life stirs through the all-consuming day; Life creates itself anew beneath the pearl-strewn mantle of thy outstretched arms...." In all three movements of d'Indy's tripartite tone-poem a piano is included among the orchestral forces; yet it is never used as a solo instrument, nor even as an orchestral voice (save for a few measures in the third movement), but is employed solely for purposes of instrumental embroidery.
- 52. FOOTNOTES: [67] Translated by Mr. Philip Hale. [68] Paraphrased by Mr. Philip Hale. [69] It has been said that the concluding passage of this version (in Mr. Apthorp's prose translation the last four lines) is not in the original Babylonian poem, but is an arbitrary addition by the French translator. Moreover, the French version is credited to the Gilgamesh epic (the Assyrio-Babylonian epic of which Izdubar, or Gilgamesh, is the hero), with which, it has been pointed out, the story of Istar's descent into Hades has nothing to do. Istar (or Ishtar) was the chief deity of the Babylonians and Assyrians. At first a merely local deity, she ultimately came to be regarded as the personification of fertility (both of the soil and of human and animal life) and of war. She corresponded in general to the Ashtoreth (Astarte) of the Syrio-Canaanites, save that she was conceived as ruling the planet Venus, rather than the moon, over which Ashtoreth held sway. Being the representative of the principle of fertility, Istar was regarded also as the goddess of sexual love.
- 54. LISZT (Franz Liszt: born in Raiding, near Ödenburg, Hungary, October 22, 1811; died in Bayreuth, July 31, 1886) "TASSO: LAMENT AND TRIUMPH," SYMPHONIC POEM (No. 2) [70] Tasso: Lamento e Trionfo, was conceived as a "symphonic prelude" to Goethe's drama "Tasso," and performed during the celebration at Weimar in 1849 of the centenary of the poet's birth. It was revised by Liszt in 1854, and published, in its present form, two years later. The score contains this preface by the composer: "In 1849 all Germany celebrated brilliantly the one-hundredth anniversary of Goethe's birth. At Weimar, where we then happened to dwell, the programme of the festival included a performance of his drama 'Tasso,' appointed for the evening of August 28th. The sad fate of the most unfortunate of poets had excited the imagination of the mightiest poetic geniuses of our time—Goethe and Byron: Goethe, whose career was one of brilliant prosperity; Byron, whose keen sufferings counterbalanced the advantages of his birth and fortune. We shall not conceal the fact that, when in 1849 we were commissioned to write an overture for Goethe's drama, we were inspired more directly by the respectful compassion of Byron for the manes of the great man whom he invoked than by the work of the German poet. At the same time, although Byron gave us the groans of Tasso in his prison, he did not join to the recollection of the keen sorrows so nobly and eloquently expressed in his 'Lamentation' the thought of the triumph that awaited, by an act of tardy yet striking justice, the chivalric author of 'Jerusalem Delivered.'
- 55. "We have wished to indicate this contrast even in the title of the work, and we have endeavored to succeed in formulating this grand antithesis of genius, ill treated during life, but after death resplendent with a light that dazzled his persecutors. Tasso loved and suffered at Ferrara; he was avenged at Rome; his glory still lives in the people's songs of Venice. These three points are inseparably connected with his undying memory. To express them in music, we first invoked the mighty shadow of the hero, as it now appears, haunting the lagoons of Venice; we have caught a glimpse of his proud, sad face at the feasts in Ferrara, where he produced his masterpieces; and we have followed him to Rome, the Eternal City, which crowned him with the crown of glory and glorified in him the martyr and the poet. "'Lamento e Trionfo'—these are the two great contrasts in the fate of poets, of whom it has been justly said that, while curses may weigh heavily on their life, blessings are always on their tomb. In order to give this idea not only the authority but the brilliance of fact, we have borrowed even the form from fact, and to that end chosen as the theme of our musical poem the melody to which we have heard the Venetian gondoliers sing on the lagoons three centuries after his death the first strophes of Tasso's 'Jerusalem': "'Canto l' armi pietose e 'l Capitano, Che 'l gran Sepolcro liberò di Cristo!' "The motive [first given out with sombre effect by the bass clarinet and three solo 'cellos, accompanied by harp, horns, and low strings pizzicato], is in itself plaintive, of a groaning slowness, monotonous in mourning; but the gondoliers give it a peculiar coloring by drawling certain notes, by prolonging tones, which, heard from afar, produce an effect not unlike the reflection of long stripes of fading light upon a looking-glass of water. This song once made a deep impression on us, and when we attempted to speak of Tasso our emotion could not refrain from taking as the text of our thoughts this persistent homage paid by his country to the genius of whose devotion and fidelity the court of Ferrara was not worthy. The Venetian melody is so charged with inconsolable mourning, with such hopeless sorrow, that it suffices to portray Tasso's soul; and again it lends itself as the imagination of the poet to the picturing of the brilliant illusions of the world, to the deceitful, fallacious coquetry of those smiles whose treacherous poison brought on the horrible catastrophe for which there seemed to be no earthly recompense, but which was clothed eventually at the capital with a purer purple than that of Alphonse." The second portion of the symphonic poem, the "Triumph," is introduced by trumpet calls and by brilliant passages in the strings.
- 56. The Tasso theme, transformed, is proclaimed with the utmost orchestral pomp and sonority, and brings the music to a jubilant and festive close.
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