![TPEL-Reg-2015-03-0479 1
Abstract—A novel simple and effective autonomous
current-sharing controller for parallel three-phase inverters is
proposed in this paper. The proposed controller provides faster
response and better accuracy in contrast to the conventional
droop control, since this novel approach does not require any
active or reactive power calculations. Instead, a
synchronous-reference-frame (SRF) virtual impedance loop and
an SRF-based phase-locked loop are used. Stationary analysis is
provided in order to identify the inherent mechanism of the direct
and quadrature output currents in relation to the voltage
amplitude and frequency with different line impedances by means
of the system transfer functions. Comparison experiments from
two parallel inverters are presented to compare the control
performance of the conventional droop control and the proposed
control with different line impedances. In addition, experimental
results from a setup with three parallel 2.2 kW inverters verify the
effectiveness of the proposed control strategy in different
scenarios.
Index Terms—Parallel inverters, synchronous reference frame,
phase-locked loop, virtual impedance, droop control.
I. INTRODUCTION
ROOP control method has been widely used in the last
decade as the decentralized control of parallel converters
in several applications such as parallel redundant
uninterruptible power supplies (UPS) to avoid critical
communication among units, distributed power systems,
microgrids (MGs), and so forth [1]-[12]. This well-known
control technique aims to proportionally share active and
reactive powers which adjusting frequency and output voltage
amplitudes of each inverter locally in order to emulate the
behavior of a synchronous generator [3]. Although this
technique only requires local information, it presents a number
Yajuan Guan, Josep M. Guerrero, Xin Zhao and Juan C. Vasquez are with
Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University, 9220 Aalborg,
Denmark (e-mail: ygu@et.aau.dk, joz@et.aau.dk, xzh@et.aau.dk,
juq@et.aau.dk).
Xiaoqiang. Guo, is with the Key Lab of Power Electronics for Energy
Conservation and Motor drive of Hebei province, Department of Electrical
Engineering, Yanshan University, Qinhuangdao 066004, China (e-mail:
gxq@ysu.edu.cn)
of stability issues that have been solved along the literature
[4]-[7].
One of the main problems is that the droop coefficients
which regulate frequency and amplitudes are basically
proportional terms, so that in order to increase their range of
values for improving system dynamics, derivative terms were
added [13]-[16]. Unlike the conventional droop controllers
which yield 1- dimension of freedom (DOF) tunable control,
the improved droop controllers yield 2-DOF tunable control.
Subsequently, the dynamic performance of the system can be
adjusted to damp the oscillatory behavior of the power sharing
controllers without affecting the static droop gains.
Another issue with regards to conventional droop is that the
frequency and voltage are respectively related to active and
reactive power when the output impedance of the generator is
mainly inductive, e.g. induction generators. Hence, by using the
droop method, the power sharing performance is affected by
the output impedance of the distributed generation (DG) units
and the line impedances. However, the output impedance can
be fixed by means of a fast control loop named virtual
impedance in an inverter [17], [18]. In this sense, the output
impedance can be treated as another control loop which
enforces the inverter to behave in accordance to the
inductance-to-resistance ratio (X/R) line impedance, e.g.
mainly resistive in case of low voltage networks [19].
In case of resistive lines and/or virtual impedances, the active
power is controlled by the inverter voltage amplitude, while the
reactive power flow is dominated by the angle, so that it can be
controlled by the frequency of the system [20]-[24]. In this
sense, the active power-voltage (P-V) droop control needs to be
used instead of the conventional active power-frequency (P-f)
droop control, which is contrary to the conventional electrical
transmission systems or induction generation dominated
systems.
Several control methodologies with different
implementations for conventional droop controller have been
also proposed [25]-[28]. A Q – V dot droop control method is
mostly used to improve reactive power sharing [29].
Based on the abovementioned issues, a control architecture
based on a virtual resistance, P-V and Q-f droops is used for
dealing with the autonomous operation of parallel connected
inverters [20], [30]. However, this approach has the inherent
drawback that it needs to calculate instantaneous active and
A New Way of Controlling Parallel-Connected
Inverters by Using Synchronous Reference
Frame Virtual Impedance Loop
– Part I: Control Principle
Yajuan Guan, Student, IEEE, Josep M. Guerrero, Fellow, IEEE, Xin Zhao, Juan C. Vasquez, Senior
Member IEEE, Xiaoqiang Guo, Senior Member, IEEE
D](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/anewwayofcontrollingparallelconnec-230120074213-77b8718c/85/A_New_Way_of_Controlling_Parallel_Connec-pdf-3-320.jpg)
![TPEL-Reg-2015-03-0479 2
reactive powers and then average them through low-pass filters
(LPF) whose bandwidth deteriorate the system transient
response [15]. Even in three phase systems that the active and
reactive power can be calculated by using the instantaneous
power theory, a post-filter processing is necessary in order to
completely remove the distorted power components [31].
Furthermore, in a practical situation, the load sharing
performance of the conventional droop control is degraded
when short lines with small impedance are used, especially in
low voltage networks. In this case, a small deviation in voltage
frequency and amplitude will result in large power oscillation
and even instabilities [32]. The drawbacks of droop control can
be summarized as listed below:
• Slow dynamic response: Since it requires LPFs with
reduced bandwidth to calculate the average values of
the active and reactive powers both in islanded and
grid-connected modes.
• Active/reactive power coupling.
• Slow responses when active/reactive power sharing
ratios are suddenly changed.
• Performance is serious affected by the line impedance.
• Complex design.
• The power sharing could be degraded if the sum of the
output impedance and the line impedance is
unbalanced.
Another possible solution is the combination of current
sharing control and power droop control techniques. A
voltage-power droop/frequency-reactive power boost
(VPD/FQB) control scheme which allows multiple voltage
source converters (VSCs) to operate in parallel in MGs and to
share a common load power in proportion to a predetermined
ration is presented in [33], [34]. In [33], an additional virtual
resistance loop is necessary since the inverter output impedance
cannot be equal to zero due to the PI controller in voltage
control loop. A decentralized control for redundant parallel
connection of multiple UPS using only current sensors is
proposed [35], [36]. The active and reactive components of
output current are used instead of active and reactive power to
mimic the droop control, while the LPFs are still necessary. A
novel piecewise linear V-I droop controller has been proposed
to exploit the flexibility and fast dynamics of the inverter-based
distributed energy resources [37], however a global positioning
system (GPS) signal as the communication is used to
synchronize each DG unit and allow for constant frequency
operation. A voltage and frequency droop control based on
mixed voltage and current source concept and finite output
impedance emulation for single phase inverter based low
voltage grid has been proposed [22], [38]. This method can
provide not only wireless parallel operation control, but also
has the capability of mitigation of voltage harmonics and
short-circuit behavior as it takes the R to X line impedance ratio
into account. However, this control approach is complex, since
a Kalman filter estimator and a linear quadratic regulator are
required.
To cope with all the aforementioned, a simpler and faster
controller is proposed in this paper, which consists of a
synchronous-reference-frame (SRF) virtual impedance loop, an
SFR phase-locked loop (PLL) and a proportional-resonant (PR)
controller in voltage control loop. The proposed control
strategy provides both instantaneous current sharing and fast
dynamic response for paralleled voltage controlled inverters
(VCIs). The virtual resistance loop which contains a d-axis
virtual resistance loop and a q-axis virtual resistance loop is
used to achieve direct and quadrature load currents sharing
separately among three-phase inverters. The concept is derived
from the current-sharing control schemes already used in dc
paralleled converters [39]-[42]. In contrast with the
conventional droop control, there is no need to calculate
active/reactive powers. An additional PLL is needed to adjust
the phase of the voltage reference and ensure the
synchronization among the paralleled VCIs. The paper is
organized as follows. Section II reviews the conventional droop
control principle. Section III analyzes the current flow when
virtual resistive impedance in the stationary reference frame is
used. Section IV introduces the proposed control structure and
the control principle. Section V presents the inherent droop
characteristic and coupling analysis of the proposed control
with different line impedances. Experimental results are shown
in Section VI in order to evaluate the feasibility of the proposed
approach and to compare the control performance with the
conventional droop control. Section VII concludes the paper.
Finally, the appendix provides the derivative process of the
mathematic equations. This paper is the first part of a two-part
paper focusing on the control principle and steady state
performance analysis. The second part of this paper deals with
the small-signal state-space models and stability analysis of the
proposed parallel-VCI-based system.
II.REVIEW OF THE DROOP CONTROL PRINCIPLE
Fig. 1 shows the equivalent circuit of a two-paralleled
inverter system including generated voltages ( and ),
output impedances ( and ), virtual impedances ( 1
vir
Z
→
and 2
vir
Z
→
), output voltage ( and ) and line impedances (
and ) of each inverter. It can be considered as a
subset of distributed power network operating in autonomous
islanded mode.
The phase differences between the output voltage (ϕ gn) and
the point of common coupling (PCC) voltage (ϕ bus), as well as
the amplitude of equivalent impedance ( ), which
consists of inverter output impedance ( ), line
impedance ( ), and virtual impedance ( virn virn
Z ϕ
∠ ),
are considered in this study. The active and reactive power
output can be derived as:
2
cos cos( )
gn n gn bus gn bus n
n
n
V V V
P
Z
ϕ ϕ ϕ ϕ
− − +
= (1)
2
sin sin( )
gn n gn bus gn bus n
n
n
V V V
Q
Z
ϕ ϕ ϕ ϕ
− − +
= (2)
In traditional power systems, the equivalent impedances
between the paralleled inverters present high X/R ratio. The
1
g
V
→
2
g
V
→
1
o
Z
→
2
o
Z
→
1
o
V
→
2
o
V
→
1
line
Z
→
2
line
Z
→
n n
Z ϕ
∠
on oZn
Z ϕ
∠
linen linen
Z ϕ
∠](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/anewwayofcontrollingparallelconnec-230120074213-77b8718c/85/A_New_Way_of_Controlling_Parallel_Connec-pdf-4-320.jpg)
![TPEL-Reg-2015-03-0479 3
1
g
V
→ 1
vir
Z
→
2
vir
Z
→
0
bus
V ∠
1
o
I
→
2
o
I
→
1
line
Z
→
2
g
V
→
1
o
Z
→
2
o
Z
→
2
line
Z
→
1
o
V
→
2
o
V
→
load
Z
→
Fig. 1. Equivalent circuit of a parallel inverter system with virtual resistances.
active power ( ) can be adjusted with the voltage angle (ϕ gn),
and reactive power ( ) can be regulated with voltage
amplitude (Vgn) separately. Based on this power flow analysis,
the droop control law can be expressed as:
(3)
(4)
where and are the normal angular frequency and output
voltage amplitude, respectively, and are the droop
coefficients.
However, the load sharing performance of the conventional
droop control is degraded in a practical situation when using
short lines with small impedances, especially in low voltage
networks. Output power ( and ), output voltage
amplitude and frequency are coupled, because
[ ]
sin( ) / ( ) /
on bus n on bus n
Z Z
ϕ ϕ ϕ ϕ
− ≈ − cannot be neglected
when 0
n bus
ϕ ϕ
− ≠ or n
Z is too small, that may result in
imprecise power control. Furthermore, the stability problems
would arise for conventional droop controlled systems with
small equivalent line impedance , since small frequency or
voltage amplitude deviations can result in large power
oscillations.
III. CURRENT FLOW ANALYSIS
Each inverter in Fig.1 can be modeled by a two-terminal
Thévenin equivalent circuit in Laplace as follows:
[ ]
(s) (s) (s) (s) (s) (s) (s)
bus n refn on linen virn on
V G V Z Z Z I
= − + + (5)
where (s)
refn
V is the output voltage reference; ( )
n
G s is the
voltage gain. The inner current and voltage loops are
responsible for minimizing ( )
on
Z s , i. e. by using a proportional
+ resonant (PR) controller tuned at the line frequency. In this
sense, ( )
on
Z s is approximately equal to zero, whereas (s)
n
G is
equal to 1 at the resonant frequency of PR controller.
Considering that ( )
linen
Z s is practically very small in low
scale systems such as low voltage MGs, (s)
virn
Z becomes the
predominant component. Thus, (5) can be simplified as:
(s) (s) (s) (s) (s)
bus n refn virn on
V G V Z I
= − (6)
When only virtual resistance is adopted, an equivalent
Thévenin circuit can present the closed loop inverter, as
(s) (s)
n refn
G V
virn
R (s)
on
I
(s)
bus
V
Fig. 2. Equivalent Thévenin circuit of closed-loop inverter.
2
θ
1
θ
2 2
oq virq
I R
1 1
oq virq
I R
2 2
od vird
I R 1 1
od vird
I R
q
d
2
V
→
Δ
1
V
→
Δ
Fig. 3. Vector diagram of the concept.
illustrated in Fig. 2. The voltage difference between the
generated voltage and common bus voltage at the line
frequency can be expressed in dq reference frame as follows:
refn bus odn virdn oqn virqn
V V I R jI R
→ →
− = + (7)
where odn
I and oqn
I are the d and q-axis components of output
current, respectively.
In this case, because the voltage reference phasor ( ref
V
→
) and
common bus voltage phasor ( bus
V
→
) are identical for each DG
unit, the different values of vird
R and virq
R will result in
different voltage drop that will cause different current output
vectors ( ), as shown in Fig. 3. The relationship of od
I , oq
I ,
vird
R and virq
R can be generalized and expressed for number N
of converters as follows:
(8a)
(8b)
The d- and q-axis output currents od
I and oq
I of the
paralleled inverters are inversely proportional to the
corresponding virtual resistances. Therefore, the direct and
quadrature currents output of each inverter can be regulated
independently by adjusting the virtual impedances based on
different power rates, commands from energy management
system (EMS) or other superior control loops.
Furthermore, the active and reactive power output sharing
strategy among the paralleled inverters can be obtained from (8)
by multiplying the voltage reference. Hence, considering that
the voltage references (Vref) of each inverter are equal, the
active and reactive power output will also be properly shared
based on the virtual resistances, as shown in (9):
1 1 2 2
o vird o vird oN virdN
P R P R P R
= = =
… (9a)
1 1 2 2
o virq o virq oN virqN
Q R Q R Q R
= = =
… (9b)
n
P
n
Q
* *
( )
n n p n n
k P P
ω
ω ω
= + −
* *
( )
n n qV n n
V V k Q Q
= + −
*
n
ω *
n
V
p
k ω qV
k
n
P n
Q
n
Z
o
I
→
1 1 2 2 ...
od vird od vird odN virdN
I R I R I R
= = =
1 1 2 2 ...
oq virq oq virq oqN virqN
I R I R I R
= = =](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/anewwayofcontrollingparallelconnec-230120074213-77b8718c/85/A_New_Way_of_Controlling_Parallel_Connec-pdf-5-320.jpg)
![TPEL-Reg-2015-03-0479 4
where on
P and on
Q are the active and reactive power output of
inverter #n.
IV. PROPOSED AUTONOMOUS CURRENT-SHARING
CONTROLLER
Follow the above analysis, a simpler and faster controller is
proposed in this paper. The novel control strategy is shown in
Fig. 4(b). Compared with the improved droop controller in Fig.
4(a), the droop controller could be replaced by a novel
controller which comprises of an SRF-PLL and a virtual
resistance loop in SRF.
A. Configuration of the proposed controller
The power stage consists of a three-leg three-phase inverter
connected to a DC link, loaded by an Lf-Cf filter, and connected
to the AC bus through a power line (Zline). Indeed, the proposed
control strategy can also be extended to single-phase systems.
The main difference between the single-phase systems and
three-phase systems is that the orthogonal voltage system in
single-phase systems needs to be generated by an extra control
loop [43], [44].
The controller including an SRF-PLL, a virtual resistance
loop (Rvird and Rvirq), a DC link voltage feed-forward loop, and
the conventional PR inner voltage and current controllers (Gv
and Gi) generates a PWM signal to drive the IGBT inverter
gates. Inductive currents and capacitor voltages are transformed
to the stationary reference frame ( L
i αβ and c
v αβ ). Output
currents are transformed to the SRF ( odq
i ). The direct and
quadrature output currents are independently controlled by the
virtual impedance loop in dq axis. The inner voltage and current
loops are implemented in αβ reference frame since the PR
controller can deal with both positive and negative sequence
voltage when the negative sequence voltage and current appear.
Fig. 5 shows the simplified proposed control block diagram,
which includes the three-leg three-phase inverter, Lf-Cf filter,
line impedance, virtual impedance loop, the PLL and the inner
voltage and current control loops.
The closed loop transfer function Tplant (s) can be described as
follows:
( )
( )
( ) 1 ( ) ( )
1 ( ) ( ) ( ) ) )
(
( (
)
) (
o
ref
Lequ line
Lequ line vir Lequ
pla
o
nt
V s
V s
G s G s Z s
G s Z s G s G s s
T s
G s Z
⎡ ⎤
+
⎣ ⎦
=
+ + +
=
(10)
being
2
( ) ( )
( )
( ( ) )s 1 ( ) ( )
v i PWM
f f f i PWM f v i PWM
G s G s K
G s
L C s rC G s K C G s G s K
=
+ + + +
2
( )
( ( ) )s 1 ( ) ( )
f
o
f f f i PWM f v i PWM
sL r
Z s
L C s rC G s K C G s G s K
+
=
+ + + +
2 2
( ) iv
v pv
c
K s
G s K
s ω
= +
+
, ( )
i pi
G s K
= ,
1 1
( )
Lequ
Lequ Lequ
G s
R sL
= +
( )
line line line
Z s R sL
= + , ( ) virq
vird
vir
Lequ Lequ
R
R
G s
R sL
= +
where G(s) presents the tracking performance of the output
voltage following the voltage reference, ( )
o
Z s is the
equivalent output impedance of the inverter, ( )
line
Z s is the line
impedance, line
R is the line resistor, line
L is the line inductance,
( )
Lequ
G s is the equivalent load admittance, Lequ
R is the
equivalent resistor, Lequ
L is the equivalent inductance, o( )
V s is
the output voltage, ( )
ref
V s is the reference voltage, o ( )
i s is the
output current, ( )
v
G s is the PR voltage control loop, ( )
i
G s is
the proportional current control loop, PWM
K is the gain of three
phase inverter, f
L , f
C and r are the inductor, capacitor, and
inductor ESR of LC filter respectively, pv
K and iv
K are the
proportional and integral coefficients of voltage control loop,
c
ω is the resonant frequency of the PR voltage control loop,
pi
K is the proportional coefficients of current control loop,
vird
R and virq
R are the d-axis and q-axis virtual resistors.
The detailed derivative process is provided in the Appendix.
B. Control Principle
The proposed controller supplies a reference voltage to the
L
i αβ
( )
i
G s ( )
v
G s
f
L
PWM
dclink
n
dc
v f
C
÷
x
abc
αβ
abc
αβ
abc
dq
o
v αβ
c
i
L
i
ref
v
generator
abc
dq
ACbus
line
Z
oabc
i
Inner loop
INVERTER I
line
Z
.
.
.
s
s
INVERTER II
Droop CONTROL
odq
i
θ
αβ
dq
dq
αβ
/
P Q
odq
v
1
s
ω
vir
Z
Droop controller
ref
v
P
Q
Virtual impedance
m
n
*
ω*
V
o
i
load
Z
L
i αβ
( )
i
G s ( )
v
G s
f
L
PWM
dclink
n
dc
v f
C
÷
x
abc
αβ
abc
αβ
abc
αβ
o
v αβ
c
i
L
i
ref
v
generator
ref
v
αβ
dq
abc
αβ
ACbus
line
Z
SRF virtual impedance loop
oabc
i
od
i
oq
i
Inner loop
INVERTER I
line
Z
.
.
.
s
s
INVERTER II
PROPOSED CONTROL
virq
R
αβ
dq
vird
R
o
i αβ
vαβ
Δ
abc
dq
PI
PLL
1
s
base
ω
θ
θ
o
i
load
Z
(a) (b)
Fig. 4. Control structure comparison between (a) the conventional droop control and (b) the proposed control method.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/anewwayofcontrollingparallelconnec-230120074213-77b8718c/85/A_New_Way_of_Controlling_Parallel_Connec-pdf-6-320.jpg)
![TPEL-Reg-2015-03-0479 5
(s)
G
o
Z
vird
R
1
Lequ
R
1
Lequ
sL
virq
R
ref
V
sin
ref
V θ
ref
v '
ref
v
o
v
line
Z
bus
v
load
i
d
i
q
i
( )
plant
T s
Fig. 5. Simplified control block diagram.
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
-1
0
1
2
Frequench (Hz)
Phase
(deg)
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
-20
-10
0
10
20
Magnitude
(dB)
50 50.5 51 51.5 52
-0.5
-0.4
-0.3
-0.2
-0.1
0
0.1
0.2
0.2
50 50.5 51 51.5 52
-0.1
-0.05
0
0.05
0.1
Fig. 6. Bode diagram of the system transfer function.
inner loop. The voltage reference ref
V
→
is generated by
combining the amplitude reference (|Vref|) and the phase
generated (θ ) by the PLL.
Even though the PLL is trying to synchronize the inverter
with common AC bus, in case of supplying reactive loads, the
quadrature current flowing through the virtual resistance will
produce an unavoidable quadrature voltage drop, which will
cause an increase in PLL frequency. In other words, the PLL
will compel the inverter to be stabilized at a frequency point
with zero phase delay (ZPD) obtained from the system transfer
function. The frequency of ZPD is affected by the quadrature
current as shown in Fig. 6. Thus, the mechanism inherently
endows an droop characteristic in each inverter.
Similarly, in case of supplying active loads, the direct current
flowing through the virtual resistance will drop the direct
voltage, causing a decrease in the output voltage amplitude.
Hence, a droop characteristic is also imposed by the virtual
resistance adapting the amplitude of output voltage, which
endows to the system an Iod – V droop characteristic.
Moreover, the settling time can be considerably improved
because the proposed controller does not require any power
calculation. The bandwidth of the PLL can be designed through
the linearized model [45], [46] to be higher than the bandwidth
of the LPF that is used for PQ calculation purposes in the
Fig. 7 Bode diagram of the PLL (red line) and the LPF (blue line)
conventional droop controller [47]. The cutoff frequency of the
LPF in the power droop control loop is usually preassigned to
30 rad/s to obtain the average power while avoiding undesirable
interaction [45], [46]. The bandwidth of the PLL in the
proposed control is 1100 rad/s when kp_PLL and ki_PLL are equal
to 1.4 and 1000 respectively. The Bode diagram is shown in
Fig. 7. However, the fastest transient response of PLL should be
almost equal to the transient response speed of the inner voltage
control loop to ensure the system stability.
V.INHERENT DROOP CHARACTERISTIC AND COUPLING
ANALYSIS
Considering the inherent mechanism of with voltage
amplitude and with frequency, two virtual resistances Rvird
and Rvirq are employed to share the quadrature and direct load
currents among the inverters individually.
A. sharing
When the inverters and loads all connect to the common AC
bus, the proposed controller will make the system stable at a
frequency-stable operation point which may has a small
deviation from 50 Hz. The small deviation is determined by the
function of PLL, Rvirq and . The frequency-stable operation
should be the cross zero point of the phase-frequency
characteristics of the closed-loop transfer function of the
system, as depicted in the dashed part in Fig. 5.
Therefore, the parallel inverters will operate on the same
system frequency, but with different phase angles that depend
on the output quadrature current and q-axis virtual resistance
value.
Based on (10), as s jω
= , the relationship of vird
R , virq
R ,
od
I , oq
I and angular frequency ( ) can be calculated based
on
tan ( ) 0
plant
arc T jω
⎡ ⎤ =
⎣ ⎦ (11)
oq
I ω
−
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
10
System: GPLL
Frequency (rad/s): 1.1e+03
Magnitude (dB): -3.01
System: GLPF
Frequency (rad/s): 30.2
Magnitude (dB): -3.04
Magnitude
(dB)
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
-135
-90
-45
0
Phase
(deg)
Bode Diagram
Frequency (rad/s)
od
I
oq
I
oq
I
oq
I
ω](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/anewwayofcontrollingparallelconnec-230120074213-77b8718c/85/A_New_Way_of_Controlling_Parallel_Connec-pdf-7-320.jpg)
![TPEL-Reg-2015-03-0479 8
to both and different line impedances. The effects of
and on are nonlinear but quite small in
comparison with the voltage drop caused by adjusting
and . Considering that the voltage drop caused by , is
approximately the same in each inverter, it can be neglected.
Consequently, it can be observed a very well decoupling
between Iod and Ioq for a large set of X/R ratios (from purely X to
purely R).
C. Virtual impedance design
The virtual impedances in the proposed control loop are used
to generate the direct and quadrature voltage deviations by
multiplying the direct or quadrature currents separately. The
direct and quadrature voltage deviations are used to
automatically adjust the amplitude and phase angular of
inverter output voltage. Given that virtual impedances induce
output voltage and frequency deviation, they should be chosen
to ensure that the voltage and frequency deviations are in the
permissible range. For example, the maximum voltage
deviation (ΔVmax) is 10%, while the maximum frequency
deviation (Δfmax) is 0.5 Hz in a low voltage network.
The relationship between the maximum voltage magnitude
deviation ΔVdmax and Iod can be derived as follows:
max
d vird od
V R I
Δ = ⋅ (14)
In an extreme case, the inverter is assumed to supply only
active current. (1) can be presented as follows:
max _ max _max
vird od
V R I
Δ = ⋅ (15)
where, _ max
od
I is the maximum d-axis current of the inverter.
Thus, the upper limitation of the d-axis virtual resistor can be
described as follows:
max
_ max
_
vird
o rate
V
R
I
Δ
= (16)
Similarly, in an extreme case, the inverter is assumed to
supply only reactive current. The relationship between the
maximum angular frequency max
ω , quadrature output current
Ioq and Rvirq can be derived from (11), as expressed in (17):
_ max
virq
n
n
um
R
de
= (17)
being:
2
max max max
2
max
2 2 2
_ max max max
2 2
2
2 2 2
x
2
m
2
a
)
( [ (1
( )(
[ (
)
)]
)
( )]
2
ref o iv f f
f pv pi PWM o
oq pi PWM iv pv
pv o o
num V K C L
C K K K r
I K K K K
en
K
d
ω ω ω ω
ω ω
ω ω
ω ω ω
= − +
+ + −
+
+ −
=
,
where ref
V is the voltage reference magnitude, o
ω is the
fundamental frequency, PWM
K is the gain of three-phase
inverter, and _ max
od
I is the maximum d-axis current output of
the inverter.
This relationship is more complex than the relationship of
ΔVdmax, Iod_max and Rvird_max because the frequency of the
proposed system is affected not only by the virtual resistance
and quadrature current but also by the PR voltage control loop.
Based on (17), the maximum q-axis virtual resistance can be
calculated.
On the other hand, another functionality of the virtual
Zero line impedance Resistive-inductive line impedance Purely inductive line impedance
(a. 1) (a. 2) (a. 3)
(b. 1) (b. 2) (b. 3)
Fig. 11. The relationship of , and with different line impedances. (a) The relationship of , and with different line impedances, (b) The
relationship of and when Rvirq=1Ω/2Ω with different line impedances respectively.
virq
R
virq
R ω o
V
vird
R
od
I ω
Δ
ω (rad/s)
Rvird (Ω)
312 314 316 318 320 322
0.928
0.930
0.932
0.934
0.936
0.938
312 314 316 318 320 322
0.930
0.935
0.940
312 314 316 318 320 322
0.930
0.935
0.940
virq
R ω o
V virq
R ω o
V
ω o
V](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/anewwayofcontrollingparallelconnec-230120074213-77b8718c/85/A_New_Way_of_Controlling_Parallel_Connec-pdf-10-320.jpg)
![TPEL-Reg-2015-03-0479 16
TABLE II
PERFORMANCE COMPARISON
Purely inductive line impedance
Resistive-inductive line
impedance
Zero or resistive line impedance
P-V/Q-f
droop
Proposed control
P-V/Q-f
droop
Proposed
control
P-V/Q-f droop
Proposed
control
Control
capability
Yes
Yes, but cannot work with large
inductive line impedance
Yes Yes
No, need change to
P-f/Q-V droop
Yes
Transient
response
Slow fast Slow fast Slow fast
Control
performance
Good
Good, but cannot work with large
inductive line impedance
Oscillations Good
Good (if with P-f/Q-V
droop)
Very well
Robustness Poor Good Poor Good Poor Good
Control
parameters
m, n, Zvir Rvird, Rvirq m, n, Zvir Rvird, Rvirq m, n, Zvir Rvird, Rvirq
( )
v
G s ( )
I
G s PWM
K
1
f
L s r
+
1
f
C s
o
i
'
ref
v o
v
L
i
Fig. A.1 Block diagram of the dual-loop control
2
( )
( ( ) )s 1 ( ) ( )
f
o
f f f i PWM f v i PWM
sL r
Z s
L C s rC G s K C G s G s K
+
=
+ + + +
(A.3)
2 2
( ) iv
v pv
c
K s
G s K
s ω
= +
+
(A.4)
( )
i pi
G s K
= (A.5)
where G(s) presents the tracking performance of the output
voltage following the voltage reference, ( )
o
Z s is the
equivalent output impedance of the inverter, o( )
v s is the output
voltage,
'
( )
ref
v s is the reference voltage of inner voltage loop,
o ( )
i s is the output current, ( )
v
G s is the PR voltage control
loop, ( )
i
G s is the proportional current control loop, PWM
K is
the gain of three phase inverter, f
L , f
C and r are the inductor,
capacitor, and inductor ESR of the LC filter respectively, pv
K
and iv
K are the proportional and integral coefficients of
voltage control loop, c
ω is the resonant frequency of the PR
regulator in voltage control loop, and pi
K is the proportional
coefficients of current control loop.
To obtain the direct and quadrature load currents, the
equivalent parallel connected resistive-inductive load can be
represented as follows:
1 1
( )
Lequ
Lequ Lequ
G s
R sL
= + (A.6)
where ( )
Lequ
G s is the equivalent load admittance, Lequ
R is the
equivalent resistor, and Lequ
L is the equivalent inductance.
The line impedance can be expressed as follows:
( )
line line line
Z s R sL
= + (A.7)
where ( )
line
Z s is the line impedance, line
R is the line resistor,
and line
L is the line inductance.
Hence, the closed loop transfer function Tplant(s) can be
derived based on Fig. 5.
( ) 1 ( ) ( )
( )
( ) 1 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
( )
)
Lequ line
o
ref Lequ line vir Lequ
plant
o
G s G s Z s
v s
v s G s Z s G s G s Z
s
G s s
T
⎡ ⎤
+
⎣ ⎦
=
+ + +
=
(A.8)
being ( ) virq
vird
vir
Lequ Lequ
R
R
G s
R sL
= +
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Yajuan Guan (S’14) received
M.S. degree in Electrical En
Yanshan University, Qinhuang
2007 and 2010 respectively. Fr
was an Assistant Professor in
Engineering (IEE), Chinese A
(CAS). Since 2013, she has be
CAS. She is currently workin
degree at the Department of
Aalborg University, Denmark, a
Microgrids Research
(www.microgrids.et.aau.dk).
Her research interests include microgrids, distributed
power converter for renewable energy generation sy
services for microgrids.
Josep M. Guerrero (S’01-
received the B.S. degree in
engineering, the M.S. d
engineering, and the Ph.D
electronics from the Tec
Catalonia, Barcelona, in 1
respectively. Since 2011,
Professor with the Dep
Technology, Aalborg U
where he is responsible
Research Program. From
Professor at the Chinese Ac
the Nanjing University
Astronautics; from 2014 he is chair Professor in Shan
from 2015 he is a distinguished guest Professor in Hunan
His research interests is oriented to different microgr
power electronics, distributed energy-storage system
cooperative control, energy management systems, a
microgrids and islanded minigrids. Prof. Guerrero is an A
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTR
TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONI
Industrial Electronics Magazine, and an Editor for the IEE
on SMART GRID and IEEE TRANSACTIONS on ENER
He has been Guest Editor of the IEEE TRANSACT
ELECTRONICS Special Issues: Power Electronics
Conversion and Power Electronics for Micr
TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONIC
Uninterruptible Power Supplies systems, Renewabl
Distributed Generation and Microgrids, and Industri
Implementation Issues of the Kalman Filter; and the IEE
on SMART GRID Special Issue on Smart DC Distribution
chair of the Renewable Energy Systems Technical Co
Industrial Electronics Society. In 2014 he was awarded by
Highly Cited Researcher, and in 2015 he was elevated a
contributions on “distributed power systems and microgr
erters Under Distorted
EE Transactions on,
r Three Phase Utility
ansactions on, vol.15,
errero, J.M., "Flexible
nder Unbalanced Grid
EE Transactions on,
icuña, Miguel Castilla,
Parallel Operation of
Electronics, IEEE
t. 2006.
d the B.S. degree and
ngineering from the
gdao, Hebei, China, in
om 2010 to 2012, she
Institute of Electrical
Academy of Sciences
een a Lecturer in IEE;
ng toward her Ph.D.
Energy Technology,
as part of the Denmark
Programme
d generation systems,
ystems, and ancillary
M’04-SM’08-FM’15)
n telecommunications
degree in electronics
D. degree in power
hnical University of
997, 2000 and 2003,
he has been a Full
partment of Energy
University, Denmark,
e for the Microgrid
2012 he is a guest
cademy of Science and
of Aeronautics and
ndong University; and
n University.
rid aspects, including
ms, hierarchical and
and optimization of
Associate Editor for the
ONICS, the IEEE
ICS, and the IEEE
EE TRANSACTIONS
RGY CONVERSION.
TIONS ON POWER
s for Wind Energy
rogrids; the IEEE
CS Special Sections:
le Energy Systems,
ial Applications and
EE TRANSACTIONS
n Systems. He was the
ommittee of the IEEE
y Thomson Reuters as
s IEEE Fellow for his
rids.”
Xin Zhao receiv
Power Electroni
Northwestern Po
China, in 2010
currently workin
Department of
University, Denm
His research inte
converters, power
Juan C. Vasquez
degree in elect
Autonomous Univ
Colombia, and t
control, robotics,
Technical Univer
Spain, in 2004 and
the Autonomous U
taught courses on d
flexible manufactu
the Technical U
Post-Doctoral Ass
renewable energy systems. In 2011, he was
and currently he is working as an Associate
Energy Technology, Aalborg University,
co-responsible of the Research Program in
April. 2015 he was a Visiting Scholar at t
Systems (CPES) at Virginia Tech.
His current research interests include o
hierarchical control, optimization and powe
generation and ac/dc microgrids. Dr. Vasquez
System Evaluation Group SEG4 on LVDC D
Developed and Developing Economies and
Technical Committee TC-RES in IEEE Indus
Xiaoqiang Guo (M
Ph.D. degrees in ele
University, Qinhuan
respectively.
He has been a
Laboratory for Ele
Research (LEDAR)
ON, Canada. He is
with the Departm
Yanshan Unive
authored/coauthored
in addition to nine patents. His current resea
converters and ac drives, electric vehicle
energy power conversion systems.
Dr. Guo is a Senior Member of the IEEE Po
Industrial Electronics Society. He is an active
Sustainable Energy, IEEE Transactions on S
Industrial Electronics and IEEE Transactions
18
ved the B.S. and M.S. degree in
ics & Electrical Drives from
olytechnical University, Xi’an,
and 2013, respectively. He is
ng toward the Ph.D. degree at
Energy Technology, Aalborg
mark.
erests include control of power
r quality and microgrids.
(M’12-SM’14) received the B.S.
tronics engineering from the
versity of Manizales, Manizales,
the Ph.D. degree in automatic
and computer vision from the
rsity of Catalonia, Barcelona,
d 2009, respectively. He was with
University of Manizales, where he
digital circuits, servo systems, and
uring systems. He was also with
University of Catalonia, as a
sistant, teaching courses based on
Assistant Professor in microgrids
e Professor at the Department of
Denmark. Dr. Vasquez is the
Microgrids. From Feb. 2015 to
the Center of Power Electronics
operation, power management,
er quality applied to distributed
z is currently a member of the IEC
Distribution and Safety for use in
the Renewable Energy Systems
strial Electronics Society.
' 10-SM' 14) received the B.S. and
ectrical engineering from Yanshan
ngdao, China, in 2003 and 2009,
Postdoctoral Fellow with the
ectrical Drive Applications and
), Ryerson University, Toronto,
currently an associate professor
ment of Electrical Engineering,
ersity, China. He has
d more than fifty technical papers,
arch interests include high-power
charging station, and renewable
ower Electronics Society and IEEE
Referee for IEEE Transactions on
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- 1. See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281309684 A New Way of Controlling Parallel-Connected Inverters by Using Synchronous Reference Frame Virtual Impedance Loop – Part I: Control Principle ARTICLE in IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS · JANUARY 2015 Impact Factor: 6.01 · DOI: 10.1109/TPEL.2015.2472279 READS 86 5 AUTHORS, INCLUDING: Yajuan Guan Aalborg University 9 PUBLICATIONS 17 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE Josep M. Guerrero Aalborg University 378 PUBLICATIONS 7,166 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE Xin Zhao Aalborg University 6 PUBLICATIONS 4 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE J.C. Vasquez Aalborg University 124 PUBLICATIONS 2,444 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE All in-text references underlined in blue are linked to publications on ResearchGate, letting you access and read them immediately. Available from: Josep M. Guerrero Retrieved on: 03 February 2016
- 2. Aalborg Universitet A New Way of Controlling Parallel-Connected Inverters by Using Synchronous Reference Frame Virtual Impedance Loop – Part I: Control Principle Guan, Yajuan; Guerrero, Josep M.; Zhao, Xin; Quintero, Juan Carlos Vasquez; Guo, Xiaoqiang Published in: I E E E Transactions on Power Electronics DOI (link to publication from Publisher): 10.1109/TPEL.2015.2472279 Publication date: 2015 Link to publication from Aalborg University Citation for published version (APA): Guan, Y., Guerrero, J. M., Zhao, X., Quintero, J. C. V., & Guo, X. (2015). A New Way of Controlling Parallel- Connected Inverters by Using Synchronous Reference Frame Virtual Impedance Loop – Part I: Control Principle. I E E E Transactions on Power Electronics. 10.1109/TPEL.2015.2472279 General rights Copyright and moral rights for the publications made accessible in the public portal are retained by the authors and/or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. ? Users may download and print one copy of any publication from the public portal for the purpose of private study or research. ? You may not further distribute the material or use it for any profit-making activity or commercial gain ? You may freely distribute the URL identifying the publication in the public portal ? Take down policy If you believe that this document breaches copyright please contact us at vbn@aub.aau.dk providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. Downloaded from vbn.aau.dk on: september 05, 2015
- 3. TPEL-Reg-2015-03-0479 1 Abstract—A novel simple and effective autonomous current-sharing controller for parallel three-phase inverters is proposed in this paper. The proposed controller provides faster response and better accuracy in contrast to the conventional droop control, since this novel approach does not require any active or reactive power calculations. Instead, a synchronous-reference-frame (SRF) virtual impedance loop and an SRF-based phase-locked loop are used. Stationary analysis is provided in order to identify the inherent mechanism of the direct and quadrature output currents in relation to the voltage amplitude and frequency with different line impedances by means of the system transfer functions. Comparison experiments from two parallel inverters are presented to compare the control performance of the conventional droop control and the proposed control with different line impedances. In addition, experimental results from a setup with three parallel 2.2 kW inverters verify the effectiveness of the proposed control strategy in different scenarios. Index Terms—Parallel inverters, synchronous reference frame, phase-locked loop, virtual impedance, droop control. I. INTRODUCTION ROOP control method has been widely used in the last decade as the decentralized control of parallel converters in several applications such as parallel redundant uninterruptible power supplies (UPS) to avoid critical communication among units, distributed power systems, microgrids (MGs), and so forth [1]-[12]. This well-known control technique aims to proportionally share active and reactive powers which adjusting frequency and output voltage amplitudes of each inverter locally in order to emulate the behavior of a synchronous generator [3]. Although this technique only requires local information, it presents a number Yajuan Guan, Josep M. Guerrero, Xin Zhao and Juan C. Vasquez are with Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University, 9220 Aalborg, Denmark (e-mail: ygu@et.aau.dk, joz@et.aau.dk, xzh@et.aau.dk, juq@et.aau.dk). Xiaoqiang. Guo, is with the Key Lab of Power Electronics for Energy Conservation and Motor drive of Hebei province, Department of Electrical Engineering, Yanshan University, Qinhuangdao 066004, China (e-mail: gxq@ysu.edu.cn) of stability issues that have been solved along the literature [4]-[7]. One of the main problems is that the droop coefficients which regulate frequency and amplitudes are basically proportional terms, so that in order to increase their range of values for improving system dynamics, derivative terms were added [13]-[16]. Unlike the conventional droop controllers which yield 1- dimension of freedom (DOF) tunable control, the improved droop controllers yield 2-DOF tunable control. Subsequently, the dynamic performance of the system can be adjusted to damp the oscillatory behavior of the power sharing controllers without affecting the static droop gains. Another issue with regards to conventional droop is that the frequency and voltage are respectively related to active and reactive power when the output impedance of the generator is mainly inductive, e.g. induction generators. Hence, by using the droop method, the power sharing performance is affected by the output impedance of the distributed generation (DG) units and the line impedances. However, the output impedance can be fixed by means of a fast control loop named virtual impedance in an inverter [17], [18]. In this sense, the output impedance can be treated as another control loop which enforces the inverter to behave in accordance to the inductance-to-resistance ratio (X/R) line impedance, e.g. mainly resistive in case of low voltage networks [19]. In case of resistive lines and/or virtual impedances, the active power is controlled by the inverter voltage amplitude, while the reactive power flow is dominated by the angle, so that it can be controlled by the frequency of the system [20]-[24]. In this sense, the active power-voltage (P-V) droop control needs to be used instead of the conventional active power-frequency (P-f) droop control, which is contrary to the conventional electrical transmission systems or induction generation dominated systems. Several control methodologies with different implementations for conventional droop controller have been also proposed [25]-[28]. A Q – V dot droop control method is mostly used to improve reactive power sharing [29]. Based on the abovementioned issues, a control architecture based on a virtual resistance, P-V and Q-f droops is used for dealing with the autonomous operation of parallel connected inverters [20], [30]. However, this approach has the inherent drawback that it needs to calculate instantaneous active and A New Way of Controlling Parallel-Connected Inverters by Using Synchronous Reference Frame Virtual Impedance Loop – Part I: Control Principle Yajuan Guan, Student, IEEE, Josep M. Guerrero, Fellow, IEEE, Xin Zhao, Juan C. Vasquez, Senior Member IEEE, Xiaoqiang Guo, Senior Member, IEEE D
- 4. TPEL-Reg-2015-03-0479 2 reactive powers and then average them through low-pass filters (LPF) whose bandwidth deteriorate the system transient response [15]. Even in three phase systems that the active and reactive power can be calculated by using the instantaneous power theory, a post-filter processing is necessary in order to completely remove the distorted power components [31]. Furthermore, in a practical situation, the load sharing performance of the conventional droop control is degraded when short lines with small impedance are used, especially in low voltage networks. In this case, a small deviation in voltage frequency and amplitude will result in large power oscillation and even instabilities [32]. The drawbacks of droop control can be summarized as listed below: • Slow dynamic response: Since it requires LPFs with reduced bandwidth to calculate the average values of the active and reactive powers both in islanded and grid-connected modes. • Active/reactive power coupling. • Slow responses when active/reactive power sharing ratios are suddenly changed. • Performance is serious affected by the line impedance. • Complex design. • The power sharing could be degraded if the sum of the output impedance and the line impedance is unbalanced. Another possible solution is the combination of current sharing control and power droop control techniques. A voltage-power droop/frequency-reactive power boost (VPD/FQB) control scheme which allows multiple voltage source converters (VSCs) to operate in parallel in MGs and to share a common load power in proportion to a predetermined ration is presented in [33], [34]. In [33], an additional virtual resistance loop is necessary since the inverter output impedance cannot be equal to zero due to the PI controller in voltage control loop. A decentralized control for redundant parallel connection of multiple UPS using only current sensors is proposed [35], [36]. The active and reactive components of output current are used instead of active and reactive power to mimic the droop control, while the LPFs are still necessary. A novel piecewise linear V-I droop controller has been proposed to exploit the flexibility and fast dynamics of the inverter-based distributed energy resources [37], however a global positioning system (GPS) signal as the communication is used to synchronize each DG unit and allow for constant frequency operation. A voltage and frequency droop control based on mixed voltage and current source concept and finite output impedance emulation for single phase inverter based low voltage grid has been proposed [22], [38]. This method can provide not only wireless parallel operation control, but also has the capability of mitigation of voltage harmonics and short-circuit behavior as it takes the R to X line impedance ratio into account. However, this control approach is complex, since a Kalman filter estimator and a linear quadratic regulator are required. To cope with all the aforementioned, a simpler and faster controller is proposed in this paper, which consists of a synchronous-reference-frame (SRF) virtual impedance loop, an SFR phase-locked loop (PLL) and a proportional-resonant (PR) controller in voltage control loop. The proposed control strategy provides both instantaneous current sharing and fast dynamic response for paralleled voltage controlled inverters (VCIs). The virtual resistance loop which contains a d-axis virtual resistance loop and a q-axis virtual resistance loop is used to achieve direct and quadrature load currents sharing separately among three-phase inverters. The concept is derived from the current-sharing control schemes already used in dc paralleled converters [39]-[42]. In contrast with the conventional droop control, there is no need to calculate active/reactive powers. An additional PLL is needed to adjust the phase of the voltage reference and ensure the synchronization among the paralleled VCIs. The paper is organized as follows. Section II reviews the conventional droop control principle. Section III analyzes the current flow when virtual resistive impedance in the stationary reference frame is used. Section IV introduces the proposed control structure and the control principle. Section V presents the inherent droop characteristic and coupling analysis of the proposed control with different line impedances. Experimental results are shown in Section VI in order to evaluate the feasibility of the proposed approach and to compare the control performance with the conventional droop control. Section VII concludes the paper. Finally, the appendix provides the derivative process of the mathematic equations. This paper is the first part of a two-part paper focusing on the control principle and steady state performance analysis. The second part of this paper deals with the small-signal state-space models and stability analysis of the proposed parallel-VCI-based system. II.REVIEW OF THE DROOP CONTROL PRINCIPLE Fig. 1 shows the equivalent circuit of a two-paralleled inverter system including generated voltages ( and ), output impedances ( and ), virtual impedances ( 1 vir Z → and 2 vir Z → ), output voltage ( and ) and line impedances ( and ) of each inverter. It can be considered as a subset of distributed power network operating in autonomous islanded mode. The phase differences between the output voltage (ϕ gn) and the point of common coupling (PCC) voltage (ϕ bus), as well as the amplitude of equivalent impedance ( ), which consists of inverter output impedance ( ), line impedance ( ), and virtual impedance ( virn virn Z ϕ ∠ ), are considered in this study. The active and reactive power output can be derived as: 2 cos cos( ) gn n gn bus gn bus n n n V V V P Z ϕ ϕ ϕ ϕ − − + = (1) 2 sin sin( ) gn n gn bus gn bus n n n V V V Q Z ϕ ϕ ϕ ϕ − − + = (2) In traditional power systems, the equivalent impedances between the paralleled inverters present high X/R ratio. The 1 g V → 2 g V → 1 o Z → 2 o Z → 1 o V → 2 o V → 1 line Z → 2 line Z → n n Z ϕ ∠ on oZn Z ϕ ∠ linen linen Z ϕ ∠
- 5. TPEL-Reg-2015-03-0479 3 1 g V → 1 vir Z → 2 vir Z → 0 bus V ∠ 1 o I → 2 o I → 1 line Z → 2 g V → 1 o Z → 2 o Z → 2 line Z → 1 o V → 2 o V → load Z → Fig. 1. Equivalent circuit of a parallel inverter system with virtual resistances. active power ( ) can be adjusted with the voltage angle (ϕ gn), and reactive power ( ) can be regulated with voltage amplitude (Vgn) separately. Based on this power flow analysis, the droop control law can be expressed as: (3) (4) where and are the normal angular frequency and output voltage amplitude, respectively, and are the droop coefficients. However, the load sharing performance of the conventional droop control is degraded in a practical situation when using short lines with small impedances, especially in low voltage networks. Output power ( and ), output voltage amplitude and frequency are coupled, because [ ] sin( ) / ( ) / on bus n on bus n Z Z ϕ ϕ ϕ ϕ − ≈ − cannot be neglected when 0 n bus ϕ ϕ − ≠ or n Z is too small, that may result in imprecise power control. Furthermore, the stability problems would arise for conventional droop controlled systems with small equivalent line impedance , since small frequency or voltage amplitude deviations can result in large power oscillations. III. CURRENT FLOW ANALYSIS Each inverter in Fig.1 can be modeled by a two-terminal Thévenin equivalent circuit in Laplace as follows: [ ] (s) (s) (s) (s) (s) (s) (s) bus n refn on linen virn on V G V Z Z Z I = − + + (5) where (s) refn V is the output voltage reference; ( ) n G s is the voltage gain. The inner current and voltage loops are responsible for minimizing ( ) on Z s , i. e. by using a proportional + resonant (PR) controller tuned at the line frequency. In this sense, ( ) on Z s is approximately equal to zero, whereas (s) n G is equal to 1 at the resonant frequency of PR controller. Considering that ( ) linen Z s is practically very small in low scale systems such as low voltage MGs, (s) virn Z becomes the predominant component. Thus, (5) can be simplified as: (s) (s) (s) (s) (s) bus n refn virn on V G V Z I = − (6) When only virtual resistance is adopted, an equivalent Thévenin circuit can present the closed loop inverter, as (s) (s) n refn G V virn R (s) on I (s) bus V Fig. 2. Equivalent Thévenin circuit of closed-loop inverter. 2 θ 1 θ 2 2 oq virq I R 1 1 oq virq I R 2 2 od vird I R 1 1 od vird I R q d 2 V → Δ 1 V → Δ Fig. 3. Vector diagram of the concept. illustrated in Fig. 2. The voltage difference between the generated voltage and common bus voltage at the line frequency can be expressed in dq reference frame as follows: refn bus odn virdn oqn virqn V V I R jI R → → − = + (7) where odn I and oqn I are the d and q-axis components of output current, respectively. In this case, because the voltage reference phasor ( ref V → ) and common bus voltage phasor ( bus V → ) are identical for each DG unit, the different values of vird R and virq R will result in different voltage drop that will cause different current output vectors ( ), as shown in Fig. 3. The relationship of od I , oq I , vird R and virq R can be generalized and expressed for number N of converters as follows: (8a) (8b) The d- and q-axis output currents od I and oq I of the paralleled inverters are inversely proportional to the corresponding virtual resistances. Therefore, the direct and quadrature currents output of each inverter can be regulated independently by adjusting the virtual impedances based on different power rates, commands from energy management system (EMS) or other superior control loops. Furthermore, the active and reactive power output sharing strategy among the paralleled inverters can be obtained from (8) by multiplying the voltage reference. Hence, considering that the voltage references (Vref) of each inverter are equal, the active and reactive power output will also be properly shared based on the virtual resistances, as shown in (9): 1 1 2 2 o vird o vird oN virdN P R P R P R = = = … (9a) 1 1 2 2 o virq o virq oN virqN Q R Q R Q R = = = … (9b) n P n Q * * ( ) n n p n n k P P ω ω ω = + − * * ( ) n n qV n n V V k Q Q = + − * n ω * n V p k ω qV k n P n Q n Z o I → 1 1 2 2 ... od vird od vird odN virdN I R I R I R = = = 1 1 2 2 ... oq virq oq virq oqN virqN I R I R I R = = =
- 6. TPEL-Reg-2015-03-0479 4 where on P and on Q are the active and reactive power output of inverter #n. IV. PROPOSED AUTONOMOUS CURRENT-SHARING CONTROLLER Follow the above analysis, a simpler and faster controller is proposed in this paper. The novel control strategy is shown in Fig. 4(b). Compared with the improved droop controller in Fig. 4(a), the droop controller could be replaced by a novel controller which comprises of an SRF-PLL and a virtual resistance loop in SRF. A. Configuration of the proposed controller The power stage consists of a three-leg three-phase inverter connected to a DC link, loaded by an Lf-Cf filter, and connected to the AC bus through a power line (Zline). Indeed, the proposed control strategy can also be extended to single-phase systems. The main difference between the single-phase systems and three-phase systems is that the orthogonal voltage system in single-phase systems needs to be generated by an extra control loop [43], [44]. The controller including an SRF-PLL, a virtual resistance loop (Rvird and Rvirq), a DC link voltage feed-forward loop, and the conventional PR inner voltage and current controllers (Gv and Gi) generates a PWM signal to drive the IGBT inverter gates. Inductive currents and capacitor voltages are transformed to the stationary reference frame ( L i αβ and c v αβ ). Output currents are transformed to the SRF ( odq i ). The direct and quadrature output currents are independently controlled by the virtual impedance loop in dq axis. The inner voltage and current loops are implemented in αβ reference frame since the PR controller can deal with both positive and negative sequence voltage when the negative sequence voltage and current appear. Fig. 5 shows the simplified proposed control block diagram, which includes the three-leg three-phase inverter, Lf-Cf filter, line impedance, virtual impedance loop, the PLL and the inner voltage and current control loops. The closed loop transfer function Tplant (s) can be described as follows: ( ) ( ) ( ) 1 ( ) ( ) 1 ( ) ( ) ( ) ) ) ( ( ( ) ) ( o ref Lequ line Lequ line vir Lequ pla o nt V s V s G s G s Z s G s Z s G s G s s T s G s Z ⎡ ⎤ + ⎣ ⎦ = + + + = (10) being 2 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ( ) )s 1 ( ) ( ) v i PWM f f f i PWM f v i PWM G s G s K G s L C s rC G s K C G s G s K = + + + + 2 ( ) ( ( ) )s 1 ( ) ( ) f o f f f i PWM f v i PWM sL r Z s L C s rC G s K C G s G s K + = + + + + 2 2 ( ) iv v pv c K s G s K s ω = + + , ( ) i pi G s K = , 1 1 ( ) Lequ Lequ Lequ G s R sL = + ( ) line line line Z s R sL = + , ( ) virq vird vir Lequ Lequ R R G s R sL = + where G(s) presents the tracking performance of the output voltage following the voltage reference, ( ) o Z s is the equivalent output impedance of the inverter, ( ) line Z s is the line impedance, line R is the line resistor, line L is the line inductance, ( ) Lequ G s is the equivalent load admittance, Lequ R is the equivalent resistor, Lequ L is the equivalent inductance, o( ) V s is the output voltage, ( ) ref V s is the reference voltage, o ( ) i s is the output current, ( ) v G s is the PR voltage control loop, ( ) i G s is the proportional current control loop, PWM K is the gain of three phase inverter, f L , f C and r are the inductor, capacitor, and inductor ESR of LC filter respectively, pv K and iv K are the proportional and integral coefficients of voltage control loop, c ω is the resonant frequency of the PR voltage control loop, pi K is the proportional coefficients of current control loop, vird R and virq R are the d-axis and q-axis virtual resistors. The detailed derivative process is provided in the Appendix. B. Control Principle The proposed controller supplies a reference voltage to the L i αβ ( ) i G s ( ) v G s f L PWM dclink n dc v f C ÷ x abc αβ abc αβ abc dq o v αβ c i L i ref v generator abc dq ACbus line Z oabc i Inner loop INVERTER I line Z . . . s s INVERTER II Droop CONTROL odq i θ αβ dq dq αβ / P Q odq v 1 s ω vir Z Droop controller ref v P Q Virtual impedance m n * ω* V o i load Z L i αβ ( ) i G s ( ) v G s f L PWM dclink n dc v f C ÷ x abc αβ abc αβ abc αβ o v αβ c i L i ref v generator ref v αβ dq abc αβ ACbus line Z SRF virtual impedance loop oabc i od i oq i Inner loop INVERTER I line Z . . . s s INVERTER II PROPOSED CONTROL virq R αβ dq vird R o i αβ vαβ Δ abc dq PI PLL 1 s base ω θ θ o i load Z (a) (b) Fig. 4. Control structure comparison between (a) the conventional droop control and (b) the proposed control method.
- 7. TPEL-Reg-2015-03-0479 5 (s) G o Z vird R 1 Lequ R 1 Lequ sL virq R ref V sin ref V θ ref v ' ref v o v line Z bus v load i d i q i ( ) plant T s Fig. 5. Simplified control block diagram. 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 -1 0 1 2 Frequench (Hz) Phase (deg) 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 -20 -10 0 10 20 Magnitude (dB) 50 50.5 51 51.5 52 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.2 50 50.5 51 51.5 52 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 Fig. 6. Bode diagram of the system transfer function. inner loop. The voltage reference ref V → is generated by combining the amplitude reference (|Vref|) and the phase generated (θ ) by the PLL. Even though the PLL is trying to synchronize the inverter with common AC bus, in case of supplying reactive loads, the quadrature current flowing through the virtual resistance will produce an unavoidable quadrature voltage drop, which will cause an increase in PLL frequency. In other words, the PLL will compel the inverter to be stabilized at a frequency point with zero phase delay (ZPD) obtained from the system transfer function. The frequency of ZPD is affected by the quadrature current as shown in Fig. 6. Thus, the mechanism inherently endows an droop characteristic in each inverter. Similarly, in case of supplying active loads, the direct current flowing through the virtual resistance will drop the direct voltage, causing a decrease in the output voltage amplitude. Hence, a droop characteristic is also imposed by the virtual resistance adapting the amplitude of output voltage, which endows to the system an Iod – V droop characteristic. Moreover, the settling time can be considerably improved because the proposed controller does not require any power calculation. The bandwidth of the PLL can be designed through the linearized model [45], [46] to be higher than the bandwidth of the LPF that is used for PQ calculation purposes in the Fig. 7 Bode diagram of the PLL (red line) and the LPF (blue line) conventional droop controller [47]. The cutoff frequency of the LPF in the power droop control loop is usually preassigned to 30 rad/s to obtain the average power while avoiding undesirable interaction [45], [46]. The bandwidth of the PLL in the proposed control is 1100 rad/s when kp_PLL and ki_PLL are equal to 1.4 and 1000 respectively. The Bode diagram is shown in Fig. 7. However, the fastest transient response of PLL should be almost equal to the transient response speed of the inner voltage control loop to ensure the system stability. V.INHERENT DROOP CHARACTERISTIC AND COUPLING ANALYSIS Considering the inherent mechanism of with voltage amplitude and with frequency, two virtual resistances Rvird and Rvirq are employed to share the quadrature and direct load currents among the inverters individually. A. sharing When the inverters and loads all connect to the common AC bus, the proposed controller will make the system stable at a frequency-stable operation point which may has a small deviation from 50 Hz. The small deviation is determined by the function of PLL, Rvirq and . The frequency-stable operation should be the cross zero point of the phase-frequency characteristics of the closed-loop transfer function of the system, as depicted in the dashed part in Fig. 5. Therefore, the parallel inverters will operate on the same system frequency, but with different phase angles that depend on the output quadrature current and q-axis virtual resistance value. Based on (10), as s jω = , the relationship of vird R , virq R , od I , oq I and angular frequency ( ) can be calculated based on tan ( ) 0 plant arc T jω ⎡ ⎤ = ⎣ ⎦ (11) oq I ω − -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 System: GPLL Frequency (rad/s): 1.1e+03 Magnitude (dB): -3.01 System: GLPF Frequency (rad/s): 30.2 Magnitude (dB): -3.04 Magnitude (dB) 10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3 -135 -90 -45 0 Phase (deg) Bode Diagram Frequency (rad/s) od I oq I oq I oq I ω
- 8. TPEL-Reg-2015-03-0479 6 In order to analyze the relationship of , and , and are preset to a fixed value. The relationship of , and with different line impedances is shown in Fig. 8. Figs. 8 (a.1) and 8 (b.1) show the relationship with zero line impedance. Figs. 8 (a.2) and 8 (b.2) describe the relationship with resistive-inductive line impedance (Lline = 1.7 mH, Rline = 1 Ω). Figs. 8 (a.3) and 8 (b.3) present the relationship with purely inductive line impedance (Lline = 1.8 mH). The inherent mechanism of the proposed oq I ω − droop controller with different line impedances are depicted in Figs. 8 (b.1), 8 (b.2) and 8 (b.3). Fig. 8 indicates that the line impedances in this range barely have effect on the relationship of , and , as well as oq I ω − droop characteristics. This is because the influence of the inductive line impedance in this range has been compensated by the virtual resistors. As observed in Figs. 8 (b.1), 8 (b.2) and 8 (b.3), the quadrature current sharing among the parallel inverters can be adjusted by regulating the q-axis virtual resistance ratio. By contrast, the relationships of variables , and with different line impedances are derived by assigning and to certain values. The relationships of , and with zero, resistive-inductive, and purely inductive line impedance are shown in Figs. 9 (a.1) to 9 (a.3) respectively. Additionally, Figs. 9 (b.1), 9 (b.2) and 9 (b.3) are obtained by assuming to different values based on the relationships of , and under different line impedance conditions. As observed from Figs. 9 (b.1) to 9 (b.3), the influence of direct output current on angular frequency changes by an exponential dependence when it getting closer to the resonance frequency of PR controller, which means that the impact of and on can be neglected. B. sharing In order to share active loads, the parallel inverters will have different output voltage amplitude deviations from the voltage amplitude reference , which depend on the output direct current and d-axis virtual resistance value of each inverter. The voltage drop ( ) can be divided into two parts as follows: ' 0 1 (j ) od vird ref plant V I R V T ω ⎡ ⎤ Δ = + − ⎣ ⎦ (12) where the ' 0 ω is the angular frequency of frequency-stable operation point. The first part of (12) is the product of d-axis virtual resistance and direct current output , which dominantly affects the output voltage amplitude drop. The second part of (12) is caused by the magnitude attenuation of closed-loop transfer function which results from the small but nonlinear frequency deviation due to the characteristic of PR controller. However, as discussed above, the system frequency will be stable and the deviations among the parallel inverters will be equal to each other, that is, the voltage deviations resulting from the second part of (12) are also the same among inverters. Therefore, the influence on the deviations can be neglected. Thus, the per-unit value of output voltage amplitude can be derived from (10) as follows: (13) The parameters of and are fixed to analyze the Zero line impedance Resistive-inductive line impedance Purely inductive line impedance (a. 1) (a. 2) (a. 3) (b. 1) (b. 2) (b. 3) Fig. 8. The relationship of , and with different line impedances. (a) The relationship of , and with different line impedances, (b) The relationship of and when Rvirq=1Ω/2Ω with different line impedances. virq R oq I ω vird R od I virq R oq I ω virq R oq I ω vird R od I ω virq R oq I vird R od I ω vird R vird R od I ω vird R od I ω od I ref V V Δ vird R od I (s) ( , , , , ) o plant od oq vird virq ref V T f I I R R V ω = = virq R oq I I oq (A) 310 315 320 -4 -2 2 4 6 8 310 315 320 -4 -2 2 4 6 8 310 315 320 -4 -2 2 4 6 8 virq R oq I ω virq R oq I ω oq I ω
- 9. TPEL-Reg-2015-03-0479 7 Zero line impedance Resistive-inductive line impedance Inductive line impedance (a. 1) (a. 2) (a. 3) (b. 1) (b. 2) (b. 3) Fig. 9. The relationship of Rvird, , and with different line impedances. (a) The relationship of Rvird, , and with different line impedances, (b) The relationship of and when Rvird=1Ω/2Ω with different line impedances respectively. relationship of , and . The relationship of , and with zero, resistive-inductive, and purely inductive line impedances line impedance are shown in Fig. 10. As it can be seen that the line impedances in the certain range barely have effect on the relationship of , and . Figs. 10 (b.1) to 10 (b.3) shows the inherent droop mechanism of the proposed controller under different line impedance conditions. As observed, as the output direct current increases, the voltage amplitude decreases with different ratio corresponding to different values. Thus, the direct current sharing among the parallel inverters can be adjusted by regulating the d-axis virtual resistance ratio. Similarly, , are fixed to analyze the effect of frequency deviation on the voltage amplitude with different line impedances. The relationships of , and with zero, resistive-inductive, and purely inductive line impedance are shown in Figs. 11 (a.1) to 11 (a.3) respectively. Figs. 11 (b.1) to 11 (b.3) indicate that the relationship o V ω − almost immune Zero line impedance Resistive-inductive line impedance Purely inductive line impedance (a. 1) (a. 2) V o (p.u.) Iod (A) Rvird (Ω) (a. 3) (b. 1) (b. 2) (b. 3) Fig. 10. The relationship of , and with different line impedances. (a) The relationship of , and with different line impedances, (b) The relationship of and when Rvird=1Ω/2Ω with different line impedances respectively. ω (rad/s) Rvird (Ω) 310 315 320 -20 000 -10 000 10 000 310 315 320 -500 500 310 315 320 -6000 -4000 -2000 2000 4000 6000 8000 od I ω od I ω od I ω vird R od I o V vird R od I o V vird R od I o V od o I V − od I o V vird R vird R od I o V virq R ω o V 2 4 6 8 10 0.94 0.96 0.98 1.00 2 4 6 8 10 0.93 0.94 0.95 0.96 0.97 0.98 0.99 Rvird=1 Rvird=2 Iod (A) 2 4 6 8 10 0.94 0.96 0.98 1.00 vird R od I o V vird R od I o V od I o V
- 10. TPEL-Reg-2015-03-0479 8 to both and different line impedances. The effects of and on are nonlinear but quite small in comparison with the voltage drop caused by adjusting and . Considering that the voltage drop caused by , is approximately the same in each inverter, it can be neglected. Consequently, it can be observed a very well decoupling between Iod and Ioq for a large set of X/R ratios (from purely X to purely R). C. Virtual impedance design The virtual impedances in the proposed control loop are used to generate the direct and quadrature voltage deviations by multiplying the direct or quadrature currents separately. The direct and quadrature voltage deviations are used to automatically adjust the amplitude and phase angular of inverter output voltage. Given that virtual impedances induce output voltage and frequency deviation, they should be chosen to ensure that the voltage and frequency deviations are in the permissible range. For example, the maximum voltage deviation (ΔVmax) is 10%, while the maximum frequency deviation (Δfmax) is 0.5 Hz in a low voltage network. The relationship between the maximum voltage magnitude deviation ΔVdmax and Iod can be derived as follows: max d vird od V R I Δ = ⋅ (14) In an extreme case, the inverter is assumed to supply only active current. (1) can be presented as follows: max _ max _max vird od V R I Δ = ⋅ (15) where, _ max od I is the maximum d-axis current of the inverter. Thus, the upper limitation of the d-axis virtual resistor can be described as follows: max _ max _ vird o rate V R I Δ = (16) Similarly, in an extreme case, the inverter is assumed to supply only reactive current. The relationship between the maximum angular frequency max ω , quadrature output current Ioq and Rvirq can be derived from (11), as expressed in (17): _ max virq n n um R de = (17) being: 2 max max max 2 max 2 2 2 _ max max max 2 2 2 2 2 2 x 2 m 2 a ) ( [ (1 ( )( [ ( ) )] ) ( )] 2 ref o iv f f f pv pi PWM o oq pi PWM iv pv pv o o num V K C L C K K K r I K K K K en K d ω ω ω ω ω ω ω ω ω ω ω = − + + + − + + − = , where ref V is the voltage reference magnitude, o ω is the fundamental frequency, PWM K is the gain of three-phase inverter, and _ max od I is the maximum d-axis current output of the inverter. This relationship is more complex than the relationship of ΔVdmax, Iod_max and Rvird_max because the frequency of the proposed system is affected not only by the virtual resistance and quadrature current but also by the PR voltage control loop. Based on (17), the maximum q-axis virtual resistance can be calculated. On the other hand, another functionality of the virtual Zero line impedance Resistive-inductive line impedance Purely inductive line impedance (a. 1) (a. 2) (a. 3) (b. 1) (b. 2) (b. 3) Fig. 11. The relationship of , and with different line impedances. (a) The relationship of , and with different line impedances, (b) The relationship of and when Rvirq=1Ω/2Ω with different line impedances respectively. virq R virq R ω o V vird R od I ω Δ ω (rad/s) Rvird (Ω) 312 314 316 318 320 322 0.928 0.930 0.932 0.934 0.936 0.938 312 314 316 318 320 322 0.930 0.935 0.940 312 314 316 318 320 322 0.930 0.935 0.940 virq R ω o V virq R ω o V ω o V
- 11. TPEL-Reg-2015-03-0479 9 310 315 320 -4 -2 2 4 (a) 310 315 320 5 10 (b) Fig. 12. The relationship of Ioq and ω when the line impedances are equal to the maximum values. (a) Lline is equal to 6 mH, (b) Rline is equal to 15 Ω. resistance is to compensate the effects of line inductance. Thus, the virtual resistor should not too small to predominate over the output impedance of the converter. D. The limitations of the line impedance The limitations of the line impedance depend on the control loop parameters, the virtual impedance and electrical parameters. In this case, if the Rvird and Rvirq are both equal to 2 Ω, the maximum inductive line impedance and the maximum resistive line impedance that are able to maintain the steady state operation of the proposed parallel-inverter based system can be calculated by (11). The maximum inductive line impedance and the maximum resistive line impedance are approximately 6 mH and 15 Ω respectively. The proposed and oq I ω − droop characteristics will present non-linear when the line impedance over the limitations, as illustrated in Fig. 12. In general, the proposed control strategy can provide good control performance over a wide range of line impedance which is hard to achieve by previously developed control strategies. VI. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS An islanded experimental MG setup, which consists of three Danfoss 2.2 kW inverters, a real-time dSPACE1006 platform, LC filters, line impedance, resistive load and resistance -inductance load has been built according to Fig.1, as shown in Fig. 13. The switching frequency is set to 10 kHz. The electrical setup and control system parameters are listed in Table I. Different scenarios have been considered to test the performances of the proposed controller. In addition, a two parallel-inverters system has been used to compare and evaluate the performance of the proposed control approach Resistive load 1 Inductive load Line impedance Resistive load 2 Line impedance Danfoss Inverters dSPACE 1006 Fig. 13. Experimental setup. TABLE I POWER STAGE AND CONTROL SYSTEM PARAMETERS Parameters Value Description DG Inverter and output filter Vdc DC voltage 650 V VMG MG voltage 311 V f MG frequency 50 Hz fs Switching frequency 10 kHz Lf Filter inductance 1.8 mH Cf Filter capacitance 25 µF Lline_1 Resistive – inductive line 1 Ω + 1.7 mH Lline_2 Inductive line 1.8 mH Loads (Figs. 16 and 17) Zload1 Local load 1 57+j2.83 Ω Zload2 Local load 2 57 Ω Inner Loop kpi Current proportional term 0.07 Kii Current integral term 0 Kpv Voltage proportional term 0.04 Kiv Voltage integral term 94 Droop Control kpP Active power droop proportional coefficient 5e-7 kiP Active power droop integral coefficient 6e-6 kpQ Reactive power droop proportional coefficient 1e-5 kiQ Reactive power droop integral coefficient 0 Rv Virtual resistance 2 Ω Lv Virtual inductance 8 mH Proposed Control Kp_PLL PLL proportional term 1.4 Ki_PLL PLL integral coefficient 1000 Rvird1 d-axis virtual resistance (inverter 1) 2 Ω Rvirq1 q-axis virtual resistance (inverter 1) 2 Ω Rvird2 d-axis virtual resistance (inverter 2) 2 Ω Rvirq2 q-axis virtual resistance (inverter 2) 2 Ω Loads (Figs. 14 and 15) Zload Local load 1 230+ j2.83 Ω Ztest Step up load 460 Ω with the conventional droop control. In this comparison, the parameters of electrical and inner voltage and current loops are all the same for both control methods. od o I V −
- 12. TPEL-Reg-2015-03-0479 10 A. Comparison experiment with inductive line impedance Fig. 14 shows the experimental results to compare the control performance of the conventional droop control and the proposed control with purely inductive line impedance which is equal to 1.8 mH in three different scenarios. Figs. 14 (a.1) to 14 (a.6) shows the transient response when VCI #2 is connected to VCI #1 with the conventional droop controller and the proposed controller separately. As seen in Figs. 14 (a.1) to 14 (a.4), VCI #1 is connected to a resistive-inductive load feeding around (1.16+j 0.4) A, while VCI #2 is disconnected. At 2.3 s, VCI #2 is connected to VCI #1, operating in parallel supplying a common load. The direct and quadrature currents output of VCI #2 are increased by 0.58 A and 0.2 A respectively, whereas the output direct and quadrature currents of the VCI #1 are decreased also by 0.58 A and 0.2 A respectively. The settling time is approximately 5.2 s with the conventional droop control, whereas the settling time is approximately 1s with the proposed control strategy. Notice that a small overshoot occurs due to small voltage error between inverters at the moment of connection, as shown in Fig. 14 (a.3). An offset approximately 0.03 A of reactive current when using the droop control can be found in Fig. 14 (a.3) due to the unbalance between line impedances, which is well suppressed when using the proposed controller as shown in Fig. 14 (a.4). Fig. 14 (a.5) shows that after 1.2 s the system frequency at 49.992 Hz was restored closely to 49.996 Hz because of the decrease of the output currents with conventional droop control. As can be observed in Fig. 14 (a.6), the system frequency at 50.035 Hz was restored to50.018 Hz. All these deviations in both cases are maintained within the acceptable range, e.g., ±0.5 Hz. Fig. 14 (b.1) to 14 (b.6) shows the transient response during load step changes in the AC common bus. At the beginning, the parallel VCIs operate with same power rates. At 1.3 s, an extra 460 Ω resistive load is connected to the common bus. The direct currents output of VCI #1 and VCI #2 both increase by 0.31 A immediately to supply the needed current with conventional droop control and the proposed controller as shown in Figs. 14 (b.1) and 14 (b.2). The quadrature currents output of VCI #1 and VCI #2 with the conventional droop control deviate by approximately 0.03 A because of the coupling between direct and quadrature currents as shown in Figs. 14 (b.3). However, by using the proposed method the quadrature currents output of VCI #1 and VCI #2 can maintain their original values, being barely affected by the direct output current disturbances as shown in Figs. 14 (b.4). The frequency response to load disturbances for both VCI units is depicted in Figs. 14 (b.5) and 14 (b.6). The transient response for sudden direct currents sharing ratio changes between the parallel VCIs is illustrated in Figs. 14 (c.1) to 14 (c.6). At the beginning, the VCI units parallel operate with a common RL load. Both the VCI #1 and VCI #2 feeds are approximately 0.58 A of direct current and 0.2 A of quadrature current. At 2.3 s, the direct current sharing ratio between the parallel VCIs with the conventional droop control has been suddenly changed from 1:1 to 1:2 and then changed back to 1:1 at 10.6 s. As it can be seen in Fig. 14 (c.1), after about maximum 6 s, the output currents of the parallel VCIs are changed according to the new sharing ratio. Meanwhile, the quadrature current sharing has been affected by the changes on direct current sharing ratio as shown in Fig. 14 (c.3). By contrast, the direct current sharing ratio between the parallel VCIs with the proposed control approach has also been suddenly changed from 1:1 to 1:2 at 1.6 s and then changed back to 1:1 at 3.5 s. Fig. 14 (c.2) shows that the direct current outputs of VCIs increase immediately according to the sharing ratio changes and the transient response only lasts 0.2 s. Meanwhile, the quadrature current sharing ratio is kept constant via the decoupling control of the proposed controller. B. Comparison experiment with resistive-inductive line impedance Fig. 15 shows the experimental results in order to compare the conventional droop control and the proposed control, with resistive-inductive line impedance which is equal to 1 Ω plus 1.7 mH in three different scenarios. Similarly Figs. 15 (a.1) to 15 (a.6) show the transient response of direct currents, quadrature currents and frequency when the VCI #2 is connected to VCI #1 with the conventional droop controller and the proposed controller separately. Figs. 15 (b.1) to 15 (b.6) illustrate the transient response for load step-up changes on AC common bus. Figs. 15 (c.1) to 15 (c.6) present the transient response during sudden direct currents sharing ratio changes between the parallel VCIs. Both the conventional droop control and the proposed controller can achieve stable operation. By contrast, the proposed approach can endow the system with faster response speed, smaller overshoot and decoupling control. Oscillation appears in the output current and system frequency with the conventional droop control due to the resistive-inductive line impedance and the coupling between Iod and Ioq. When having almost zero line impedance, or highly resistive, the parallel VCIs cannot operate by using the conventional droop control. In contrast, excellent performance can be obtained by using the proposed control as shown below. For the rest of the tests, three parallel inverters have been considered to test the performances of the proposed controller with zero line impedance in the following scenarios. C. Hot-swap operation (zero line impedance) A three-parallel VCIs system sharing a linear load (Rload1=57+j2.83 Ω) tests have been done to test individually the effects of DG units connecting and disconnecting. The transient response of the instantaneous currents, direct and quadrature output currents and frequency with the proposed control are illustrated in Fig. 16 (a), (b) and (c), respectively. As it can be observed, at the beginning, the three VCI units are on parallel operation with same power rates. At t2 and t3, VCI #2 and VCI #3 are disconnected from VCI #1 separately, whereas VCI #1 is responsible for supplying the total current. Fig. 16 indicates that the output currents of VCI #2 and VCI #3 decrease to zero, meanwhile, the output currents of VCI #1 is increased to 7.5 A immediately. After the synchronization process, VCI #2 and VCI #3 are re-connected to VCI #1 at t4 and t5 respectively. The transient performance is smooth and fast that the slowest settling time is about 0.8s. Furthermore, the current oscillations are well damped.
- 13. TPEL-Reg-2015-03-0479 11 Inverter connection Load step changes Ratio changes (a. 1) (b. 1) (c. 1) (a. 2) (b. 2) (c. 2) (a. 3) (b. 3) (c. 3) (a. 4) (b. 4) (c. 4) (a. 5) (b. 5) (c. 5) (a. 6) (b. 6) (c. 6) Fig. 14. Comparison experimental results with purely inductive line impedance in different scenarios. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 Time (s) 1 od i 2 od i Droop control 0 1 2 3 4 5 -1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 Time (s) Droop control 1 od i 2 od i 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 -1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 Time (s) Droop control 1 od i 2 od i 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 Time (s) 1 od i 2 od i 0 1 2 3 4 5 -1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 Time (s) 1 od i 2 od i 0 1 2 3 4 5 -1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 Time (s) 1 od i 2 od i 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 Time (s) Droop control 2 oq i 1 oq i 0 1 2 3 4 5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 Time (s) Droop control 2 oq i 1 oq i 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 -0.25 -0.2 -0.15 Time (s) Droop control 2 oq i 1 oq i 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 Time (s) 2 oq i 1 oq i 0 1 2 3 4 5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 Time (s) 2 oq i 1 oq i 0 1 2 3 4 5 0.25 -0.2 0.15 Time (s) 2 oq i 1 oq i 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 49.98 49.99 50 50.01 50.02 Time (s) Droop control 2 f 1 f 0 1 2 3 4 5 49.95 50 50.05 50.1 Time (s) Droop control 2 f 1 f 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 49.95 50 50.05 50.1 Time (s) Droop control 1 f 2 f 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 50 50.02 50.04 50.06 50.08 Time (s) 2 f 1 f 0 1 2 3 4 5 50 50.01 50.02 50.03 50.04 Time (s) 1 f 2 f 0 1 2 3 4 5 49.95 50 50.05 50.1 Time (s) 1 f 2 f
- 14. TPEL-Reg-2015-03-0479 12 Inverter connection Load step changes Ratio changes 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 Time (s) 1 od i 2 od i (a. 1) 0 1 2 3 4 5 -1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 Time (s) 1 od i 2 od i (b. 1) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 -1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 Time (s) 1 od i 2 od i (c. 1) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 Time (s) 1 od i 2 od i (a. 2) 0 1 2 3 4 5 -1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 Time (s) 1 od i 2 od i (b. 2) 0 1 2 3 4 5 -1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 Time (s) 1 od i 2 od i (c. 2) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 Time (s) 2 oq i 1 oq i (a. 3) 0 1 2 3 4 5 -0.25 -0.2 -0.15 -0.1 -0.05 Time (s) 2 oq i 1 oq i (b. 3) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 -0.25 -0.2 -0.15 Time (s) 2 oq i 1 oq i (c. 3) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 Time (s) 2 oq i 1 oq i (a. 4) 0 1 2 3 4 5 -0.25 -0.2 -0.15 -0.1 Time (s) 2 oq i 1 oq i (b. 4) 0 1 2 3 4 5 -0.25 -0.2 -0.15 -0.1 -0.05 Time (s) 2 oq i 1 oq i (c. 4) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 49.9 49.95 50 50.05 50.1 Time (s) 1 f 2 f (a. 5) 0 1 2 3 4 5 49.9 49.95 50 50.05 50.1 Time (s) 2 f 1 f (b. 5) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 49.95 50 50.05 50.1 Time (s) 1 f 2 f (c. 5) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 49.9 49.95 50 50.05 50.1 Time (s) 1 f 2 f (a. 6) 0 1 2 3 4 5 49.9 49.95 50 50.05 50.1 Time (s) 1 f 2 f (b. 6) 0 1 2 3 4 5 49.95 50 50.05 50.1 Time (s) 1 f 2 f (c. 6) Fig. 15. Comparison experimental results with resistive-inductive line impedance in different scenarios.
- 15. TPEL-Reg-2015-03-0479 13 35.6 35.8 36 36.2 -5 -2.5 0 2.5 5 15.2 15.4 15.6 15.8 16 -4 -2 0 2 4 2.55 2.575 2.6 2.625 2.65 -5 -2.5 0 2.5 5 1.14 1.16 1.18 1.2 1.22 1.24 -5 -2.5 0 2.5 5 1.14 1.16 1.18 1.2 1.22 1.24 -4 -2 0 2 4 35.6 35.8 36 36.2 -5 -2.5 0 2.5 5 15.2 15.4 15.6 15.8 16 -5 -2.5 0 2.5 5 2.55 2.575 2.6 2.625 2.65 -5 -2.5 0 2.5 5 1.14 1.16 1.18 1.2 1.22 1.24 -4 -2 0 2 4 35.6 35.8 36 36.2 -5 -2.5 0 2.5 5 15.2 15.4 15.6 15.8 16 -10 -5 0 5 10 2.55 2.575 2.6 2.625 2.65 -8 -4 0 4 8 Io1 (A) Io2 (A) Io3 (A) (a) 2.55 2.575 2.6 2.625 2.65 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 35.6 35.8 36 36.2 -0.5 -0.3 -0.1 0.1 15.2 15.4 15.6 15.8 16 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 2.55 2.575 2.6 2.625 2.65 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1.14 1.16 1.18 1.2 1.22 1.24 -0.5 -0.3 -0.1 0.1 1.14 1.16 1.18 1.2 1.22 1.24 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 35.6 35.8 36 36.2 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 15.2 15.4 15.6 15.8 16 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 (2) (2) (3) (4) (4) (3) (1) (2) (3) (4) (1) (2) Iod1 Iod2 Ioq3 Ioq1 Iod3 Ioq2 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 (3) (4) (1) (1) (b) 15.2 15.4 15.6 15.8 16 49.95 50 50.05 50.1 50.15 2.55 2.575 2.6 2.625 2.65 49.9 50 50.1 50.2 35.6 35.8 36 36.2 49.9 49.95 50 50.05 50.1 50.15 1.14 1.16 1.18 1.2 1.22 1.24 49.9 49.95 50 50.05 50.1 50.15 (c) Fig. 16. Transient responses of DG1, DG2, and DG3 in connection and disconnection scenario with the proposed controller. (a) Instantaneous output currents of DG1-3, (b) Direct and quadrature output currents of DG1-3, (c) Frequency of DG1-3.
- 16. TPEL-Reg-2015-03-0479 14 D. Direct and quadrature currents decoupling sharing with different sharing ratio (zero line impedance) In some cases, the parallel connected VCIs need to supply active and reactive currents with different rates based on different power rates, requirements from EMS or other superior control loops. A three- parallel VCIs setup sharing a common distributed linear load (Rload1=57+j2.83 Ω) has been built to test the decoupling sharing performance of direct and quadrature currents with different sharing ratios. As shown in Fig. 17, the experiment can be divided nine stages. The different stages (S1 to S9) are described as follows: S1 (t1-t2): The three VCIs are on parallel operation to share the common load equally due to the same virtual resistances S2 (t2-t3): The d-axis virtual resistance (Rvird) ratio of these three paralleled VCIs is suddenly changed from 1:1:1 to 1.25:1:1 at t2. Thus, the direct current output of VCI #1 is decreased immediately, whereas the direct currents output of VCI #2 and VCI #3 are all increased by the same value within 0.1s. The change on active current does not influence on the quadrature currents of these three VCIs as the theoretical analysis. S3 (t3-t4): The Rvird ratio is suddenly changed from 1.25:1:1 to 1.25:1.5:1 at t3. As observed, the output direct current of VCI #2 is decreased to the desired value. S4 (t4-t5): At t4, the paralleled system is subjected to a 50% step up in the q-axis virtual resistance (Rvirq) of VCI #2. Thus, the Rvirq ratio of these three VCIs is suddenly changed from 1:1:1 to 1:1.5:1. As observed, the output quadrature current ratio becomes 1.5:1:1.5 which is the inverse proportion of the virtual resistance ratio as the theoretical analysis. In addition, the change on reactive current also does not affect the direct currents. S5 (t5-t6): The Rvirq ratio suddenly changes from 1:1.5:1 to 1:1.5:1.75 at t5. S6 (t6-t7): At t6, the Rvird of VCI #1 reduces back to 2 Ω. Thus the output direct current sharing ratio becomes 1.5:1:1.5. S7 (t7-t8): At t7, the Rvirq of VCI #2 reduces back to 2 Ω. Hence the direct current sharing ratio becomes 1.75: 1.75:1. S8 (t8-t9): The Rvird ratio changes from 1:1.5:1 to 1:1:1 at t8. S9 (t9-t10): The Rvirq ratio changes from 1:1:1.75 to 1:1:1 at t9. Therefore, the output direct and quadrature currents of three VCIs are equal again. The proposed controller successfully regulates the output currents of paralleled VCIs to the desired value. As can be observed, even with different power rates, the VCI units with the proposed control strategy will still maintain stable operation and achieve the online sharing ratio change. The proposed controller presents large stability margin to the control variables Rvird and Rvirq. In summary, the experimental results reveal that the proposed control strategy does apply to low-voltage parallel-VCI-based system where the line impedance usually presents high ratio of R/X and short length because of its faster response speed, online sharing ratio change function, larger stability margin, smaller overshoot, plug‘n’play operation and decoupling control. In addition, the proposed control strategy also works well with inductive-resistive line impedance and small purely inductive line impedance by means of virtual 72.1 72.15 72.2 72.25 72.3 -5 -2.5 0 2.5 5 62.1 62.15 62.2 62.25 62.3 -5 -2.5 0 2.5 5 72.1 72.15 72.2 72.25 72.3 -5 -2.5 0 2.5 5 62.1 62.15 62.2 62.25 62.3 -5 -2.5 0 2.5 5 72.1 72.15 72.2 72.25 72.3 -5 -2.5 0 2.5 5 62.1 62.15 62.2 62.25 62.3 -5 -2.5 0 2.5 5 20 20.1 20.2 20.3 -5 -2.5 0 2.5 5 2.5 2.55 2.6 2.65 -5 -2.5 0 2.5 5 20 20.1 20.2 20.3 -4 -2 0 2 4 2.5 2.55 2.6 2.65 -5 -2.5 0 2.5 5 20 20.1 20.2 20.3 -5 -2.5 0 2.5 5 2.5 2.55 2.6 2.65 -4 -2 0 2 4 (a)
- 17. TPEL-Reg-2015-03-0479 15 2.5 2.55 2.6 2.65 -4 -3.5 -3 -2.5 20 20.1 20.2 20.3 -5 -4 -3 -2 62.1 62.15 62.2 62.25 62.3 -4 -3.5 -3 -2.5 72.1 72.15 72.2 72.25 72.3 -4 -3.75 -3.5 -3.25 -3 2.5 2.55 2.6 2.65 -0.13 -0.12 -0.11 -0.1 -0.09 -0.08 20 20.1 20.2 20.3 -0.15 -0.125 -0.1 -0.075 -0.05 62.1 62.15 62.2 62.25 62.3 -0.15 -0.125 -0.1 -0.075 -0.05 72.1 72.15 72.2 72.25 72.3 -0.15 -0.125 -0.1 -0.075 -0.05 (b) 2.5 2.55 2.6 2.65 49.95 49.975 50 50.025 50.05 20 20.1 20.2 20.3 49.95 49.975 50 50.025 50.05 62.1 62.15 62.2 62.25 62.3 49.95 49.975 50 50.025 50.05 72.1 72.15 72.2 72.25 72.3 49.95 49.975 50 50.025 50.05 (c) Fig. 17. Transient responses of DG1, DG2, and DG3 with different sharing ratio. (a) Instantaneous output currents of DG1-3, (b) Direct and quadrature output currents of DG1-3, (c) Frequency of DG1-3 . resistor. The proposed and oq I ω − droop characteristics will present non-linear when the line impedance over the limitations. Thus, the droop control strategy should be applied to the high inductive system. In other cases, the proposed control strategy can provide superior performances. The prominent features of the proposed strategy compared with the conventional droop control are summarized in Table II. VII. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK A simpler and faster controller that comprises a PLL, a virtual resistance loop and a PR controller in inner voltage loop for controlling direct and quadrature load currents separately among parallel three-phase inverters is developed. Based on the steady state characteristic analysis, by adjusting the d-axis virtual resistance ratio between the parallel inverters, the direct load current sharing can be achieved. Whereas by modifying the q-axis virtual resistance ratio between parallel inverters, the quadrature load current provided will be changed proportionally. The proposed control strategy does apply to low-voltage microgrids and islanded minigrids. In addition, it can also works well with inductive-resistive line impedance and even small purely inductive or resistive line impedance thanks to the use of virtual resistance. Compared with conventional droop control, the described method does not need to calculate active and reactive powers. Thus, the method exhibits faster transient response and better precision. Experimental results are included to show the excellent behaviour of the proposed controller. The small signal model and stability analysis will be presented in Part II of this paper. APPENDIX The detailed derivative process of (10) in Section IV is shown as follows. As indicated in Fig. 5, the closed loop includes three-leg three-phase inverter, Lf-Cf filter, line impedance, inner voltage and current control, and virtual resistance loop. The block diagram of the inner current and voltage loops as well as the LC filter is shown in Fig. A.1. Based on the diagram, the closed-loop transfer function can be written as follows: ' o o o ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ref v s G s v s Z s i s = − (A.1) being 2 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ( ) )s 1 ( ) ( ) v i PWM f f f i PWM f v i PWM G s G s K G s L C s rC G s K C G s G s K = + + + + (A.2) od o I V −
- 18. TPEL-Reg-2015-03-0479 16 TABLE II PERFORMANCE COMPARISON Purely inductive line impedance Resistive-inductive line impedance Zero or resistive line impedance P-V/Q-f droop Proposed control P-V/Q-f droop Proposed control P-V/Q-f droop Proposed control Control capability Yes Yes, but cannot work with large inductive line impedance Yes Yes No, need change to P-f/Q-V droop Yes Transient response Slow fast Slow fast Slow fast Control performance Good Good, but cannot work with large inductive line impedance Oscillations Good Good (if with P-f/Q-V droop) Very well Robustness Poor Good Poor Good Poor Good Control parameters m, n, Zvir Rvird, Rvirq m, n, Zvir Rvird, Rvirq m, n, Zvir Rvird, Rvirq ( ) v G s ( ) I G s PWM K 1 f L s r + 1 f C s o i ' ref v o v L i Fig. A.1 Block diagram of the dual-loop control 2 ( ) ( ( ) )s 1 ( ) ( ) f o f f f i PWM f v i PWM sL r Z s L C s rC G s K C G s G s K + = + + + + (A.3) 2 2 ( ) iv v pv c K s G s K s ω = + + (A.4) ( ) i pi G s K = (A.5) where G(s) presents the tracking performance of the output voltage following the voltage reference, ( ) o Z s is the equivalent output impedance of the inverter, o( ) v s is the output voltage, ' ( ) ref v s is the reference voltage of inner voltage loop, o ( ) i s is the output current, ( ) v G s is the PR voltage control loop, ( ) i G s is the proportional current control loop, PWM K is the gain of three phase inverter, f L , f C and r are the inductor, capacitor, and inductor ESR of the LC filter respectively, pv K and iv K are the proportional and integral coefficients of voltage control loop, c ω is the resonant frequency of the PR regulator in voltage control loop, and pi K is the proportional coefficients of current control loop. To obtain the direct and quadrature load currents, the equivalent parallel connected resistive-inductive load can be represented as follows: 1 1 ( ) Lequ Lequ Lequ G s R sL = + (A.6) where ( ) Lequ G s is the equivalent load admittance, Lequ R is the equivalent resistor, and Lequ L is the equivalent inductance. The line impedance can be expressed as follows: ( ) line line line Z s R sL = + (A.7) where ( ) line Z s is the line impedance, line R is the line resistor, and line L is the line inductance. Hence, the closed loop transfer function Tplant(s) can be derived based on Fig. 5. ( ) 1 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 1 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ( ) ) Lequ line o ref Lequ line vir Lequ plant o G s G s Z s v s v s G s Z s G s G s Z s G s s T ⎡ ⎤ + ⎣ ⎦ = + + + = (A.8) being ( ) virq vird vir Lequ Lequ R R G s R sL = + REFERENCES [1] Lasseter, R.H., "MicroGrids," Power Engineering Society Winter Meeting, 2002. IEEE, vol.1, no., pp.305,-308, 2002 [2] Guerrero, J.M.; Chandorkar, M.; Lee, T.; Loh, P.C., "Advanced Control Architectures for Intelligent Microgrids—Part I: Decentralized and Hierarchical Control," Industrial Electronics, IEEE Transactions on, vol.60, no.4, pp.1254,-1262, April 2013 [3] Piagi, P., Lasseter, R.H., "Autonomous control of microgrids," Power Engineering Society General Meeting, 2006. IEEE, vol., no., pp., 2006 [4] Yunwei Li, Vilathgamuwa, D.M., Poh Chiang Loh, "Design, Analysis, and Real-Time Testing of a Controller for Multibus Microgrid System," IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, vol. 19, no. 5, pp. 1195–1204, Sept. 2004. [5] Guerrero, J.M., Garcia De Vicuna, L., Matas, J., Castilla, M., Miret, J., "Output Impedance Design of Parallel-Connected UPS Inverters With Wireless Load-Sharing Control," IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, vol. 52, no. 4, 1126-1135, Aug. 2005. [6] Vasquez, J.C., Guerrero, J.M., Luna, A., Rodriguez, P., "Adaptive Droop Control Applied to Voltage-Source Inverters Operating in Grid-Connected and Islanded Modes," Industrial Electronics, IEEE Transactions on, vol. 56, no. 10, 4088-4096, Oct. 2009. [7] Jaehong Kim, Guerrero, J.M., Rodriguez, P., Teodorescu, R., Kwanghee Nam, "Mode Adaptive Droop Control With Virtual Output
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She is currently workin degree at the Department of Aalborg University, Denmark, a Microgrids Research (www.microgrids.et.aau.dk). Her research interests include microgrids, distributed power converter for renewable energy generation sy services for microgrids. Josep M. Guerrero (S’01- received the B.S. degree in engineering, the M.S. d engineering, and the Ph.D electronics from the Tec Catalonia, Barcelona, in 1 respectively. Since 2011, Professor with the Dep Technology, Aalborg U where he is responsible Research Program. From Professor at the Chinese Ac the Nanjing University Astronautics; from 2014 he is chair Professor in Shan from 2015 he is a distinguished guest Professor in Hunan His research interests is oriented to different microgr power electronics, distributed energy-storage system cooperative control, energy management systems, a microgrids and islanded minigrids. Prof. Guerrero is an A IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTR TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONI Industrial Electronics Magazine, and an Editor for the IEE on SMART GRID and IEEE TRANSACTIONS on ENER He has been Guest Editor of the IEEE TRANSACT ELECTRONICS Special Issues: Power Electronics Conversion and Power Electronics for Micr TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONIC Uninterruptible Power Supplies systems, Renewabl Distributed Generation and Microgrids, and Industri Implementation Issues of the Kalman Filter; and the IEE on SMART GRID Special Issue on Smart DC Distribution chair of the Renewable Energy Systems Technical Co Industrial Electronics Society. In 2014 he was awarded by Highly Cited Researcher, and in 2015 he was elevated a contributions on “distributed power systems and microgr erters Under Distorted EE Transactions on, r Three Phase Utility ansactions on, vol.15, errero, J.M., "Flexible nder Unbalanced Grid EE Transactions on, icuña, Miguel Castilla, Parallel Operation of Electronics, IEEE t. 2006. d the B.S. degree and ngineering from the gdao, Hebei, China, in om 2010 to 2012, she Institute of Electrical Academy of Sciences een a Lecturer in IEE; ng toward her Ph.D. Energy Technology, as part of the Denmark Programme d generation systems, ystems, and ancillary M’04-SM’08-FM’15) n telecommunications degree in electronics D. degree in power hnical University of 997, 2000 and 2003, he has been a Full partment of Energy University, Denmark, e for the Microgrid 2012 he is a guest cademy of Science and of Aeronautics and ndong University; and n University. rid aspects, including ms, hierarchical and and optimization of Associate Editor for the ONICS, the IEEE ICS, and the IEEE EE TRANSACTIONS RGY CONVERSION. TIONS ON POWER s for Wind Energy rogrids; the IEEE CS Special Sections: le Energy Systems, ial Applications and EE TRANSACTIONS n Systems. He was the ommittee of the IEEE y Thomson Reuters as s IEEE Fellow for his rids.” Xin Zhao receiv Power Electroni Northwestern Po China, in 2010 currently workin Department of University, Denm His research inte converters, power Juan C. Vasquez degree in elect Autonomous Univ Colombia, and t control, robotics, Technical Univer Spain, in 2004 and the Autonomous U taught courses on d flexible manufactu the Technical U Post-Doctoral Ass renewable energy systems. In 2011, he was and currently he is working as an Associate Energy Technology, Aalborg University, co-responsible of the Research Program in April. 2015 he was a Visiting Scholar at t Systems (CPES) at Virginia Tech. His current research interests include o hierarchical control, optimization and powe generation and ac/dc microgrids. Dr. Vasquez System Evaluation Group SEG4 on LVDC D Developed and Developing Economies and Technical Committee TC-RES in IEEE Indus Xiaoqiang Guo (M Ph.D. degrees in ele University, Qinhuan respectively. He has been a Laboratory for Ele Research (LEDAR) ON, Canada. He is with the Departm Yanshan Unive authored/coauthored in addition to nine patents. His current resea converters and ac drives, electric vehicle energy power conversion systems. Dr. Guo is a Senior Member of the IEEE Po Industrial Electronics Society. He is an active Sustainable Energy, IEEE Transactions on S Industrial Electronics and IEEE Transactions 18 ved the B.S. and M.S. degree in ics & Electrical Drives from olytechnical University, Xi’an, and 2013, respectively. He is ng toward the Ph.D. degree at Energy Technology, Aalborg mark. erests include control of power r quality and microgrids. (M’12-SM’14) received the B.S. tronics engineering from the versity of Manizales, Manizales, the Ph.D. degree in automatic and computer vision from the rsity of Catalonia, Barcelona, d 2009, respectively. He was with University of Manizales, where he digital circuits, servo systems, and uring systems. He was also with University of Catalonia, as a sistant, teaching courses based on Assistant Professor in microgrids e Professor at the Department of Denmark. Dr. Vasquez is the Microgrids. From Feb. 2015 to the Center of Power Electronics operation, power management, er quality applied to distributed z is currently a member of the IEC Distribution and Safety for use in the Renewable Energy Systems strial Electronics Society. ' 10-SM' 14) received the B.S. and ectrical engineering from Yanshan ngdao, China, in 2003 and 2009, Postdoctoral Fellow with the ectrical Drive Applications and ), Ryerson University, Toronto, currently an associate professor ment of Electrical Engineering, ersity, China. He has d more than fifty technical papers, arch interests include high-power charging station, and renewable ower Electronics Society and IEEE Referee for IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid, IEEE Transactions on s on Power Electronics.