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UNIT 9—SOILS AND HYDROPONICS MANAGEMENT
TRUE/FALSE
1. Greenhouses that are near natural hot water springs can use the springs as a heat source.
ANS: T PTS: 1
2. In the retail market, “hothouse” vegetables command higher prices than field production vegetables.
ANS: T PTS: 1
3. Greenhouses use soil as their only growing medium for plants.
ANS: F PTS: 1
4. Over time, hydroponics has become a less important mode of producing vegetables and other
high-income plants.
ANS: F PTS: 1
5. Perlite is used extensively for starting new plants because it holds little water.
ANS: F PTS: 1
6. Soils vary in temperature, organic matter, and the amount of air and water they contain.
ANS: T PTS: 1
MULTIPLE CHOICE
1. Which of the following is the top layer of the Earth's surface?
a. soil c. air
b. plants d. water
ANS: A PTS: 1
2. Much of the original work of soil mapping was completed by the:
a. Forestry Service c. Farm Service Agency
b. Fish and Wildlife Service d. Soil Conservation Service
ANS: D PTS: 1
3. Soils formed in place from parent materials are considered:
a. profiled c. residual
b. microbial d. living
ANS: C PTS: 1
4. A properly limed and fertilized forage crop is the backbone of a successful crop:
a. row c. yield
b. selection d. rotation

ANS: D PTS: 1
5. The maximum number of capability classes on a soils map is:
a. three c. seven
b. five d. eight
ANS: D PTS: 1
6. Soil capability subclasses are designated by:
a. lowercase letter e, w, s, or c c. the numerals 1 to 7
b. capital letter E, W, S, or C d. Roman numerals I to VII
ANS: A PTS: 1
7. Which of the following soil components is derived from such nonliving sources as rock material?
a. organic matter c. topsoil
b. mineral matter d. horizon A
ANS: B PTS: 1
8. The term for the proportion and size of soil particles is:
a. percolation c. texture
b. permeability d. structure
ANS: C PTS: 1
9. A cross-sectional view of soil provides a soil:
a. layer c. grade
b. deposit d. profile
ANS: D PTS: 1
10. What does 7 represent on the pH scale?
a. acid c. alkaline
b. basic d. neutral
ANS: D PTS: 1
11. What is the proper growing environment for “hothouse” vegetables?
a. warm and dark house c. controlled greenhouse
b. summer months indoors d. unshaded river deltas
ANS: C PTS: 1
12. Peat moss consists of partially decomposed mosses that have accumulated in waterlogged areas called:
a. loess c. bogs
b. silt d. compost
ANS: C PTS: 1
13. Horse manure mixed with straw is used extensively as a medium for growing:
a. mushrooms c. grasses
b. vegetables d. legumes
ANS: A PTS: 1
14. Without soil microbes, organic materials would not:

a. thrive c. mix
b. multiply d. decay
ANS: D PTS: 1
COMPLETION
1. Hydroponics is the practice of growing plants without ____________________.
ANS: soil
PTS: 1
2. Soil groups within the subclasses are called ____________________ units.
ANS: capability
PTS: 1
3. The process by which water soaks into and moves through the soil is called ____________________.
ANS: percolation
PTS: 1
4. In acid soils, ____________________ is needed to raise the pH value for efficient production of crops.
ANS: lime
PTS: 1
5. ____________________ are plants in which certain bacteria use nitrogen gas from the air and convert
it to nitrate.
ANS: Legumes
PTS: 1
6. ____________________ is a mixture of partially decayed organic matter such as leaves, manure, and
household plant wastes.
ANS: Compost
PTS: 1
7. In high rainfall areas, soils are usually ____________________ and somewhat acidic.
ANS: leached
PTS: 1
8. The relative sizes of soil particles, from smallest to largest, are clay, silt, and ____________________.

ANS: sand
PTS: 1
9. The pH is a measure of the degree of acidity or alkalinity. Neutral on the pH scale is the number
____________________.
ANS:
7
seven
PTS: 1
10. The tool used to collect a uniform volume of soil is called a soil ____________________.
ANS: auger
PTS: 1
MATCHING
Match the following definitions with their related terms.
a. cross-sectioned view of soil
b. practice of growing plants without soil
c. movement of water into and through the soil
d. mixture of partially decayed organic matter
e. microscopic plants and animals
1. hydroponics
2. percolation
3. profile
4. microbes
5. compost
1. ANS: B PTS: 1
2. ANS: C PTS: 1
3. ANS: A PTS: 1
4. ANS: E PTS: 1
5. ANS: D PTS: 1
Match these descriptions to their corresponding terms.
a. affects distribution of soil particles and water
b. causes soils to develop, mature, and age
c. affects rate of weathering
d. influences fertility and texture of soil
e. causes decay of organic material
f. removes soluble materials
g. topsoil
h. organic
i. parent material
j. subsoil
6. temperature/rainfall

7. living organism
8. parent material
9. topography
10. leaching
11. weathering
12. Horizon O
13. Horizon A
14. Horizon B
15. Horizon C
6. ANS: C PTS: 1
7. ANS: E PTS: 1
8. ANS: D PTS: 1
9. ANS: A PTS: 1
10. ANS: F PTS: 1
11. ANS: B PTS: 1
12. ANS: H PTS: 1
13. ANS: G PTS: 1
14. ANS: J PTS: 1
15. ANS: I PTS: 1
SHORT ANSWER
1. What ingredient could be added to the soil to lower the pH value?
ANS:
sulfur
PTS: 1
2. Name three types of living organisms that greatly affect soil formation.
ANS:
Living organisms, such as microbes, plants, insects, animals, and humans, exert considerable influence
on the formation of soil.
PTS: 1
3. What are the physical characteristics of the three important textural grades as determined by the “feel”
of the soil.
ANS:
The outstanding physical characteristics of the important textural grades, as determined by the “feel”
of the soil, are coarse textured (sandy), medium textured (loam), and fine textured (clay).
PTS: 1
4. Name three groups of organisms from the plant kingdom that are often found in soil.
ANS:
Some groups of organisms of the plant kingdom that are often found in soils are:

1. roots of higher plants
2. algae: green, blue-green, and diatoms
3. fungi: mushroom fungi, yeasts, and molds
4. actinomycetes of many kinds: aerobic, anaerobic, autotrophic, and heterotrophic
PTS: 1
5. Name five predatory animals or microanimals that are prevalent in soils.
ANS:
Predatory groups of organisms from the animal kingdom that are prevalent in soils include snakes,
moles, insects, mites, centipedes, and spiders; microanimals that are predatory, parasitic, and live on
plant tissues include nematodes, protozoans, and rotifers.
PTS: 1
6. What taste terms are given to acid and alkaline soils?
ANS:
Acidity is sometimes referred to as sourness, and alkalinity is referred to as sweetness.
PTS: 1
7. List five important benefits or functions of organic matter in the soil.
ANS:
Important benefits or functions of organic matter in soil include:
1. making the soil porous
2. supplying nitrogen and other nutrients to the growing plant
3. holding water for future plant use
4. aiding in managing soil moisture content
5. furnishing food for soil organisms
6. serving as a store house for nutrients
7. minimizing leaching
8. serving as a source of nitrogen and growth-promoting substance
9. stabilizing soil structure
PTS: 1
8. What is weathering?
ANS:
Weathering refers to mechanical forces caused by temperature change such as heating, cooling,
freezing, and thawing.
PTS: 1
9. Describe the method of deposit for each of the following soils: alluvial, lacustrine, loess, colluvial, and
glacial.
ANS:
Alluvial soils are transported by streams; lacustrine soils are left by lakes; loess soils are left by wind;
colluvial soils are left by gravity, and glacial soils are left by ice.

PTS: 1
10. What are soil aggregates?
ANS:
Soil aggregates, or crumbs, are soil units that contain mostly clay, silt, and sand particles held together
by a gel-type substance formed from organic matter.
PTS: 1

Other documents randomly have
different content

motherhood?
If the question be put thus then the objective investigator must
answer to all—“Yes and No.”
But if this investigator is an evolutionist, then he knows that the
progress of every social evolution is like that which womankind is
now experiencing. We see first, how, in any given sphere of society,
where those engaged therein have attained a pure, instinctive
certainty in their actions through laws and customs, the individuals
oppressed by these laws and customs must rebel against the limits,
drawn from without, for the development and exercise of their
powers. This revolt occasions at first a stage of anarchy in which
everything seems to collapse—while in the previous conserving epoch
“crystallisation” furnished the vital danger! But after such an
anarchistic stage there comes infallibly the constructive stage, where
a part of the old is organised, incorporated, into the new. But this
acts no longer as instinctive impulse. No, mankind has become
conscious anew of these values of law and custom; they have been
recognised by the thought, encompassed by feeling, sanctioned by
the will as still always indispensable, in another and higher form it is
true than that against which the individuals rebelled. But just as the
leaves which once grew green above in the summer light, gradually
become one with the earth, so the motives of the new customs sink
gradually down into the unknown; man acts again with instinctive
certainty and uniformity—until the new period of stagnation evokes a
new rebellion and achievement of individualism.
The woman movement finds itself now at a point where it is about
to pass from the dynamic stage to a static stage. Exactly at this point
a survey begins to be possible; and it is also necessary for every one
who believes that the ideal, as well as the practical direction of the
woman movement, in future, must be influenced by the knowledge
gained about the effect of the movement, thus far, upon the uplifting
of the life of mankind.
Every great achievement of individualism is as inconsiderate as the
spring tide and must be, in order to have strength for its task. The
woman movement was so also. But it encountered two other great
ideas of the time, Socialism and Evolutionism, and in consequence
the woman movement was obliged to modify gradually its conception
of the feminine individual and of her position in existence.

On the one hand, as has been already shown, man has had to
understand that “open competition” and “individual initiative” are
not absolute political-economic truths. On the other hand, the
defender of women’s rights has been forced to understand more and
more that woman’s soul is no unchangeable value which must
remain the same however much the spheres have changed toward
which this spiritual life directed itself and from which it received its
impression. While feminists fifty years ago scorned the objection that
“womanliness” would be lost in business life or in politics, now the
evolutionist mind in thinking women understands that all human
soul life is subject to the law of change; that just as indisputably as
the soul life of man is changed by different vocations and
surroundings, so that of woman also must be changed. The feminists
founded their dogma that the woman movement can only benefit
woman, man, the child, the family, society, mankind upon the
conviction of the stability of “true womanliness.”
And if the woman movement had not had this religious certainty of
belief, how could it have withstood the mass of prejudice and
stupidity which it encountered in its own, as well as in the other sex?
The woman movement has conquered because it was self-
intoxicated.
And quite naturally! After a stability of centuries, during which the
position of woman was altered only in and with the general progress
of culture, women finally recognised that they could accelerate their
own progress and with it also the somewhat snail-like course of
universal human culture. And so woman asserted herself and
increased her motion. The faster this movement became, the more
was she seized by the intoxication which always accompanies every
vigorous physical or psychic movement. And when has a movement
of the time advanced more rapidly?
Folk-migrations, crusades, slave rebellions, revolutions have led a
race, a class, a group, beyond certain geographical or social
boundaries. The emancipation of women has shifted and extended
the limits of the freedom of movement of half mankind. No wonder
that the extent of the movement in and for itself was advanced as
proof of the infallibility of its direction. All points of departure, the
natural right of man, individual freedom, social necessity—all led out
into the sun, which, in society as in nature, should radiate over

woman as well as over man; they led up onto the summit where man
and woman both should breathe the air of the heights. All obstacles
which were raised with the help of arguments such as, “the nature of
woman,” “the welfare of the family,” “the idea of society,” “the
purpose of God”—all proved temporary. And of necessity—for the
innermost law of life, the law of development, of life enhancement,
carried the movement forward. When it began, the Biblical
expression about the wind was quoted, “Man knows not whence it
comes nor whither it goes.” Now all know it. Now the spirit of the
time speaks with “feminist” voice. The ideas of emancipation “are in
the air,” like bacilli, by which only savages are thus far wholly
untouched.
There are now no great movements of the time whose path does
not run parallel with or cut across the woman movement. Every new
generation is involuntarily and unconsciously drawn along with it.
The ends already attained seem to the present age obvious; the ends,
for which man is still struggling to-day, will appear equally obvious
to the future. The woman movement is now a power with which even
its most bitter adversaries must reckon. And this force has so quickly
attained prominence exactly as a result of fanaticism. Just as the
White and the Blue Nile mingle their waters in the main stream, so in
every great current of time enthusiasm is mingled with fanaticism.
And it is the latter which bears the most fruit, for it gives power of
growth to the passions of the majority, good as well as bad.
Every great idea begins with great promulgators. The promulgator
who has the spirit does not hold to the letter. And the woman
movement which was spirit began also with women and men who
did not follow the call of the spirit of the time; no, who from lonely
heights sent out their awakening call to the time. Men who give their
age new ideals have always religious natures. This means, according
to a good definition, that they are “individualists in their being, social
in their action.”
Such natures burn, above all, with the passion to find themselves.
Then they burn with the passion to sacrifice themselves in order to
help others, whose suffering or wrongs they feel as deeply as if they
were their own. No one who passively endures an injustice against
himself has the material in him to struggle for the rights of others.
The one who patiently forbears becomes an accessory to the injustice

done to others. He who resists the injustice which he himself meets
can open up the way to a higher right for others. Such path-finders
were the first apostles of the emancipation of women. They
consecrated to this task a faith which required no proof, a faith which
saw visions and heard melodies of the glorious future that their
victory would prepare for mankind. They emanated neither from
scientific investigations, nor from systems of political economy, nor
from philosophic evidence, nor theories of political science. They
flung themselves into the struggle with inadequate weapons, without
plan of campaign, just as do all impelled by the spirit. But such a
method always evokes later dissension among the disciples. Sects are
formed, gradually a church is crystallised, an orthodoxy, a papacy,
and an inquisition. This course is physically necessary as long as
mankind is still in greatest part a mass. A Paul more “Christian” than
Christ and a Luther more “Paulist” than Paul are met also in the
woman movement.
This has now, among most people of culture, passed beyond the
stage of the great apostles and martyrs and heralds. The movement
has reached the point where certain typical manifestations, certain
conventional forms testify that the masses—which stoned the
prophets—have now, since the ideas of the woman movement have
become truisms, banalities, the fashion, appropriated them to
themselves and endeavour to transform them to their image and
adapt them to their needs.
Again and again the old tale repeats itself: the trolls steal the
weapons of the gods but they cannot use them. Again and again there
is occasion to deplore the fact that the autocrat of genius, whether he
rule over a people or a kingdom of ideas, has heirs, heirs who
diminish his work. Again and again it must be recognised that no
spiritual formation vanishes at one blow. The servile mind, intrigue,
pettiness, delusion—all that, from which the great spirits of the
woman movement hoped to “emancipate” woman—could not
suddenly vanish out of the world. And since all this must go
somewhere it finally finds room in the woman movement itself!
But on the other side—since after all everything has another side—
it must be admitted that the levelling and conserving tendency of the
average person is of real value at the stage when an idea begins to be
transformed into law and custom.

Those who can work only in crowds receive their significance
exactly because of their collective work. They push aside the
“individual emancipation” which they do not need for their own part,
since they have no individuality to emancipate. But by diligent and
efficient work they succeed in securing certain results, which are the
common cause of all. So the Philistines make for themselves a
footstool of that which was a stumbling-block for their congenial
souls in the previous generation. From this height they look down
upon the new truth of their time. And those who perceive and uphold
this new truth turn aside from the great uniformed army which now
advances safely where the little vanguard has previously and
laboriously opened up the way. Those who turn aside will form the
new vanguard when it comes to achieving, in the spirit of the first
apostle, the emancipation not only of women in the mass, but of
each individual woman. When the present work of the woman
movement for joint, common ends shall no longer be necessary,
because one end after another has been attained, then comes the task
of the present “radical” feminism: the accomplishment of
“emancipation” by leading it up to those free heights which already
the path-finders are endeavouring to attain, the heights where every
feminine individuality can choose her own path of life, perhaps at
variance with all others; can choose it in freedom, answerable only to
her own conscience. Although this summary grouping historically as
well as psychologically corresponds approximately to the past,
present, and future of the woman movement, yet there are so many
ramifications of the three groups into one another, that the woman
movement now exhibits a tangled confusion in which every exact
demarcation is impossible.
Whoever lives to witness it will see the course of progress just
described—for which the modern labour movement offers quite as
good material for observation as the woman movement—repeat itself
in the next great emancipation movement. I mean the movement for
the right and freedom of the child, which will be the unconditional
result of the victory of the woman and labour movements. This idea
is still in the morning-clear hour of inspiration. But from the cry,
“Away with the child destroying home training,” we can hear that the
troop of Philistines will appear by afternoon upon the scene, to adopt
the idea into their midst!

By means of the comparison with socialism, I have endeavoured to
emphasise that the woman movement’s formation of dogmas and its
doctrinary fanaticism are not effects of the peculiarity of the
feminine mind. These phenomena are typical of every movement of
the time thus far observed. They are essential above all because a
new belief without dogma and without ritual is for the masses a
sword without a hilt: it offers nothing tangible, nothing whereby the
masses can come into relation with the idea.
That certain feminists still believe that the woman movement has
advanced just as the exodus of the Children of Israel out of the land
of bondage, that is to say, under God’s special protection against
wandering astray; that they stigmatise as “treason” and “defection”
the assertion that this movement was determined by the same
psychological and sociological laws as every other movement for
freedom—this shows to how high a degree many leaders of the
woman movement lack elementary psychological and sociological
conceptions. This deficiency is, however, being continually remedied.
And in the generation which now advances, dogmatic fanaticism has
well nigh vanished, but pure enthusiasm is preserved.
We can thus expect from this generation a clearer understanding
of the necessary social repressions which the woman movement has
now sufficient strength to impose upon itself without forfeiting
thereby its character of a movement for freedom. As such it cannot
and dare not cease until it has attained all its ends. As long as the law
treats women as one race, men as another, there is a woman
question. Not until man and woman, equal and united, work together
for mankind will the woman movement belong to the past.

CHAPTER III
THE INFLUENCE OF THE WOMAN
QUESTION UPON SINGLE WOMEN
The following comparisons between the life of women, especially
their spiritual life of about fifty years ago and their life as it has
shaped itself under the influence of the woman movement, have been
arranged in descending scale. They begin with that phase of women’s
life in which this influence was most favourable from the point of
view of life enhancement, namely with the life of unmarried women.
You will find to-day, among women seventy or eighty years of age,
one or another type of that fine culture which the gifted single
woman, in comfortable circumstances, could attain in the previous
century. Her home, especially if it was an estate in the country,
became a cultural fireside which radiated light and heat for relatives
and friends. The lesser gifted disseminated, each according to her
nature, comfort or discomfort, yet could in extremity at least be sure
of the homage of their future heirs. Toward those dependent upon
them, these women were sometimes kind, sometimes indifferent,
sometimes hard: the feeling of social responsibility was an unknown
idea to them. The penniless single women, on the contrary, were
found either in one of the “respectable” positions which, however,
brought with them a multitude of humiliations: as governess,
companion, housekeeper—in Germany also as maid of honour at one
of the numerous small courts—or in some charitable institution for
gentle folks, an asylum for pauvres honteuses; but most frequently in
the corner of the home of a relative. This corner was at times the
warmest and most confidential in the whole house, that corner which
the children sought for stories and sweetmeats; the youth, to find an
embrace in which he could pour forth his grief, an ear which listened
to his most beautiful dreams. But it happened more frequently that

the “aunt” looked upon as a “necessary evil” was in reality that very
thing. Humiliated and embittered, she became ingenious in making
those about her suffer for her afflictions. Before they became
hopelessly old, the “aunts” were the laughing stock of the young
through their efforts, in the eleventh hour, to reach the “peaceful
haven of matrimony”; and they themselves looked with envious eyes
upon the good fortune of the young. We meet the unmarried woman
of that time at her best as trusty servant who shared the cares, the
joys, and the sorrows of the family and, in her garret chamber, of
which she could be certain to the day of her death, she looked back
upon a rich life lived vicariously. Not infrequently, she rejected a
marriage proposal in order to stay with her beloved master and
mistress to whom she knew she was indispensable. The superfluous
women previously mentioned would have thrown themselves into
the arms of Beelzebub had he come as suitor. When the years passed,
when neither their desire for activity nor the thirst of the heart nor of
the senses was quenched, then not infrequently insanity conjured up
for these lonely women a life-content for which they had longed in
vain. To-day, however, we have for the position which the
expression, “a forsaken old maid,” betokens an entirely new type:
“the glorified spinster,” as the joyous, active, independent unmarried
woman is called by the people among whom she first became a
reality. Among these women, independent through their work, useful
to society, that older type is still occasionally found perhaps, a
survival of the time when emancipation was rather generally
interpreted as freedom for masculinity. The “man-woman” in
masculine attire, with weapons of defence against man in one hand
and a cigarette in the other, her soul filled with mad ambition for her
own sex and, as representative of her entire sex, with hatred toward
the other, was however always rare. Now, she has almost entirely
vanished, except alas, the cigarette. But she smokes it now often with
—masculine friends! She follows in her mode of life, as in her dress,
the law of good taste—not to offend; she endeavours, if only with a
flower or two, to give a glimmer of cosy comfort to her place of work.
This comfort, which often comes into the public life with woman is
perhaps the reason why many men, who first looked with
indignation upon feminine fellow-workmen, would now miss them.
The more personal the culture of these women becomes, the more
they endeavour, according to their time and means, to express their

personality in the lines and colours of their dress and in the
arrangement of their room. Those best situated often succeed,
toward the end of their working days, in winning their own little
home which they perhaps share with a friend, or they join a co-
operative enterprise and can thus raise their standard of living. The
same women who, at twenty-five, scornfully declared that they
“would never bury their head in a sauce-pan,” are now, at fifty,
consciously aware of the significance of the table for the activity of
the brain; indeed they are now quite as proud if they have prepared a
good dish as they were in their youth when they passed a fine
examination!
It is not to be wondered at that the emancipated women, exactly as
all recently emancipated masculine classes and races, at first groped
insecurely after a new form. The astonishing thing, on the contrary,
is that women adapted themselves so quickly to the new
circumstances; that the transition period furnished so few grotesque
types; that the present shows so many harmonious types, each in her
own way. This harmony of single women is no mere form. It has its
inner counterpart in the satisfaction with their existence, an
existence in accord with their desires. The psychology was not
exhaustive which saw in feminism only a “spinster question,” a
question of the unmarried woman, springing from the surplus of
women and the increasing difficulty or disinclination of men to
contract marriage—a question therefore for the ugly, not for the
beautiful; for the unmarried, not for the married; for the poor, not
for the rich. For a great number of beautiful women prefer to remain
unmarried; a great number of rich desire to work; a great number of
married women are zealous suffragists. Fifty years ago, we saw the
most clever women idealise an ape into a god; now, the modern,
intelligent working girl, when she looks about her for her ideal,
exercises a lively criticism. She often flirts with one who exhibits
some phase of the ideal, but she has too clear an understanding and
too much to do to imagine a great feeling for one who is unworthy.
So it often happens that youth has passed without such a feeling
having stirred her. And she enters without deep regret the age when
ambition and desire for power become her life stimulants. From
these women of predominating mind and will is formed more and
more what Ferrero calls “The third sex,” Maudsley, “The sexless ant”:
energetic, clever, happy in their work, cool, but sound; in private life,

in the zeal of everyday work, often egoistic but willing to make
sacrifices in face of social exigencies.
So a great part of the fifty-year-old women form an exception since
they with true instinct have remained unmarried. For in the same
degree that their metallic being is well adapted to the machinery of
society, it is little qualified to make a home for husband and children.
They do not depreciate however the value of this task, unless they be
fanatic feminists. In that event they reproach the women who wish to
marry with “betraying the woman cause”; they demand at times, as
imperative loyalty toward this cause, that their friends shall protest
against the present marriage laws at least by the form of their
marriage alliance if not even by not marrying at all. Their theory of
equality has at times been carried so far that—as recently happened
in France—they advocate women’s performing also masculine
military service.
But in spite of their aridity and inflexibility of principle how much
more human are even these feminists than the “ill-natured” aunts of
earlier times who became ill-natured exactly because their
temperament was of the kind mentioned above, but who could find
no sphere of operation for their passionate longing for activity. One
or another was perhaps burning with ambition. For there are women
as well as men who can live only as pagan gods, in the blaze and
perfume of sacrificial fires. In their youth these ambitious natures
could be satisfied by triumphs in social life. But later the passion
became a fire in a powder cask and occasioned incessant explosions.
Now it is the electric motive power for an activity of general utility.
The “aunts” of the earlier time who felt themselves always
overlooked and injured are most easily recognised again in the
literary and artistic field to which daily bread or ambition now urges
many women, who endeavour to compensate by energetic work for
the talent which nature denied them. Since these women are
ordinarily not people of understanding but of feeling, they must in a
double sense be dissatisfied with a life which in addition is, in most
cases, still filled with economic cares and the humiliations arising
therefrom. And yet in spite of all, how much richer is their life to-day
than it would have been fifty years ago when they would have been
obliged to sit and draw their needles through interminable pieces of
handwork, after ugly patterns and for unnecessary uses, or to

compose sentimental birthday verses for persons whom they
abominated.
Yet there are always those women natures who, in the past, had
the qualifications for a real “dear aunt,” who gently calmed the
conflicts and filled the gaps in the home of which they had become
members. The most tender and sensitive of these modern women,
who, rain or shine, year in year out, hasten to and from a work
indifferent to them at heart, not infrequently breathe a sigh of
longing for those times when, as “aunts,” they could have received
and imparted warmth in a home. But then again there come
moments when they know how to value the independence which puts
them in a position to give help where otherwise there would be none;
when for example they can send a nephew to college, or a friend to a
sanatarium, or provide their mother with a nurse, which they
themselves can not be.
This kind of single woman fulfills more or less the office of family
provider just as she also is always ready with word and deed in
circles of friends and comrades. These women are so engrossed that
the time of love, sometimes love itself, passes them by without their
observing it. Their youth flees and they feel with sadness that their
woman’s life is unlived. But they persuade themselves that they have
had enough in their work, that many little joys can take the place of
great happiness. And they believe this as truly as the infant believes
he is satisfied when he sucks his own thumb. But some of these
women acknowledge perhaps, when they have passed the fifties, that
they were often tempted to call out to the first best man, “Give me a
child.” Sometimes it happens that in their last youth they appease
their mother longing by adopting a foster child; sometimes they still
this longing by a child of their own, from a love relation or a
marriage. This late and uncertain happiness is often made possible
exactly through their work. And then, if not earlier, they bless this
work which gives them the economic possibility, and thereby also the
courage, for this hazardous adventure.
More frequent than these are the cases however where single
women, who have passed their first youth, find in friendship for
another woman a valve for their, in great part, unused feelings. In
some natures this friendship will be jealous and exacting, in others
true and devoted. I wish to emphasise that I speak here of entirely

natural spiritual conditions. There is to-day much talk about
“Sapphic” women; and it is even possible that they exist in that
impure form which men imagine. I have never met them,
presumably because we rarely meet in life those with whom no fibre
of our being has any affinity. But I have often observed that the
spiritually refined women of our time, just as formerly the spiritually
refined men of Hellas, find most easily in their own sex the qualities
which set their spiritual life in the finest vibration of admiration,
inspiration, sympathy and adoration.
The fundamental types of single women depicted here—the person
of intellect and the person of feeling—are found everywhere. The
former according to current opinion already predominate in
America; in Europe, it seems to me, the latter still prevail. That the
main classes include innumerable varieties, it is needless to say.
There are for example the numerous, quite ordinary, family girls who
would be happy if they could give up their independence in order to
enjoy the protection of their parents’ or their own home. And the
same obtains also with the quite as ancient type of woman, Undine,
who—soulless and cold—enslaves all men. If she is in any civic
vocation, she knows how to get the smallest amount of work for
herself and, in case she is engaged in the artistic field, the best
possible criticism. Conscience is an acquaintance which she has
never made and she is also of the opinion that everything agreeable
is permitted to her; she simply slides past anything disagreeable.
Although work belongs to these disagreeable things, she continues it
until she has found means to place her “qualities” in the most
advantageous manner upon the matrimonial market.
The diametrical antithesis of this curvilinear type is the rectilinear.
It has, just as the preceding type, existed at all times. It is the woman
who really never demanded anything of life but “a work and a duty”
and finds both in abundance in all positions of life. She is found year
in year out at her desk, in appropriate working garb, free from all
æsthetics; proud “if she never has needed to miss a day”; proud that
she never has come late. On the contrary she never goes on time. For
she has so grown into the business or the office that she takes
everything upon herself that is required without murmuring, as a
well-disciplined soldier in the ranks of the grey working army;

thankful, in addition, if her long working cares yield her a little life
annuity or pension for her old age. This type is found principally
among women over fifty—fortunately. For this class of women which
the pre-feministic circumstances created, have, by their “frugality”
carried almost to the verge of criminality, by their humble,
conscientious servitude, lowered the wages of their colleagues who
are more full of life. These latter have begun work in the hope that it
finally will “free” them; that is, will give them something of that for
which their innermost being longs, not only their daily bread—a
bread which sickness or a turn of affairs moreover can take from
them at any time. And perhaps they never succeed even in having
their own room where they at least could have repose! Underpaid,
overworked, tired to death, who can wonder if these women have
lost, if they ever possessed them, the essential characteristics of
“womanhood”—active kindness, repose even in movement, charming
gentleness? The Icelandic poet of yore already knew that “Few
become fair through wounds.” These women must put all their
strength into their work and into the effort to conceal their
underpayment by “respectable” clothing, or else lose their positions.
In everything else they must economise to the utmost and perhaps in
addition be laughed at because of their economy. They succeed, often
admirably, in maintaining themselves in proud fair struggle, in
rejecting “erotic” perquisites to add to their income and in fulfilling
conscientiously the requirements of their work. Yet to do this with
lively interest, with preserved spiritual elasticity, with quiet
amiability—for this their strength does not suffice, exhausted by
insufficient nourishment, insufficient sleep, still more insufficient
recreation, and strained daily to the utmost. Their nervousness finds
vent in either hard or hysterical expression and the public, annoyed
by their ill-humour, divines little of the tragedies enacted in offices,
business houses, cafés or similar places. If a suicide concludes the
tragedy, the public shudders for a moment and—all goes on as
before.
Thus “emancipation” presents itself in reality for millions of
women. To what extent the middle-class woman movement is
indirectly to blame for this fact has already been emphasised.
The essential reason is however the prevailing economic condition
of society. By the uninterrupted fever of competition and the

accumulation of riches, it dries up the soul and robs it of goodness as
well as of joy. When the great, beautiful, eternal sources of joy are
exhausted, the life stimulus is sought in exclusively physical
pleasures, which are always made more exciting in order to be able to
arouse still, in the languid nervous system, feelings of desire.
Moreover, there is the neurosis and weariness of life of the
overworked, of those continually quaking about their material safety,
of those who could be revived by the noble and simple joys of life, to
which those jaded with riches are already not susceptible; but for all
these millions and millions such joys are not accessible because
hunger for profit depresses wages. If in addition to that we take into
account the increasing suffering of the best because of the ever
developing feeling of solidarity; and if finally we consider that
women, who through the protection of the home could preserve
something of warmth-irradiating energy, are now in increasing
numbers driven out of the home, then we have some of the reasons
which—in higher degree than the religious and philosophic reasons
which also exist—contribute to the joylessness of our time.
A contribution to the meagre stock of good fortune of the present
time is furnished however by the joy of life among young girls
working under favourable conditions. Among them we meet a new
soul condition, which could be designated, as briefly as possible, as
covetousness of everything which can promote their personal
development and a beautiful liberality with what is thus won. They
can gratify their energetic desire for self-development by sport,
travel, books, art and other means of culture; their freedom of action
between working hours is not restricted by private duties. They can
utilise their leisure time and their income as they please: for
recreation, pleasure, social intercourse, social work or private,
charitable activity. No father nor husband encroaches upon their free
agency. And so dear does this liberty become to them through the
manifold joys which it furnishes, that these young girls, in constantly
increasing numbers, refuse to relinquish their individual
independence for the sake of a marriage which, even presupposing
the happiest love, always means a restriction of the freedom of
movement that they enjoyed while single. And since the modern
woman knows that, in the sphere of spiritual values, nothing can be

attained without sacrifice, she prefers to keep free agency and to
sacrifice love. If she chooses in the opposite direction, the task of
adaptation will be the more difficult, the longer and the more
intensely she has enjoyed freedom. The modern young girl, if she
deigns to bestow her hand upon a man, not infrequently has her
pretty head so crammed full of principles of equality that she
sometimes (frequently in America), by written contract establishes
her independence to the smallest detail, which sometimes includes
separate apartments and the prohibition that either of the
contracting parties shall have the key to the apartment of the other.
There are many varieties of the new type of woman. There is for
instance the tom-boy, the “gamin,” who for her life cannot give up
the right to mad pranks and mischievous jokes. There is the girl
consumed with ambition, who sacrifices all other values in order to
attain the goal of her ambition in art or science. There is the
fanatically altruistic girl, who considers the work for mankind so
important that she feels she has not the right to an “egoistic” love
happiness. There is the ascetic ethereal girl, who looks upon
marriage and child-bearing as animal functions, unworthy of a
spiritual being, but above all as unbeautiful. And for many of these
modern, æsthetically refined, nervously sensitive young girls the
æsthetic point of view is decisive. All love the work which permits
them to live according to their ideals. Still it often happens that
Ovidian metamorphoses take place: that the young girl sees the cloud
or the swan transformed into a god, upon whose altar she sacrifices,
with joy, her free agency and everything else which only a few weeks
earlier she cherished as her holy of holies. The men who view this
process with a smile, think that the anti-erotic ideals were only a new
weapon of defence in the eternal war between the sexes. But these
men often learn how mistaken they were when they themselves
become participators in the war. They meet women so proud, so
sensitive regarding their independence, so merciless in their
strength, so easily wounded in their instincts, so zealous to devote
themselves to their personal task, so determined to preserve their
freedom, that erotic harmony seldom can be realised. Yes, these
women often repudiate love only because it becomes a bond to their
freedom, a hindrance to their work, a force for the bending of their
will to another’s will.

The women, womanly in their innermost depths, who really feel
free only when they give themselves wholly, are becoming
continually more rare. But where such a wholly devoted woman still
exists, she is the highest type of woman which any period has
produced. Especially if she springs from a family of old culture. She
has then, combined in her personality, the best of tradition and the
best of the revolution evoked by the woman movement. The fibres of
her being absorb their nourishment with instinctive certainty out of
the fruitful soil which pride, devotion to duty, family love,
requirements of culture and refinement of form, for many
generations, have created. But her conscious soul-life flowers in the
sun of the present; she thinks new thoughts and has new aims. Just
as little as she disavows her desire for love, so little does she desire
love under other conditions than those of spiritual unity and human
equality. If she meets the man who can give her this and if she loves
him, then he can be more certain than the man of any other time that
he is really loved, that no ulterior motive obscures the devotion of
this free woman. He has seen her susceptible to all the riches of life;
has seen her assist in social tasks, perform the duty of every day
joyful in her work, proud of her independence attained through her
work. He knows that just as she is she would have continued to be if
he had not entered into her life. How different is this girl from the
one of earlier times, who was driven by the emptiness of her life into
continual love affairs, which could not lead to a marriage nor exist in
a marriage that possessed nothing of love!
This most beautiful new type of woman approaches spiritually the
aforementioned type of single, aged women, who because of their
economic independence found time for a fine personal culture. These
followed not infrequently in their youth, from a distance it is true,
but with joyous sympathy, the progress of the woman movement.
They shook their heads later over its extremes. With new joy they
regard the young girls just described, in whom they find a more
universal development than in themselves, because these young girls
have been developed through active consumption of power which
was spared to the older women, although they must have summoned
much passive energy in order to maintain their personality against
convention. The young girls find often in these older women a fine
understanding, which they richly reciprocate. Such terms of
friendship are the most beautiful which the present has to offer: they

resemble the meeting of the morning and evening red in the bright
midsummer nights of the North.
No time could have been so rich in exquisite feminine
personalities, at all ages and in all stages of life, as ours. We must not
draw our conclusions regarding the abundance of such women, in
the older culture epochs, from the illustrious names of women which
incessantly recur in the pictures of the earlier times—like stage
soldiers—until they give the illusion of a great host.
But exquisite women are even to-day exceptional. The Martha type
rather than the Mary type predominates. This is due on one hand to
decreasing piety, on the other hand to the kind of working and
society life. Fifty years ago single women were often spiritually
petrified, now more often they cannot succeed in settling into any
form. Their existence, turned outwardly, widens their sphere of
interest but makes their soul-life shallow. Restlessness is most
unfavourable to the “development of the personality,” which was
however the goal of the emancipation of woman. This development is
delayed most of all perhaps by the lack of personal contact with other
personalities, of immediate, intimate human connections. This can,
from no point of view, be supplied by the society or club life in which
single women are to-day absorbed.

CHAPTER IV
MOVEMENT UPON THE DAUGHTERS
As late as sixty or seventy years ago, the daughters of good families
had still few points of contact with life outside the four walls of the
home. From the hands of nurse-maids they went into those of the
governess, and after confirmation, studies were at an end. If it was a
cultured home then reading aloud or music was often practised,
whereby it is true no “specific education” qualifying them for
examinations was attained, but frequently a fine universal human
culture. There was always employment in the house for the zeal for
work. The great presses were filled with linen which was not
infrequently spun and woven by the daughters; in the autumn they
assembled for sausage-making and candle dipping; later, for
Christmas baking and roasting; in summer endless rows of glasses of
preserves were set in the store-room. Before Christmas, night after
night, Christmas presents were made; after Christmas, night after
night, they danced. At these balls those in outer respects uncomely,
received a foretaste of that waiting which must fill their life for many
long years: would the invitation to the dance—or the wooing
respectively—come or not? Every man whose shadow merely fell
upon the scene, was immediately considered from the point of view
of a suitor. As the years went by the girl, who before twenty-five
years of age was considered an “old maid,” saw how the glance of the
father and the brothers became gloomy, yes, she could even hear how
“unfortunate” she was. If such a daughter lived in a home poor in
books—and most of them were—then she could not even procure a
book she wished. For the daughters worked year in year out without
wages, in case they did not receive meagrely doled out pin-money
which only through great ingenuity sufficed for their toilette. All year

long there were christenings and birthday celebrations; in summer
games were played, where it was possible riding parties arranged, in
winter sleighing parties were organised. Other physical exercise was
considered superfluous. The young girls were averse to going to a
neighbouring estate if it lay a mile away; and during the week to take
a long walk for pleasure or sit down with a book, which had been
borrowed, would be considered simply as idling away one’s time. In
summer a cold bath was permissible—a warm bath was used only in
cases of sickness—but swimming was considered so unwomanly, that
whoever had learned it must keep it secret. Rowing, tobogganing and
skating were, even if permitted in the country, yet half in discredit as
“masculine.”
When grandfather related an heroic deed of some ancestress
whose proud countenance shone out among the family portraits,
then the daughter of such a family must have asked herself why this
deed was lauded while everything “manly” was forbidden her.
The days and years went by at the embroidery frame or netting
needles, amid continuous chatter about the family and neighbours,
amid eternal friction and in disputing back and forth over mere
trifles. The confined nervous force sought an outlet, and in an
existence where each one—according to the first paragraph of family
rights—interfered in the greatest as in the smallest concerns of all the
others, there was always plenty of material about which to become
irritated and excited.
In the country, life was, however, fuller and fresher than in the city
where the young girl had less to do and never dared go out alone;
yes, where a walk was considered so superfluous, that the mother of
the great Swedish feminist Fredrika Bremer advised her daughters to
jump up and down behind a chair when they insisted that they
needed exercise!
The relation to the parents, even if the principle of unswerving and
mute obedience was not wholly carried out, was ordinarily a
reverential alienation. Neither side knew the inner life of the other.
The temperament of the mother determined the everyday domestic
comforts, the will of the father the external occurrences of life, from
the trip to the ball to marriage. The daughter whose inclination
corresponded with the will of the father considered herself fortunate.

The one married against her will wept, but obeyed. As an almost
fabulous occurrence it was related of one or another girl that she
dared to say “No” before the marriage altar; cases were not unusual
in which daughters received a box on the ear and were confined to
their room until they accepted the bridegroom whom the father had
chosen. Even if a mother, moved by the recollections of her own
youth, attempted to support a daughter it rarely succeeded. For the
power of the father rested quite as heavily upon the wife. But the
worst however was to water myrtle year after year, without ever
being able to cut it for a bridal wreath. Even she, who in her heart
loved another, found it therefore often wisest to give her consent to
an acceptable suitor. Only the one whose dowry was valued at a “ton
of gold”—or who also was a celebrated beauty—could run the risk of
declining a courtship; yes, she could permit herself to occasion it
only to decline it. The more suitors she could recount, the prouder
she was; such a beauty even embroidered around her bridal gown the
monograms of all her earlier wooers.
The unmarried remained behind in an environment where the idea
prevailed that “woman’s politics are her toilettes, her republic is her
household and literature belongs to her trinkets.” The talented
daughter sewed the fine starched shirts in which her stupid brother
went to the academy and sighed therewith: “Ah, if one only were a
man.”
When the income of the house was small, she increased it perhaps
by embroidery, sold in deepest secrecy; for it was a disgrace for a girl
of good family to work for money. For her rebellious thoughts she
had perhaps a girl friend to whom she could pour out her heart—or a
sister. But it often fared with sisters growing old together, just as it
must fare with North-pole explorers wintering together, that those
holding together of necessity finally loathe one another from the
bottom of their hearts. And yet the sisters were most fortunate who
could grow old and die in their childhood home and were not
compelled to become old household fixtures in the home of relatives.
Not infrequently this last fate was their portion because a father, a
brother or a guardian out of personal, economical self-interest
prevented their marriage, or a brother through debt or studies had
defrauded them of their inheritance.

It was not the woman movement but the religious movement,
beginning among the Northern peoples almost simultaneously with
it, called in Sweden “Läseri” (“Reading”) that was the first spiritual
emancipation for the old or young unmarried girls—likewise for
wives who longed for a deeper content. Because they took seriously
the Bible doctrine that one should disregard the commands of the
family in order to follow Christ, the home gradually became
accustomed to one of the feminine members’ going her own way.
Often amid great struggles. For the “Reader” was more or less
considered as insane; the father was ashamed of her, the mother
mourned over her, the brothers laughed at her. But nothing could
hinder those strong in their faith from following the inner voice. And
so these women, without knowing it themselves, were a bridge to
that emancipation of women to which they themselves later—Bible in
hand—were often an obstacle.
The movement could not however be prevented. And now—how is
it now in the family? Already the ten-year-old talks about what she is
sometime going to be. Now, the sisters go with the brothers to school
or to the academy and share their intellectual interests as well as
their life of sport. Now, the fathers and mothers sit at home often
alone, for the daughters belong to that host of self-supporting girls
who can gratify the parents by short visits only. Alas, these visits are
not always an unclouded joy. There are collisions between the old
and the young often over seeming bagatelles. But a feather shows
which way the wind blows and the parents observe that, in the
spiritual being of the daughter, the wind blows from an entirely
different direction from theirs. The daughter, on the other hand,
thinks that perfect calm prevails in the being of her parents; she
wishes to raise the dust. The mother pleads her cause in dry and
offended manner, the daughter in superior and impetuous words.
Accustomed to her freedom, she encounters again at home control
over her commissions and omissions, attempts upon her privacy
from which she had been freed by leaving home. And they separate
again each with a sigh that they “have had so little of one another.” In
other cases—when the parents have followed the times and the
daughters understand that not only children but also parents must
be educated with tenderness—then the visits to the parents’ home

become on both sides elevating episodes in their lives. The daughters
repose in the parental tenderness, which they have only now learned
to value when they compare it with their customary loneliness. The
parents confide to the daughter their cares which she sometimes can
effectively lighten, and they revive with her spiritual interests which
they themselves had to lay aside. Through her own working life the
daughter has gained an entirely new respect for her parents. Through
her independence of parental authority she has now gained a
frankness, which makes a real interchange of ideas possible. They
discover that they can have something reciprocal for one another.
The father, who perhaps at first sighed when the young faces
vanished out of the home, now admits that it would have been
foolish if the whole troop of girls had continued here at home and so
had stood there at his demise, empty-handed, without professional
training. The mother, who had helped them persuade the father,
smiles, when he insists that he “would not exchange his capable girls
for boys.” And he is not at all afraid that the daughters could not
marry if they would; he remembered indeed how his contemporaries
declared that they “would never look at a girl student, a Blue
stocking,” and yet so many of these were now happily married to—
girl students.
Beside these results of the independence of the daughters which
elevate life for all sides, there are opposite cases; when, for example,
a single daughter without outer economic compulsion or inner
personal necessity, impelled only by the current of the time, leaves a
home where her contribution of work could be significant, in order to
follow a vocation outside. The results are often of doubtful value, not
only from a social point of view but also from that of the family and
herself, when the daughter remains at home but carries on a work
outside. This comes partly because they are contented with less pay
and thus lower the wages of those who support themselves entirely;
partly because they over-exert themselves. In those cases where
several daughters can share with one another the domestic duties, no
over-exertion results perhaps. But when a single daughter combines
an exacting professional work with quite as exacting household
duties, then she is exhausted by her double task; then she feels the
burden, not the joy, of work. For all professional working girls who
remain at home, have moreover in addition, even under the most
favorable circumstances, the spiritual strain of turning from work

back again to the gregarious demands of the home, as well as to the
many different attractions and repulsions, antipathies and
sympathies which determine the deviations in temperature of the
home; the strain of respecting the sensibilities which must be spared
or of paying attention to the domestic demands which must be
refused, if the work is not to suffer from lack of rest and time for
preparation. All this can be so nerve racking that the young girl is
seized with an irresistible longing for a little home of her own, where
she would be mistress of her leisure time, and could see her own
friends—not alone those of her family,—where she could join those
who held the same views, where she, in a word, would live her life
according to the dictates of her personal demands. If she can, she
often does this. For to-day young girls live to apply the principle of
the woman movement—individualism. The older women’s rights
advocates desired, it is true, that woman should be allowed to
“develop her gifts,” but she should “administer” them for the benefit
of others; they desired that she should receive new rights from law
and custom, but that she should seek always in law and custom
support and security for her action. The young women’s rights
advocates, on the other hand, believe that their own growth, just as
that of animals and trees, is intended above all for self-development,
that in their own character the direction for their growth is specified,
and that they have not the right to confine themselves by
circumstances or subject themselves to influences by which they
know they hinder the development of their powers, according to
their individual natures. The more refined the feeling of personality
becomes, the more exactly these young people understand how to
choose what is essential for them and to repudiate what is a
hindrance. But before they attain this certainty they evince often an
unnecessary lack of consideration, and the family is often right when
it speaks of the egoism of youth. They find no opportunity for helping
father or mother nor for participation in the elders’ interests. The
whole family is rarely assembled even at meal-time; the daughters as
well as the sons rush off to lectures, work, sport, clubs. The mother
who sees how occupied the daughters are has not the heart to add to
their work or to thwart them in their pleasures; thus she allows the
selfishness of the young creatures to increase to the point where she
herself in indignation begins—seasonably and unseasonably—to
react against it. The young girl answers her mother’s reproof then

with the complaint that, “Mamma does not understand” her and that
she is “behind her time.” Especially the young examination-
champions distinguish themselves by their arrogance in the family as
in the club, where they look down upon the older ladies who have not
passed examinations just as they do upon their own mother.
It fares best in the families, and they are even now numerous,
where the mother herself has studied or worked outside the home
and therefore knows what domestic services she may or may not
require; where she herself personally understands the intellectual
occupation of the young people and has preserved her own
youthfulness, so that she becomes not infrequently the real friend of
her daughters and sons. If the mother, on the contrary, was one of
the many who, at the beginning of the woman movement, sacrificed
her own talent to the wishes of her family or the demands of the
home, in spite of the possibilities for its development made
accessible to her at that time, then she has often absolutely no
comprehension of the egoism of her daughter. She herself had acted
so entirely differently! Or she understands fully that in her daughters
as well as in her sons she views the attainment of a new conception of
life, with all its Storm and Stress, which the spring-times in the life of
mankind bring with them—an attainment in which, to her sorrow,
she could not take part in her youth.
At such spring-times youth is not, as the parents hoped, sunlight
and the twittering of birds in the home; but March storms and April
clouds. The parents feel themselves at first swept out, superfluous,
disillusioned. They are angered but rejuvenated, thanks to all the
new points of view that youth makes valid. Yes, father and mother
sometimes could live through a second youth if their own
contemporaries did not depress their buoyancy by their disapproving
astonishment and the children by their cool rejection of the
comradeship of their parents. But in spite of this twofold opposition,
there are now fathers and mothers who are able to enjoy the riches of
life quite as youthfully as and more deeply than their children; while
the parents of earlier times, especially the mother, forever stagnated
as early as forty. More and more frequently we find mothers who,
like their daughters, lead a spiritually rich and emotional life, who
have so preserved their physical youthfulness and who possess
moreover through experience and self-culture so refined a soul-life,

that, in regard to the impression they make, they are not infrequently
the rivals of their daughters. They are already revelations of that type
of woman which, in token of emancipation, has found the
equilibrium between the old devoted ideal and the new self-assertive
ideal. They view life from a height which gives them a survey also
over the essential, in questions concerning their own children. Even
if these become something other than the mothers wish, these
mothers are so penetrated with the idea of individualism that they let
the children follow their own course.
Modern fathers rarely find so happy a home as it once could be
with a bevy of daughters always at hand. But they find the home
richer in content, often also freer from petty dissensions. For in the
measure in which each member of the family desires his right and
his freedom, do all gradually learn to respect those of others. If the
parents consider with dignity their right and their freedom, then a
reciprocal consideration results after the boldness which youth
evinces under the first influence of the intoxication of freedom.
Youth, at first so proud and strong in their assurance of bringing new
ideal values to life, begin themselves to experience how the world
treats these; and what they once called their parents’ prejudice
appears to them now often in a new light. Their self-assertion
becomes a product of culture, out of a raw material. The
manifestations of their individualism become continually more
discreet, more controlled, but at the same time more essential and
more effective. When then the young people have found their way
and the parents endeavour to turn them aside to the main road—
which they call the way of wisdom or of duty—then certainly and
with right the young people put themselves on the defensive.
Even a devoted daughter cannot bring to the home to-day as
undivided a heart as formerly. But this gift was earlier a matter of
course, so to speak, a natural result of the conditions. But if to-day a
girl sacrifices a talent to filial duty, then it is an infinitely greater
personal sacrifice; a real choice. And if she does not make the
sacrifice, it is not in the least always on the ground of egoism. It
happens often in conviction that the unconditional demand of
Christianity that the strong must have consideration for the weak,
makes these latter often egoists and tyrants; that the strong, who are
more significant for the whole, are thus rendered inefficient.

If a troop of athletic boys continually conformed to the level of the
weakest, then all would remain upon a lower plane, and the weak
find no incentive to seek their triumphs in another sphere.
On the other hand it is fine and eminently sane and in harmony
with the laws of spiritual growth, when the strong shall help the weak
to reach a goal which is thus, in his own peculiar direction, really
attainable by him. Neither paganism nor Christianity has created the
most beautiful strength; it is a union of both. It has found its most
perfect expression in art in Donatello’s St. George, in Michelangelo’s
David: youths, whose victorious power conceals compassion and
whose compassion embraces even the conquered: symbols of
strength which has become kind, of kindness which has become
strong. If a mother has seen this expression upon the face of her son
or her daughter then she can address to life the words of Simeon:
“Now let thy servant depart in peace for mine eyes have seen thy
glory.” For the glory of life is the harmony between its two
fundamental powers—conquest and devotion: self-assertion and self-
sacrifice. In every new phase of the ethical development of mankind
the cultural problem is this harmony and the cultural profit is not the
per-dominance of one of the two but the perfected synthesis of both.
This problem has now become actual, through the woman
movement, for the feminine half of mankind, after the unconditional
spirit of sacrifice has obtained for centuries as the indispensable
attribute of womanliness. In the first stage of the woman movement
the majority of the “emancipated” were still determined by their
spirit of sacrifice, which they aspired to combine with their outside
professional work. This generation lived beyond its strength. The
younger generation of to-day does not believe that God gives
unlimited strength. For they have seen that those who live
unceasingly beyond their strength finally have no strength left, either
for others or for themselves. And they know that in the long run one
can live only upon his own resources and these must be conserved
and renewed in order to suffice. But this knowledge makes the
problem, which in the course of days and years appears in manifold
different forms, only more difficult of solution: the problem to find
the right choice in the collision between family duties, duties toward
oneself and duties toward society; the choice which shall bring with
it the essential enhancement of life.

The conflict is thus solved by some feminists: everything called
family ties and family feeling is referred to the “impersonal”
instinctive life, while our “personality” expresses itself in intellectual
activity, in study, in creation, in universally human ends, in social
activity, etc. And since the principle of emancipation is certainly the
freeing of the “personality,” it follows from this idea, in connection
with this definition of the personality, that the liberated personality
must place the obligations of the intellectual life absolutely above
those of the family life; the outside professional work above the work
in the home. In a word, the earlier definition of womanliness ignored
the universal human element, the present definition of personality
ignores the womanly element in woman’s being. The last solution of
the problem is quite as one-sided as the first.
The “principle of personality,” as it has just been described is
entertained especially in America. In Europe there are still women
who reflect deeply upon their own being and—who have a depth over
which they may meditate! These women have not yet succeeded in
simplifying the problem which is the central one of their life. They
know that not only do instincts, impulses of the will, feelings, form
the strongest part of the individual character which nature has given
them, but also that this part determines their thinking and creating
power—their whole conscious existence. They know that their
character receives its peculiarities through the development which
they themselves accord to one or another side of their individual
temperament. In one personality the intellectual life will
predominate, in another the emotional: in one the ethical, in another
the æsthetic motive. The personality becomes harmonious only when
no essential motive is lacking, when all attain a certain degree of
development, a harmony which is as yet only so won that no motive
receives its greatest possible development. Such a harmony has long
been the especial characteristic of the most beautiful womanhood,
while the most significant men have ordinarily achieved their
superior strength in one direction, at the cost of harmony in the
whole. If now women believe that they can achieve the strength of
men without, for that reason, being obliged to sacrifice something of
their harmony, then they believe their sex capable of possibilities
which thus far have been granted rarely and then only to the
exceptional in both sexes. What experience shows is: the greater
harmony of single women in a limited existence as compared with

the lack of harmony in the lives of daughters, owing to the
irreconcilable problems which their richer existence brings with it.
For these problems must be solved, at one time, by sacrifice of
intellectual, at another, by sacrifice of emotional values. In every
case, the sacrifice leaves behind it, not the joyful peace of fulfilled
duty, but the gnawing unrest of a duty still ever unfulfilled. Every
woman who has a heart knows it is at least quite as important a part
of her personality as her passion for science perhaps. If for example
she is obliged to surrender to another the loving service of a sick
father in order to pursue scientific researches, then her heart is quite
as certainly in the sick-room as, in case of the opposite choice, her
thoughts would have been in the laboratory. By calling one factor
“instinct” and the other “personality,” nothing is in reality gained.
Theorising ladies can easily write—the paper is forbearing. But
human nature is of flesh and blood. And therefore thousands of
women grapple to-day with tormenting questions:—When we women
shall belong entirely to industrial work and to the social life, who
then is left for the work of love? Only paid hands. What becomes
then of the warmth in human life when such a division of labour is
established that kindness becomes a profession, and the rest of us
shall be exempt from its practice because our “Personality” has more
important fields for the exercise of its strength? What does it signify
to live for society when we come to the service of society with chilled
hearts? If the warmth is to be preserved then we must have leisure
for love in private life, a right to love, peace and means for love. Only
thus can our hearts remain warm for the social life. Can the whole
really profit if we sacrifice unconditionally that part of the whole
which is nearest us? Can our feeling of solidarity increase toward
mankind when we pass by exactly those people to whom we could, by
our deeds, really show our sympathetic fellow-feeling?
The woman whose instinct life is still strong and sound, whose
personality has its roots deep in life—which means not social life
alone—she also understands how to determine what life in its
deepest import purposes with her; she knows how she serves it best,
whether by remaining in a position where she fulfils her personal
obligations as part of a family or by seeking another position where
she fulfils this obligation as a member of society.

It is true the erroneous idea still prevails in many homes that the
daughter must willingly sacrifice her social task for the family, a
sacrifice which the family would never even wish on the part of a son.
But the assurance that the daughter could have made another choice
instils in the family, unconsciously, a new conception of her sacrifice,
and gives to herself the courage to assume a position in the home
other than that she held at the time when no choice remained to her.
If the total of efficacious daughterly love of to-day and earlier times
be estimated, this total would not prove less now. But it is now given
rather in a great sum; earlier, on the contrary, in many small coins.
Because of the professional work of the daughter, there are now often
lacking in the home the ready obliging young hands whose help
father and brother so willingly engrossed; the cheerful comforter, the
admiring listener. But in a great hour the daughter or sister gives
now often a hundred times more in deep, personal understanding.
One draws a false conclusion when one thinks that the more closely a
family holds together the more it signifies a corresponding unity and
devotion. The young act in submission because they permit
themselves to be cowed by the family authority which like a steam-
roller passed over their wills and their hearts. But the indignation
that they experienced in their innermost hearts, the criticism which
they exercised among one another, were not less bitter than that
which they to-day openly utter.
The home life of fifty years ago was a school of diplomacy; it
especially served to oppose cunning to the father’s authority, and the
mother often taught the children to use this weapon of weakness.
Now the father does not wish to make himself ridiculous by saying: “I
forbid you,” for the daughter answers: “Well, then, I will wait until I
am twenty-one.” The threat, “I disinherit you,” recoils from the
determination of the daughter, “I can work.” Only in a distant
province, in a little town, or among the “upper ten thousand” of a
large city, where the daughters still often receive a “general
education,” which does not fit them to earn their living, are they
occupied all day without the feeling of having worked. They serve at
five o’clock teas, embroider for charity bazaars, etc. But they also
experience the power of the spirit of the time strongly enough to
know that they lead a selfish life but not a life of self. The lower the
scale of riches the more housework do the daughters have to
perform. But as a result of the patriarchal organisation of labour they

still perform this without their own responsibility, without the joy of
independence, without regular unoccupied time and without one
penny at their disposal!
Even in these circles however the spirit of the time is active; such a
daughter leads now in every case a life of much richer content than
some decades ago, when even though middle-aged she was still
treated as ignorant innocence and must allow herself to be extolled
to every possible marriage candidate. She suffers when she sees her
mother as the submissive wife, whose continual according smile has
graven lines of humility about her mouth, whose continually
pacifying tone has made her voice whining. She suffers when the
father cuts short a diversity of opinion with the words, “You have
heard what I said—That will do.” She suffers when her brothers find
her “insufferably important” or declare her new ideas “crazy.” But
exactly these new ideas about the right and freedom of woman,
which she encounters everywhere, have given a dignity to her own
being which has its influence even without words. On the other hand,
the fact that the fathers lose one legal right after another over the
feminine members of the family has its effect, so that they gradually
change their tone, the clenched fist falls less and less frequently upon
the table, the disdain is silenced, and even in the provinces the family
life is changing more and more from the despotic political
constitution to the democratic, where each one maintains his
position by virtue of his own personality. There are still men it is
true, who wish to confine “woman’s sphere” to the four
“C’s”—“Cooking, clothing, children, church.” But there is no one who
now insists that “a girl cannot learn Mathematics,” or that it is
“unwomanly to pore over books”—sayings which were still often
heard fifty years ago. Certainly there are still men who accept the
cherishing thoughtful care on the part of the women members of the
family as obvious homage. But the men are becoming more and more
numerous who receive these womanly acts of tenderness with waking
joy. Daughters and sisters of earlier times have pardoned the vices of
their fathers and brothers seven and seventy times; those of the
present throw away the fragments of trust and love which have been
irrevocably shattered. The assurance that the daughters and sisters
could do nothing else except pardon, since they were dependent
upon their tormentors, often made the fathers and brothers of earlier
times grossly inconsiderate. The men of to-day will be refined by the

necessity of showing consideration and justice to their daughters and
sisters if they wish to enjoy their presence in the home. Fathers and
brothers have, in a word, gained quite as much spiritually through
the loss of their power to oppress as the daughters and sisters have
gained in being no longer oppressed. And this experience will be
repeated in marriage when man and wife shall be absolutely free and
equal.

CHAPTER V
MOVEMENT UPON MEN AND WOMEN IN
GENERAL
In their struggle for freedom for the same opportunities of study,
for the same fields of work, the same citizenship as man, women
have encountered all possible opposition, from that of the Pope, who
recently pronounced the most positive condemnation of the whole
movement for the emancipation of woman, and that of Parliament,
to the rough pranks of students. Man’s attempt to define the
boundaries of “woman’s natural sphere” continues always. The
woman physician, for example, had to struggle, in her student years,
against prejudice in the dissecting room, and, in her practice, against
the professional jealousy of men. The history of emancipation has
much shameful conduct on the part of man toward woman to record.
Great reluctance to recognise the results of woman’s work is still
common. When this work, in literature and art for instance, is
compared with man’s, the comparison is made not for the purpose of
getting a finer understanding of woman’s peculiar characteristics,
but only to disparage it. The energy which men of the present time
not infrequently lack they cannot endure to recognise in women, who
often possess it in high degree. In the Romance countries, self-
supporting working women are always looked upon as a special caste
—a caste into which a man does not marry however high respect he
pays, theoretically, to “les vierges fortes.”
And yet how different—and more beautiful—are the present
relations between men and women in general, especially among the
Germanic peoples. A friendly comradeship prevails among the young
men and women studying at the university, in art academies, music

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