![thee aloft in all brightness through the air, and place
thee by the radiance of the immortal Trinity.'"
—Carm. p. 930.
He goes on to say, that he never lost the{30}
impression this made upon him, as "a spark of
heavenly fire," or "a taste of divine milk and
honey."
As far, then, as these descriptions go, one might
say that Gregory's abandonment of the world
arose from an early passion, as it may be called,
for a purity higher than his own nature; and
Basil's, from a profound sense of the world's
nothingness and the world's defilements. Both{5}
seem to have viewed it as a sort of penitential
exercise, as well as a means towards perfection.
When they had once resolved to devote
themselves to the service of religion, the question
arose, how they might best improve and employ{10}
the talents committed to them. Somehow, the
idea of marrying and taking orders, or taking
orders and marrying, building or improving their
parsonages, and showing forth the charities, the
humanities, and the gentilities of a family man,{15}
did not suggest itself to their minds. They fancied
that they must give up wife, children, property,
if they would be perfect; and, this being taken
for granted, that their choice lay between two
modes of life, both of which they regarded as{20}
extremes. Here, then, for a time, they were in
some perplexity. Gregory speaks of two ascetic
disciplines, that of the solitary or hermit, and that
of the secular;[27] one of which, he says, profits
a man's self, the other his neighbor. Midway,{25}](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/96732-250501200544-51fc57c3/85/Apache-Pulsar-in-Action-MEAP-V04-David-Kjerrumgaard-42-320.jpg)
![however, between these lay the Cœnobite, or
what we commonly call the monastic; removed
from the world, yet acting in a certain select
circle. And this was the rule which the friends
at length determined to adopt, withdrawing from{30}
mixed society in order to be of the greater service
to it.
[27] [Greek: azyges] and [Greek: migades].
The following is the passage in which Gregory
describes the life which was the common choice
of both of them:{5}
"Fierce was the whirlwind of my storm-toss'd mind,
Searching,'mid holiest ways, a holier still.
Long had I nerved me, in the depths to sink
Thoughts of the flesh, and then more strenuously.
Yet, while I gazed upon diviner aims,{10}
I had not wit to single out the best:
For, as is aye the wont in things of earth,
Each had its evil, each its nobleness.
I was the pilgrim of a toilsome course,
Who had o'erpast the waves, and now look'd round,{15}
With anxious eye, to track his road by land.
Then did the awful Thesbite's image rise,
His highest Carmel, and his food uncouth;
The Baptist wealthy in his solitude;
And the unencumbered sons of Jonadab.{20}
But soon I felt the love of holy books,
The spirit beaming bright in learned lore,
Which deserts could not hear, nor silence tell.
Long was the inward strife, till ended thus:—
I saw, when men lived in the fretful world,{25}
They vantaged other men, but risked the while
The calmness and the pureness of their hearts.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/96732-250501200544-51fc57c3/85/Apache-Pulsar-in-Action-MEAP-V04-David-Kjerrumgaard-43-320.jpg)
![St. Augustine's case of that dreadful haughtiness,
sullenness, love of singularity, vanity, irritability,
and misanthropy, which were too certainly the
characteristics of our own countryman.
Augustine was, as his early history shows, a man of
affectionate and tender feelings, and open and{5}
amiable temper; and, above all, he sought for some
excellence external to his own mind, instead of
concentrating all his contemplations on himself.
But let us consider what his misery was; it
was that of a mind imprisoned, solitary, and wild{10}
with spiritual thirst; and forced to betake itself
to the strongest excitements, by way of relieving
itself of the rush and violence of feelings, of which
the knowledge of the Divine Perfections was the
true and sole sustenance. He ran into excess,{15}
not from love of it, but from this fierce fever of
mind. "I sought what I might love,"[28] he says
in his Confessions, "in love with loving, and safety
I hated, and a way without snares. For within
me was a famine of that inward food, Thyself,{20}
my God; yet throughout that famine I was not
hungered, but was without any longing for
incorruptible sustenance, not because filled therewith,
but the more empty, the more I loathed it. For
this cause my soul was sickly and full of sores; it{25}
miserably cast itself forth, desiring to be scraped
by the touch of objects of sense."—iii. I.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/96732-250501200544-51fc57c3/85/Apache-Pulsar-in-Action-MEAP-V04-David-Kjerrumgaard-60-320.jpg)
![[28] Most of these translations are from the Oxford edition of
1838.
"O foolish man that I then was," he says elsewhere,
"enduring impatiently the lot of man! So I fretted,
sighed, wept, was distracted; had neither rest nor
counsel. For I bore about a shattered and bleeding
soul, impatient of being borne by me, yet where to repose
it I found not; not in calm groves, nor in games and
music, nor in fragrant spots, nor in curious banquetings,{5}
nor in indulgence of the bed and the couch, nor, finally, in
books or poetry found it repose. All things looked ghastly,
yea, the very light. In groaning and tears alone found
I a little refreshment. But when my soul was withdrawn
from them, a huge load of misery weighed me down.{10}
To Thee, O Lord, it ought to have been raised, for Thee
to lighten; I knew it, but neither could, nor would;
the more, since when I thought of Thee, Thou wast not
to me any solid or substantial thing. For Thou wert not
Thyself, but a mere phantom, and my error was my God.{15}
If I offered to discharge my load thereon, that it might
rest, it glided through the void, and came rushing down
against me; and I had remained to myself a hapless
spot, where I could neither be, nor be from thence. For
whither should my heart flee from my heart? whither{20}
should I flee from myself? whither not follow myself?
And yet I fled out of my country; for so should mine
eyes look less for him, where they were not wont to see
him."—iv. 12.
He is speaking in this last sentence of a friend he{25}
had lost, whose death-bed was very remarkable,
and whose dear familiar name he apparently has
not courage to mention. "He had grown from a
child with me," he says, "and we had been both
schoolfellows and playfellows." Augustine had{30}](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/96732-250501200544-51fc57c3/85/Apache-Pulsar-in-Action-MEAP-V04-David-Kjerrumgaard-61-320.jpg)
Apache Pulsar in Action MEAP V04 David Kjerrumgaard
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- 5. MEAP Edition Manning Early Access Program Pulsar in Action Version 4 Copyright 2020 Manning Publications ©Manning Publications Co. We welcome reader comments about anything in the manuscript - other than typos and other simple mistakes. These will be cleaned up during production of the book by copyeditors and proofreaders. https://livebook.manning.com/#!/book/apache-pulsar-in-action/discussion
- 6. For more information on this and other Manning titles go to www.manning.com
- 7. welcome As a frequent subscriber to Manning’s early access program, I am thrilled to welcome you the MEAP for my very own book, Pulsar in Action! In order to get the most out of this book, you should have some established skills in Java programming, along with basic experience running container-based applications with Docker. Pulsar is a complex messaging system that was originally created at Yahoo and has been contributed to the Apache Software Foundation. It was designed to provide fast, scalable, and durable messaging and much more. I see Pulsar raising the standard for both messaging and storage platforms as the world shifts away from batch-processing and towards real-time stream processing. The book is divided into three parts. Part 1 will cover the basics of messaging, streaming data, and stream processing with a focus on how Pulsar provides these features. It will also cover Pulsar unique architecture and contrast it against the other popular messaging frameworks such as Kafka. The second part will focus on Pulsar’s native stream processing capability, known as Pulsar Functions, that makes it easy to deploy lightweight computing logic using simple functions written in one of several popular programming languages including Python, Java, .NET, and
- 8. Go. It will also cover how to use Pulsar Functions to develop event-driven applications and microservices by providing in- depth examples that you can download and try yourself. The third and final part will focus on Stream storage, and how Pulsar’s unique de-coupled architecture enables retain messages indefinitely on cloud storage services such as AWS S3 or Azure Blob storage. We will also explore how this capability directly supports event sourcing and the development of applications that follow the Command Query Responsibility Segregation (CQRS) architecture pattern. Lastly, we will demonstrate how to query raw message data inside Pulsar using standard SQL query syntax by leveraging the Presto execution engine. Your feedback is essential to creating the best book possible, and I encourage you to please share your comments, questions, and suggestions in Manning’s liveBook Discussion Forum for my book. —David Kjerrumgaard
- 9. brief contents Part 1: Getting Started with Apache Pulsar 1 Introduction to Apache Pulsar 2 Getting to Know Pulsar Part 2: Apache Pulsar Development Essentials 3 Pulsar Functions 4 Pulsar IO Connectors 5 Pulsar Security 6 Pulsar Schema Registry Part 3: Hands-on application development with Apache Pulsar 7 Pulsar Function Patterns 8 Resiliency Patterns 9 Data Access Patterns
- 10. 10 Machine Learning in Pulsar 11 IoT Edge Analytics Appendix A: Running Pulsar in Containerized Environment
- 11. 1 Introduction to Apache Pulsar This chapter covers · Introduction to streaming data concepts · How Apache Pulsar can handle all of streaming data needs. · Compare Apache Pulsar to other messaging systems such as Apache Kafka. · Real-world use cases where Pulsar is currently being used for stream processing. Developed at Yahoo in 2013, Pulsar was first open sourced in 2016, and only 2 years after joining the Apache Software Foundations’ incubation program graduated to Top Level Project status. Apache Pulsar was designed from the ground up to address the gaps in current open source messaging systems such as multi-tenancy, geo-replication, and strong durability guarantees. The Apache Pulsar site describes it as a distributed pub-sub messaging system that provides very low publish and end- to-end latency, guaranteed message delivery, zero data loss, and a serverless lightweight computing framework for stream native data processing. Apache Pulsar provides the three key capabilities for processing large data sets in real- time:
- 12. · Real-time messaging: Data needs to be moved from sources to your processing applications reliably with consistent performance and without risk of data loss. · Real-time compute: These real-time datasets must be transformed, processed, and joined with other datasets to provide value to your applications. · Scalable storage: In order to provide consistent experiences for end users, data must be available even in the event of power failures or network connectivity issues. Pulsar’s scalable storage layer is able to expand to meet peak demand and support infinite data retention policies. 1.1 Unified Messaging Apache Pulsar is the only messaging platform that combines high-performance streaming (which Apache Kafka pursues) and traditional queuing (which RabbitMQ pursues) into a unified messaging model and API. Pulsar gives you one system for both streaming and queuing, with the same high performance, using a unified API. For those of you not familiar with messaging systems and the associated concepts, you can think of messaging as the reliable transmission of data from one system to another via an intermediary system. Unlike point-to-point communication channels where the producers need to know the receivers in advance, messaging systems decouple the message senders from the receivers.
- 13. This decoupling simplifies application development by providing a standardized, reliable intra-component communication channel that serves as a persistent buffer for handling data, even when some of the components are offline. As you can see in Figure 1.1, a messaging systems main purpose is to route incoming data from producers to the appropriate consumers in an efficient and reliable way. Figure 1.1 A Conceptual Messaging System Messaging is a broad term that covers several distinct communication methods that differ based on how data is routed between message producers and consumers. The two primary messaging models are publish-subscribe, (aka pub- sub) messaging, and message queuing.
- 14. 1.1.1 Publish-Subscribe Messaging As I mentioned earlier, Pulsar is as a distributed publish- subscribe messaging system. In pub-sub messaging, producers publish messages to named channels known as “topics”. Consumers can then subscribe to those topics to receiving the incoming messages. A publish-subscribe (pub-sub) message channel receives incoming messages from multiple producers and stores them in the exact order that they arrive. However, it differs from message queuing on the consumption side because it supports multiple consumers receiving each message in a topic via a subscription mechanism as shown below in Figure 1.2. Figure 1.2 Publish-Subscribe Message Channel Publish-subscribe messaging systems are ideally suited for use cases that require multiple consumers to receive each message, or those in which the order in which the messages are received and processed is crucial to maintaining a correct system state. Consider the case of stock price service that can be used by a large number of systems. Not only is it important that these services receive all the
- 15. messages, it is equally important that the price changes arrive in the correct order. Pulsar supports three different modes of subscriptions; exclusive, shared, and failover as illustrated in Figure 1.3 below: An exclusive subscription only permits a single consumer to attach to the subscription and consume the messages. This mode is used when you want to ensure that each message is processed exactly once, and by a known consumer. In contrast, shared subscriptions support multiple consumers with messages getting delivered in round robin fashion across all the consumers. While each message is processed only once, you are unable to determine which consumer will receive the message.
- 16. Figure 1.3 Pulsar’s Subscription Modes Failover subscriptions incorporate concepts from the previous two subscription modes. They allow multiple consumers to attach to the subscription like a shared subscription, but only one consumer is selected to receive the messages like an exclusive subscription. This configuration allows for you to provide a failover consumer to continue processing the messages in to topic in the event of a consumer failure. If the active consumer fails to process a message, Pulsar automatically fails over to the next consumer in the list and continues delivering the messages.
- 17. 1.1.2 Message Queuing Pulsar also supports messaging queuing, where incoming messages from multiple producers are queued up in the exact order that they arrive. Each message in the queue is processed by exactly one consumer as shown below in Figure 1.4. Due to its exactly-once processing guarantees, message queuing is ideal for work queue use cases. Figure 1.4 Message Queuing Message queues can easily support higher rates of consumption by scaling up the number of consumers in the event of a high number of backlogged messages. To ensure that a message is processed exactly once, each message must be removed from the queue after it has been successfully processed and acknowledged by the consumer. In the event of consumer failures (meaning no acknowledgement is received within a specified timeframe), the message will be resent at to another consumer. In such a scenario, the message will most likely be processed out of order. Therefore, message queues are well suited for use cases where it is critical that each message is processed
- 18. exactly once, but the order in which the messages is processed is not important. 1.2 Stream Native Processing Included with Apache Pulsar is a lightweight computing engine named “Pulsar Functions” which allows developers to deploy a simple function implementation in Java or Python. This feature allows users to enjoy the benefits of serverless computing, similar to AWS Lambda computing within an open-source messaging platform without being tied to a proprietary cloud providers API. This serverless lightweight computing framework allows you to apply processing logic to data as it is routed through the messaging system. Unlike other messaging systems which act a “dumb pipes” for moving data from system to system, Pulsar provides the capabilities to perform simple computations on the messages before they are routed to the consumers. While there isn’t an official definition, the term streaming processing generally refers to the processing of unbounded datasets that are stream in continuously from some source system. One of the key architectural decisions within a stream processing framework is how and when to process these endless datasets. There are three basic approaches to processing these datasets, batch processing, micro-batching, and streaming.
- 19. 1.2.1 Traditional Batching Historically, the vast majority of data processing frameworks have been designed for batch processing. Traditional data warehouses, Hadoop, and Spark are just a few common examples of systems that process large datasets in batches. Data is often fed into these systems via long-running and complex data pipelines or ETL pipelines, that cleanse, prepare, and format the incoming data for consumption. Messaging systems often serve as little more than intermediate buffers that store and route the data between the various processing stages of the pipeline. These long-running data ingestion pipelines are often comprised of multiple processing engines that are designed to process big datasets such as Apache Hive, Spark, and traditional SQL processing engines which are all designed to process static data. Therefore, in order to maximize the throughput of these frameworks, the streaming dataset gets processed accumulated into large batches before it is processed, as shown in Figure 1.5. What’s more, these resultant datasets are fed into other batching systems for additional processing. There are several drawbacks to this approach, but one of the biggest ones was the processing latency between a data element arrive and when it was processed. Users of these batch-oriented processing systems were often making decisions on old data and are not able to access information until several hours after the event that generated the data had occurred.
- 20. 1.2.2 Micro-Batching One technique that was introduced to address the processing latency that plagued more traditional batch processing engines was to dramatically reduce either the batch size or the processing interval. Even though the processing may occur more frequently, the data is still processed one batch at a time, so it is often referred to as micro-batching and is used by such processing frameworks as Spark Streaming or Apache Flink. In micro-batch processing, newly arriving data elements are collected into a logical group and then processed together at some point in time in the future as batch, as shown in Figure 1.5. Typically, the processing occurs at either a fixed time interval or when a certain amount of data has been collected. Figure 1.5 Batch Processing Cadence While this approach does decrease the processing latency between when a data element arrives and when it was processed, it still introduces artificial delays into the process
- 21. that compound as the complexity of the data pipeline increases. Consequently, even micro-batch processing applications cannot rely on consistent response times and need to account for delays between when the data arrived and when it has been processed. This makes batch processing more appropriate for use cases that do not require having the most recent data and can tolerate slower response times, whereas stream processing is better suited for use cases that require near real-time responsiveness such as fraud detection, real-time pricing, and system monitoring. 1.2.3 Stream Processing In Pulsar’s native stream processing framework, each new piece of data is processed when it arrives, as illustrated below in Figure 1.6. Unlike batch processing, there are no arbitrary processing intervals and each individual data element is processed separately. Figure 1.6 Stream Processing Cadence Although it may seem as though the differences between stream processing and micro-batch are just a matter of
- 22. timing, there implications for both the data processing systems and the applications that rely on them. The business value of data decreases rapidly after it is created, particularly in use cases such as fraud prevention or anomaly detection. The high-volume, high-velocity datasets used to feed these use cases often contain valuable, but perishable, insights that must be acted upon immediately. A fraudulent business transaction, such as transferring money or downloading licensed software must be identified and acted upon before the transaction completes, otherwise it will too late to prevent the thief from obtaining the funds illegally. In order to maximize the value of their data for these use cases, developers must fundamentally change their approach to processing real-time data by focusing on reducing the processing latency introduced from traditional batch processing frameworks and utilize a more reactive approach such as stream processing. 1.3 Scalable Storage Apache Pulsar’s Multi-layered architecture completely decouples the message serving layer from the message storage layer, allowing each to scale independently. Traditional distributed data processing technologies such as Hadoop and Spark have taken the approach of co-locating data processing and data storage on the same cluster nodes or instances. That design choice offered a simpler
- 23. infrastructure and some possible performance benefits due to reducing transfer of data over the network, but at the cost of a lot of tradeoffs that impact scalability, resiliency, and operations. Pulsar’s architecture takes a very different approach, one that’s starting to gain traction in a number of “cloud-native” solutions and that is made possible in part by the significant improvements in network bandwidth that are commonplace today, namely separation of compute and storage. Pulsar’s architecture decouples data serving and data storage into separate layers: data serving is handled by stateless “broker” nodes, while data storage is handled by “bookie” nodes as shown in Figure 1.7. This decoupling has many benefits. For one, it enables each layer to scale independently to provide infinite, elastic capacity. By leveraging the ability of elastic environments (such as cloud and containers) to automatically scale resources up and down, this architecture can dynamically adapt to traffic spikes. It also improves system availability and manageability by significantly reducing the complexity of cluster expansions and upgrades. Further, this design is container-friendly, making Pulsar the ideal technology for hosting a cloud native streaming system. Apache Pulsar is backed by a highly scalable, durable stream storage layer based on Apache BookKeeper that provides strong durability guarantees, distributed data storage and replication, and built-in geo-replication.
- 24. Figure 1.7: Decoupled Storage and Serving Layers A natural extension of the multi-layered approach approach is the concept of tiered storage in which less frequently accessed data can be offloaded to a more cost-effective persistence store such as S3 or Azure Cloud. Pulsar provides the ability to configure the automated offloaded of data from local disks in the storage layer to those popular cloud storage platforms. These offloads are triggered based upon a pre-defined storage size or time period and provide you with a safe backup of all your event data while simultaneously freeing up storage capacity on the local disk for incoming data. 1.4 Comparison to Apache Kafka Both Apache Kafka and Apache Pulsar have similar messaging concepts. Clients interact with both systems via topics that are logically separated into multiple partitions. When an unbounded data stream is written to a topic, it is often divided into a fixed number of equal sized groupings known as partitions. This allows the data to be even
- 25. distributed across the system and consumed by multiple clients concurrently. The fundamental difference between Apache Pulsar and Apache Kafka is the underlying architectural approach each system takes to storing these partitions. Apache Kafka is a partition-centric pub/sub system that is designed to run as a monolithic architecture in which the serving and storage layers are located on the same node. 1.4.1 Partition-Centric Storage in Kafka In Kafka, the partition data is stored as a single continuous piece of data on the leader node, and then replicated to a pre-configured number of replica nodes for redundancy. This design limits the capacity of the partition, and by extension the topic, in two ways; First off, since the partition must be stored on local disk, the maximum size of the partition is that of the largest single disk on the host machine (approximately 4TB in a “fresh” install scenario), secondly, since the data must be replicated the partition can only grow to the size of smallest amount of disk space on the replica nodes.
- 26. Figure 1.8: Kafka Partitions Let’s consider the scenario in which you were fortunate enough to have your leader be placed on a new node that can dedicate an entire 4TB disk to the storage of the partition, and the two replica nodes each only have 1TB of storage capacity. After you have published 1TB of data to the topic, Kafka would detect that the replica nodes are unable to receive any more data and all incoming messages on the topic would be halted until space is made available on the replica nodes, as shown in Figure 1.9 This scenario could potentially lead to data loss, if you have producers that are unable to buffer the messages during this outage. Once you have identified the issue, your only remedies are to either make more room on the existing replica nodes by deleting data from the disks, which will result in data loss,
- 27. since the data is from other topics and most likely has not been consumed yet. The other option is to add additional nodes to the Kafka cluster and “rebalance” the partition so that the newly added nodes will serve as the replicas. Unfortunately, this requires recopying the entire 1TB partition, which is an expensive, time-consuming, and error prone process that requires an enormous amount of network bandwidth and disk I/O. What’s worse is that the entire partition is completely offline during this process, which is not an ideal situation for a production application that has stringent uptime SLAs. Figure 1.9: Kafka Failure Scenario and Expansion Unfortunately, recopying of partition data isn't limited to only cluster expansion scenarios in Kafka. Several other failures
- 28. can trigger data recopying, including replica failures, disks failures, or machine failures. This limitation is often missed until users experience a failure in a production scenario. 1.4.2 Segment-Centric Storage in Pulsar Within a segment-centric storage architecture, such as the one used by Apache Pulsar, partitions are further broken down further into segments that are rolled over based on a pre-configured time or size limit. These segments are then even distributed across a number of bookies in the storage layer for redundancy and scale. Figure 1.10: Pulsar Segments
- 29. Let’s look at the behavior of Apache Pulsar in the previous scenario in which one of the bookies disks fills up and can no longer accept incoming data. Since the partition is further broken down into small segments, there is no need to replicate the content of the entire bookie to the newly added bookie. Instead, Pulsar would continue to write incoming message segments to the remaining bookies with storage capacity until the new bookie is added. At that point the traffic will instantly and automatically ramp up on new nodes or new partitions, and old data doesn’t have be recopied.
- 30. Figure 1.11: Pulsar failure scenario and expansion. As we can see in Figure 1.10, during the period between when the 4th bookie stopped accepting segments, incoming data segments 4, 5, 6, and 7 were routed to the remaining active bookies. Once the new bookie was added, segments were routed to it automatically. During this entire process, Pulsar experienced no downtime and was able to continue serving producers and consumers.
- 31. 1.5 Why Do I Need Pulsar? If you are just getting started with messaging or streaming data applications, you should definitely consider Apache Pulsar as a core component of your messaging infrastructure. However, it is worth noting that there are several technology options that you can choose from, several of which have become entrenched in the software community. In this section, I will attempt to bring to light some of the scenarios in which Apache Pulsar shines above the rest and clear up some common misconceptions about existing systems and point out some of the challenges users of these systems face. Within adoption cycles there are often several misconceptions about the entrenched technology that are often perpetuated throughout the user community for a multitude of reasons. It is often an uphill battle to convince yourself and others that you need to replace a technology that sits at the very core of your architecture. It is not until we have the benefit of hindsight that we see that our traditional database systems were fundamentally incapable of scaling to meet the demands imposed by our ever- increasing data and that we needed to rethink the way we store and process data with a framework such as Hadoop.
- 32. Only after we had transitioned our business analytics platforms from traditional data warehouses to Hadoop-based SQL engines such as Hive, Tez, and Impala, did we realize that those tools had inadequate response times for the end users who were used to sub-second response time. This gave rise to the rapid adoption of Apache Spark as the technology of choice for big data processing. I wanted to highlight these two recent technologies to remind us that we cannot let our affinity for the status quo blind us from issues lurking within our core architectural systems, at put forth the notion that we need to rethink our approach to messaging systems, as the incumbent technologies in this space, such as RabbitMQ and Kafka, suffer from key architectural flaws. The team that developed Apache Pulsar at Yahoo could have easily chosen to adopt one of the existing solutions, but after careful consideration decided not to do so because they needed a messaging platform that provided the following capabilities that weren’t available in the existing monolithic technologies: 1.5.1 Zero Data Loss There are several ways that a message can be lost within a traditional messaging system that is based upon a monolithic architecture, in which the serving and storage layers are co-located. As we discussed earlier, Apache Kafka uses partition replication to provide data resiliency, by keeping a copy of the data on a pre-defined number of nodes within a Kafka
- 33. Another Random Document on Scribd Without Any Related Topics
- 34. BASIL AND GREGORY "What are these discourses that you hold one with another, as you walk and are sad?" I The instruments raised up by Almighty God for the accomplishment of His purposes are of two kinds, equally gifted with faith and piety, but from natural temper and talent, education, or other circumstances, differing in the means by{5} which they promote their sacred cause. The first of these are men of acute and ready mind, with accurate knowledge of human nature, and large plans, and persuasive and attractive bearing, genial, sociable, and popular, endued with{10} prudence, patience, instinctive tact and decision in conducting matters, as well as boldness and zeal. Such in a measure we may imagine the single-minded, the intrepid, the much-enduring Hildebrand, who, at a time when society was{15} forming itself anew, was the Saviour, humanly speaking, of the City of God. Such, in an earlier age, was the majestic Ambrose; such the never-wearied Athanasius. These last-named luminaries of the Church came into public life early,{20} and thus learned how to cope with the various tempers, views, and measures of the men they encountered there. Athanasius was but twenty-seven when he went with Alexander to the Nicene Council, and the year after he was Bishop of Alexandria. Ambrose was consecrated soon after{5} the age of thirty.
- 35. Again, there is an instrument in the hand of Providence, of less elaborate and splendid workmanship, less rich in its political endowments, so to call them, yet not less beautiful in its{10} texture, nor less precious in its material. Such is the retired and thoughtful student, who remains years and years in the solitude of a college or a monastery, chastening his soul in secret, raising it to high thought and single-minded purpose,{15} and when at length called into active life, conducting himself with firmness, guilelessness, zeal like a flaming fire, and all the sweetness of purity and integrity. Such an one is often unsuccessful in his own day; he is too artless to persuade, too{20} severe to please; unskilled in the weaknesses of human nature, unfurnished in the resources of ready wit, negligent of men's applause, unsuspicious, open-hearted, he does his work, and so leaves it; and it seems to die; but in the{25} generation after him it lives again, and on the long run it is difficult to say which of the two classes of men has served the cause of truth the more effectually. Such, perhaps, was Basil, who issued from the solitudes of Pontus to rule like a king,{30} and minister like the lowest in the kingdom; yet to meet little but disappointment, and to quit life prematurely in pain and sorrow. Such was his friend, the accomplished Gregory, however different in other respects from him, who left his father's roof for an heretical city, raised a church{5} there, and was driven back into retirement by his own people, as soon as his triumph over the false creed was secured. Such, perhaps, St. Peter Damiani in the middle age; such St. Anselm, such St. Edmund. No comparison is, of course,{10} attempted here between the religious excellence
- 36. of the two descriptions of men; each of them serves God according to the peculiar gifts given to him. If we might continue our instances by way of comparison, we should say that St.{15} Paul reminds us of the former, and Jeremiah of the latter.... It often happens that men of very dissimilar talents and tastes are attracted together by their very dissimilitude. They live in intimacy for a{20} time, perhaps a long time, till their circumstances alter, or some sudden event comes, to try them. Then the peculiarities of their respective minds are brought out into action; and quarrels ensue, which end in coolness or separation. It would{25} not be right or true to say that this is exemplified in the instance of the two blessed Apostles, whose "sharp contention" is related in the Book of Acts; for they had been united in spirit once for all by a Divine gift; and yet their strife reminds{30} us of what takes place in life continually. And it so far resembled the everyday quarrels of friends, in that it arose from difference of temper and character in those favored servants of God. The zealous heart of the Apostle of the Gentiles endured not the presence of one who had swerved{5} in his course; the indulgent spirit of Barnabas felt that a first fault ought not to be a last trial. Such are the two main characters which are found in the Church,—high energy, and sweetness of temper; far from incompatible, of course, united{10} in Apostles, though in different relative proportions, yet only partially combined in ordinary Christians, and often altogether parted from each other.
- 37. This contrast of character, leading, first, to{15} intimacy, then to differences, is interestingly displayed, though painfully, in one passage of the history of Basil and Gregory: Gregory the affectionate, the tender-hearted, the man of quick feelings, the accomplished, the eloquent{20} preacher,—and Basil, the man of firm resolve and hard deeds, the high-minded ruler of Christ's flock, the diligent laborer in the field of ecclesiastical politics. Thus they differed; yet not as if they had not much in common still; both had the{25} blessing and the discomfort of a sensitive mind; both were devoted to an ascetic life; both were men of classical tastes; both were special champions of the Catholic creed; both were skilled in argument, and successful in their use of it;{30} both were in highest place in the Church, the one Exarch of Cæsarea, the other Patriarch of Constantinople. I will now attempt to sketch the history of their intimacy. II Basil and Gregory were both natives of Cappadocia, but here, again, under different{5} circumstances; Basil was born of a good family, and with Christian ancestors: Gregory was the son of the Bishop of Nazianzus, who had been brought up an idolater, or rather an Hypsistarian, a mongrel sort of religionist, part Jew, part Pagan.{10} He was brought over to Christianity by the efforts of his wife Nonna, and at Nazianzus admitted by baptism into the Church. In process of time he was made bishop of that city; but not having a very firm hold of the faith, he was betrayed in{15} 360 into signing the Ariminian creed, which caused
- 38. him much trouble, and from which at length his son recovered him. Cæsarea being at no unsurmountable distance from Nazianzus, the two friends had known each other in their own country;{20} but their intimacy began at Athens, whither they separately repaired for the purposes of education. This was about A.D. 350, when each of them was twenty-one years of age. Gregory came to the seat of learning shortly before Basil,{25} and thus was able to be his host and guide on his arrival; but fame had reported Basil's merits before he came, and he seems to have made his way, in a place of all others most difficult to a stranger, with a facility peculiar to himself. He soon found himself admired and respected by his fellow-students; but Gregory was his only friend, and shared with him the reputation of{5} talents and attainments. They remained at Athens four or five years; and, at the end of the time, made the acquaintance of Julian, since of evil name in history as the Apostate. Gregory thus describes in after life his early intimacy{10} with Basil: "Athens and letters followed on my stage; Others may tell how I encountered them;— How in the fear of God, and foremost found Of those who knew a more than mortal lore;—{15} And how, amid the venture and the rush Of maddened youth with youth in rivalry, My tranquil course ran like some fabled spring, Which bubbles fresh beneath the turbid brine; Not drawn away by those who lure to ill,{20} But drawing dear ones to the better part. There, too, I gained a further gift of God, Who made me friends with one of wisdom high,
- 39. Without compeer in learning and in life. Ask ye his name?—in sooth, 'twas Basil, since{25} My life's great gain,—and then my fellow dear In home, and studious search, and knowledge earned. May I not boast how in our day we moved A truest pair, not without name in Greece; Had all things common, and one only soul{30} In lodgment of a double outward frame? Our special bond, the thought of God above, And the high longing after holy things. And each of us was bold to trust in each, Unto the emptying of our deepest hearts; And then we loved the more, for sympathy Pleaded in each, and knit the twain in one." The friends had been educated for rhetoricians, and their oratorical powers were such, that they{5} seemed to have every prize in prospect which a secular ambition could desire. Their names were known far and wide, their attainments acknowledged by enemies, and they themselves personally popular in their circle of acquaintance. It was{10} under these circumstances that they took the extraordinary resolution of quitting the world together,—extraordinary the world calls it, utterly perplexed to find that any conceivable objects can, by any sane person, be accounted{15} better than its own gifts and favors. They resolved to seek baptism of the Church, and to consecrate their gifts to the service of the Giver. With characters of mind very different—the one grave, the other lively; the one desponding,{20} the other sanguine; the one with deep feelings, the other with feelings acute and warm;—they agreed together in holding, that the things that are seen are not to be compared to the things that
- 40. are not seen. They quitted the world, while it{25} entreated them to stay. What passed when they were about to leave Athens represents as in a figure the parting which they and the world took of each other. When the day of valediction arrived, their companions{30} and equals, nay, some of their tutors, came about them, and resisted their departure by entreaties, arguments, and even by violence. This occasion showed, also, their respective dispositions; for the firm Basil persevered, and went; the tender-hearted Gregory was softened, and stayed awhile{5} longer. Basil, indeed, in spite of the reputation which attended him, had, from the first, felt disappointment with the celebrated abode of philosophy and literature; and seems to have given up the world from a simple conviction of its emptiness.{10} "He," says Gregory, "according to the way of human nature, when, on suddenly falling in with what we hoped to be greater, we find it less than its fame, experienced some such feeling, began to be sad, grew impatient, and could not congratulate himself on his place of residence.{15} He sought an object which hope had drawn for him; and he called Athens 'hollow blessedness.'" Gregory himself, on the contrary, looked at things more cheerfully; as the succeeding sentences show.{20} "Thus Basil; but I removed the greater part of his sorrow, meeting it with reason, and smoothing it with reflections, and saying (what was most true) that character is not at once understood, nor except by long time and perfect intimacy; nor are studies estimated, by{25}
- 41. those who are submitted to them, on a brief trial and by slight evidence. Thus I reassured him, and by continual trials of each other, I bound myself to him." —Orat. 43. III Yet Gregory had inducements of his own to{30} leave the world, not to insist on his love of Basil's company. His mother had devoted him to God, both before and after his birth; and when he was a child he had a remarkable dream, which made a great impression upon him. "While I was asleep," he says in one of his poems,{5} which runs thus in prose, "a dream came to me, which drew me readily to the desire of chastity. Two virgin forms, in white garments, seemed to shine close to me. Both were fair and of one age, and their ornament lay in their want of ornament, which is a woman's beauty.{10} No gold adorned their neck, nor jacinth; nor had they the delicate spinning of the silkworm. Their fair robe was bound with a girdle, and it reached down to their ankles. Their head and face were concealed by a veil, and their eyes were fixed on the ground. The fair glow{15} of modesty was on both of them, as far as could be seen under their thick covering. Their lips were closed in silence, as the rose in its dewy leaves. When I saw them, I rejoiced much; for I said that they were far more than mortals. And they in turn kept kissing me,{20} while I drew light from their lips, fondling me as a dear son. And when I asked who and whence the women were, the one answered, 'Purity,' the other, 'Sobriety'; 'We stand by Christ, the King, and delight in the beauty of the celestial virgins. Come, then, child, unite thy{25} mind to our mind, thy light to our light; so shall we carry
- 42. thee aloft in all brightness through the air, and place thee by the radiance of the immortal Trinity.'" —Carm. p. 930. He goes on to say, that he never lost the{30} impression this made upon him, as "a spark of heavenly fire," or "a taste of divine milk and honey." As far, then, as these descriptions go, one might say that Gregory's abandonment of the world arose from an early passion, as it may be called, for a purity higher than his own nature; and Basil's, from a profound sense of the world's nothingness and the world's defilements. Both{5} seem to have viewed it as a sort of penitential exercise, as well as a means towards perfection. When they had once resolved to devote themselves to the service of religion, the question arose, how they might best improve and employ{10} the talents committed to them. Somehow, the idea of marrying and taking orders, or taking orders and marrying, building or improving their parsonages, and showing forth the charities, the humanities, and the gentilities of a family man,{15} did not suggest itself to their minds. They fancied that they must give up wife, children, property, if they would be perfect; and, this being taken for granted, that their choice lay between two modes of life, both of which they regarded as{20} extremes. Here, then, for a time, they were in some perplexity. Gregory speaks of two ascetic disciplines, that of the solitary or hermit, and that of the secular;[27] one of which, he says, profits a man's self, the other his neighbor. Midway,{25}
- 43. however, between these lay the Cœnobite, or what we commonly call the monastic; removed from the world, yet acting in a certain select circle. And this was the rule which the friends at length determined to adopt, withdrawing from{30} mixed society in order to be of the greater service to it. [27] [Greek: azyges] and [Greek: migades]. The following is the passage in which Gregory describes the life which was the common choice of both of them:{5} "Fierce was the whirlwind of my storm-toss'd mind, Searching,'mid holiest ways, a holier still. Long had I nerved me, in the depths to sink Thoughts of the flesh, and then more strenuously. Yet, while I gazed upon diviner aims,{10} I had not wit to single out the best: For, as is aye the wont in things of earth, Each had its evil, each its nobleness. I was the pilgrim of a toilsome course, Who had o'erpast the waves, and now look'd round,{15} With anxious eye, to track his road by land. Then did the awful Thesbite's image rise, His highest Carmel, and his food uncouth; The Baptist wealthy in his solitude; And the unencumbered sons of Jonadab.{20} But soon I felt the love of holy books, The spirit beaming bright in learned lore, Which deserts could not hear, nor silence tell. Long was the inward strife, till ended thus:— I saw, when men lived in the fretful world,{25} They vantaged other men, but risked the while The calmness and the pureness of their hearts.
- 44. They who retired held an uprighter port, And raised their eyes with quiet strength towards heaven; Yet served self only, unfraternally.{30} And so, 'twixt these and those, I struck my path, To meditate with the free solitary, Yet to live secular, and serve mankind." AUGUSTINE AND THE VANDALS "The just perisheth, and no man layeth it to heart; and men of mercy are taken away, for there is none to understand; for the just man is taken away from before the face of evil." I I began by directing the reader's attention to the labors of two great bishops, who restored the faith of Christianity where it had long been obscured. Now, I will put before him, by way of contrast, a scene of the overthrow of{5} religion,—the extinction of a candlestick,—effected, too, by champions of the same heretical creed which Basil and Gregory successfully resisted. It will be found in the history of the last days of the great Augustine, Bishop of Hippo, in Africa.{10} The truth triumphed in the East by the power of preaching; it was extirpated in the South by the edge of the sword. Though it may not be given us to appropriate the prophecies of the Apocalypse to the real{15} events to which they belong, yet it is impossible to read its inspired pages, and then to turn to the dissolution of the Roman empire, without
- 45. seeing a remarkable agreement, on the whole, between the calamities of that period and the{20} sacred prediction. There is a plain announcement in the inspired page, of "Woe, woe, woe, to the inhabitants of the earth"; an announcement of "hail and fire mingled with blood," the conflagration of "trees and green grass," the destruction of ships, the darkening of the sun, and the{5} poisoning of the rivers over a third of their course. There is a clear prophecy of revolutions on the face of the earth and in the structure of society. And, on the other hand, let us observe how fully such general foretokenings are borne out, among{10} other passages of history, in the Vandalic conquest of Africa. The coast of Africa, between the great desert and the Mediterranean, was one of the most fruitful and opulent portions of the Roman world.{15} The eastern extremity of it was more especially connected with the empire, containing in it Carthage, Hippo, and other towns, celebrated as being sees of the Christian Church, as well as places of civil importance. In the spring of the{20} year 428, the Vandals, Arians by creed, and barbarians by birth and disposition, crossed the Straits of Gibraltar, and proceeded along this fertile district, bringing with them devastation and captivity on every side. They abandoned{25} themselves to the most savage cruelties and excesses. They pillaged, ravaged, burned, massacred all that came in their way, sparing not even the fruit trees, which might have afforded some poor food to the remnant of the population, who{30} had escaped from them into caves, the recesses of the mountains, or into vaults. Twice did this
- 46. desolating pestilence sweep over the face of the country. The fury of the Vandals was especially exercised towards the memorials of religion. Churches,{5} cemeteries, monasteries, were objects of their fiercest hatred and most violent assaults. They broke into the places of worship, cut to pieces all internal decorations, and then set fire to them. They tortured bishops and clergy with the hope of{10} obtaining treasure. The names of some of the victims of their ferocity are preserved. Mansuetus, Bishop of Utica, was burnt alive; Papinianus, Bishop of Vite, was laid upon red-hot plates of iron. This was near upon the time when the{15} third General Council was assembling at Ephesus, which, from the insecure state of the roads, and the universal misery which reigned among them, the African bishops were prevented from attending. The Clergy, the religious brotherhoods, the{20} holy virgins, were scattered all over the country. The daily sacrifice was stopped, the sacraments could not be obtained, the festivals of the Church passed unnoticed. At length, only three cities remained unvisited by the general{25} desolation,—Carthage, Hippo, and Cirtha. II Hippo was the see of St. Austin, then seventy-four years of age (forty almost of which had been passed in ministerial labors), and warned, by the law of nature, of the approach of dissolution. It was as if the light of prosperity and peace were fading away from the African Church, as sank the bodily powers of its great earthly
- 47. ornament and stay. At this time, when the terrors{5} of the barbaric invasion spread on all sides, a bishop wrote to him to ask whether it was allowable for the ruler of a Church to leave the scene of his pastoral duties in order to save his life. Different opinions had heretofore been expressed on{10} this question. In Augustine's own country Tertullian had maintained that flight was unlawful, but he was a Montanist when he so wrote. On the other hand, Cyprian had actually fled, and had defended his conduct when questioned by{15} the clergy of Rome. His contemporaries, Dionysius of Alexandria, and Gregory of Neocæsarea, had fled also; as had Polycarp before them, and Athanasius after them. Athanasius also had to defend his flight, and he{20} defended it, in a work still extant, thus: First, he observes, it has the sanction of numerous Scripture precedents. Thus, in the instance of confessors under the old covenant, Jacob fled from Esau, Moses from Pharao, David from Saul;{25} Elias concealed himself from Achab three years, and the sons of the prophets were hid by Abdias in a cave from Jezebel. In like manner under the Gospel, the disciples hid themselves for fear of the Jews, and St. Paul was let down in a basket{30} over the wall at Damascus. On the other hand, no instance can be adduced of overboldness and headstrong daring in the saints of Scripture. But our Lord Himself is the chief exemplar of fleeing from persecution. As a child in arms He had to flee into Egypt. When He returned, He{5} still shunned Judea, and retired to Nazareth. After raising Lazarus, on the Jews seeking His life, "He walked no more openly among them,"
- 48. but retreated to the neighborhood of the desert. When they took up stones to cast at Him, He{10} hid Himself; when they attempted to cast Him down headlong, He made His way through them; when He heard of the Baptist's death, He retired across the lake into a desert place, apart. If it be said that He did so, because His time was not{15} yet come, and that when it was come, He delivered up Himself, we must ask, in reply, how a man can know that his time is come, so as to have a right to act as Christ acted? And since we do not know, we must have patience; and,{20} till God by His own act determines the time, we must "wander in sheepskins and goatskins," rather than take the matter into our own hands; as even Saul, the persecutor, was left by David in the hands of God, whether He would "strike{25} him, or his day should come to die, or he should go down to battle and perish." If God's servants, proceeds Athanasius, have at any time presented themselves before their persecutors, it was at God's command: thus Elias{30} showed himself to Achab; so did the prophet from Juda, to Jeroboam; and St. Paul appealed to Cæsar. Flight, so far from implying cowardice, requires often greater courage than not to flee. It is a greater trial of heart. Death is an end of all trouble; he who flees is ever expecting{5} death, and dies daily. Job's life was not to be touched by Satan, yet was not his fortitude shown in what he suffered? Exile is full of miseries. The after-conduct of the saints showed they had not fled for fear. Jacob, on his{10} death-bed, contemned death, and blessed each of the twelve Patriarchs; Moses returned, and
- 49. presented himself before Pharao; David was a valiant warrior; Elias rebuked Achab and Ochazias; Peter and Paul, who had once hid{15} themselves, offered themselves to martyrdom at Rome. And so acceptable was the previous flight of these men to Almighty God, that we read of His showing them some special favor during it. Then it was that Jacob had the{20} vision of Angels; Moses saw the burning bush; David wrote his prophetic Psalms; Elias raised the dead, and gathered the people on Mount Carmel. How would the Gospel ever have been preached throughout the world, if the Apostles{25} had not fled? And, since their time, those, too, who have become martyrs, at first fled; or, if they advanced to meet their persecutors, it was by some secret suggestion of the Divine Spirit. But, above all, while these instances abundantly{30} illustrate the rule of duty in persecution, and the temper of mind necessary in those who observe it, we have that duty itself declared in a plain precept by no other than our Lord: "When they shall persecute you in this city," He says, "flee into another;" and "let them that are in Judea{5} flee unto the mountains." Thus argues the great Athanasius, living in spirit with the saints departed, while full of labor and care here on earth. For the arguments on the other side, let us turn to a writer,{10} not less vigorous in mind, but less subdued in temper. Thus writes Tertullian on the same subject, then a Montanist, a century and a half earlier: Nothing happens, he says, without God's will. Persecution is sent by Him, to put{15} His servants to the test; to divide between good
- 50. and bad: it is a trial; what man has any right to interfere? He who gives the prize, alone can assign the combat. Persecution is more than permitted, it is actually appointed by Almighty{20} God. It does the Church much good, as leading Christians to increased seriousness while it lasts. It comes and goes at God's ordering. Satan could not touch Job, except so far as God gave permission. He could not touch the Apostles,{25} except as far as an opening was allowed in the words, "Satan hath desired to have you, but I have prayed for thee," Peter, "and thou, being once converted, confirm thy brethren." We pray, "Lead us not into temptation, but deliver{30} us from evil;" why, if we may deliver ourselves? Satan is permitted access to us, either for punishment, as in Saul's case, or for our chastisement. Since the persecution comes from God, we may not lawfully avoid it, nor can we avoid it. We cannot, because He is all powerful; we must not,{5} because He is all good. We should leave the matter entirely to God. As to the command of fleeing from city to city, this was temporary. It was intended to secure the preaching of the Gospel to the nations. While the Apostles preached{10} to the Jews,—till they had preached to the Gentiles,—they were to flee; but one might as well argue, that we now are not to go "into the way of the Gentiles," but to confine ourselves to "the lost sheep of the house of Israel," as that{15} we are now to "flee from city to city." Nor, indeed, was going from city to city a flight; it was a continued preaching; not an accident, but a rule: whether persecuted or not, they were to go about; and before they had gone through the{20} cities of Israel, the Lord was to come. The
- 51. command contemplated only those very cities. If St. Paul escaped out of "Damascus by night, yet afterwards, against the prayers of the disciples and the prophecy of Agabus, he went up to{25} Jerusalem. Thus the command to flee did not last even through the lifetime of the Apostles; and, indeed, why should God introduce persecution, if He bids us retire from it? This is imputing inconsistency to His acts. If we want texts to{30} justify our not fleeing, He says, "Whoso shall confess Me before men, I will confess him before My Father." "Blessed are they that suffer persecution;" "He that shall persevere to the end, he shall be saved;" "Be not afraid of them that kill the body;" "Whosoever does not carry his{5} cross and come after Me, cannot be My disciple." How are these texts fulfilled when a man flees. Christ, who is our pattern, did not more than pray, "If it be possible, let this chalice pass:" we, too, should both stay and pray as He did.{10} And it is expressly told us, that "We also ought to lay down our lives for the brethren." Again, it is said, "Perfect charity casteth out fear;" he who flees, fears; he who fears, "is not perfected in charity." The Greek proverb is sometimes{15} urged, "He who flees, will fight another day;" yes, and he may flee another day, also. Again, if bishops, priests, and deacons flee, why must the laity stay? or must they flee also? "The good shepherd," on the contrary, "layeth down{20} his life for his sheep"; whereas, the bad shepherd "seeth the wolf coming, and leaveth the sheep, and fleeth." At no time, as Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Zechariah tell us, is the flock in greater danger of being scattered than when it loses its{25} shepherd. Tertullian ends thus: "This doctrine, my
- 52. brother, perhaps appears to you hard; nay, intolerable. But recollect that God has said, 'He that can take, let him take it;' that is, he who receives it not, let him depart. He who fears to{30} suffer cannot belong to Him who has suffered. He who does not fear to suffer is perfect in love, that is, of God. Many are called, few are chosen. Not he who would walk the broad way is sought out by God, but he who walks the narrow." Thus the ingenious and vehement Tertullian.{5} III With these remarks for and against flight in persecution, we shall be prepared to listen to Augustine on the subject; I have said, it was brought under his notice by a brother bishop, with reference to the impending visitation of the{10} barbarians. His answer happily is preserved to us, and extracts from it shall now be set before the reader. "To his Holy Brothers and Fellow-bishop Honoratus, Augustine sends Health in the Lord "I thought the copy of my letter to our brother Quodvultdeus, which I sent to you, would have been{15} sufficient, dear brother, without the task you put on me of counseling you on the proper course to pursue under our existing dangers. It was certainly a short letter; yet I included every question which it was necessary to ask and answer, when I said that no persons were{20} hindered from retiring to such fortified places as they were able and desirous to secure; while, on the other hand, we might not break the bonds of our ministry, by which the love of Christ has engaged us not to desert the Church,
- 53. where we are bound to serve. The following is what I{25} laid down in the letter I refer to: 'It remains, then,' I say, 'that, though God's people in the place where we are be ever so few, yet, if it does stay, we, whose ministration is necessary to its staying, must say to the Lord, Thou art our strong rock and place of defense.' "But you tell me that this view is not sufficient for you, from an apprehension lest we should be running counter to our Lord's command and example, to flee{5} from city to city. Yet is it conceivable that He meant that our flocks, whom He bought with His own blood, should be deprived of that necessary ministration without which they cannot live? Is He a precedent for this, who was carried in flight into Egypt by His parents{10} when but a child, before He had formed Churches which we can talk of His leaving? Or, when St. Paul was let down in a basket through a window, lest the enemy should seize him, and so escaped his hands, was the Church of that place bereft of its necessary ministration, seeing{15} there were other brethren stationed there to fulfill what was necessary? Evidently it was their wish that he, who was the direct object of the persecutors' search, should preserve himself for the sake of the Church. Let then, the servants of Christ, the ministers of His{20} word and sacraments, do in such cases as He enjoined or permitted. Let such of them, by all means, flee from city to city, as are special objects of persecution; so that they who are not thus attacked desert not the Church, but give meat to those their fellow-servants,{25} who they know cannot live without it. But in a case when all classes—I mean bishops, clergy, and people—are in some common danger, let not those who need the aid of others be deserted by those whom they need. Either let one and all remove into some fortified place, or, if{30}
- 54. any are obliged to remain, let them not be abandoned by those who have to supply their ecclesiastical necessity, so that they may survive in common, or suffer in common what their Father decrees they should undergo." Then he makes mention of the argument of a{35} certain bishop, that "if our Lord has enjoined upon us flight, in persecutions which may ripen into martyrdom, much more is it necessary to flee from barren sufferings in a barbarian and hostile invasion," and he says, "this is true and reasonable, in the case of such as have no{5} ecclesiastical office to tie them"; but he continues: "Why should men make no question about obeying the precept of fleeing from city to city, and yet have no dread of 'the hireling who seeth the wolf coming, and fleeth, because he careth not for the sheep'? Why do{10} they not try to reconcile (as they assuredly can) these two incontrovertible declarations of our Lord, one of which suffers and commands flight, the other arraigns and condemns it? And what other mode is there of reconciling them than that which I have above laid down?{15} viz., that we, the ministers of Christ, who are under the pressure of persecution, are then at liberty to leave our posts, when no flock is left for us to serve; or again, when, though there be a flock, yet there are others to supply our necessary ministry, who have not the same{20} reason for fleeing,—as in the case of St. Paul; or, again, of the holy Athanasius, bishop of Alexandria, who was especially sought after by the emperor Constantius, while the Catholic people, who remained together in Alexandria, were in no measure deserted by the{25} other ministers. But when the people remain, and the ministers flee, and the ministration is suspended, what is that but the guilty flight of hirelings, who care not for
- 55. the sheep? For then the wolf will come,—not man, but the devil, who is accustomed to persuade such believers{30} to apostasy, who are bereft of the daily ministration of the Lord's Body; and by your, not knowledge, but ignorance of duty, the weak brother will perish, for whom Christ died. "Let us only consider, when matters come to an{35} extremity of danger, and there is no longer any means of escape, how persons flock together to the Church, of both sexes, and all ages, begging for baptism, or reconciliation, or even for works of penance, and one and all of them for consolation, and the consecration and{5} application of the sacraments. Now, if ministers are wanting, what ruin awaits those, who depart from this life unregenerate or unabsolved! Consider the grief of their believing relatives, who will not have them as partakers with themselves in the rest of eternal life;{10} consider the anguish of the whole multitude, nay, the cursings of some of them, at the absence of ministration and ministers. "It may be said, however, that the ministers of God ought to avoid such imminent perils, in order to{15} preserve themselves for the profit of the Church for more tranquil times. I grant it where others are present to supply the ecclesiastical ministry, as in the case of Athanasius. How necessary it was to the Church, how beneficial, that such a man should remain in the flesh, the{20} Catholic faith bears witness, which was maintained against the Arians by his voice and his love. But when there is a common danger, and when there is rather reason to apprehend lest a man should be thought to flee, not from purpose of prudence, but from dread of{25} dying, and when the example of flight does more harm than the service of living does good, it is by no means
- 56. to be done. To be brief, holy David withdrew himself from the hazard of war, lest perchance he should 'quench the light of Israel,' at the instance of his people, not on{30} his own motion. Otherwise, he would have occasioned many imitators of an inactivity which they had in that case ascribed, not to regard for the welfare of others, but to cowardice." Then he goes on to a further question, what is{35} to be done in a case where all ministers are likely to perish, unless some of them take to flight? or when persecution is set on foot only with the view of reaching the ministers of the Church? This leads him to exclaim: "O, that there may be then a quarrel between God's{5} ministers, who are to remain, and who to flee, lest the Church should be deserted, whether by all fleeing or all dying! Surely there will ever be such a quarrel, where each party burns in its own charity, yet indulges the charity of the other. In such a difficulty, the lot seems{10} the fairest decision, in default of others. God judges better than man in perplexities of this sort; whether it be His will to reward the holier among them with the crown of martyrdom, and to spare the weak, or again, to strengthen the latter to endure evil, removing those{15} from life whom the Church of God can spare the better. Should it, however, seem inexpedient to cast lots,—a measure for which I cannot bring precedent,—at least, let no one's flight be the cause of the Church's losing those ministrations which, in such dangers, are{20} so necessary and so imperative. Let no one make himself an exception, on the plea of having some particular grace, which gives him a claim to life, and therefore to flight.
- 57. "It is sometimes supposed that bishops and clergy,{25} remaining at their posts in dangers of this kind, mislead their flocks into staying, by their example. But it is easy for us to remove this objection or imputation, by frankly telling them not to be misled by our remaining. 'We are remaining for your sake,' we must say, 'lest you{30} should fail to obtain such ministration, as we know to be necessary to your salvation in Christ. Make your escape, and you will then set us free.' The occasion for saying this is when there seems some real advantage in retiring to a safer position. Should all or some make{35} answer, 'We are in His hands from whose anger no one can flee anywhere; whose mercy every one may find everywhere, though he stir not, whether some necessary tie detains him, or the uncertainty of safe escape deters him'; most undoubtedly such persons are not to be left destitute of Christian ministrations.{5} "I have written these lines, dearest brother, in truth, as I think, and in sure charity, by way of reply, since you have consulted me; but not as dictating, if, perchance, you may find some better view to guide you. However, better we cannot do in these perils than pray the Lord{10} our God to have mercy upon us."—Ep. 228. IV The luminous judgment, the calm faith, and the single-minded devotion which this letter exhibits, were fully maintained in the conduct of the far-famed writer, in the events which{15} followed. It was written on the first entrance of the Vandals into Africa, about two years before they laid siege to Hippo; and during this interval of dreadful suspense and excitement, as well as of actual suffering, amid the desolation of the{20}
- 58. Church around him, with the prospect of his own personal trials, we find this unwearied teacher carrying on his works of love by pen, and word of mouth,—eagerly, as knowing his time was short, but tranquilly, as if it were a season of{25} prosperity.... His life had been for many years one of great anxiety and discomfort, the life of one dissatisfied with himself, and despairing of finding the truth. Men of ordinary minds are not so circumstanced{30} as to feel the misery of irreligion. That misery consists in the perverted and discordant action of the various faculties and functions of the soul, which have lost their legitimate governing power, and are unable to regain it, except at the hands{5} of their Maker. Now the run of irreligious men do not suffer in any great degree from this disorder, and are not miserable; they have neither great talents nor strong passions; they have not within them the materials of rebellion in such{10} measure as to threaten their peace. They follow their own wishes, they yield to the bent of the moment, they act on inclination, not on principle, but their motive powers are neither strong nor various enough to be troublesome. Their minds{15} are in no sense under rule; but anarchy is not in their case a state of confusion, but of deadness; not unlike the internal condition as it is reported of eastern cities and provinces at present, in which, though the government is weak or null,{20} the body politic goes on without any great embarrassment or collision of its members one with another, by the force of inveterate habit. It is very different when the moral and intellectual principles are vigorous, active, and developed.{25}
- 59. Then, if the governing power be feeble, all the subordinates are in the position of rebels in arms; and what the state of a mind is under such circumstances, the analogy of a civil community will suggest to us. Then we have before us the{30} melancholy spectacle of high aspirations without an aim, a hunger of the soul unsatisfied, and a never ending restlessness and inward warfare of its various faculties. Gifted minds, if not submitted to the rightful authority of religion, become the most unhappy and the most mischievous.{5} They need both an object to feed upon, and the power of self-mastery; and the love of their Maker, and nothing but it, supplies both the one and the other. We have seen in our own day, in the case of a popular poet, an impressive instance{10} of a great genius throwing off the fear of God, seeking for happiness in the creature, roaming unsatisfied from one object to another, breaking his soul upon itself, and bitterly confessing and imparting his wretchedness to all around him.{15} I have no wish at all to compare him to St. Augustine; indeed, if we may say it without presumption, the very different termination of their trial seems to indicate some great difference in their respective modes of encountering it. The one{20} dies of premature decay, to all appearance, a hardened infidel; and if he is still to have a name, will live in the mouths of men by writings at once blasphemous and immoral: the other is a Saint and Doctor of the Church. Each makes{25} confessions, the one to the saints, the other to the powers of evil. And does not the difference of the two discover itself in some measure, even to our eyes, in the very history of their wanderings and pinings? At least, there is no appearance in{30}
- 60. St. Augustine's case of that dreadful haughtiness, sullenness, love of singularity, vanity, irritability, and misanthropy, which were too certainly the characteristics of our own countryman. Augustine was, as his early history shows, a man of affectionate and tender feelings, and open and{5} amiable temper; and, above all, he sought for some excellence external to his own mind, instead of concentrating all his contemplations on himself. But let us consider what his misery was; it was that of a mind imprisoned, solitary, and wild{10} with spiritual thirst; and forced to betake itself to the strongest excitements, by way of relieving itself of the rush and violence of feelings, of which the knowledge of the Divine Perfections was the true and sole sustenance. He ran into excess,{15} not from love of it, but from this fierce fever of mind. "I sought what I might love,"[28] he says in his Confessions, "in love with loving, and safety I hated, and a way without snares. For within me was a famine of that inward food, Thyself,{20} my God; yet throughout that famine I was not hungered, but was without any longing for incorruptible sustenance, not because filled therewith, but the more empty, the more I loathed it. For this cause my soul was sickly and full of sores; it{25} miserably cast itself forth, desiring to be scraped by the touch of objects of sense."—iii. I.
- 61. [28] Most of these translations are from the Oxford edition of 1838. "O foolish man that I then was," he says elsewhere, "enduring impatiently the lot of man! So I fretted, sighed, wept, was distracted; had neither rest nor counsel. For I bore about a shattered and bleeding soul, impatient of being borne by me, yet where to repose it I found not; not in calm groves, nor in games and music, nor in fragrant spots, nor in curious banquetings,{5} nor in indulgence of the bed and the couch, nor, finally, in books or poetry found it repose. All things looked ghastly, yea, the very light. In groaning and tears alone found I a little refreshment. But when my soul was withdrawn from them, a huge load of misery weighed me down.{10} To Thee, O Lord, it ought to have been raised, for Thee to lighten; I knew it, but neither could, nor would; the more, since when I thought of Thee, Thou wast not to me any solid or substantial thing. For Thou wert not Thyself, but a mere phantom, and my error was my God.{15} If I offered to discharge my load thereon, that it might rest, it glided through the void, and came rushing down against me; and I had remained to myself a hapless spot, where I could neither be, nor be from thence. For whither should my heart flee from my heart? whither{20} should I flee from myself? whither not follow myself? And yet I fled out of my country; for so should mine eyes look less for him, where they were not wont to see him."—iv. 12. He is speaking in this last sentence of a friend he{25} had lost, whose death-bed was very remarkable, and whose dear familiar name he apparently has not courage to mention. "He had grown from a child with me," he says, "and we had been both schoolfellows and playfellows." Augustine had{30}
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