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Architects Data 4th Edition Ernst Neufert Peter Neufert

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Architects Data 4th Edition Ernst Neufert Peter Neufert Architects Data 4th Edition Ernst Neufert Peter Neufert Architects Data 4th Edition Ernst Neufert Peter Neufert

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Architects Data 4th Edition Ernst Neufert Peter Neufert
Architects Data 4th Edition Ernst Neufert Peter Neufert
Ernst and Peter Neufert llliii I Fourth Edition Updated by Professor Johannes Kister on behalf of the Neufert Foundation with support from the University of Anhalt Dessau Bauhaus (Dipl. lng. Mathias Brockhaus, Dipl. lng. Matthias Lohmann and Dipl. lng. Patricia Merkel) TRANSLATED BY DAVID STURGE (5BWILEY-BLACKWELL A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication
English language first published 2012 © 2012 Blackwell Publishing Ltd Blackwell Publishing was acquired by John Wiley & Sons in February 2007. Blackwell's publishing program has been merged with Wiley's global Scientific, Technical and Medical business to form Wiley-Blackwell. Registered office: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, P019 8SQ, UK Editorial offices: 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UK The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, P019 8SQ, UK 2121 State Avenue, Ames, Iowa 50014-8300, USA For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at www.wiley.com/wiley-blackwell. The right of the author to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher. Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought. First English language edition published by Crosby Lockwood Staples 1970 Reprinted 5 times Second (International) English language edition published by Granada Publishing 1980 Reprinted 3 times Reissued in paperback by Collins Professional and Technical Books 1985 Reprinted by Blackwell Science Ltd 12 times Third English language edition published by Blackwell Science Ltd 2000 Fourth Edition language edition published by Blackwell Publishing Ltd 2012 Originally Published in the German Language by Vieweg + Teubner, 65189 Wiesbaden, Germany, as "Ernst Neufert: Neufert Bauentwurfslehre. 39. Auflage (39th Edition)" © Vieweg + TeubneriGWV Fachverlage GmbH, Wiesbaden 2009 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Data available on application A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN: 978-1-4051-9253-8 Set in 8/10 Arial by Aptara Printed and bound in Singapore by Markono Print Media Pte Ltd 2012
This book provides architects and designers with a concise source of the core information needed to form a framework for the detailed planning of any building project. The objective is to save the designers of buildings time during their basic investigations. The information includes: principles of the design process, basic information on siting, constructing and servicing buildings, as well as illustrations and descriptions of a wide range of building types. Architects need to be well informed about the requirements for all the constituent parts of new projects, to ensure that their designs satisfy their clients and the buildings conform to accepted standards and regulations. The contents list shows how the book is organised and the order of the subjects discussed. To avoid repetition and keep the book to a manageable length, the different subjects are covered only once in full. Readers should therefore refer to several sections to glean all the information they require. For instance, an architect wanting to prepare a scheme for a college will need to refer to sections other than that on universities and colleges, such as: drafting guidelines; multi-storey buildings; various sections on services and environmental control; catering; residential buildings, hotels and flats (for student accommodation); office buildings (for working environments); libraries; car parks; accessible building; indoor and outdoor sports facilities; gardens; details on doors, windows, stairs and other building components; the section on construction, and more. Readers should note that most of the material is from European (substantially German) contributors. This means, for example, that information on climate and daylight is from the perspective of a temperate climate in the northern hemisphere. The actual conditions at the site of a proposed building will always have to be ascertained. Similarly, in the section on roads, illustrations show traffic driving on the right-hand side. References to standards, regulations and guidelines reflect the book's origins. For this translation, the publishers took the decision to leave the specific text references to German standards, regulations and guidelines in place, to indicate where similar standards, regulations and guidelines might exist in other jurisdictions. Users The publishers wish to thank the translator, Mr David Sturge. The publishers also wish to acknowledge and thank the copyeditor Using this book elsewhere must familiarise themselves separately with such national and local legislation and guidance. Again, local conditions must be taken into consideration for each individual case. The terminology and style of the text is UK English, which will need to be taken into account by readers accustomed to American English. These readers will need to be aware that, for example, 'lift' has been used instead of 'elevator' and 'ground floor/first floor' instead of 'first floor/second floor'. The data and examples included in the text are drawn from a wide range of sources; as a result a variety of conventions for dimensions is used throughout. The measurements shown are all metric but a mixture of metres, centimetres and millimetres is used (and sometimes not identified). Readers will also find some superscript numbers associated with measurements. When these appear by dimensions in metres with centimetres, for instance, they represent the additional millimetre component of the measure (e.g. 1.265 denotes 1 m, 26 em, 5 mm). Anyone familiar with the metric system will not find this troublesome. Those people less comfortable with metric units can use the conversion tables (to imperial measures) at the end of the book. The plans and diagrams of buildings do not have scales as the purpose here is to show the general layout and express relationships between different spaces, making exact scaling unnecessary. However, all relevant dimensions are given on the detailed drawings and diagrams of installations, to assist in the design of specific spaces and constructions. To help readers identify relevant background information, details of British Standards Institute (BSI) and German Institute of Standardisation (DIN) building-related standards are provided in two types of location. At the end of the book is a selected list of BS and DIN standards, arranged broadly by topic. Additionally, the margin of many pages of the main text contains relevant BS and DIN codes. Please note that, if a British or Gerrnan code includes EN or ISO (signifying European or international), there is automatically a German dr British counterpart with the same code and title. Acknowledgements and proofreader, Ms Kay Hyman, for the very significant contribution she has made to this publication. v
Architects Data 4th Edition Ernst Neufert Peter Neufert
Foreword ................................................................................... xii BASICS Abbreviations and symbols ..................................................... 1 Sl units ........................................................................................2 Drawings Paper formats ..............................................................................4 Technical drawings ...................................................................... 5 Layout of drawings ......................................................................6 Construction drawings ................................................................. 7 Construction drawing symbols .................................................... 8 Water supply and drainage symbols, ........................................ 12 Electrical installation symbols ................................................... 14 Security installation symbols ..................................................... 17 Gas installation symbols ........................................................... 18 Drawing by hand ....................................................................... 19 Computer-aided drawing ........................................................... 20 Accessible Building Dimensions for wheelchair users .............................................. 21 Accessible public buildings ....................................................... 22 Accessible housing ...................................................................23 Dimensional Basics and Relationships Man as measure and purpose .................................................. 26 The universal standard ............................................................. 27 Body measurements and space requirements ......................... 28 Geometrical relationships .......................................................... 30 Dimensions in building .............................................................. 34 Building Biology Basics ........................................................................................ 36 Room climate ............................................................................ 37 Electromagnetic fields ............................................................... 38 Visual Perception The eye ..................................................................................... 39 Perception of colour ..................................................................41 DESIGN PROCESS Design What is design? ......................................................................... 42 Planes of reference ...................................................................43 Questionnaire ............................................................................44 Sustainable Building General, design, construction ...................................................46 Operation, demolition ................................................................47 Facility Management Background ...............................................................................48 Methods ...:................................................................................49 Refurbishment Conservation and alteration ...................................................... 50 Care of historic monuments ...................................................... 51 Listed building protection .......................................................... 52 Recording of old buildings ......................................................... 53 Conversion ................................................................................54 Design and Construction Management Public building and planning law ............................................... 56 Private building law, VOB, HOAI ............................................... 57 Work phases ............................................................................. 58 Measures of building use .......................................................... 63 Setback areas ...........................................................................64 Construction costs .................................................................... 65 Contents BUILDING COMPONENTS Foundations Building excavations .................................................................. 66 Foundations ...............................................................................69 Tanking, basement drainage ..................................................... 71 Repair ........................................................................................73 Walls Natural stone masonry .............................................................. 74 Brick and block masonry ........................................................... 75 Composite construction ............................................................. 78 Repair ........................................................................................79 Floor Slabs Slab construction ....................................................................... 80 Refurbishment ...........................................................................81 Concrete repair ......................................................................... 82 Floors ........................................................................................ 83 Roofs Roof shapes ..............................................................................85 Pitched roofs .............................................................................86 Flat roofs ...................................................................................91 Windows Arrangement .............................................................................96 Requirements ............................................................................97 Design types .............................................................................98 c Thermal insulation ..................................................................... 99 Sound insulation ...................................................................... 100 Cleaning buildings .................................................................. 101 Loft windows ........................................................................... 102 Skylights and dome rooflights ................................................. 103 Glass Basics ......................................................................................104 Insulated glazing ..................................................................... 105 Security and noise control glass ............................................. 107 Optically variable glass ........................................................... 108 Cast glass ............................................................................... 108 Glass doors ............................................................................. 108 Profiled glass .......................................................................... 109 Glass blocks ............................................................................ 110 Fire protection glazing ..............................................................111 Curtain walling ......................................................................... 112 Doors Arrangement ........................................................................... 113 Constructional details .............................................................. 114 Special doors .......................................................................... 115 Garage/industrial doors ........................................................... 116 Lock suites .............................................................................. 117 Security of buildings and grounds ........................................... 118 Stairs Principles ................................................................................ 120 Regulations ............................................................................. 121 Construction ............................................................................ 122 Ramps, spiral stairs ................................................................ 123 Access and escape ladders .................................................... 125 Escalators For shops and offices .............................................................. 126 Moving Walkways For shops and offices .............................................................. 127 Lifts Principles ................................................................................128 Control equipment ................................................................... 129 Passenger lifts for residential buildings ................................... 130 vii
Passenger lifts for offices, hotels, banks ................................. 131 Playgrounds Small goods lifts ...................................................................... 132 Playground equipment ............................................................ 190 Hydraulic lifts ........................................................................... 133 Special lifts .............................................................................. 134 Schools General classrooms ................................................................ 191 Specialist classrooms .............................................................. 192 RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS Information and communal area ............................................. 193 Basics Design basics .......................................................................... 135 House-building policy .............................................................. 136 Sanitary facilities, break and circulation area .......................... 194 Arrangement of classrooms, clusters ...................................... 195 Model room programmes for primary schools ........................ 196 Examples ................................................................................ 197 Housing Density Parameters .............................................................................. 137 Universities and Colleges Lecture theatres ...................................................................... 198 Orientation Examples of lecture theatres ...................................................200 Layout of buildings .................................................................. 138 Seating and projection ............................................................ 201 Access Detached and terraced development ...................................... 139 Seminar and service rooms ....................................................202 Laboratories ............................................................................203 Deck access ............................................................................ 140 Stepped houses ...................................................................... 141 CULTURAL VENUES Vertical access ........................................................................ 142 Museums and Art Galleries Floor Plans General ...................................................................................207 Houses ....................................................................................143 Flats ........................................................................................145 Display rooms .........................................................................208 Theatres Rooms Historical review ......................................................................209 Access ..................................................................................... 146 Kitchens .................................................................................. 149 Typology ..................................................................................210 Auditorium ............................................................................... 211 Living areas ............................................................................. 154 Bathrooms ............................................................................... 160 Subsidiary rooms .................................................................... 162 Garages and carports ............................................................. 166 Seating ....................................................................................212 Stage .......................................................................................213 Subsidiary rooms ....................................................................215 Workshops and staff rooms ....................................................216 Rehearsal and public rooms ...................................................217 ACCOMMODATION Modernisation and extension ..................................................218 Student Residences Concert Halls General design notes .............................................................. 167 Origins, variants ......................................................................219 Elderly People's Accommodation Technical requirements, organ, orchestra ............................... 220 Acoustics .................................................................................221 Retirement flats ....................................................................... 168 Nursing and care homes ......................................................... 169 Cinemas Examples ................................................................................ 170 Projection ................................................................................222 Auditorium ...............................................................................223 Hotels Basics ...................................................................................... 171 Rooms ..................................................................................... 172 Multiplex cinemas ...................................................................224 Multiplex cinemas, examples ..................................................225 Drive-in cinemas .....................................................................226 Examples ................................................................................ 173 Circus Catering Restaurants ............................................................................. 174 Stationary ................................................................................227 Dining rooms, serving ............................................................. 176 Zoos Fast food outlets ..................................................................... 177 Basics .....................................................................................228 Restaurant kitchens ................................................................ 178 Keeping animals ..................................................................... 229 Large kitchens ......................................................................... 181 Enclosures ..............................................................................230 Examples of large kitchens ..................................................... 183 Youth Hostels ADMINISTRATION AND OFFICES General design notes .............................................................. 184 Office Buildings Holiday/Weekend Cabins Structures ................................................................................231 General design notes .............................................................. 185 Tendencies/criteria ..................................................................232 Motels General design notes .............................................................. 186 Typology until 1980 ................................................................. 233 Typology since 1980 ...............................................................234 Space requirement ................................................................. 235 Camping Computer workstations ........................................................... 236 General design notes .............................................................. 187 Archives ..................................................................................237 Additional areas ...................................................................... 238 EDUCATION AND RESEARCH Children's Daycare Room typology ........................................................................ 239 Grid ..........................................................................................240 Access ....................................................................................241 Access and building layouts .................................................... 188 Building services ..................................................................... 242 Rooms, outdoor areas ............................................................ 189 Construction ............................................................................ 243 viii
High-Rise Buildings Operational areas ....................................................................296 Basics ......................................................................................244 Outpatient area ....................................................................... 297 Construction ............................................................................245 Outpatient medical centre- example ...................................... 298 Requirements .......................................................................... 246 Examination and treatment .....................................................299 Libraries Basics .....................................................................................247 Fittings ....................................................................................249 Space requirement .................................................................250 Care ........................................................................................305 Administration, social services ................................................ 312 Supply and waste disposal ...................................................... 313 Technical supply ......................................................................316 Scientific libraries .................................................................... 251 Archives ..................................................................................252 SPORT AND LEISURE Banks Stadiums Banks ......................................................................................253 Overview ................................................................................. 318 Spectator stands ..................................................................... 319 RETAIL Sports Facilities Retail Outlets Guidelines and typologies ....................................................... 254 Retail regulations ....................................................................255 Entrances and shop windows ................................................. 256 Checkout and waiting zones ................................................... 257 Waiting zones - examples ......................................................258 Routeing, escalators ............................................................... 259 Fittings -dimensions ..............................................................260 Food shops ............................................................................. 261 Self-service shops .................................................................. 262 Playing areas ..........................................................................320 Athletics ................................................................................... 323 Tennis ...................................................................................... 327 Miniature golf ..........................................................................329 Golf courses ............................................................................331 Water sport, marinas ............................................................... 333 Water sport, rowing and canoeing .......................................... 339 Equestrian sport ..................................................................... 341 Ski jumping .............................................................................343 Ice rinks ...................................................................................344 Roller skating rinks .................................................................. 345 INDUSTRY AND TRADE Speed roller skating, skateboarding ........................................ 346 Cycle-cross, BMX ................................................................... 347 Industry Shooting ranges ......................................................................348 Basics .....................................................................................263 Shed construction ................................................................... 265 Sports Halls Dimensions ............................................................................. 350 Multi-storey industrial buildings ............................................... 266 Transport .................................................................................267 Warehousing ...........................................................................268 Layout, construction ................................................................ 352 Equipment ............................................................................... 353 Stands ..................................................................................... 354 Subsidiary rooms ....................................................................270 Examples ................................................................................273 Examples ................................................................................355 Judo ........................................................................................356 Workshops Wrestling .................................................................................356 Joinery ....................................................................................274 Carpenter's shop .....................................................................275 Metalwork ...............................................................................276 Weight-lifting ...........................................................................356 Boxing ..................................................................................... 356 Badminton ...............................................................................356 Vehicle repairs ......................................................................... 277 Bakery .....................................................................................278 Meat processing plant .............................................................279 Other trades ............................................................................280 Squash ....................................................................................357 Table tennis .............................................................................357 Billiards ...................................................................................357 Condition, fitness .................................................................... 358 Laundry ...................................................................................281 Fire station .............................................................................. 283 Climbing halls ..........................................................................360 Bowling alleys ......................................................................... 361 Swimming Pools RELIGIOUS BUILDINGS Indoor swimming pools ........................................................... 362 Christian Churches Liturgical elements ..................................................................285 Furnishing, vestry ....................................................................286 Outdoor pools .........................................................................367 Indoor/outdoor pools ............................................................... 368 Private pools ........................................................................... 371 Bell towers ..............................................................................287 Spa Synagogues Sauna/small sauna/wellness .................................................. 372 General design notes ..............................................................288 Amusement Arcades Mosques Amusement arcades ............................................................... 375 General design notes ..............................................................289 TRANSPORT HEALTH Roads Doctors' Practices Single and group practices .....................................................290 Street spaces ..........................................................................376 Types of road .......................................................................... 377 Motorways ..............................................................................378 Hospitals Traffic space ........................................................................... 379 General, modular grid .............................................................291 Inter-urban roads .................................................................... 380 Building design ........................................................................ 293 Intersections ............................................................................381 Examples ................................................................................294 Footpaths and cycle ways ...................................................... 382 Corridors, doors, stairs, lifts ....................................................295 Bicycle traffic/storage ............................................................. 383 ix
Traffic calming .........................................................................385 Noise protection ...................................................................... 386 Parking Facilities Vehicles ................................................................................... 387 Vehicles turning ....................................................................... 389 Parking spaces .......................................................................390 Multi-storey car parks .............................................................. 392 Ramps .....................................................................................393 Multi-storey car park regulations ............................................. 394 Parking systems ...................................................................... 395 Vehicles- trucks ..................................................................... 397 Trucks - parking and turning ................................................... 398 Service areas ..........................................................................399 Petrol stations .........................................................................400 Car wash .................................................................................402 Public Transport Conditions, means of transport ...............................................403 Stops and stations ..................................................................404 Traffic spaces .........................................................................405 Bus stations ............................................................................406 Railways Tracks ......................................................................................408 Typical Continental European structure - gauges and clearances ...........................................................410 UK structure- gauges and clearances ................................... 411 Freight Transport ....................................................................413 Freight transport .....................................................................413 Stations ...................................................................................414 Station buildings ......................................................................415 Platforms .................................................................................416 Platform furniture ....................................................................417 Aviation Basics .....................................................................................418 Airports ...................................................................................419 Runways .................................................................................420 Terminals ................................................................................421 Terminal and apron .................................................................422 Aeroplanes .............................................................................. 423 EXTERNAL WORKS Cemeteries Morgue and crematorium ........................................................424 Graves, cemetery chapel ........................................................ 425 Cemeteries .............................................................................. 426 Landscape Architecture Design aspects and concepts .................................................426 Earthworks Soi1 ..........................................................................................428 Garden Enclosures Walls and fences .....................................................................430 Pergola and Trellis Pergolas .................................................................................. 432 Trellises ...................................................................................433 Examples of plants .................................................................434 Paths, Paving, Steps Design aspects .......................................................................435 Drainage Rainwater management ..........................................................436 Vegetation Plants ......................................................................................437 Plants and lawns .....................................................................438 Biological Engineering Supporting slopes and riverbanks ..........................................439 X Greenhouses Greenhouses ..........................................................................441 Ponds and Pools Garden pond ...........................................................................442 Natural swimming pool ...........................................................443 Water plants for natural swimming pool .................................. 444 External Works - Example Federal Environment Agency ..................................................445 AGRICULTURE FARMYARDS Basics .....................................................................................446 Space requirements ................................................................447 Machinery................................................................................448 Fodder storage ........................................................................449 Dung and drainage .................................................................450 Climate in animal housing .......................................................451 Animal Husbandry Housing poultry .......................................................................452 Keeping small animals ............................................................453 Sheep housing ........................................................................454 Laying hens ............................................................................455 Pig keeping .............................................................................456 Dairy farming ...........................................................................457 Finishing beef cattle ................................................................458 Keeping horses ....................................................................... 459 Supply and Disposal Loading yards .........................................................................461 Loading ramps, bridges, lifting platforms ................................ 462 Rubbish chute systems ...........................................................463 Rubbish collection rooms ........................................................464 Emergency power rooms ........................................................465 BUILDING SERVICES Renewable Energy Overview .................................................................................466 Solar energy ............................................................................ 467 Bioenergy ................................................................................468 Geothermal energy, heat pumps ............................................. 469 CHP, block heating and power, fuel cells ..................................................................................470 Building Physics Thermal insulation ...................................................................471 Sound insulation ......................................................................477 Room acoustics ......................................................................482 Lightning protection .................................................................485 Daylight Physical basics .......................................................................488 Position of the sun ..................................................................489 Insolation .................................................................................490 Shadow ...................................................................................493 Radiation energy .....................................................................494 Window lighting .......................................................................495 Rooflighting .............................................................................497 Quality criteria .........................................................................498 Directing sunlight ....................................................................499 Sun shading ............................................................................500 Lighting Artificial lighting ....................................................................... 501 Lamps .....................................................................................502 Types of lighting ......................................................................505 Lighting layout ......................................................................... 506 Quality criteria ......................................................................... 507 Illuminance .............................................................................508
Fluorescent tubes ................................................................... 509 Heating ....................................................................................532 Workplace Guideline 'Artificial lighting' (excerpt) .................... 510 Small sewage treatment plants ............................................... 536 Fire Protection Chimneys and Ventilation Shafts Basics ....................................................................................: 511 Chimneys ................................................................................537 Classification ...........................................................................512 Open fireplaces ....................................................................... 538 Fire compartment walls ........................................................... 513 Ventilation shafts ..................................................................... 539 Building components ............................................................... 514 Fire-resistant glazing ............................................................... 516 References ............................................................................. 540 Fire-resistant door sets ........................................................... 517 BS and DIN Standards ........................................................ 548 Fire fighting installations ......................................................... 518 Smoke and heat extractor systems ........................................ 519 Sprinkler systems .................................................................... 520 Other extinguishing systems ................................................... 521 Conversion of Units Weights and measures ........................................................... 555 Conversion tables ................................................................... 560 Domestic Installation INDEX ..................................................................................... 575 Drainage .................................................................................522 Ventilation ...............................................................................528 xi
The 'Neufert' continues to be the most comprehensive, yet compact, first source of information on the design of buildings. Just as the daily office grind of the architect proceeds in many small steps and a few long strides, the sustained progress of the 'Neufert' is characterised not only by meticulous attention to standards and regulations, whose omnipresence in construction is undeniable, but also by reflection of the great issues of our time as they affect building project design. These important matters undoubtedly include concern for our environment and the absolute demand for sustainability in architecture. Sustainable building has many aspects, to be weighted differently according to the design brief. The team working with Professor Johannes Kister has set out, right through the book, to emphasise new sustainability standards and perspectives using the criteria 'objective information' and 'topicality', which is presumably how Ernst Neufert would have approached the task. We hope that this new edition, which continues the redesign commenced in the previous one, will further consolidate the Foundation's reliable and exhaustive reference volume on building design. Neufert Foundation, March 2009 xii Foreword The new German edition has once again been produced at the same location that was formative for Neufert's development as the office manager for Walter Gropius- the Bauhaus in Dessau. The decision to return to the roots here seems to have been the right one, because the previous edition was greeted positively by architects, students, lecturers and other interested parties. The concepts in this edition have been developed further by Nicole Delmes, nee Neufert, and lngo Neufert. My thanks are due to them both, for the trust and understanding they have shown, which made our collaboration straightforward and enjoyable. Also, I would especially like to thank Mathias Brockhaus, Matthias Lohmann and Patricia Merkel, a team that works in an exceptionally professional manner, the students of the Hochschule Anhalt- Fanjuan Kong, Tobias Schwarzwald and Mandy Wagenknecht- and the external consultants, whose valuable advice and reliable collaboration made an essential contribution to the success of the project. Dessau, March 2009 External consultants: Prof. Dr. Dirk Bohne Karl-Heinz Breuer Paul Coral! Thomas Ehrenberg Olaf Gersmeier Lydia Haack, John Hiipfner Karl-Josef Heinrichs Prof. Alfred Jacoby Stefan Jackel, Tobias Micke and Andreas Kotlan Dr. Jiirg Junhold LOr Meyer-Bassin Hans-Peter MOhlethaler Prof. Dr. Gunther Nogge Marcellus Puhlemann Hermann Schnell Finn Stoll Wolfgang Thiede Carsten Thiemann Heiko Uelze Prof. Susanne Weber Carola Wunderlich Johannes Kister Building services Basics Fire protection Filling stations and service areas Design and construction management Filling stations and car wash Building physics Synagogues External works Zoos Theatre Restaurants Zoos Design and construction management Facility management Administration Health Railways Catering Lighting Air transport
This handbook developed from the notes made for my lectures at the Bauhochschule in Weimar. They derive from measurements, experience and understanding gained from practice and research in the human sphere, necessary for the design of buildings, but also keeping an eye open for new opportunities and demands. On the one hand we stand on the shoulders of our forebears but, on the other, everything is fluid and we are children of our time with our gaze towards the future, though the outlook of each individual is often different. This results from differences in education and training, the influence of the environment, personal predisposition and the relevant degree of internally driven self-development. Whether the 'fixed opinion' of today is absolutely correct remains to be seen, however, because it is only valid at the time of formation. Experience shows that fairer judgement develops with time than is possible immediately, since we do not have the necessary detachment for breadth of vision. This makes clear what reservations need to be imposed on teaching to prevent heresy. All teaching remains subjective and determined by its time and environment, despite all efforts to achieve truth and objectivity and all intentions to critically examine our favourite opinions. The danger of heresy can be avoided if the teaching also makes clear that it is not an end product but rather serves, and is subject to, all that is vital, upcoming and unfolding This will then provide for our students the attitude meant by Nietzsche when he said, 'Only those who change themselves remain associated with me.' The essential feature of such teaching of continuous progress, the servant of development, is that there are no ready recipes, no 'canned wisdom', but rather only building blocks, components or corners requiring the addition of combination, construction, composition and harmony. Confucius put it like this more than 2500 years ago: 'I give my students a corner and they will have to find the other three themselves!' Born architects, or those who yearn to build, will keep their ears and eyes closed when a solution to a task is prescribed, because born architects are full of their ideas and ideals, and only need the elements in order to set to work and make something of them! Those who have found faith in themselves, an insight into connectivity, the play of forces, materials, colours, dimensions, who can absorb the reality and the appearance of a building, study its effect, investigate it critically and rebuild it in the mind, are on the only true path to the great satisfaction offered by active creation. This view of life should help them on their way. It Preface should liberate them from all teachings, when it comes down to it even from this one, and lead them to their own creative work. It should provide initial assistance: run- everyone must build for themselves. The architectural forms of our time are the result of the same process, which our predecessors underwent in order to produce their splendid temples, cathedrals and palaces. They had no models other than their own imaginations and intentions, ideas and ideals, with which they neared their aspirations. The commission formulated along these lines was enough to enliven concepts, which took solid form in line with the technological possibilities of the time and local conditions, and only bore a remote similarity to what had gone before. These new buildings could be technically much better and deliver more because of improvement in the state of technology. They could, however, also be compared artistically to similar structures from the past. If we compare an industrial building of today- light, roomy, with good dimensions and slimmer, lightweight construction -with a factory from the 18th century or a workshop of the 15th century, then the advantages of our modern buildings will be apparent even to the most blinkered conservationist. This means that, whenever construction projects serve a genuine requirement of our time, work can be expected from energetic contemporary architects that will bear comparison to, or even overshadow, the best of old buildings. A lively-minded university should offer primarily a view of our time and a look to the future, glancing back only to the extent that this is advisable or unavoidable. This was the advice of one of the greatest of our profession, Fritz Schumacher, when he warned a young student in his architecture lectures against getting too lost in art history issues while researching the past. Being led astray by a doctorate into learned byways could be at the cost of the energy required to meet the more varied requirements of the profession. In contrast to this, it is better just to hand students the elements of architecture, as is done in this Architects' Data, where I have attempted to reduce the building blocks of design to the essentials, to schematise and even to abstract in order to make imitation difficult and force students to produce form and content from within themselves. Their various design ideas will be coordinated anyway to a certain extent by current fashion, that idiosyncratic feeling of community which characterises mankind's joint efforts at a particular time and finds a durable and visible expression in contemporary style. Ernst Neufert xiii
Architects Data 4th Edition Ernst Neufert Peter Neufert
ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS Abbreviation Meaning Abbreviation Meaning ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS AEG General Railway Law UIC International Union of Railways AFP Agricultural Investment Support Programme VDE Association of German Electrical Engineers ArbStattR Workplace Guidelines VOl Association of German Engineers ArbStattV Workplace Regulations VdS Loss Prevention (fire and security testing institute) BauGB Building Law VkVO Retail Regulations BGB German Civil Code VOB Contract Regulations for Building Works BGR Association of Commercial Accident Insurance VStattVO Places of Assembly Regulations Companies Wh withers height (horse) BlmSchG Federal Prevention of Emissions Law WSG Water Protection Law BOStrab Construction and Operation of Trams Regulation ZH Indicates Guidelines of BGR (Association of BS(I) British Standards (Institute) Commercial Accident Insurance Companies) CEN Committee for European Normalisation ZVEI Central Association of Electrical and Electronics CHP combined heat and power Industries CIE International Lighting Commission CPM Critical Path Method Unit, Abbreviation Greek Alphabet DB Deutsche Bahn - German Railways 1012 10 em 12 mm (superscript A a (a) Alpha DEHOGA German Hotel and Inn Association DFS German Air Traffic Control number= mm) B p (b) Beta DiBt German Institute for Building Technology English inch r y (g) Gamma DIN German Institute for Standardisation English foot 11. 0 (d) Delta ON normal diameter H or h height or high E E (e) Epsilon EBO Construction and Operation of Railways Regulation Worw width or wide z s (z) Zeta EEG Renewable Energy Law h hour H l1 (e) Eta min minute e 1'} (th) Theta EIA Environmental Impact Assessment second I (i) Iota EN European (standard) s l EnEV Energy Saving Regulation 12° degrees in Celsius (C) K K (k) Kappa J joule, energy A 'A (I) Lambda FEA Federal Environment Agency N newton, force M ~ (m) Mu FEU 40-foot equivalent unit (container) Pa pascal, pressure N v (n) Nu FFL finished floor level 2° 3' 4" 2 degrees, 3 min, 3 (x) Xi FIS International Ski Federation X FGSV Research Company for Roads and Traffic 4 s. 360-degree division 0 0 (o) Omicron % per cent, hundredth n TT (p) Pi GEFMA German Facility Management Association %o per thousand, thousandth p p (r) Rho GIF Company for Property Industry Research 0 diameter L ()' (s) Sigma GUV Guidelines of the German Association of I per (e.g. t/m =tonne perm) T 't: (t) Tau Accident Insurers (health and safety) y u (y) Upsilon HeizAniV Heating Plant Regulation <I> <I> (ph) Phi HGV heavy goods vehicle X 'I' (ch) Chi HOAI Fee Regulations for Architects and Engineers '¥ v (ps) Psi HWR auxiliary inverter 0 <p (o) Omega ICAO International Civil Aviation Organisation ICE Inter-City Express Mathematical Symbols Roman Numbers lndBauR Industrial Building Guidelines ISO International Standards Organisation > greater than I= 1 KfW 'Reconstruction' Subsidy Bank ;s equal or greater than II= 2 KFZ vehicle < less than Ill= 3 LBO state building regulation ~ less than or equal IV= 4 LC liquid crystal ~ sum of V= 5 LED llight emitting diode <I angle VI= 6 LIDC luminous intensity distribution curve sin sine VII= 7 LiTG German Technical Light Association cos cosine VIII= 8 LPZ lightning protection zone tan tangent IX= 9 LU large animal unit (500 kg live weight) ctg cotangent X= 10 MBO model building regulation (basis for LBO) equal XV= 15 MPM Metra Potential Method * not equal C= 100 MTA medical/technical assistant approximately CL= 150 MVZ outpatient medical centre infinity CC= 200 ODP operating department practitioner parallel CCC= 300 OPNV public transport X times, multiplied by CD= 400 PKW passenger car I divided by D= 500 RAL German quality assurance mark j_ right-angled DC= 600 RAS-L (-EWI-Q) Road Construction Guidelines - Road Layout v volume DCC= 700 (Drainage I Cross-section) m solid angle DCCC= 800 SchBauR School Building Guidelines --1 square root of CM = 900 StLB Standard Book of Bill Items - congruent M = 1000 StVo Street Traffic Regulations 11. triangle MCMLX= 1960 suv sports utility vehicle It same direction, parallel TEU 20-foot equivalent unit (container) n opposite directions, parallel 1
UNITS Sl Units Sl units- Systeme International d'Unites The international system of units: the most commonly used system of measurement and units in science. Basic units, which are not derived from any other. Quantily Basic unit Symbol Definition based on Sl units included name in definition 1 length metre m wavelength of krypton - radiation 2 mass kilogram kg international prototype - 3 time second s period of caesium - radiation 4 electrical current ampere A electrodynamic force kg, m, s between two conductors 5 temperature kelvin K triple point of water - (thenmodynamic temperature) 6 luminous intensity candela cd radiation from freezing kg, s platinum 7 amount ofsubstance mole mol molecular mass kg 0 Basic Sl units a) Thermal insulation Symbol Unit Description t (°C, K) temperature t (K) temperature difference q (Wh) quantity of heat ),. (W/mK) thermal conductivity ),.' (W/mK) equivalent thermal conductivity A (W/m2K) coefficient of thermal transmittance a (W/m2K) coefficient of thermal transmission u (W/m2K) coefficient of thermal transmittance 1/A (m2KIW) thermal insulation value 1/a (m2KIW) thermal transmission resistance 1/k (m2KIW) thermal transmittance resistance, 1/U D' (m2K/Wxcm) thermal resistance per em c (WhlkgK) specific thermal capacity s (Wh/m3K) volumetric specific heat p (1/K) coefficient of thermal expansion a (mK) distance coefficient p (Pa) pressure P, (Pa) (partial) vapour pressure g, (g) vapour quantity g, (g) condensed water quantity v (%) relative air humidity ~ H diffusion resistance coefficient ~xd (em) diffusion-equivalent air layer A, (g/m2hPa) water vapour resistance factor 1/A0 (m2hPa/g) diffusion resistance ~),. (W/mK) layer factor ~A: (W/mK) layer factor of air layers p (EikWh) cost of heat b) Sound insulation ),. (m) wavelength f (Hz) frequency fgr (Hz) limit frequency f, (Hz) resonance frequency Edva (N/cm2) dynamic elasticity modulus S' (N/cm3) dynamic stiffness R (dB) sound reduction CONTENTS (airborne sound) in laboratory Rm (dB) median airborne sound reduction R' (dB) sound reduction CONTENTS with flanking transmission (airborne sound) LSM (dB) airborne sound insulation margin Ln (dB) impact sound pressure level V/M (dB) sound improvement due to one floor or ceiling layer TSM (dB) impact sound reduction a H degree of sound absorption A (m2) equivalent sound-absorbing area r (m) resonance radius L (dB) sound level reduction f) Physical symbols in the Sl system 2 UNITS Sl Units Prefixes and their Abbreviations are: T (!era-) ~ 1012 (million million) G (giga-) ~ 109 (thousand million) M (mega-)~ 106 (million) k (kilo-) 103 (thousand) h (hekto-) ~ 100 (hundred) da(deca-) ~ 10 (ten) d (deci-) ~ 1/10 (tenth) c (centi-) ~ 1/100 m (milli-) ~ 10"3 ~ (micro-) ~ 10~ n (nano-) ~ 1o-12 p (pica-) ~ 10-12 f (femto-) ~ 1o-15 a (alto-) ~ 10-18 only one prefix may be used to describe a decimal multiple C) Decimal multip1ers and dividers of units hundredth thousandth millionth Quantity to be measured Unit in the Sl system, compulsory Conversion from 1978 factor length m metre area m2 square metre volume m' cubic metre mass kg kilogram force N newton ~ 1 kg m/s2 9.8 pressure Pa pascal ~ 1 N/m2 133.3 bar bar~ 100,000 Pa 0.98 Pa ~ 100,000 N/m temperature ·c degree Centigrade 1 K kelvin• 10 work (energy, heat Ws, J, Nm watt second =joule = newton metre 4186 quantity) Wh watt hour~ 3.6 KJ 1.163 kWh kilowatt hour~ 103 Wh ~ 3.6 MJ 1.163 power (energy transfer, w watt 736 heat transfer) w watt "compulsory from 1975 0 Conversion of basic units 1 mxm~1 m2 1 m x 1 s-1~ 1 m s-1(~ 1 m/s) 1 m x 1 s·2~ 1 ms-2(~ 1 m/s2) 1 kg x 1 m x 1 s-2~ 1 kg m s-2(~ 1 kg m/s-2) 1 kg x 1 m-3 ~ 1 kg m-3 (~ 1 kg/m3) 1 m x 1 m x 1 s-1~ 1 m2s-1 (~ 1 m2/s) e Examples of 'derived Sl units' through combining basic units coulomb 1 c 1As ohm 1 n farad 1 F 1AsN pascal 1 Pa henry 1 H 1 Vs/A siemens 1 s 1.163 1V/A N/m2 1/D hertz 1Hz 1 s-1~ (1/s) tesla 1T 1Wb/m2 joule 1 J 1 Nm~1 Ws volt 1V 1W/A lumen 11m 1 cd sr watt 1W 1 J/s lux 11x 11m/m2 weber 1Wb 1 Vs newton 1 N 1 kg m/s2 For apparent electrical power, the watt may be described as volt ampere (VA), idle electrical power as Var (ver). Q Names and symbols for derived Sl units 1 N 21 s 21m2 ~ 1 Nsm2 1 rad 21 s2 ~ 1 rad s1 (~ 1 rad/s) 1A21s~1As~1C 1AsN~1 CN~1 F 8 Examples of Sl units derived through combining basic units with named derived units thermal resistance thermal conductivity coefficient of thermal transmittance coefficient of thermal transmission bulk density calculation weight compressive strength 1/A ~ 1 m2h K/kcal ~ 0.8598 m2K!W l.~1 kcal/m h K ~1.163 W/m K U ~ 1 kcal/m2h K ~ 1.163 Wfm2K a ~ 1 kcal/m2h K ~1 kg/m3 ~1 kp/m3 ~ 1 kp/cm2 ~ 1.163 W/m2K ~ 1 kg/m3 ~0.01 kN/m3 ~0.1 N/mm2 0 Conversion of table values to new units
Units of measurement in building The international system of measurement with Sl units has been valid since 1 January 1978. Measurement Symbol Sl unit Statutory unit Old unit Name Symbol Name Symbol Name Symbol normal angle a~y radian rad round angle pia right angle L degree 0 minute 8 second ( gon or grad gon new degree 9 new minute a new second cc length I metre m micrometre ~m inch in millimetre mm foot ft centimetre em fathom fathom decimetre dm mile mil kilometre km sea mile sm area, cross-sectional A,q square metre m2 area, area of plot are a of land hectare ha volume v cubic metre m' litre I normal volume v, normal cubic metre Nm3 cubic metre cbm time, period, duration t second s minute min hour h day d year a frequency f hertz Hz duration of a cycle angular frequency <p reciprocal second 11s angular velocity <p radians per s rad/s speed of revolutions n reciprocal second 1/s revolutions per sec/min r/s revs per sec/min r.p.s. rim r.p.m velocity v metre per second m/s kilometres per hour kmlh knot kn acceleration due to g metre per second m/s2 gal gal gravity squared mass: m kilogram kg weight (on scales) gram g tonne t pound lb metric hundredweight cwt (metric) force F newton N thrust G dyne dyn pond p kilopond kp megapond Mp kilogram force kg tonne force t mech. stress, " newton per square Nlm2 newton per square Nlmm2 strength metre millimetre kplcm2 kplmm work, energy W,E joule J kilowatt hour kWh horsepower per hour h.p.lh erg erg heat quantity Q joule J calorie cal torque M newton metre Nm kilopond metre kpm bending moment Mb or joule J power, p watt w energy current horsepower h.p. thermodynamic T kelvin K degree Kelvin "K temperature degree Rankine Centigrade iJ K degree Centigrade "C oR,"RK temperature temperature interval Mlor oc degree deg and differential b.T Fahrenheit IJF degree Fahrenheit "F temperature Reaumur !JR degree Reaumur "R temperature 0 Sl units and statutory units (excerpt applicable to building) Description UNITS Sl Units 1 rad = 1 mlm = 57.296" = 63.662 gon 1 pla=2rrrad 1L = Y. pia= (rrl2) rad 1" = 1LI90 = 1 plal360 = rrl180 rad 18=1°160 1( = 18160 = 1"13600 1 gon=1 g=1LI100=1 plal400=rrl200rad 1 c= 10-2 gon 1 cc= (10-2) c= 10-" gon 1 in =25.4 mm 1ft= 30.48 em 1 fathom= 1.8288 m 1 mile= 1609.344 m 1 sm= 1.852 km 1 a=102m2 1 ha=104 m2 11=1 dm3 =10·3 m3 1 Nm3 = 1 m3 in normal condition 1 min=60s 1 h = 60 min = 3600 s 1 d = 24 h = 86 400 s 1 a= 8765.8 h = 31.557 x 106 s 1 Hz= 1/s for the expression of frequencies in dimensional equations <p=2xf <p=2xn 11s=tis=Uis 1 m/s = 3.6 kmlh 1kn = 1sm/h = 1.852 mph 1 gal= 1 cmls2= 1o·2 mls2 1 g=10"3 kg 1 t=1 Mg=103 kg 1 lb = 0.45359237 kg 1 cwt (metric)= 50 kg 1 N = 1 kglmls2= 1 Wslm = 1 Jim 1 dyn = 1 g cmls2 = 10·' N 1 p=9.80665x10.3 N 1 kp = 9.80665 N 1 Mp = 9806.65 N 1 kg = 9.80665 N 1 t = 9806.65 N 1 kp/cm2 = 0.0980665 Nlmm2 1 kpimm2 = 9.80665 N/mm2 1 J=1 Nm=1 Ws=107 erg 1 kWh = 3.6 x 106 J = 3.6 MJ 1 h.p. = 2.64780 X 106 J 1 erg= 10·7 J 1 ca1=4.1888 J= 1.163 x 10·3 Wh 1 kpm = 9.80665 J 1 W = 1 Jls = 1 N mls = 1 kg m2 1s3 1 h.p. = 0.73549675 kW 1"K=1 K 1°R=5/9K !J= T- T0T0 =273.15 K !J.!J =b.T, where: 1 K=1°C=1 degree to be used in equations IJF= 915 IJ+ 32=915 T -459.67 !JR = 415 !J, 1"R = 5/4 "C 3 STANDARDS Sl units
DRAWINGS Paper formats Technical drawings Layout of drawings Construction drawings Construction drawing symbols Water supply and drainage symbols Electrical installation symbols Security installation symbols Gas installation symbols Drawing by hand Computer-aided drawing BS EN ISO 216 BS 1467 DIN 476 DIN 821 DIN 4999 t-----x/2- 1--------- X - - j 1--------- X - - j 0-0 Basis of paper formats Format Series A Series B Series C 0 841 X 1189 1000 X 1414 917 X 1297 1 594 X 841 707 X 1000 648 X 917 2 420x 594 500 X 707 485x 648 3 297x420 353 X 500 324x458 4 210 X 297 250 X 353 229 X 324 5 148x210 176 X 250 162 X 229 6 105 X 148 125 X 176 114x 162 7 74 X 105 88 X 125 81 X 114 8 52x74 62x88 57 X 81 9 37x52 44x62 10 26x37 31 x44 11 18 x26 22x31 12 13 X 18 15x22 8 Sheet sizes Format Abbreviation mm half length A4 %A4 105 X 297 quarter length A4 Y.A4 52 X 297 eighth length A7 Y.A7 9x 105 half length C4 Y, C4 114 X 324 etc. e Strip formats A4 (it Strip formats in A4 0 Loose-leaf binder r----- 210 -----! fj) Pads, carbonless duplicate books Foot border C) Bound and trimmed books 4 DRAWINGS Paper Formats Standardised formats provide a foundation for office furniture design, which then determines the development of the floor plan. Good knowledge of paper formats is therefore important for the designer. Paper formats have generally been standardised (apart from in the USA) to conform to the internationally accepted {ISO) series of paper sheet sizes {A,B,C,D). These were developed on the basis of an area of 1 m2, divided according to the ratio of the sides: x:y=--12~0 lengthofsidex=0.841 m xxy=1 length of side y = 1.189 m The basic format (a rectangle with an area of 1 m2 and side lengths as above) forms the basis for all the smaller sizes. The A format series is produced by halving or doubling the basic format ~ 0 + f). The additional series B and C are intended for items in dependent paper sizes, e.g. envelopes, binders and files~ 0. The formats in the B series are the geometric mean dimensions of the A series. The formats in the C series are the geometric mean dimensions of the A and B series ~ 0. Strip (orside margin) formats are made by dividing the main formats lengthwise into halves, quarters and eighths (for envelopes, signs, drawings etc.) ~ 0 + e. File cards without tabs correspond exactly to the standard formats. Tab cards are larger to allow for the tab, i.e. they have a projection at the upper edge for classification. Binders, files and folders are wider than the standard format to provide space for the fixing mechanism. Widths should if possible be selected from the possible dimensions from series A, s, c~e. Pads and carbonless duplicate books have precisely the standard formats; if there is a standing perforated edge, then here the sheets are smaller than the standard format~ e. Bound and trimmed books have precisely the standard format. If a further trim is necessary during binding, then the pages will be slightly smaller than the standard format, and the cover will project accordingly. The cover size must be at least the standard format ~ (). The cover width is determined by the binding process. picas mm type area width 39.51 40.5 167 171 type area height (without header/footer) 58.5 1 59 247 250 space between columns 1 5 max. width, double columns 39.5 167 max. width, single column 19 81 inside (gutter) margin, nominal 16 14 outer (side) margin, nominal 27 25 top (head) margin, nominal 20 19 bottom (foot) margin, nominal 30 28 ~ Layouts and type area of the A4 standard format -> C!)
uncut drawing sheet, depending on requirement, is 2-3cm wider than final trimmed original drawing and print a box for written details and parts list a 0 Standardised drawing Sheet sizes according to ISOAO ISOA1 ISOA2 ISOA3 ISOA4 ISOA5 ISO series A Format: untrimmed 880 X 1230 625x 880 450x625 330 X 450 240 X 330 165 X 240 blank sheet (mm) Format: trimmed 841 X 1189 594 X 841 420 X 594 297 x420 210 X 297 148 x210 finished sheet (m) f) Sheet sizes ·-·-·-·-·-·:::;-! cut-out ISO A2, A1, AO i..:::.-·-·-·-·-·-·-·::::i e ISOsizeA2;A1;AO ·-·-·-·m 0 ISOsizeA3 ..<;:."" ~ ' I 0 ISOsizeA5 cut-out ISO A4 I .1 I I Division for No. identical fields by sheet size AO I A1 I A2 I A3 I A4 a 16 I 1~ I ~ I ~ I 4 b 12 4 "'"i• l box T., '--· ~ 0 Field divisions (grid squares) ISOA1 0 ISOsizeA4 ISOA2 e Folding schemes and dimensions DRAWINGS Technical Drawings The use of standard drawing formats makes it easier for architects to lay out drawings for discussion in the design office or on the building site, and also facilitates posting and filing. The trimmed, original drawing or print must therefore conform to the formats of the ISO A series--> 0, 8-0. The title block should be the following distance from the edge of the drawing: for formats AO-A3 10 mm for formats A4-A6 5 mm For small drawings, a filing margin of up to 25 mm can be used, which reduces the usable area of the finished format. As an exception, narrow formats can be made by adding together a row of identical or adjacent shapes from the format range. From normal roll widths, the following sizes can be used to provide formats in the A series: for drawing paper, tracing paper 1500, 1560 mm (derived from these: 250, 1250, 660, 900 mm) for print paper: 650, 900, 1200 mm. If all the drawing formats up to AO are to be cut from a paper web, a roll width of at least 900 mm will be necessary. Drawings which are to be stored in A4 box files should be folded as follows --> 0: 1. The title block must always be at the front, in the correct position and clearly visible. 2. At the start of folding, a width of 21 em must always be folded first (fold 1), ideally with the use of a 21 x 29.7 em template. 3. A triangle is folded into the drawing starting from c (fold 2) so that on the completely folded drawing only the below left field marked with a cross is punched or clamped. 4. The drawing is then folded parallel to side a to a width of 18.5 em, for which a template of 18.5 x 29.8 em is useful. The last section is folded in half to adjust the sheet size, bringing the title block to the front. Long narrow formats can be correspondingly folded. 5. The resulting strip is folded from side b. A piece of card of size A5 =14.8 x 21 em can be glued to the back of the punched side to reinforce the edge. Any sheet size can be folded by following the instructions above. If the drawing length remaining after the folding of the first 21 em cannot be divided by 18.5 em into an even number 2, 4, 6, etc., then the remaining width should be folded in the centre. ISOAO 5 DRAWINGS Paper formats Technical drawings Layout of drawings Construction drawings Construction drawing symbols Water supply and drainage symbols Electrical installation symbols Security installalion symbols Gas installation symbols Drawing by hand Computer-aided drawing BS EN ISO 128 BS 1192 BS EN ISO 4157 DIN 824
DRAWINGS Paper formats Technical drawings Layout of drawings Construction drawings Construction drawing symbols Water supply and drainage symbols Electrical installation symbols Security installation symbols Gas installation symbols Drawing by hand Computer-aided drawing BS EN ISO 9431 BS EN ISO 10209 BS EN ISO 14617 DIN 406 DIN 825 DIN 1356 south elevation east elevation north elevation west elevation section N $ garden writing basement ground floor upper floor' layout box I I I I m ~,.,Jee ~5 DRAWINGS Layout of Drawings A strip 5 em wide should be left blank at the left- hand edge for binding or filing. The title block on the right 0 should include: 1. Description of the type of drawing (sketch, preliminary design, for construction etc.) 2. Category of building shown or type of drawing (layout plan, ground plan, section, elevation, diagram etc.) 3. Scale 4. If appropriate, details of dimensions. Drawings for building permit applications (to the building regulations authorities) should also include: 1. Name (signature) of the client 2. Name (signature) of the architect foundations layout of joists roof truss layout site plan 3. If required, (signature) of the site manager 0 Suitable layout for a construction drawing 10 10 20 30 40 4. If required, (signature) of the contractor 5. Comments by the building regulations authorities: ~~+H+H------~----+-----4------1 a) About inspection b) About approval f) Suitable layout for scale details Scales --1 f) If necessary, on back of sheet Layout plans, floor plans etc. should show the compass direction with a north pointer. The main scale of the drawing should be shown in large letters in the title block and in smaller letters for other scales; the latter should be repeated next to their respective - diagrams. All objects should be drawn to scale; dimensions of parts which are not drawn to scale should be underlined. Scales should be restricted to the following if at all possible: for construction drawings 1:1, 1:5, 1:10, 1:20, 1:25, 1:50, 1:100, 1:200 C) Example of a standard dimensioned drawing of an angled floor plan. The dimensions given are structural dimensions without finishings ,.,.,.;.;.;.;.;.,.&:.;§;:,.,.,...... +2.75 sz +2.69 y in ground plans G Marking of heights on sections and elevations 6 for site layouts 1:500, 1:1000, 1:2000, 1:2500, 1:5000, 1:10000, 1:25000. Dimensioning Dimensioning is indicating dimensions on a drawing. Levels should be given on sections and plans or elevations. The signs+ or- before the number refer to the difference from level ± 0.00 (generally the planned finished floor level, on the ground floor in the entrance area, related to sea level). For parapets, the structural height above the structural slab level may also be given. If the height of wall openings, particularly for doors and windows, is to be given on drawings in addition to their width, then the width measurement is given above the dimension line and the height measurement is given below it. Rectangular cross- sections can, as a simplification, be dimensioned by stating their side lengths as a fraction, e.g. 12/16 (in section: width/height). Round cross-sections have the diameter sign 0 before the measure: e.g. 0 12. Radii have the capital letter R before the measure. Dimensions and other markings --1 e All dimensions are given in the unfinished structural condition (wall thicknesses). In continental Europe, dimensions of less than 1 m on building drawings are generally given in em, dimensions over 1 mare given in m or mm. (However, recently the trend has been to give all dimensions in mm, which is standard practice in the UK.) Sections on plans On plans, vertical planes of one or more sections are shown as lines with short and long dashes --1 p. 9 0, and the direction of viewing is also given. The entire line of the section does not have to be shown, but if the plane of a section breaks, this does --1 e. If there is more than one section, then each should be clearly labelled. Room numbers are given in a circle. Room areas, in m2 , are shown in a square or rectangle --1 e. 9 -<----- 6250 _,. - e t--- 6250 --t :1'--- + 3.12 f) f- ~~;~ - j f-
1 2 3 4 5 6 Line group I II 1111) IV2l Line weight Application Scale ;;;1:100 "'1:50 Line width (mm) solid line (heavy) boundary of areas in section 0.5 0.5 1.0 1.0 solid line (medium) visible edges and visible outlines of 0.25 0.35 0.5 0.7 building elements, boundary of narrow or small building elements in section solid line (fine) dimension lines, extension lines, pointer 0.18 0.25 0.35 0.5 lines, walking lines, outlines of cut-outs, simplified depictions dashed line (medium) ---- hidden edges and hidden outlines of 0.25 0.35 0.5 0.7 building elements chain dot line (heavy) ·-·-· indication of location of section planes 0.5 0.5 1.0 1.0 chain dot line (medium).--·--· axes and centre-lines 0.18 0.25 0.35 0.5 dotted line (fine) ....................... building elements in front of or over 0.25 0.35 0.5 0.7 section plane dimensions text size 2.5 3.5 5.0 7.0 1l Line group I is only to be used when a drawing has been prepared with line group Ill, was reduced in the ratio of 2:1 and is to be worked on further. In this case, the text size 5.0 mm is to be selected for the drawing with line group Ill. Line group I does not fulfil the requirements for microfilming. 2l Line group IV is to be used for construction drawings if a reduction from scale 1:50 to scale 1:100 is intended and the reduction has to meetthe requirements for microfilming. The reduction can then be further worked on using widths in line group II. If building drawings are manually or mechanically drawn with ink and standardised drawing equipment, then the line widths according to the above should preferably be used. These widths are suitable for the usual application of common reproduction methods. 0 Line types and thicknesses to be used in construction drawings 1 2 3 4 unit for dimensions dimensions dimensions <1m, e.g. >1 m,e.g. 1 em 24 88.5 388.5 2 m and em 24 885 3.885 3 mm 240 885 3885 ~~ 188.5~~2624 236.5+=-----437.5 ---674 NB Recent trend is to give all dimensions in mm, standard practice in UK-; p. 6. Dimensioning outside the drawing (scale 1:100, units~ em) C) Units for dimensions G Dimensioning of pillars and openings, e.g. scale 1:50 em, units= em ..;..,. ... "' "' 0 "' 0 w 0 0 m < <3 m 0 ----- ----- 020B DRAWINGS Construction Drawings Dimensioning consists of: dimension figure, dimension line, extension line, dimension arrow ~ e. Dimension figures are normally located above the relevant continuous dimension line so that they can be read from below or from the right when the drawing is used~ f) + 0. Dimension lines are shown as solid lines~ 0. They are located parallel to the length being dimensioned. Extension lines: dimensions which cannot be shown directly on the arrow at the edge of an area, are relocated outside with the aid of extension lines. These are generally at right angles to the dimension line and extend a little past it. dimension figure dimension line extension line I I _........-dimension arrow -3.76~ ==lJ e Dimensioning terms f) Pointer lines to notes 3E ---- ------m---- ---,M.--- I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I C2 t I I I I I I I I I I I I t t t I I I : -~ t I I I I I t I I I t axis 01 02 01 2 3 4 field Oc Ob Oa a c Ob1 Ob2 9 Dimensioning with coordinate~ e.g. scale 1:50 m, em, units em and mm e Axis-field grid 7 DRAWINGS Paper formats Technical drawings Layout of drawings Construction drawings Construction drawing symbols Water supply and drainage symbols Electrical installation symbols Security installation symbols Gas installation symbols Drawing by hand Computer-aided drawing BS EN ISO 4157 DIN 1356
DRAWINGS Paper formats Technical drawings Layout of drawings Construction drawings Construction drawing symbols Water supply and drainage symbols Electrical installation symbols Security installation symbols Gas installation symbols Drawing by hand Computer-aided drawing BS EN ISO 4157 DIN 1356 Monochrome IColour To be used for 1111111llfllll""""""- light green grass ::IC.)C~) tt~ ), 'l sepia peat dust and similar ~~ burnt sienna ground .····· ... black/ white infilled earth ~ brown-red brick masonry in lime mortar ~ brown-red brick masonry in cement mortar ~ brown-red brick masonry in cement-lime mortar ~ brown-red porous brick masonry in cement mortar hollow pot brick masonry in cement ~ brown-red lime mortar ~ brown-red clinker block masonry in cement mortar ~ brown-red sand lime block masonry in lime mortar ~ brown-red alluvial stone masonry in lime mortar ~ brown-red stone masonry in mortar ~ brown-red natural stone masonry in cement mortar ~~J:?.'?~"o: ·. "· ·~'l!ili?"cf. sepia gravel ~:~~~~'II; Cf.'~I;O;.. c. grey black slag :~~~·;~~j~)i~~~t~;tl~{ zinc yellow sand 0.7.#.##.;?:; ochre screed (gypsum) t:"i:~?:·:;·~~~;{~H;~~~~ white plaster 11111111111111111111111 violet pre-cast concrete elements ~ z '/.~""""~ ,"zr ~ ,7 blue green reinforced concrete ~3~%Jf~~~?,~fi. olive green unreinforced concrete T [J:j black metal ~ ~ brown timber in section Uli!JilUI!lll! blue grey insulation materials -- black and white sealants grey existing building elements 0 Symbols and colours used on plans and sections Layout plan - - - - - - existing public road Planned but not yet existing roads amExisting buildings ~Plannedbuildings f: :: :: fTo special fac1h!1es ~Park t___,:,__j I+++ICemetery ~ Pennanent tttti:J allotment ~ Camping and rr=1 ~ weekend site Q Sports field ~Swimming ~pool lA! Children's L£J playground f) Symbols for building permit applications 8 DRAWINGS Construction Drawing Symbols Building element Opening C ceiling BR break-through Wwall G groove Ffloor Dduct FO foundation 8 Labelling of openings: examples .0 ro U.i Description Label slab breakthrough SBR groove in slab (top) GS groove in slab GS (underneath) floor slab breakthrough FSBR (foundation= FO) Dimensions widthx depth x height Dimensions AxB AxBxC AxBxC AxB Location u under o over Plan I:ZH f-A-1 1111111 ~ !111111 ~ L~:J~ 1-A-l Related to Ttop B bottom UF unfinished floor FF finished floor Depiction I Elevation, (section, view) ~ 1-A-l I-A-< ~c ~:c 1-A-l c = I-A-< ~{I) £ C~-~~~~--~~~-+~~~~-t----------~ ~ ~ floor slab duct FSD A x B x C Q) -a floor slab groove FSG ~~ : Is 'II' I HA ~I ~0 wall breakthrough WBR (foundation= FO dashed on basement plan) wall groove(horizont~ WG foundation = FO -> U I <I Ax c IZI2 I-A-< AxBxC wall groove (vertical) WG foundation= FO -> 8 AxBxC :·:·:·:·jzj(·:·:·: IB 1111111? I-A-< A) Under floor duct in section B) Same on plan ~ %?3if//c: /22'10:0 ~2'0 2ZWW w~ A) Pipe sleeve on elevation B) Same on plan Chimney on plan Gas chimney on plan e Presentation of openings, grooves and channels: examples .. !1.1 II 1/1 ltl 't' u Closed in final state Remains open e Grooves , apertures and breakthroughs in walls cJ rCJ:k r=250 U=60 Natural monument (border with points) according to: NSG =conservation area LSG =landscape conseJVation area GLB = Protected landscape element §23 =under §23 HENatG protected habitat GA = Population of particularly protected or threatened species Tree protection Tree with species, trunk centre, crown radius & trunk dia. (Existing: full line, planned: dot-dash line Group of bushes to be partly removed Existing: full line Planned: dot-dash line To be removed: crossed-out full line Tree to be removed with species, trunk centre, crown radius & trunk dia. Border of area to be built on, whose soil is considerably contaminated with harmful substances. Border of areas, whose soil is considerably contaminated with harmful substances. 0 Symbols used in open spaces planning
a) Floor surfaces > Without ) in m2 with b) Ceiling surfaces deducti?n 2 figures after c) Wall surfaces of openings decimal oint d) Clear wmdow areas p e) Clear door areas f) Flooring types g) Type of paint or cladding to walls h) Type of paint or cladding to ceilings 0 Dimensions and other information, if required sealing membrane (damp course) • • 8 • • • vapour barrier a a a a a a a a separating/plastic foil - - - - - - oil paper - · - · - · - · - · - · - · - - waterproofing membrane with fabric inlay 11 lllll/l1 1' IIIII IIIII waterproofing membrane with metal foil inlay intermediate layer, spot glued 1111111111111111111111111111111 fully glued layer mastic ~ appliedgravellayer primer coat, paint base crr:r:IICJ:CIC:IC:II:JOTC:r:CII1CCTI1] sealing slurry --:._-----=---------------=-- waterproof paint (e.g. 2-layer) plaster lath/reinforcement llllllillillllllillilllllllll impregnation 0 0 0 {) {) 0 filter mat 111111111111111111111111 tm drain mesh (plastic) sw standing water on ground/slope surface water e•ee emerging damp, mould, dirt etc. ••••••••••••••••• ~ penetratingdamp ~'% earth, undisturbed soil f) Symbols for waterproofing, drainage, insulation, non-pressurised water etc. xxxxxxxx IVVVVJj mlllMlll1llli~MM~ DRAWINGS Construction Drawing Symbols general insulation layer against heat loss and noise mineral wool insulation glass fibre insulation wood fibre insulation peat fibre insulation synthetic foam cork magnesite-bonded wood wool board moom~~%lfm~1W?Ef1Bi~BI cement-bonded wood wool board • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ·:·:·:·:·:·:·: 0 Symbols for insulation gypsum building boards plasterboards 9 DRAWINGS Paper formats Technical drawings Layout of drawings Construction drawings Construction drawing symbols Water supply and drainage symbols Electrical installation symbols Security installation symbols Gas installation symbols Drawing by hand Computer-aided drawing BS EN ISO 4157 DIN 1356
DRAWINGS Paper formats Technical drawings Layout of drawings Construction drawings Construction drawing symbols Water supply and drainage symbols Electrical installation symbols Security installation symbols Gas installation symbols Drawing by hand Computer-aided drawing Windows set in reveals, scale 1:100 ~,~ ~,i(l ~~ ~~ 7.~=~(,-l-w-ith----'- '-wit-hou-t---.-E:"""III-.-.11! lllifj_8 _= --- --- ---window niche 0 Single window opening inward gains f) space and offers a place for the Box window (B) opening inward, double window, combined window radiator Sash window, scale 1:100 ~~~ =lli!illm=m=lm=l11oo..,;_.-_- __-__ -'-_ '------ e Single window ~ 0 Single-leaf door without lintel 0) Rising single-leaf door ~ Two-leaf revolving door Sliding window, scale 1:100 ~~~ ""~""W""W""W""11""' __ ·_-_D-_-:--_-=_ - - - Double window (D), box window, combined window '~!) Single-leaf door pair, with lintel e Pivoting door Gi) Sliding door @) Three-leaf revolving door 16 risers 16 risers 17.5/291 17.5/291 12 risers 18.5/25 m I I -2.22 ±0.00 +2.80 +5.60 Cellar Ground floor Upper floor Attic fi Stairs with one flight Cellar Ground floor Attic fi Stairs with two flights 10 ~,i(l 0)<0 ·=llilll1,--m_ ___-_____ - 0 Single window opening outward f) Single window (S) 4) Double-leaf ~ 4D Without threshold G) Double sliding door @) Four-leaf revolving door DRAWINGS Construction Drawing Symbols G Double window (D) opening outward e Double window (SD) 4l} Double-leaf door m~m WLJ u e Threshold one side ~ Sliding door with lifting mechanism ~ Folding partition When drawing windows, the left side is always shown with wall niche and the right side without ----1 0- e. Revolving doors replace wind lobbies ----1 €D - fD and offer an opening without draughts. Because revolving doors can cope with relatively little through traffic, the door leaves can be folded at peak times and pushed to the side. The horizontal section through the stairwell on each floor's plan is shown at about % storey height or 1 m above floor level. The steps should be continuously numbered upwards and downwards starting from ± 0.000. The number of steps below± are preceded by a minus sign-. The numbers begin on the first step and exit on the landing. The centre-line starts at the first step with a circle and ends on arriving with an arrow (also in the cellar).
Living room D 0 0 DO IDI II.__________JII Clothes storage I I I II I I "1'1 11 I EH+t*i I D table 85 x 85 x 78 ~ 4 places 130 x 80 x 78 ~ 6 places round table 0 90 ~ 6 places shaped table 70- 100 pull-out table 120 x 180 stool 0 45 x 50 armchair 70 x 85 couch 95 x 195 sofa 80 x 175 upright piano 60 X 140-160 grand pianos: baby grand 155 x 114 salon grand 200 x 150 concert grand 275 x 160 television sewing table 50 x 50-70 sewing machine 50 x 90 nappy changing table 80 x 90 washing basket 40 x 60 chest 40 x 100-150 cupboard 60 x 120 hook spacing 15-20 em hanging rail clothes and linen cupboard 50 x 100-180 desk 70 X 130 X 78 80 X 150 X 78 Bedroom ~ D D ~ D ~ VN/t' Bathroom K oJI 0] D symbol symbol scale 1:50 scale 1:100 CJ Kitchen DJ[J] bed 100 X 200 side table 50x70, 60x70 double bed 100 X 200 twin bed (French bed) 145 X 200 children's bed 70x140-170 clothes cupboard 60 X 120 bath 75 X 170, 85x185 small bath 70 X 105, 70 X 125 shower 80 x 80, 90 X 90, 75 X 90 washbasin 50 x 60, 60x70 2 washbasins double washbasin 60 X 120, 60 X 140 vanity unit 45 x 30 we 38 x 70 urinal 35 x 30 bidet 38 x 60 urinal stand sink 60 x 100 double sink 60 x 150 stepped sink kitchen bucket sink DRAWINGS Construction Drawing Symbols Stoves with fuel type ~ nrlL A Jcgjrul floor cupboard wall cupboard ironing board electric oven dishwasher refrigerator chest freezer solid fuel oil gas electric radiator heating boiler with grate gas-fired oil-fired waste disposal unit waste chute air supply and extraction shaft PTL ~ patient lift GL ~ goods lift PL ~ passenger lift FL ~food lift (paternoster) HL ~ hydraulic lift 11 DRAWINGS Paper formats Technical drawings Layout of drawings Construction drawings Construction drawing symbols Water supply and drainage symbols Electrical installation symbols Security installation symbols Gas installation symbols Drawing by hand Computer-aided drawing
Drainage pipes and appliances DRAWINGS Plan Elevation Description Water Supply and Drainage Symbols I I Water supply i!l pressurised blackwater pipe is marked with DS DRAWINGS -os- I Elevation Description Plan Paper formats I ~ Technical I [Q] cellar drainage pump drawings :5 pressurised rainwater pipe is marked with DR Layout of --oR-- I I 4 drawings ~ blackwater lifting system Construction drawings mixed water pipe Construction drawing symbols /C ,1/ "==J bath Water supply jl and drainage ventilation duct, direction given, e.g. starting and symbols --- running upward c:::J shower tray Electrical installation / symbols ~ 0 vanity unit, hand washbasin Security installation [a ! symbols 0 according to type stack, downpipe sitting washbasin Gas installation symbols / direction: Drawing by hand a) a) passing through v v urinal Computer-aided b) ......-""' b) starting and running downward drawing c) c) coming from above and ending ~ d) a' d) starting and running upward ~ urinal with automatic flushing BS EN 12056 DIN 1451 DIN 1986 t = ---r- change of material (QJ ~ we, floor-mounted 1 ----! pipe end closed 6 v we, wall-mounted 77777777 f CJ D slop sink --E3- cleaning opening, round or rectangular [IJ -o single sink -EJ I cleaning opening [[l] CD double sink t -am -am ~ change of nominal diameter dishwasher 125 1- odour trap ill ill washing machine CJ- c::::L_ outlet or drainage gutter without odour trap ~ ~ washer/dryer D- Ci!- outlet or drainage gutter with odour trap -crJ -crJ air conditioner []!]- [][;l- waste outlet with backflow device for faeces-free wastewater ~ small wastewater wet riser pipe --®- IIr fat separator treatment plant, two-level -®- ~ starch separator Q1 small wastewater wet-dry riser pipe FNT petrol interceptor (separator for volatile liquids) treatment plant, -®- -m- multi-level -®-- Lir silt trap -@ small wastewater dry riser pipe FT treatment plant, multi-leve -®- ~ acid separator -(8)-- LBT heating oil separator (separator for volatile liquids) () small wastewater sprinkler pipe F SPR treatment plant, multi-level D- Ci!- heating oil stop valve H Sp H Sp []!]- [][;l- heating oil stop valve with backflow preventer -€) R H Sp HSp soakaway shaft sprinkler system --ao-- --ao-- backflow device for faeces-free wastewater • hi underfloor hydrant spray flooding system '" '" ---cx::J- ---cx::J- backflow device for wastewater containing faeces ill --e- _o_ shaft with open through-flow (shown with blackwater pipe) •above-floor hydrant water spray system H ---9- J:L shaft with closed through-flow •fire fighting hose connection pipe 12
Water supply (continued) DRAWINGS water pipe E3 wall or slab opening with Water Supply and Drainage Symbols marking of location of shut- protecting sleeve and stopping off or throttling valve end of pipe l marking of location of X l bleed valve, --{]E]- water softener, DRAWINGS supply valve ) detachable connection, emptying valve demineralisation plant Paper formats general type ofconnection v -[£[]- Technical can be simplified by use of wall battery filter drawings detachable connection short code 0 Layout of s screwed connection 4 pump drawings non-detachable connection T-RL threaded connection free-standing Construction with right-left thread battery '®l drawings F flange connection Construction ~ hose c coupling =t>- !1 30m'/h 5! booster pump drawing symbols mixer ! ! Water supply 1 apparatus without rotating SK socket connection L·-·-·-·-·-·....1 and drainage parts CL clamped connection symbols & flushing cistern -@] washing machine Electrical apparatus with rotating it- installation -o parts, display or registration flange connection symbols instrument 6 showerhead ----[g] dishwasher Security installation symbols 9 display or recording -} screw connection, J, shower hose ----[!] Gas installation instrument threaded connection washer/dryer symbols z Drawing by hand -D- self-closing valve -w Computer-aided measuring instrument built ~ air conditioner drawing into pipe socket connection ~ pressure flusher BS EN 12056 TWBO drinking water pipe, cold, {j- § flow gauge, through-flow DIN 1451 e.g. 0 80 gauge DIN 1986 coupling t pipe anti-vacuum drinking water pipe, warm, device and bleeder ~ TWW50-WD e.g. 0 50 flow meter, water meter + type of connection can be n pipe anti-vacuum drinking water pipe, simplified by use of device and bleeder ~ TWZ40 short code calorimeter circulation, e.g. 0 40 w welded connection with dripping water TW15 drinking water pipe, hose, s soldered connection pipe ~ e.g. 015 G glued connection II' y connection for measuring T threaded connection pipe ventilator instrument marking of location for SK socket connection 50 l 40 change of nominal diameter, p pressed connection ~ , + pipe ventilator, thermometer e.g. from 0 50 to 0 40 through-flow ~ as above but also as l><l shut-off valve, general reducer fitting t B pressure gauge pipe bleeder type ofgauge can be marking of location for indicated by use of short ST ( cu change of material, f>l<l shut-off gate valve I 1 1 1 code e.g. from steel to copper pipe interrupter l!.p differential pressure crossing pipes (without -lSJ- shut-off flap valve I gauge pt pressure pulse connection) * backflow preventer generator l><l shut-off valve, branch, one-sided through-flow valve -.<1-- through-flow valve [i] logger -+- branch, two-sided type of connection can be with backflow if required, mark type of simplified by use of short preventer device with short code 0 riser pipe code v through flow p,P direction: SO screw-down valve z outlet valve with v volume SS slanted seat valve ventilator and T temperature a) passing through threaded hose .6.p pressure difference d' b) starting and running T throttle valve ~ upward BP valve behind plaster connection p c) coming from below ~ --------- control cable .P d) starting and running elbow valve ! draw-off tap with 9 cf downward ~ backflow preventer, fluid-driven e) coming from above and three-way valve ventilator and ending ~ threaded hose '1 electrical separation, ® float-driven ---ljf-- four-way valve connection isolation piece r l potential equalisation, [;:o::] through-flow valve H- pipe rupture valve, weight-driven earthing type of connection can be hose rupture valve ' simplified by use of spring-driven n short code y expansion bend T tap cock free outlet, system T B ball valve separation manual -J1J1r length compensator, wave I:ffJ pipe compensator three-way tap ~ pipe disconnecter <¥> electricity-driven ---<==--- sealing bush compensator @ 9 membrane-driven four-way tap ~ safety valve, pipeline fixed point )CJ-- clamped tapping spring-loaded ~ piston-driven (e.g. at side) sliding pipe fixing ti elbow safety valve, ~ clamped tapping with ~ electromagnet-driven ~ pipe fall, pipe rise, e.g. 5% valve (e.g. top) spring-loaded wall or slab opening with IX1 pressure reducer, --[@]- ~ metering device container, non-pressure, protecting sleeve pressure stopcock open, with overflow 13
DRAWINGS Paper formats Technical drawings Layout of drawings Construction drawings Construction drawing symbols Water supply and drainage symbols Electrical installation symbols Security installation symbols Gas installation symbols Drawing by hand Computer-aided drawing BS EN 50110 DIN 18015 Electrical consumer appliances 14 electrical appliance, general electric stove with three rings electric stove with built-in coal oven electric stove with oven for baking oven for roasting and baking microwave cooker infra red grill warming plate dishwasher food processor refrigerator, e.g. freezer compartment, no. stars freezer, no. stars air conditioner water heater, general hot water storage cylinder continuous-flow water heater fryer fan generator, general motor, general motor with statement of protection type hand dryer, hair dryer washing machine washer/dryer infra red lamp room heating, general storage heater electrically heated clear- view screen light fitting, general multiple light fitting stating -7(5 x 60 no. lamps and power, e.g. five lamps at 60 W 0< ~ --7< -¥ ~ ~ (X C) G) CQ ~3 1----+---t----l 36W adjustable light fitting light fitting with switch light fitting with current bridge for lamp chains light fitting, dimmable panic light emergency light searchlight light fitting with additional emergency light light fitting with two separate filaments light fitting for discharge lamps with accessories light fitting for discharge lamps with details light fitting for fluorescent lamp, general light band, e.g. three lamps at36W light band, e.g. two lamps at 2x58W Signal and radio devices ~'.'.I B ill -{Z] ~ ~ -!]] -M ~~' motion detector, e.g. with safety circuit vibration detector (safe pendulum) light beam detector, light barrier press-knob fire alarm automatic fire alarm police alarm fire alarm with drive fusible link alarm, automatic automatic temperature alarm automatic extension fire alarm pass lock security systems centre of fire alarm system light beam alarm system, automatic, e.g. photo cell C9 G 0 ~ fi e L8J g t§] Q] ~ secondary clock main clock main clock with signal amplifier, cable peak denotes amplification direction telephone, general multiple telephone telephone, long-distance telephone, semi-internal telephone, internal loudspeaker radio television intercom, e.g. house or door entry phone two-way intercom, e.g. house or door entry phone telephone exchange, general door opener alarm lamp, signal lamp, light signal bell button call buttons with name labels microphone earpiece main distributor (communications) splitter, flush splitter, surface-mounted beeper or horn, general beeper or horn stating current type house intercom entry phone DRAWINGS Electrical Installation Symbols ll 8 dJ [ZJ [1J ~ -§ 9 tf? LN Si? 9 -0- ~0 ~70 sound recorder sound pick-up magnetic tape recorder call and switch off panel meter meter panel, e.g with a fuse time clock, e.g. for switching tariff temperature detector time relay, e.g. for stair lighting blink relay, blink switch current impulse switch sound frequency ripple control relay sound frequency cut-off alarm clock, general alarm clock, stating current type gong alarm clock alarm clock for safety circuit alarm clock with run-down drive motor alarm clock alarm clock without automatic cancel, continuously ringing alarm clock alarm clock with visual alarm buzzer buzzer siren, general siren stating current type siren stating frequency, e.g. 140Hz siren with wailing tone, e.g. varying between 150 and 270Hz
Electricity direct current ~ A alternating current, general ~ 2 kHz stating the frequency ~ T technical alternating current direct current or alternating current (universal current) mixed current sound frequency alternating current high frequency alternating current very high frequency alternating current Supporting points in mast cables cable, general underground cable support point, mast, general 0 guyed mast timber mast roof stands, brackets, tubular mast, general e guyed mast lattice mast, general • guyed mast reinforced concrete mast, general ._ guyed mast 8 8 mast with foot double mast transverse H-mast or portal mast portal mast of lattice masts lengthwise A-mast support point with tension anchor support point with brace mast with lamp Cables and cable connections 0 mm /79 /H mm existing under construction planned mobile cable underground cable overground cable, e.g. mast-mounted cable on porcelain isolators (isolation bells) cable on surface of plaster cable plastered in cable beneath plaster 0 (t) (f) (k) isolated cable in installation duct isolated cable for dry rooms, e.g. sheathed wire isolated cable for wet rooms, e.g. wet room cable cable for outdoor or underground laying Cables, marking, application ! Cu 20 x 4 ,s',SSS7$Wl ++++++ ·X-X-X-X-X· ·0-0-0-0-0· -1-1-1-1-1- D protection cable, e.g. for earthing, neutralisation or protection circuit (old) signal cable telephone cable radio cable cable with marking simplified depiction protective earth cable (PE) PEN cable neutral cable conductor rail foreign cable further markings, e.g. telephone, night circuit, blinking light cable, emergency lighting cable twisted cable, e.g. two- wire coaxial cable rectangular hollow cable, e.g. for very high frequency _ _ } cable running upward I cable running downward I 0 ~IP54 r·-·-·.., ! ! t-·-·-·..J @ 1 ~230/8V cable running upward and downward cable connection branch connection box, depiction if necessary socket sealing end, end branch high-voltage house connection box, general as above, stating protection type distribution framing for devices, e.g. housing, switching cabinet, switching panel earthing, general connection point for earth wire mass, body element, accumulator or battery transformer, e.g. doorbell transformer 816~ 5,-l LJ © ® converter, general rectifier, e.g. alternating current mains connection rectifier, e.g. pole changer, chopper fuse, general screw-in fuse, e.g. 1OA and type Dll, three-pole low-voltage high- performance fuse, e.g. SOA size 00 trip, e.g. 63A, three-pole switch, make contact earth leakage circuit breaker, four-pole cable protection switch, e.g. 16A, three-pole motor protection switch, three-pole excess current switch, e.g. ballast switch emergency off switch star-delta switch starter, rheosta~ e.g. with five starting steps button switch light switch switch with indicator light switch 1/1 (off switch, single-pole) switch 1/2 (off switch, two-pole) switch 1/3 (off switch, three-pole) switch 4/1 (group switch, single-pole) switch 5/1 (series switch, single-pole) switch 6/1 (two-way switch, single-pole) two-way switch as pull switch switch 7/1 (cross-switch, single-pole) time switch dimmer approach switch contact switch DRAWINGS Electrical Installation Symbols r. A J~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 0 IT] 3~E approach effect, general contact effect, general passive infra red motion detector time relay, e.g. for stair lighting current impulse switch empty connection box multiple socket single earthed socket as above but for three- phase current double earthed socket socket with off switch socket, lockable depiction of vertical if required socket for isolating transformer electrical connection, general three-phase connection smoke extraction ventilator switch smoke extraction press- button alarm fire alarm (press-button alarm) IT connection socket broadband communications system telephone distributor telephone socket aerial socket aerial splitter, e.g. twice aerial distributor ,e.g. twice aerial amplifier aerial socket (through sockets) aerial socket with end resistance 15 DRAWINGS Paper formats Technical drawings Layout of drawings Construction drawings Construction drawing symbols Water supply and drainage symbols Electrical installation symbols Security installation symbols Gas installation symbols Drawing by hand Computer-aided drawing BS EN 50110 DIN 18015
DRAWINGS Paper formats Technical drawings Layout of drawings Construction drawings Construction drawing symbols Water supply and drainage symbols Electrical installation symbols Security installation symbols Gas installation symbols Drawing by hand Computer-aided drawing BS EN 50110 DIN 18015 Visual indicators indicator light, general blinking indicator light with direction pointer indicator light wilh darkening switch indicator light with glimmer light pointer indicator with automatic return pointer indicator with automatic return, lit pointer indicator with automatic return, lit or swinging pointer indicator without automatic return pointer indicator without automatic return, lit indicator with filling device recording indicator meter meter with indicator lamp multiple detector acknowledgement detector Batteries ITIIIIIIl lil!l!;j 111 elemental battery accumulator battery (four cells) -If--If- If required House supply conne~ ction element, accumulator 16A1 = i: ® *~4~ 16A2 [ ~ ' 16A3 ' -@) 20 A4 WKitchen {' ~ l' 16A5 m 16A6 [ @J £.1iiii.T. __ .::__·-·-·- i: *;o~ 16A8 [ ~ i: 16A9 --'-""-"--![ [I] Utility room Resetve 8 Circuit diagram 16 Lightning protection installations ILT -J-J-1-1- t 0 • @ 1 Q-- --1-t- ----ro- building outline gutter and downpipe reinforced concrete with connection steel construction, metal rails metal covering chimney roof stands for electric Jines diaphragm tank, tank snow guards aerial metal pipe lightning conductor, open lightning conductor, underground lightning conductor, under rbof and under plaster terminal pole, flagpole connection point to pipes separation point pipe and rod earth terminal earthing sparking distance closed sparking distance excess voltage discharge conductor roof fixing lift water meter, gas meter 9 Electrical installation plan DRAWINGS Electrical Installation Symbols No. (min.) of No. Tvoe of aooliance Sockets1) Outlets Connected load 'kW Uvin room and bedroom f~J~:r~~;~~:~t~~~o 8 m2 8-12 m"2 12-20 m2 >20m" Kitchen kitchenette AC 3-ohase sockets,Jlghtlng 5 for kitchenette 6 for kitchen 7 ventilator/extractor hood 8 stove 9 refrigerator/freezer 10 dishwasher 11 waterheater 12 sockets,lighting 13 extractor fan 14 washing machine9) 15 heater 16 water heater 17 sockets, lighting 18 extractor fan 19 20 21 22 23 sockets, lighting extractor fan ~::~~r7d~~~h!ne ironino machine Sockets, lighting Bathroom we Utili room Hall corridor 24 for length up to 2.5 m 25 over2.5 m Outdoorsittin 26 sockets ll htinq Storeroom >3 m2 27 !i hUng Hobb room 1"1 28 sockets I! htin 3 Residential cellar and basement 29 sockets II ht!n 1 Commercial cellar and basement Sockets, lighting 30 forusableareaupto20m2 117) 31 over20m2 117) Cellar and basement assa e 32 fi htin 2'1 2'1 141 1 14),8) 1"1 1 1'1 0.2 3.5 2.0 3.3 2.0 3.3 3.3 2.1 3.3 8.0-14.0 4.5 4.0-6.0 7.5 4.0-6.0 7.5 1) Or jtmcl!on boxes for consumer devices <2 kW 2) Sockets next to beds are double sockets, which, arranged next to aerial sockets, are triple sockets. These multiple sockets, are counted in the table as single sockets. 3) The worktops should be Ill with as little shadow and glare as possible. 4) If a single extract fan Is to be provided. 5) Unless hot water is provided by other means. 6) Of which one may be combined with the vanity unit light. 7) For bathrooms with 4 m2 usable area, one connection above the vanity unit Is sufficient. ~~ fn°[e~7d':~f.W~~~~~~~~~ut ~~~:~~~~~e swltch is via the general lighting, with a time lag. 10) Unless a utility room Is provide:!or the appliances can be accommodated In another suitable room. 11) ForWCswith a vanity unit. 12) Unless accommodated in the bathroom or another suitable room. 13) Switchab!e from one location. 14) Switchab!e from two locations. 15) From 8m2 usable space. j~~ ~~~:~~~~1ag~'~uWei:,"~~~~n~~~:f~~~~o:e~~~i1t~~-rating-l!ke partitions, e.g. wire mesh. 18) For passages >6 m long, one ouUetevery6 m of length begun. 0 Power supply to electrical appliances Uvingarea(m2} up to 50 50--75 75-100 100--125 over125 No. circuits for lighting and sockets f) No. circuits by size of living area r;-L:-:ivi-og_a_re-,a(-cm');:-r--;N-;-o-. c.,-ircu--:;-its-;fo-r:;-llg-;ch!;-in-g-.,-;d-,o-,ck:-e:-1,-, upto45 3 45-55 4 55-75 6 75-100 7 over 100 8 8 High level of equipment
DRAWINGS Security Installation Symbols Burglar alarm systems r:: 1!;1 ~ '----' DRAWINGS Lo.J optical signal generator connection relay man Jock Paper formats 1 strike plate contact ------ Technical sea ~ drawings • opening contact connection relay l2J digital line coupler turnstile Layout of drawings r~ ~ E]-r- revolving door Construction • magnetic contact remote switching device analog-digital converter drawings I! ~ with line coupler signal Construction ~ vibration sensor tx' 1~1 flow device drawing symbols alarm searchlight <JOt> electrically unlocked door Water supply and D :.J drainage symbols • oscillation contact ro' Electrical Fire alarm systems display tableau ...... electrically opened door installation + L ..J symbols thread tension switch [g st- Security maximum heat detector overlight installation .J1Jlj"'- foil L::_"::./~ operating panel symbols D Gas installation *" differential heat detector D II II protective grille symbols breakthrough sensor housing Drawing by hand [§;] ~ security escutcheon Computer-aided :::w:. pressure sensor/step mat optical smoke detector drawing r ., A glass breakage sensor ~ ionisation smoke detector L _j monitored housing ~ long security handle plate ~ structure-borne sound A rv-, monitored distributor I~ tilt and turn window sensor <~.,. infra red flame sensor L .J casement lock $(> passive infrared sensor <"'.>.. CCTV surveillance systems 9 lock for four-sided key 1~ ultra violet flame sensor r;_] y TV camera ~ falling bolt lock <}---<> light barrier ~ pressure sensor (sprinkler occ:__ J TV camera with varifocal activation) ~ <$ lens deadbolt lock light sensor [3] manual alarm ~~ ~ TV camera protective hinge bolts (dog bolts) r6' ~ housing L .J' image detector connection relay ~ CJ:m) protective housing with roller shutter locking <J~ microwave doppler motion ~t fire brigade key depot pan and tilt head detector L:. J r:__ }m) ~ folding shutter locking TV camera with pan and <l-- -I> Control centres/accessories tilt head microwave barrier 'f luEMI attack and break-in alarm ~J two-key lock system TV camera with motion ~~ control centre detector 'I' ~ HF field alteration sensor lockable window handle [3~ []ill fire alarm control centre rol LF field alteration sensor monitor [} security strike plate [ill access control centre L!' 0 ·..J ~~ capacitive field alteration ~~ operating panel view cross-bolt lock, double .... sensor [ill CCTV surveillance control L--=.../ selection device •=" bolt lock centre r· ::-, §!---~ HF barrier GJ monitor with video signal- ....-.- cellar grating security [ill shop theft alarm control rr~ ultrasound doppler motion centre L• • •..J dependent picture switching v detector cylinder lock [}{I] intercom control centre Access control systems II ~---~ ultrasound barrier []- vertically sliding door lock [ill door opener control centre pass reader [31 banknote contact ~- -·-~-· fence [2] stand-alone reader with converter additional code entry [3] ·X-X-X-X• barbed wire fence attack detector 0 ~ transmission system online reader rl-, +++ solid fence, mesh electromechanical [6] 1..,; .J switchgear analog-digital converter ® roller shutter with closing ~- pass reader with security r?-, mental switchgear ~ additional code entry @ L'.J mains rectifier steel roller shutters f"J' ~ stand-alone reader with time clock switchgear [Illi- L .J accumulator battery - additional code entry @ roller or concertina shutter rx' light switch device [JJ automatic dialling and bl L: :.J announcement device data terminal with [QJ safe [JJ operating panel rd' acoustic signal generator recording system handle ~ 0 •_j Y5IT. /!_- -:J' laminated safety glass L: :..1 17
DRAWINGS Paper formats Technical drawings Layout of drawings Construction drawings Construction drawing symbols Water supply symbols Electrical installation symbols Security installation symbols Gas installation symbols Drawing by hand Computer-aided drawing Gas installations 25 )( exposed horizontal pipe (stating nominal diameter) concealed horizontal pipe (stating nominal diameter) change of cross-section (stating nominal diameter) gas pipe house entry isolating piece riser pipe continuously rising pipe downpipe crossing of two pipes without connection crossing connection branch location ---jRT cleaning T-piece -+RK cleaning K-piece jjj long-threaded connection screwed connection IJ flanged connection ~ welded connection -txKJ-- shut-off tap ---{;::(K)-- shut-off gate valve ~ shut-offvalve thermally activated shut-off device elbow valve ~ pressure regulator ~ gasmeter [><Xl gas stove (four rings) ~ ~ gas oven (four rings) mgas refrigerator 18 ~ gas heat pump 800 exhaust gas/flue pipe (stating diameter) exhaust gas systems (stating dimensions), also for exhaust gas flue/chimney filter gas room heater continuous flow gas water heater combi gas water heater gas storage water heater ~ rn'ln gas room heater for external wall connection (stating connection capacity) gas heating boiler flexible hose f) House supply connection at right angles to front of building 9 Gas meter in cellar t) House supply connection for water and gas in one compartment 1 m wide and 0.30 m deep 8 Gas pipe laid on undisturbed soil; does not have to be frost-free 1 house introduction combination 2 pressure regulator B 3 shut-off 4gas meter 5 riser 6 gas supply line 7 branch line 8 devices connecting fitting thennally activated device 9 gas equipment: stove, water heater 1 power cable, local area network management 2 steel service pipe 3 casing 4 pull out 5 shut off the main with integrated insulating joints 6 boundary between gas valve unit (GVU) and installer 7 pressure regulator (!) Heating room ~35 kW DRAWINGS Gas Installation Symbols Gas Heating Gas appliance capacity volume flow (kW) (m3/h) gas water 8.8-28.1 1.14-3.62 heater circulating 9.5-28.4 1.23-3.67 water heater storage 5.1-13.9 0.70-1.91 water heater heating 2.6-B0.3 0.34-7.79 stove/boiler 0 Connection specifications for gas appliances ~ Introduction and inclined feed tube 8 Flow-operated safety device and flue gas flap valve 0 Gas meters on each storey 1A gas line installed free, gas lines can also be laid outside the building, such as a gas heater on the roof. A gas line needs to be frost-free. 2 Gas pipe laid under plaster. 3 Gas pipelines in shafls or channels have to be loaded and ventilated. Openings approximately 10 cm2• For suspended ceilings, these openings are placed diagonally. e Laying gas pipes 1 Minimum size 1 m3/kW 2 Combustion air opening in boiler output to ~50 kW cmZ at ground level 3 Combustion air opening at about 50 kW boiler capacities. Cross-section of the opening of 150 cm2 per kW + 2cm2, the over 50 kW goes out. Example: boiler output 65 kW 50kW+ 15 kW 150 cm2 + (15 x 2 = 30) cm2 =180 cm2
Q Sketching paper G Reinforcing edges 0 Specialised T-square 4Ii) Drawing aids G) Drawing aid ISO p.01 € 017mm f) Sketching: construction engineering f) Cutting paper to size grid cone shape: correct e Drawing board e Drawing aids G French curves 0 Drafting machine f) Good drawing practice a b (D Aid for hatching 4D a) Clutch pencil (lead holder); b) Correct way of holding pencil DRAWINGS Drawing by Hand Designers use drawings and diagrams to communicate in- formation in a factual, un- ambiguous and geometric form that can be understood anywhere in the world. Unlike painting, construction drawing is a means to an end, and this differentiates diagrams/working drawings and illustrations from artistic works. A4 sketch pads with 0.5 em squared graph paper are ideal for freehand sketches to scale. For more accurate sketches, millimetre graph paper with thick centimetre, faint 0.5 em and even finer millimetre divisions should be used -7 0. Different paper is used for drawing and sketching according to standard modular coordinated construction and engineering grids -7 f). Usetrac- ing paperfor sketching with asoft lead pencil. Suitable sheet sizes for drawings can be cut straight from a roll, single pages being torn off using a T-square -7 8 or cut on its underside -7 e. Construction drawings are done in hard pencil or ink on clear, tear- resistant tracing paper, bordered with protected edges -7 e and stored in drawers. Ink drawings are made on transparent paper and water-resistant paper is used for paintings or diagrams. Fix the paper on a simple drawing board (designed for standard formats) made of limewood or poplar, using drawing pins with conical points -7 E). First turn over 2 em of the paper's edge (later to be used as a filing edge- see p. 4): this lifts the T-square a little during drawing and prevents the T-square from smudging the work. (Forthe same reason, draw from top to bottom!) The drawing can be fixed with drafting tape rather than drawing pins -7 e (which means that the drawing underlay can be made of plastic- Cellon or a similar smooth material). Drafting machines are common in engineering disciplines -7 0. In addition to simple parallel rules, there are also special versions with built- in protractors for setting angles; these are ruled with centimetre and octametre divisions -7 0. Other drawing aids feature pocket scale sets, parallel scale for hatching, division of lengths -70. 19 DRAWINGS Paper formats Technical drawings Layout of drawings Construction drawings Construction drawing symbols Water supply and drainage symbols Electrical installation symbols Security installation symbols Gas installation symbols Drawing by hand Computer-aided drawing BS EN ISO 8560 BS 6750 DIN 4172
DRAWINGS Paper formats Technical drawings Layout of drawings Construction drawings Construction drawing symbols Water supply and drainage symbols Electrical installation symbols Security installation symbols Gas installation symbols Drawing by hand Computer-aided drawing BS EN ISO 13567 ISO 13567 y ----¥ (X,y) I I I I X X 0 Cartesian coordinate system. All points are defined through their x and y coordinates. The zero point can be set for each drawing or related to world coordinates. Polar coordinate system. All points are defined through their distance I from the zero point and the angle a related to the x-axis. Measurement system Abbr. 1 mm= 1 unit point pt 2.8346 pt 0.3528 mm inch in" 0.0394" 25.4 mm 8 Conversion factors for common computer units Text layer Dimensions layer Furniture layer Openings layer Construction layer Surround and title block layer G Structuring of a CAD drawing by arranging groups of similar objects on their own layers w Who-where-what naming of layers with variable field sizes (according to CadForum). The layer names have suitable abbreviations containing 2 or 3 pieces of information, each separated by an underscore. The content should be clear from the first 20 characters, because some CAD systems restrict the layer names to this length. Special characters should be avoided in order to prevent exchange problems. Who (1-5) =author possible abbreviations for authors Arch Architect lArch Interior architect LArch Landscape architect Bing Building engineer Ei Electrical engineer St Structural engineer HLS Heating/ventilation/sanitary Geom Surveyor What (13-20) =description possible descriptions axes structure openings finishings furniture hatching dimensioning labelling drawing outline Where (7-11) =categorisation possible categories BS basement GR ground floor FL1 1st floor EL_N north elevation SEC_A section A-A examples of layer names Arch_GR_axes Arch_GR_structure Arch_GR_finishes Arch_GR_hatching on smaller projects, the 2nd category (facultative) can be left out: Geom_level curves Arch_structure Bing_openings 9 Example of naming layers with variable, understandable labels 20 Drawings DRAWINGS Computer-Aided Drawing Drawings are always an abstraction of reality because they are in two dimensions. The degree of abstraction depends on the content and, above all, on the intended purpose of the drawing. The lowest degree of abstraction is represented by perspectives, collages and renderings, which attempt to come quite close to reality. In order to produce the desired impression, it is particularly important to leave some free rein for the fantasy of the viewer. Diagrams can be used to explain functional interactions. Working drawings contain all the required information about dimensions, materials and arrangement of the object to be produced. In this case, all details must be unambiguous and comprehensible for the producer, and therefore have a high degree of abstraction. In the age of computer-generated images, it still remains important to have a command of the rules and regulations of traditional drawing --+ pp. 39-40. Computer-aided drawings Drawing with a computer is very different from the classic methods of drawing on paper. There are two basic principles: raster graphics, in which every pixel of a drawing is saved (image processing), and vector graphics, where the start, end and the properties of a drawing element are saved (CAD). Because the output appears on a monitor screen or plot, there are also problems representing bodies and rooms in two dimensions. Only very simple CAD programs work with two-dimensional data models. More common are three-dimensional data models (object-oriented programs), which produce the desired type of illustration on output (monitor, plotting). The information required for this is stored in a database in the computer. This enables the elements of a drawing (line type, line thickness and colour) to be linked to further information, which is not visible, e.g. which layer they belong to, dependence on other objects, material properties, manufacturing information, order numbers etc. These properties can be exploited for the structuring of content or for further use (e.g. tenders or cost estimation). Volume modules permit further simulations. Structural, acoustic, climatic or lighting investigations can make precise statements about a building through the use of the appropriate software. 3D scanners, CNC machines and 3D plotters also enable the input and output of three-dimensional objects. Data exchange Because data is normally processed by a number of operators (various specialist technicians and engineers), a unified, understandable and clear system of organisation is important. When selecting a CAD system or deciding the working methods, it is important to know that all future processors of the data will work with the same software, or which interfaces can be used to exchange data. Exchange formats usually have a limited range of structuring possibilities and therefore organisation categories, which are not supported, will be lost or have to be recreated, with the associated waste of time. The naming of layers is governed by ISO 13567, which, however, uses cryptic abbreviations. It seems more practical to use the more flexible and easily understood naming system published by the specialist magazine CadForum --7 0.
f--------1.07-----1 f-- 65-70-! >-25-30-l 0 Standard wheelchair, side elevation f) Front elevation, folded 7 7 H-66---+i 1---- 80 ------1 t) Plan 0 Wheelchair on slope 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 80 a lfc I 1 .'17 f"' Nl XI'J. Ill y b ....... .v"' -t"' 'X. I T 0 ~ All t 0 ~ All 1 1----i;; 1.90----1 Q Space requirement for wheelchair parking space and movement area f---1.00-1.05----l 0 Onstairs 200 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 - ? r--.r--b( ==~IH' , II~ rc::: -1S r- ~ rn; ~ b I' ~ I ~ 100 0 100 80 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 C!) Onaplan t :::: :::: ;;; 1.50 :~:~ (9 Passage through one door 4Ii) From the side T ~~{ ~t.., ,.,.,.,.,~~: ., ... ~1·:. ,.., .,. I :. + :·:_ + :~: 0 .... 0> _........ 1 :·: All .... .L 1- ..- ~~~ ... ;;; 1.50 ::: .. 4D Through two doors ACCESSIBLE BUILDING Dimensions for Wheelchair Users General design basics Building regulations cover the design, construction and furnishing of housing, of accessible public buildings or parts of buildings, of workplaces and their external spaces. These buildings must be accessible for all people free of barriers. The users must be in a position to be almost completely independent of outside help. This applies notably to wheelchair users, the blind and visually impaired, those with other disabilities, old people, children and those of exceptionally short or tall stature. Movement areas Are those necessary for moving a wheelchair and are to be designed according to the minimum space requirement of a wheelchair user. The wheelchair --7 0 - 8 and the movement area for the person --7 0- mprovide the modules for this. The dimensions of the movement area are 0.90-1.80 m and may overlap - except in front of lift doors. A depth and width of at least 1.50 m should be provided in every room for turning. (More information on movement areas is found on the following pages.) Q Computer workplace 200 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 a ~--- ~--- ,..._ -ll ] It II r- ;- -..... b 1'-l 1-r--' IL 100 80 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 mFrom behind 4D With three doors e Atawindow ,_____ <;150 -----1 4!) Minimum turning space r ~ -t~;~ ~It ~l Kl--78--+-i;; 90-H 0 With four doors 21 ACCESSIBLE BUILDING DimensiQns for wheelchair users Accessible public buildings Accessible housing BS 8300 DD266 DIN 18024 DIN 18025 MBO see also: Lifts pp. 128-134
ACCESSIBLE BUILDING Dimensions for wheelchair users Accessible public buildings Accessible housing BS 8300 DIN 18024 DIN 18025 MBO see also: Lifts 128-134 I-- <!;1.50 ----1 T 0 "1 Ni 0 "! Ni 1 I-- <!;1.50 ---1 0 Movement areas In front of hand- operated side-hung doors 8 Ramp 15 15 H---- 1.20 --H e Ramp in section ,_;;; 1.10-t e Plan, with clear dimensions of the lift car and movement area in front of the doors f-<;;95-j .. ,~ . ,__ L=::t=:t=ll.i L_(_j f--Hso----j 0 "1 All _l 0 Overlapping of movement areas in sanitary facilities 22 1-- <!;1.90 ---l f.-- ;;;1.90 ----; f) Movement areas in front of hand- operated sliding doors f - - 95-1.35 ----l 0 Dimensions of corridors and passages ,-,1 . "1 All J "' I I L-------1 f) Movement area in front of stairs going up and down l I ~ I ; JJ f--ii;1.50---11 f) Movement area next to operated facility Movement areas must be: ACCESSIBLE BUILDING Accessible Public Buildings min. 1.50 m wide and min. 1.50 m deep ... in every room as a place to turn, at the start and end of rarnps, in front of telephone boxes, public telephones, service counters, passages, pay desks, checkpoints, post boxes, automatic service machines, calling/speaking equipment. min. 1.50 m wide ... in corridors, main routes and next to stairs up and down. min. 1.50 m deep ... in front of therapy facilities (e.g. bath, couch), in front of wheelchair parking places, next to the long side of the vehicle of a wheelchair user in car parks ~ p. 23 41i). min. 1.20 m wide ... alongside facilities which a wheelchair user has to approach from the side, between the wheel kerbs of a ramp and next to operated equipment. min. 0.90 m wide ... in access ways next to cash desks and checkpoints and on side routes. Accessibility without steps All levels of buildings designed in accordance with the principles of accessibility must be accessible without steps, i.e. using a lift or a ramp. Lifts Cars of lifts must have a min. clear width of 1.10 m and a clear depth of 1.40 m. The movement area in front of the doors must be as large as the floor area of the car, but min. 1.50 m wide and 1.50 m deep ~ 0. This area must not overlap with other traffic routes and movement areas. Ramps May have a maximum slope of 6% ~ 0. If ramps are longer than 6 m, an intermediate landing of min. 1.50 m length is required. The ramp and the intermediate landing are both to be provided with 10 em high wheel kerbs and handrails (diameter 3-4.5 em) at a height of 85 em. The clear ramp width must be min. 1.20 m. Wheel kerbs and handrails must project 30 em horizontally into the platform area. There must be no stairs down in the extension of the ramp. Stairs. The movement area next to the stairs going up and down must be min. 1.50 m wide; the tread of the first step is not to be included in the calculation of the movement area ~ f). Doors Clear passage width of doors ~0.90 m ~ 0 +f). Doors to toilets, showers and changing rooms must open outward. Sanitary facilities At least one toilet must be provided for wheelchair users in all sanitary facilities. The seat height should be 48 em ~ 8. Corridors and meeting areas Corridors and routes longer than 15 m must have a passing place for two wheelchair users of at least 1.80 m width and depth. Wheelchair parking place A wheelchair parking place for each wheelchair user is to be included in the design, preferably in the entrance area. Space requirement and movement area ~ p. 21 0.
IT .COD -;;;. TI 0 Movement area by shower; alternative - bath r--;;; 1.50 --I 1--;;; 95---+-35+--1 ;;; 30 r---- ;;; 1.50 ----1 C) Overlapping of movement areas in bathroom (with bath) !---;;; 1.50--I 9 Movement area in a double-space kitchen I- 60-i ~ + i 36' 23' Dimensions at the sink, stove and refrigerator f--;;; 1.50--; Wheelchair user's f.-;;; 1.20--1 Non-wheelchair user's C) Space requirement at the long side of a wheelchair user's and non- wheelchair user's bed 1------;;; 1.50--l Movement area in front of and next to we and washbasin 1--- ;;; 1.50 -----i 0 Overlapping of movement areas in bathroom (with shower) 1--;;; 1.50--1 T 0 "l ~ All 1 e Movement area in an L-layout kitchen e Dimensions in the kitchen l 0 0 tti J~I .1.~ 4I!) Space requirement in a garage ACCESSIBLE BUILDING Accessible Housing Movement areas which must be: min. 1.50 m wide and min. 1.50 m deep ..• a turning place in every room (excepting small rooms, which the wheelchair user can use by moving backwards and forwards), the shower ---7 0 +e. in front of the we and vanity unit ---7 f)- e. in an outside seating area, in front of lift shaft doors, at the start and end of a ramp and in front of the intake of a rubbish chute. min. 1.50 m deep .•. in front of the long side of a wheelchair user's bed ---7 e. in front of cupboards, in front of kitchen installations ---7 0-0, in front of the access side of a bath ---7 0 +e. in front of a wheelchair parking place and in front of the long side of a vehicle ---7 G). min. 1.50 m wide ... between walls outside the house, next to steps going up and down, where the tread of the uppermost step is not to be included in the movement area. min. 1.20 m wide ... along furniture which the wheelchair user approaches from the side, along the access side of a non-wheelchair user's bed ---7 0, between walls within the dwelling, next to operated equipment ---7 p. 22 e. between wheel kerbs of a ramp ---7 p. 22 e and on routes within a house. Accessibility without steps All rooms belonging to a dwelling and the communal facilities of a house must either be without steps, or have a lift ---7 p. 22 e. or be accessible with a ramp ---7 p. 22 e. Door stops and thresholds at the bottom of doors should be avoided, but if absolutely necessary may not be higher than 2 em. Wheelchair parking place A wheelchair parking place is to be included in the design for each wheelchair user, preferably located in the entrance area, for transferring from street to indoor wheelchair. Space requirement and movement area ---7 p. 22 e. Bathroom The bathroom is to be provided with a wheelchair-accessible shower. The later installation of a bath should be possible near the shower. The movement area to the right or left of the we must be at least 95 em wide and 70 em deep. From one side of the we towards the wall, or furniture, there must be a distance of min. 30 em ---7 f) - e. No bathroom doors may open inwards. Kitchen The main items of equipment items like the refrigerator, stove and sink, plus the worktop, are to be arranged as close as possible to each other. It must be possible for a wheelchair to pass under the sink and worktop without limitation. For the sink, this means that either a waste fitting behind the plaster or a flat fitting on the surface is necessary. Shelf space must be accessible for the wheelchair user and no tall units should be included in the design. The horizontal reach area is about 60 em, and the vertical activity range is 40-140 em. The optimum height of the worktop (approx. 75-90 em) should be discussed with the disabled person and fixed at a height to suit the user ---7 0 + 0. Car parking place A weather-protected car parking place or garage is to be provided for each dwelling. A movement area of 1.50 m depth should be provided next to the long side of the car ---7 G). 23 ACCESSIBLE BUILDING Dimensions for wheelchair users Accessible public buildings Accessible housing BS 8300 DD266 DIN 18024 DIN 18025 MBO
ACCESSIBLE BUILDING Dimensions for wheelchair users Accessible public buildings Accessible housing BS 8300 00266 DIN 18024 DIN 18025 MBO ~~~~~9e shelf letterbox 0 Deep entrance area with coat rack 8 Entrance lobby with double-leaf door 0 Plan of open-air seating area 1--<:; 3.75-----1 ~~r----~o) I I !_ _____ : D 1__0_ I I I I I I I : 0 10 <d l f) Living room for 1-2 people CD Accessible extension to two-family house; ramp to overcome level difference 24 r 0 Transverse layout of entrance area J---3.10----l ~!I IJ[Jc II J-1.40 -t-- 80 -+50-j40l J-1.40-+B0-+--90-J e Dining area layout for two or four people 0 I 0 0 <d 1 Elevation of open-air seating area 1----- 4.75 - - - j §[i'~ D ~~ f5s!-- 2.oo-+- 1.80 ---t-1 f--- 4.75 ------j T 0 10 ,; t 0 <q _l_ e Living room with dining area for 4-5 people (23.75 m2) 4f) Installation of an accessible vertical lift 6 "' t 0 <0 ..L ACCESSIBLE BUILDING Accessible Housing Housing suitable for wheelchairs Wheelchair users must be able to travel into all the rooms of a dwelling, and into all rooms available to the residents of a house in common, and to use all facilities. The wheelchair user must be in a position to be mostly independent of outside help. This applies notably to the blind and visually impaired, the deaf and hearing- impaired, the physically disabled, old people, children and people of exceptionally short or tall stature. In order to turn 180°, a wheelchair user requires at least 1.50 m2 ~ 0 + f). This space requirement determines the size of, and movement area in, corridors, rooms, garages etc. In residential apartment blocks, access through corridors or hallways is the most frequent arrangement. In this case, angles and corners are to be avoided as far as possible; a straight access corridor is suitable. The minimum area of an entrance hall should be 1.50 x 1.50 m, and an entrance lobby with a single-leaf door 1.70 x 1.60 m. A window with a clear view from a parapet height of 60 em should be provided in at least one living room of a dwelling. An entry phone at the flat or house door is an important item of equipment for a blind resident. Living area Adequate freedom of movement for wheelchair users is important in living rooms. There should also be room for at least two further wheelchair users as visitors. For a living room with an eating area, the minimum floor area should be: in a flat for one person 22 m2, for 2-4 people 24 m2, for five people 26 m2 and for six people 28m2 ; minimum room width 3.75 m (1-2 person household). Open-air seating area Every dwelling should be provided with an open-air seating area such as a terrace, loggia or balcony with a min. size 4.5 m2• The movement area must be min. 1.50 m wide and 1.50 m deep~ 0. Additional living space Additional living space should be provided for every wheelchair user if required. The floor area of a flat is normally increased by about 15 m2 by this requirement. I 10 "' ,..: 1 Single-room flat for wheelchair user (40--45 m2 ) G) Accessible flat for three people in a block with two flats per floor 00 00 ~Kitchen Cii) Two-room flat (50--55 m') 0 Accessible flat for four people in a block with three flats per floor
C=::J Ll on<) ~. 0'---0 live ~ j <SChild 0 0 Flat in two-family house before conversion --7 f) zy, living room and 1 bedroom flat before conversion ~ 0 0 One-room flat (40 m2) Q Two-room flat (54 m') 41!) Four-room flat (11 0 m') f) Flat in two-family house after conversion for serious disability Sal· One living room and two bedroom flat after conversion (for a visually impaired child) T II!!!!!!-· Flat(60 m2) ACCESSIBLE BUILDING Accessible Housing Accessible building (§50 of MBO- Model Building Regulations- applied at state level) (1) In buildings with more than two flats, the flats on one floor must be accessible. In these flats, the living rooms and bedrooms, one toilet, one bathroom and the kitchen or kitchenette must be accessible with a wheelchair. (2) Buildings which are publicly accessible, must in their parts serving the general public be capable of being accessed and used, according to their purpose, by disabled people, old people and people with small children, without outside help. This requirement applies notably to cultural, educational, sport, leisure and health facilities, offices, administration buildings and courts, sales and catering establishments, parking, garages and toilets. (3) Buildings, according to (2), must be accessible through an entrance with a clear opening width of at least 0.90 m without steps. An adequate movement area must be available in front of doors. Ramps may not have a slope of more than 6%, must be at least 1.20 m wide and have a fixed handrail with a safe grip on both sides. A landing is to be provided at the start and end of the ramp and also an intermediate landing every 6 m. The landings must have a length of at least 1.50 m. Stairs must have handrails on both sides, which are to be continued past landings and window openings and past the last steps. The stairs must have solid risers. Corridors and entrance halls must be at least 1.50 m wide. One toilet must also be suitable and accessible for wheelchair users; this is to be indicated by a sign. (4) Sections 1-3 do not apply if the installations can only be fulfilled with unreasonable expense on account of difficult terrain conditions, the installation of an otherwise unnecessary lift, unsuitable existing buildings or the safety of disabled or old people. 1 person 2 people 3 people living room 20.0 20.0 22.0 dining area 6.0 6.0 10.0 bedroom 16.0 24.0 16.0 child (1 bed) - - 14.0 bathroom 6.0 7.0 7.0 kitchen 8.0 9.0 9.0 corridor 5.0 6.0 6.0 storage room 1.0 1.0 1.5 storage (E-wheelchair) 6.0 6.0 6.0 spare room (washing machine) 1.0 1.0 1.0 living area 69.0 80.0 98.5 Guideline sizes for flats with one wheelchair user -living area in m2 [determination of requirements www.nullbarriere.de] 4D Three-room flat (95 m2 ) 25 ACCESSIBLE BUILDING Dimensions for wheelchair users Accessible public buildings Accessible housing BS 8300 DD266 DIN 18024 DIN 18025 MBO
DIMENSIONAL BASICS AND RELATION- SHIPS Man as measure and purpose The universal standard Body measurements and space requirements Geometrical relationships Dimensions in building Throughout history human beings have created things to be of service to them, using measurements relating to their bodies. Until relatively recent times people's limbs were the basis for all the units of measurement. Even today we can still have a better idea of the size of an object if it is compared to humans or their limbs: it was so many men high, so many ells (arm lengths) long, so many feet wider or so many heads bigger. These are expressions that we are born with: it could be said that their sizes are in our nature. But the introduction of the metre brought all that to an end. We should therefore attempt to achieve the most precise and vivid possible idea of this unit. Building clients do the same when they measure out the rooms of their properties in order to envisage the dimensions shown on the drawings. Anyone who intends to learn how to build should start by visualising the size of rooms and objects as clearly as possible, and constantly practise, so that every line they draw and every stated dimension of yet to be designed furniture, rooms or buildings can appear as an image before their eyes. We do, however, immediately have an accurate idea of the scale of an object when we see a person beside it, whether in the flesh or as an illustration. It is a poor reflection on our times that our trade and professional journals only too often depict rooms or buildings without any people in them. Such pictures can often create a false impression of the scale of a building and it is often astonishing how different they look in reality - mostly much smaller. This contributes to the frequent lack of cohesive relationships between buildings, because their designers have worked to various arbitrary scales and not to the only proper scale, human beings. If this is to be changed, then architects and designers must be shown where these haphazard dimensions, mostly accepted without thought, originated. They must understand the relationships of the size of the limbs of a healthy human being and how much space a person occupies in various postures and in movement. They must also be familiar with the dimensions of the appliances, clothing etc. which people encounter every day, in order to be able to determine the appropriate sizes for containers and furniture. They must know how much space a person needs between furniture in the kitchen, dining room, libraries etc. in order to undertake the necessary reaching and working among these fittings in comfort without squandering space. They must know how furniture should be placed so that people can fulfil their tasks or relax in the home, office or workshop. And, finally, the architect and designer need to know the minimum practical dimensions of spaces in which people move around on a daily basis, like trains, trams, vehicles etc. These typically very restricted minimum spaces give the designer fixed impressions, which are then used, even if unintentionally, to derive dimensions of other spaces. The human being, however, is not just a living creature that needs space. The emotional response is no less important. The way a room is dimensioned, divided, painted, lit, entered and furnished has great significance for the impression it makes. Starting from all these considerations and insights, I set out in 1926 to collect, in an organised way, the experience gained from a wide variety of professional practice and teaching. The present data book was developed from this work, starting from DIMENSIONAL BASICS AND RELATIONSHIPS Man as Measure and Purpose dimensions of buildings and their constituent parts. This involved, for the first time, the investigation, development and comparison of many fundamental questions. Current technical options have been included here to the greatest possible extent. Account is taken of common standards. Description is often reduced to the absolute minimum and supplemented or even replaced with illustrations wherever feasible. This should provide the creative architect or designer, in methodically ordered, brief and coherent form, the necessary information which would otherwise have to be laboriously extracted from countless books or researched circuitously by surveying existing buildings. Great value has been placed on the restriction of the content to a digest of the fundamental data and experience, with the inclusion of completed buildings only where they seemed necessary as general examples. By and large, of course, each building commission is different and (apart, of course, from adherence to relevant standards) should be studied, approached and designed anew by the architect. Completed projects can much too easily tempt us to imitate, or at least establish conventions, which the architect entrusted with a similar task can often escape only with difficulty. If, however, as is intended here, creative architects are given only the tools, then this compels independent thinking so that they weave all the components of the current commission into their own imaginative and unified construction. Finally, the tools presented here have not been collected more or less randomly from some journal or other, but systematically sought out in the literature as the data required for each building task. They have been checked against well-known examples of similar buildings and, where necessary, data has also been acquired through models and experiments. This was always with the intention of saving the practising architect or designer the effort of these basic investigations, so that sufficient time and leisure can be devoted to the important creative aspects of the commission. Ernst Neufert the human being and providing the framework for assessing the O Leonardo da Vinci: Rules of Proportion 26
T l: geometrical division of length a by employing the golden section a E l Man's dimensional relationships The oldest known canon describing the dimensional relationships of the human being was discovered in a burial chamber among the pyramids near Memphis (about 3000 BcE). Certainly, since then, scientists and artists have been engaged in trying to decipher human proportional relationships. We know about the proportional systems of the Egyptian pharaohs, of the time of Ptolemy, of the ancient Greeks and Romans, and the Canon of Polykleitos, which was long considered the standard, plus the work of the Middle Ages and of Alberti, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo and, above all, DOrer's world-famous advances. In all these systems, the human body was measured according to lengths of head, face or foot, which were than later sub-divided and related to each other so that they were applicable in everyday life. Even into our own times, the foot and the ell (arm's length) have remained common measures. In particular, the details worked out by DOrer became a common standard. He started from the height (h) of a human being and expressed the sub-divisions as fractions: 1f2 h = the entire torso from the crotch upwards 114 h = leg length from ankle to knee, length from chin to navel DIMENSIONAL BASICS AND RELATIONSHIPS The Universal Standard E l: l: E l: l: l: E l: E 1fs h = foot length 1/s h = head length from hair parting to underside of chin, spacing of nipples 1J1o h = face height and width (including ears), hand length to the wrist, 1f12 h = face width at level of underside of nose, leg width (above the ankle) etc. The sub-divisions extend to 1f4o h. In the last century, A. Zeising achieved greater clarity than anyone on this subject with his investigations of the dimensional relationships of man's proportions. He made exact measurements and comparisons based on the golden section --> p. 33. Unfortunately, this work did not earn appropriate recognition until recently, when E. Moessel, an important researcher in this area, endorsed Zeising's work with detailed examinations using his methods. From i 945, Le Corbusier also used, for all his projects, the sectional relationships of the golden ratio, which he called 'Le Modular'. His measures were human height = i .829 m; navel height = i .130 m etc. --> p. 33. 27 DIMENSIONAL BASICS AND RELATION- SHIPS Man as measure and purpose The universal standard Body measurements and space requirements Geometrical relationships Dimensions in building
DIMENSIONAL BASICS AND RELATION- SHIPS Man as measure and purpose The universal standard Body measurements and space requirements Geometrical relationships Dimensions in building 0 Crawling J----875---j f) Bending over f----875--l C!) Dimensions: at the desk J---660---l i ~-1 ' ' ' I I e Working while standing 1--1250-----i fli) Sitting on a mattress 28 ~ l----750--- f) Sitting cross-legged t------625-----j Sitting (from the front) DIMENSIONAL BASICS AND RELATIONSHIPS Body Measurements and Space Requirements t-875------1 f---625-----j 0 Sitting (from the side) e Kneeling !-----700-----1 e Squatting }---875---j J----875------1 1----1125----l e Standing leaning forward, 0 In movement standing (!) Outstretched arm (forwards) CD Outstretched arm (sideways) f----875 ------1 l--900-1000--- mDimensions: at the dining table f) Dimensions: in a small easy chair 1----1250----1 Q Dimensions: in an armchair 0) Kneeling Gi) Sitting on a chair cg) Sitting on the floor 1------1875------1 ~ Leaning against sloping backrest ~ Lying with raised back @) Lying
DIMENSIONAL BASICS AND RELATIONSHIPS Body Measurements and Space Requirements SPACE REQUIRED BETWEEN WALLS l-375-i I-625 -l 1- 875 ---1 0 Between walls ("'10% supplement for people moving) 1--- 1000 ---1 ~ 11so ------1 f) Two people next to each other 1--- 1700 ----1 1---- 2250 ~ 8 Three people next to each other Q Four people next to each other SPACE REQUIRED BY GROUPS 1- 1250 --1 1 - 1875 -----1 e Closely packed 0 Normal spacing STEP LENGTHS 1 - 2000 ----1 Q Choir group 1-750 -+- 750 -1- 750 -l 4I!) Walking in step 1- 875 -t- 875 -+- 875 --1 CD Marching SPACE REQUIRED FOR VARIOUS BODY POSTURES f - 2125 -----1 e Longer periods of standing 1-- 1250 .__j f.-- 625 -l @) Strolling n ~ - 1- I - )I ~ 2250 -------1 C) With back packs '1'- 2000 G) Max. no. people per m2 : 6 (e.g. cable car) I-- 1125 ---i f-- 1000 --1 0 Kneeling 1- 1125 ---1 0 Atthedesk I- 875 -l I- 625 -I 1-- 875 --l 1- 1000 ---1 1-- 1750 ---I ~ Stretching SPACE REQUIRED WITH HAND LUGGAGE 1- 800 --I @) One suitcase I- 1000 --1 1-- e Two suitcases G) Two people with two suitcases each SPACE REQUIRED WITH WALKING STICK AND UMBRELLA I- 875 --1 a> Handbag I- 750--1 I-- 1125 --1 (D With walking @) With umbrella stick 1--- 2375 @) Two people with umbrellas 29 DIMENSIONAL BASICS AND RELATION- SHIPS Man as measure and purpose The universal standard Body measurements and space requirements Geometrical relationships Dimensions in building
DIMENSIONAL BASICS AND RELATIONSHIPS Man as measure and purpose The universal standard Body measurements .and space requirements Geometrical relationships Dimensions in building fourth 3/4 third 4/5 minor third 5/6 0 Pythagorean rectangle includes all interval proportions but excludes the disharmonic seconds and sevenths a a b c p m X y 36"87' 3 4 5 53"13' 1 1 2 22"62' 5 12 13 67"38' 1 2 3 16°26' 7 24 25 73"74' 1 3 4 28°07' 8 15 17 61"93' 0.5 3 5 12°68' 9 40 41 77°32' 1 4 5 18°92' 12 35 37 71°08' 0.5 5 7 43°60' 20 21 29 46°40' 0.5 3 7 31"89' 28 45 53 58"11' 0.5 5 9 0 Number relationships from Pythagorean equations (selection) 8 Equilateral triangle, hexagon Q Pentagon: bisection of the radius gives point B; an arc with centre B and radius AB gives point C; distance AC equals the side of a pentagon CD Pentagon and golden section 30 f) Pythagorean triangle 0 Square e 15-sided polygon AC=~-!_=_1_ 5 3 16 1----M m---l f--M---+-m-1 f---M--t-m--l 1-rn--t--M--tm+-M-i I I 1----m----------j r-------M----~~ Cf} Decagon and golden section DIMENSIONAL BASICS AND RELATIONSHIPS Geometrical Relationships There have been agreements about the dimensioning of buildings since early times. The first specific statements date from the time of Pythagoras, who started from the basis that the numerical proportions found in acoustics must also be optically harmonic. This led to the development of the Pythagorean rectangle --7 0, which contains all the harmonic interval proportions but not the two disharmonic intervals -the second and seventh. Spatial measurements can be derived from these number relationships. Pythagorean or diophantic equations produce number groups f)- 0, which should be used for the width, height and length of rooms: a2 + b2 = c2 a= m (y2 -x2) b=mx2xxxy c=m(y2+x2) Where x, y are whole numbers, x is less than y, m is the magnification or reduction factor. The geometric shapes named by Plato and Vitruvius are also of critical importance: circle, triangle --7 e and square --7 0, from which polygonal traverses can be constructed. Each halving then gives further polygonal traverses. Other polygonal traverses (e.g. heptagon --7 0, nonagon --7 Cli)) can be formed only by approximation or by superimposition. For example, a 15-sided polygon --7 0 can be constructed by superimposing an equilateral triangle onto a pentagon. The pentagon --7 0 or pentagram has a natural relationship to the golden section, as does the derived decagon, but in earlier times its particular dimensional relationships were hardly ever used --7 p. 32 0-0. Polygonal traverses are necessary for the design and construction of so-called 'round' buildings. The determination of the most important measurements- radius r, chord c and height of a triangle h - is shown in --7 0- G) --7 p. 32. Cl) Approximated heptagon: line BC halves line AM at D. Distance BD Is approx. i/7 of circumference CD.Calculation of dimensions in a polygonal traverse__, p. 34 Ci) Approximated nonagon: arc centred on A with radius AB gives point D on line AC. Arc centred on C with radius CM gives point E on arc BD. Distance DE Is approx. 1/9 of circumference h=r.cosp ~=r. sin p 2 s=2·r·sinP h =~. cotang p 2 4D Formula__, 0
~1/2 0 Right-angled Isosceles triangle: can be used for quadrature 45. / !'A 'Av'2 v. - v. v'2 v. 0 n/4 triangle (A. v. Drach) 0 1 V2 1 8 _.e ---........... ....... ' ' 1:~2 rectangle Relationship between square roots Examples of non-rectangular coordination -> p. 34 MERO space frames: based on -./2 and-./3 f) Triangle (base= height) Squares developed from the octagon -> e -e -17 =2.646 l---1 ----1 e Hierarchy of square roots 10 20 28 40 28 4li) Related numbers as approximation of -./2 ('snail') DIMENSIONAL BASICS AND RELATIONSHIPS Geometrical Relationships A right-angled isosceles triangle (two sides of equal length), with a relationship of baseline to height of 2:1, can be used for quadrature (the process of constructing a square of equal area to a given shape) --+ 0. An isosceles triangle with the base and height forming two sides of a square was used successfully by the master cathedral builder Knauth to determine the dimensional relationships of the cathedral in Strasbourg --+ 0. The rr/4 triangle of A. v. Drach --+ 8 is rather more pointed than that described above because its height is determined by the point of the slewed square. It was used successfully by its inventor for details and devices. The investigations of L. R. Spitzenpfeil into a number of old buildings have discovered octagonal relationships. These are based on the so-called diagonal triangle, where the height of the triangle is the diagonal of the square constructed over half of the base --+ G - C). The sides of the rectangle formed from the diagonal triangle--+ 0 have a ratio of 1:-./2, so all halving or doubling of the rectangle produces the same ratio of 1:-./2. This was used as the basis for the ISO A series paper formats --+ p. 4. Geometrical progressions in this relationship are produced by the hierarchies inside an octagon --+ e -e and the hierarchy of the square roots of numbers 1-7--+ e. The relationship between the square roots of whole numbers is shown in --+ C). The factorisation procedure permits the application of square roots for the installation of non-rectangular building elements. Building from approximated values for square numbers, Mengeringhausen developed the MERO space frame. The principle is the so-called 'snail' --+ CD - 0. The imprecision of the right angle is compensated by the screw connections of the rods at the nodes. A different approximate calculation of the square roots of whole numbers -.Jn for non-rectangular building elements is offered by continued fractions (--+ p. 33) according to the formula: G =-.Jn =1 + n -1 --+ 4!). 1+G 1 I 0.5 zkfa 0.6 51 7 0.58333 •.. 12117 0.56821 •.• 29 41 0.5857143 .•. 70 99 _;11 0.5857989 •.• 169 239 0.5857865 •.• v'2 CD Continued fractions of --12 1 1.5 1.4 1.41687 ••• 1.41379 ... 1.4142657 •.• 1.4142011 ••. 1.4142135 .•• 31 DIMENSIONAL BASICS AND RELATION- SHIPS Man as measure and purpose The universal standard Body measurements and space requirements Geometrical relationships Dimensions in building
DIMENSIONAL BASICS AND RELATIONSHIPS Man as measure and purpose The universal standard Body measurements and space requirements Geometrical relationships Dimensions in building 0 Roman theatre (according to Vitruvius) C) Gable corner of a Doric temple: dimensional relationships based on the golden section 8 Golden section, buildings in Ostia Antica f) Plan of the entire quarter "10 G) Japanese treasury 32 f) Greek theatre (according to Vitruvius) 1 newest cavea 2 oldest cavea 3 orchestra 4 scenery storage 5 side gangway 6 retaining wall e Theatre in Epidaurus y X y/x (~2 =1.4142... ) 1 1 1 3 2 1.5 7 5 1.4 17 12 1.4166... 41 29 1.4137... 0 Dimensional relationships of the golden section e Floor mosaic in a house in Ostia Antica Rugen guildhall in ZOrich DIMENSIONAL BASICS AND RELATIONSHIPS Geometrical Relationships The use of geometrical and dimensional relationships based on the previous information was described by Vitruvius: according to his investigations, the Roman theatre, for example, is based on a triangle rotated four times -7 0, and the Greek theatre on a square rotated three times -7 f). Both constructions result in a dodecagon, which is recognisable on the stairs. Moessel claims to have verified dimensional relationships according to the golden ratio, although this is unlikely -7 0. The only Greek theatre based on a pentagon is in Epidaurus -7 0. The design principle of the golden (holy, divine) section (ratio, mean) was applied in a Roman residential quarter excavated in Ostia Antica, the ancient harbour of Rome -7 0 - 0. This principle is based on the bisection of the diagonals of a square. If the points at which the arcs (radius ..f2/2) intersect the sides of the square are joined up, this produces a nine-part grid. Its centre is the square of the golden section. The arc AB is with up to 0.65% deviation the same length as the diagonal CD of the original halved square. The golden section therefore represents an approximate method for squaring the circle. The entire complex at Ostia, from layout to fitting out details, was based on this ratio. Palladia, in his four books on architecture, provides a geometrical key based on the work of Pythagoras. He used the same spatial relationships (circle, triangle, square etc.) and harmonies for his buildings -7 0 - (!j). Similar laws of proportion are also expressed in clear rules by the ancient cultures of the East. The Indians with their 'Manasara', the Chinese with their modulation according to the 'Toukou', and above all the Japanese with their 'Kiwariho' methods created building systems which ensure traditional development and offer immense economic advantages -7 $. 0 Geometrical key to Palladia's villas $ Pian of the BMW Administration Building in Munich 41!) Palladia, Villa Pisani in Bagnolo 48-sided polygon developed from a triangle -> 0)
B A. C 1--~--l 0 Geometric construction of the golden section 8 Continued fraction: golden section Q Unlimited values Major Minor Relationship between square, circle and triangle 2 parts 3 parts 5 parts 8 parts 13 parts 21 parts 34 parts 55 parts 89 parts 144parts Values expressed in the metric system Red series Blue series Centimetre Metre Centimetre Metre 95280.7 952.80 58886.7 588.86 117773.5 1177.73 36394.0 363.94 72788.0 727.88 22492.7 224.92 44985.5 449.85 13901.3 139.01 27802.5 278.02 8591.4 85.91 17182.9 171.83 5309.8 53.10 10619.6 106.19 3281.6 32.81 6563.3 65.63 2028.2 20.28 4056.3 40.56 1253.5 12.53 2506.9 25.07 774.7 7.74 1549.4 15.49 478.8 4.79 957.6 9.57 295.9 2.96 591.8 5.92 182.9 1.83 365.8 3.66 113.0 1.13 226.0 2.26 69.8 0.70 139.7 1.40 43.2 0.43 86.3 0.86 26.7 0.26 53.4 0.53 16.5 0.16 33.0 0.33 10.2 0.10 20.4 0.20 6.8 0.06 7.8 0.08 2.4 0.02 4.8 0.04 1.5 0.01 3.0 0.03 0.9 1.8 0.01 0.6 1.1 etc. etc. e Illustration of the values and sets of the Modular, according to Le Corbusier DIMENSIONAL BASICS AND RELATIONSHIPS Geometrical Relationships The golden section The 'golden section' means that a length I is divided so that the ratio of the entire length to the larger part is the same as the ratio of the larger part to the smaller part. The golden section of a length can be determined either geometrically or by using a formula: For the geometrical construction, the distance I (to be divided) is drawn as a vertical AB and the horizontal line AC (= AB/2) as the baseline of a right-angled triangle. The length of the baseline AC is transferred using a compass with centre C onto the hypotenuse BC of this triangle, thus dividing the hypotenuse into the parts BD and DC. The distance BD is the major part M of the vertical AB. This distance M is then transferred onto the vertical AB, thus dividing AB into a major part (M) and a minor part (m) ~ 0. Therefore: major major minor The connection between the golden section and the proportions of square, circle and triangle is shown in ~ f). The golden sectioning of the distance can also be determined with the continued fraction 1 G=1 +- G This is the simplest infinite regular continued fraction ~ 8. The Modulor The architect Le Corbusier developed a theory of proportion based on the golden section and the dimensions of the human body. He marked out three intervals in the human body, which formed what Fibonacci named a golden section series: between the foot, the solar plexus, the head, the fingers of the raised hand. Le Corbusier first assumed 1.75 m to be the average height of a European, and divided this, according to the golden section, into the dimensions i 08.2 - 66.8- 4i .45 - 25.4 em ~ e. Because this last dimension is almost exactly i 0 in, Le Corbusier found a connection with the English inch, but this did not apply to the larger dimensions. Consequently he later altered his average body height to 6 English feet(= i .828 m) and from there developed, according to the golden section, the so-called red series upwards and downwards ~ e. Because the steps in this series were too large for practical use, he then developed an additional blue series, starting from 2.26 m (fingertips of the raised hand), with double the values in the red series ~ e. The values in the red and blue series were then implemented by Le Corbusier as practical measurements~ 0. Q unit double extension of shortening of f) The Modular A=i08 8=216 A=C=i75 8= D=83 e Proportional figure 33 DIMENSIONAL BASICS AND RELATION- SHIPS Man as measure and purpose The universal standard Body measurements and space requirements Geometrical relationships Dimensions in building
DIMENSIONAL BASICS AND RELATION· SHIPS Man as measure and purpose The universal standard Body measurements and space reqUirements Geometrical relationships Dimensions in building BS 6Y50 BS EN ISO 8560 BS 2045 DIN 323 DIN 4172 stBndard dimensions: 250 x 126 x 62.5mm nominal dimensions: 240 x 115 x 52mm Q Nominal and standard size of continental European wall bricks f) Modular structural dimensions (RR) and nominal dimensions (NM) for brickwork Terms Building preferred numbers are those for modular construction dimensions and the individual, structural and finished dimensions derived from them. Modular dimensions are only theoretical dimensions, but are the basis for the individual, structural and finished dimensions used in practice. Structural dimensions or nominal dimensions (for construction types with joints and wall finishes) are derived from modular dimensions by deducting or adding the component for the joint or the finish thickness. (Example: modular dimension for the length of a brick=25 em; thickness ofthe vertical joint= 1 em; nominal dimension for the length of the brick= 24 em; modular dimension for the thickness of poured concrete walls= nominal dimension= 25 em). Individual dimensions are dimensions (mostly small} for units of structure or finishing such as joint thicknesses, plaster thicknesses, door rebate sizes, wall projection sizes, tolerances. Structural dimensions are of the unfinished structure, such as masonry dimensions (without plaster thicknesses), structural slab thicknesses, sizes of unplastered door and window openings. Finished dimensions are for the finished building, such as clear sizes of plastered rooms and openings, storage space dimensions, floor-to-floor heights. Nominal dimensions are the same as modular dimensions for building types without joints. For building types with joints, the nominal dimension is the modular dimension less the joint thicknesses. Small dimensions are 2.5 em and less. They can be selected from the sizes: 2.5 em; 2 em; 1.6 em; 1.25 em; 1 em; 8 mm; 6.3 mm; 5 mm; 3.2 mm; 2.5 mm; 2 mm; 1.6 mm; 1.25 mm; 1 mm. 34 DIMENSIONAL BASICS AND RELATIONSHIPS Dimensions in Building Preferred numbers Preferred numbers have been introduced for the standardised sizing of machinery and technical devices. The starting point is the continental unit of length the metre (-'> 40 in). The engineering requirement for geometrical graduation made the purely decimal division of the metre impractical. The geometrical 10-part preferred number series is therefore: 1; 2; 4; 8; 16; 31.5; 63; 125; 250; 500; 1000. These are formed from the halving series (1000, 500, 250, 125) and the doubling series (1, 2, 4, 8, 16); the doubling number 32 was rounded down to 31.5 towards the exact value ofthe halving number (31.25), and the halving number 62.5 was rounded up to 63. The larger 5-part and the finer 20- and 40-part series fit in accordingly with their intermediate numbers. Preferred numbers offer many advantages for calculation: products and quotients of any number of preferred numbers are themselves preferred numbers, whole-number percentages of preferred numbers are again preferred numbers, and doubled and halved preferred numbers also remain preferred numbers. Although there is scarcely a need for geometrical graduation in building (considering the predominantly arithmetical addition of similar elements like: blocks, joists, rafters, trusses, columns, windows and similar) the so-called building preferred numbers have been defined and laid down. Brickwork dimensions in the UK differ: in the past large variations in the size of fired clay products often led to critical problems with bonding clay bricks. Now, BS 3921 provides one standard for dimensioning -'> 0: coordinating size (225 x 112.5 x 75 mm, including 10 mm in each direction for joints and tolerances), and the relating work size (215 [2 headers plus 1 joint] x 102.5 x 65 mm). Series preferred for the structure Series preferred for individual Series preferred for finishings dimensions a b c d e f 25 25 1¥ 25 25 5 2 4 TO 2.5 5 5 6% 7.5 8% 10 10 12% 12.5 1211, 15 15 16% 17.5 18% 20 20 22.5 25 25 25 25 25 27.5 31% 30 30 331;3 32.5% 35 35 37% 37Y., 37.5 41% 40 40 43% 42.5 45 45 50 50 50 50 50 50 52.5 56% 55 55 58% 57.5 60 60 62% 62% 62.5 65 65 66 68% 67.5 70 70 72.5 75 75 75 75 75 75 81Yi 80 80 83% 82.5 85 85 87% 87% 87.5 91% 90 90 93?::i 92.5 95 95 97.5 100 100 100 100 100 100 e Building preferred numbers 225 225 225 225 225 215 215 10 215 10 215 10 215 w 102.5w 102.5 ~f102.6w102.6 w 102.5w 102.6 w 102.6 w102.5w102.5w I 112.5 I 112.5 I 112.5 I 112.5 1 112,5 I 112.5 1 112.6 1 112.6 I 112.5 I 0 Wall elevation illustrating brick sizes in the UK g 2x5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 10 h i 4x5 5x5 20 25 40 50 60 75 80 100 100 10 mm: joints 65 mm: actual 75 mm: format 102.6 mm: actual 112.5 mm: format 215 mm: actual 225 mm; format
z / / v / v /Y v / v / //X fJ Coordinate system e Coordinate line (intersection of two planes) 0 Coordinate point (intersection of three planes) 0 Non-modular zone e Modular zone with laterally connected, non-modular building components 4Ii) Application example- sloping roof - 0 Coordinate plane r~r Boundary Ce!!e Reference Reference e Boundary reference, centre-line reference ~~ --- 0 Superimposed partial coordinate systems Storey height= 30 m Flight length on plan 42 m Selected: 16 risers 18.75/26.2 em (assuming/em joints) C) Pre-cast reinforced concrete stair element n9 ·M = ,;; (n3 - n6)· M .» n1 · n = (n1 - n9) • M mCompensating measure on the verticals 4f) Construction of a curving roof edge @) Modular polygon traverse--> 0 from regular polygon traverses (site plan) DIMENSIONAL BASICS AND RELATIONSHIPS Dimensions in Building Modular coordination in building The modular system is a means of coordinating the dimensions applicable to building work. The term 'coordination' is the key: a modular building standard contains details of a design and detailing system based on coordination as an aid in the design and construction of buildings. It gives geometrical and dimensional definitions for the spatial coordination of building components. It also enables technical areas, which depend on each other with regard to geometry and dimensions (e.g. building, electrical engineering, transport) to be connected. Geometrical considerations A coordinate system is always object-specific. It is used to coordinate building structures and components, and determine their position and size. From these are derived nominal dimensions of building components, plus joint and connection thicknesses ~ 0 - 0. A coordinate system consists of planes arranged at right angles to each other, spaced according to the coordinate measurements. Depending on the system, these can be of different sizes and in all three dimensions. Building components are normally arranged in one dimension between two parallel coordinate planes so that they fill the coordinate dimension, including the joint component and also taking tolerances into account. A building component is therefore defined in its extent, i.e. its size and position, in one dimension. This is called boundary reference ~ e. In other cases, it can be advantageous not to position a building component between two planes but rather to have its centre- line coincide with a coordinate plane. The component is thus specified in one dimension, but only in terms of position. This is called centre-line reference ~ e. A coordinate system can be sub-divided into various sub-systems for different groups of building elements (e.g. load-bearing structures, space- demarcating components etc.) ~ (). It has become apparent that not all individual components have to be modular (e.g. each step in a staircase, windows, doors, etc.), but only the building elements they are combined into (e.g. staircases, fagade or partition elements etc.) ~ 0. For non- modular building components which continue along or across the whole building, a non-modular zone can be introduced, which completely divides the coordinate system into two sub-systems. The precondition is that the size of the building component in the non-modular zone is already known at the time when the coordinate system is set out, because the non- modular zone can only have completely specified dimensions ~ 0. Further ways of arranging non-modular building components are the so-called central position and edge position in modular zones ~ e. The units of the modular system are the basic module M = 100 mm and the multi-modules 3 M =300 mm, 6 M =600 mm and 12 M = 1200 mm. There are also standardised non-modular supplementary dimensions I = 25 mm, 50 mm and 75 mm for fitting elements or overlapping connections ~ G). Combination rules can be used to fit building components of various sizes into a modular coordinate system. Number groups (e.g. Pythagoras') or factorisation (e.g. continued fractions) can be utilised to fit non-rectangular building components into a modular coordinate ~ 6). The construction of polygon traverses (e.g. triangle, square, pentagon and their halves) can be used to design so-called 'round' building structures ~0-0. 35 DIMENSIONAL BASICS AND RELATION- SHIPS Man as measure and purpose The universal standard Body measurements and space requirements Geometrical relationships Dimensions in building BS EN ISO 8560 BS 6750 DIN 18000
BUILDING BIOLOGY Basics Room climate Electromagnetic fields Guidelines of the Association of German Building Biologists VDB e. V. 0 Building biology as the study of the holistic interaction between building and resident ~ ---... South I I I I I I I I l I --..1su/ f) Electromagnetic fields in and around a building ~io----~--------4------------------------- 15 20 30 35 ' t Lu!uu!h!!!ll!hrl!!!l! I J I Rod responses Groundwater running 8 Differences in electrical potential above a groundwater aquifer electrical and magnetic low-frequency alternating electrical fields through fields ('electro-smog,) connected power cables, electrical devices etc. low-frequency alternating magnetic fields through switched-on electrical devices etc. high-frequency fields from mobile phone transmitters, telephone etc. static electricity from synthetic materials, wools etc. static magnetic fields building material heavy metals, toxins, radiation measurements air pollutants air pollution, toxins, gases, fine dust, allergens noise/vibration earth radiation and geopathogenic disturbance zones (e.g. underground earth magnetic field watercourses and 'earth rays') 8 The extent of building biology measurements of the built environment (example) 36 BUILDING BIOLOGY Basics Building biology is a collective term for the study of the holistic interaction between building and resident ---7 0 - f). Its aim is to determine any deleterious effects for the human organism through the consideration of physical, chemical and microbiological conditions in interiors and, if appropriate, take measures to relieve the causes (via 'healthy living'). The themes of building biology partially overlap with other disciplines: building ecology, whose main focus is the protection of nature and environment in the construction and operation of buildings and in the manufacture, processing and final disposal of building materials, building physics and electrical engineering as well as biology, chemistry and medicine. The principles of building biology are especially suitable for application in residential building but also in the construction of schools, hospitals, kindergartens and offices. The fact that the people today spend 90% of their lives inside buildings and are surrounded to an increasing degree by electromagnetic fields has increased public interest in building biology in recent years. Meanwhile, 2-5% of the German population now suffer complaints (e.g. headaches, insomnia, tiredness and concentration problems) due to the presence of building biological pollution of their homes and offices. The investigation of a building therefore normally includes the following areas: - measurement of electric, magnetic and electromagnetic fields from technical devices in the low- and high-frequency ranges - testing of building materials for toxins, heavy metals and radiation - testing of rooms' air quality for pollutants (toxins and gases, fibres, fine dust and allergens) - microbiological investigations of bacteria and mould formation, and measurements of noise, vibration and light ---7 8. Measurements related to radiaesthesia ('radiation sensitivity') can also be carried out, in attempts to demonstrate geopathogenic disturbance zones (e.g. underground watercourses and 'earth rays') can be discovered using dowsing, pendulums and other alternative scientific methods ----> e. The term 'building biology' is not yet officially regulated in Germany. This means that anyone can call themselves a building biologist independent of their level of education and practical experience. It is possible to discern two basic directions in the field of building biology. Scientific-oriented building biology attempts to use scientific methods to create healthy living and working conditions. Measurements must be carried out using scientifically recognised and reproducible methods, in order that harmful effects in buildings can be reliably detected and remedied. Alternative-oriented building biology assumes that the influences affecting people have so far been recognised scientifically only to a limited extent. The resulting measurements, and the theories and threshold values they are based on are therefore disputed, as there are sometimes no reliable methods for measuring such threshold values.
Heat loss (%) Breathing 11% Temperature regulating measures of the body Blood circulation under skin, heat transported through veins Evaporation 26% t:----:1-itt--!-- Sweat secretion, cooling Radiation 31% Convection 32% 0 Heat output and temperature-regulating measures of the human body 28"c :·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:-:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:-:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·: f) Thermal comfort p 30 .E 28 <t>"26 I" ~ 24 ~22 E ~ 20 ~ 18 '6 ~ 16 :? 14 ·o; .2 12 0 §5 10 ~ ,---- / I 1-. ) ~Iter"""I~" by 0 ~oedler Frank 2'1 " / )'.9! / "l'qb / 'Zo I'- I / / / I---- 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 Room air temp, -oLin oc 0 Thermal comfort zone (temperature of surrounding surfaces and of air) 40 38 36 34 32 30 28 26 24 22 20 "l*lmf~rtaJiyw~rm still comfortable ' com- ! fortabl uncom- fortably cnlrl 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 Room air temp, i in oc Thermal comfort zone (ceiling and room air temperature) 0 Thermal discomfort /, '/I I I I - uncomfortable I I I 1/ v / comfortable uncom- 1fortfble 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 Room air temp, l'J.L in oc 9 Thermal comfort zone (room air movement and room air temperature) 30 28 p 26 c ·-ll'24 i 22 1ii 20 1l 18 E ~ 16 0 .g 14 - - 1-- - 1- ['-.,. ""'""' com- ~able still J> ~ortfble f--uJcoJ--..._ f--fot1 1-- 12 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 Room air temp, dL in oc f) Thermal comfort zone (floor and room air temperature) BUILDING BIOLOGY Room Climate Thermal comfort is experienced when the thermal circulation regulated by the body is in balance, i.e. the body can regulate warmth with as little effort as possible. This type of comfort is experienced when the heat produced by the body corresponds to the actual heat loss to the surroundings. Temperature-regulating measures in the body Warming: flow of blood through the skin, increase of blood flow rate, vascular enlargement and muscle shivering. Cooling: sweating. Heat exchange between the body and the surroundings Inner heat flow: heat flow from the inside of the body to the skin depending on blood circulation. Outer heat flow: heat conduction through the feet; convection (air speed, room air and temperature difference between clothed and unclothed areas of the body); radiation (temperature difference between the external area of the body and the surroundings); evaporation, breathing (body surface, vapour pressure difference between skin and surroundings) ---7 0. Water content of the air Suitability for Sensation of breathing (g/kg) breathing 0-5 very good light, fresh 5-8 good normal 8-10 satisfactory still bearable 10-20 increasingly bad heavy, muggy 20-25 already dangerous damp heat over 25 unsuitable unbearable 41 water content of exhaled air 37"C (100 %) over41 water condenses pulmonary alveoli e Air humidity values for breathing air Low radiation temperature. Recommendations for room climatic conditions and temperature of air and surrounding surfaces In summer, 20-24°C is comfortable, in winter about 21°C (± 1°C). The temperature of the surrounding surfaces should not differ from the air temperature by more than 2-3°C. Alterations of the air temperature can be compensated for to a certain extent by alteration of the temperature of the surrounding surfaces (sinking air temperature- rising surface temperature). If these temperatures are too different, this causes excessive air movement. The critical locations are above all the windows. Large heat transfers to the floor through the feet should be avoided (floor temperature should be greater than 1?"C). Hot feet and cold feet are experienced by the sufferers and are not properties of the floor. The bare foot feels heat/cold through the floor covering and its thickness, the clothed foot through the floor covering and the temperature of the floor. The surface temperature of the ceiling depends on the room height. The temperatures perceived by people correspond to approximately the average of the temperature of the air and that of the surrounding surfaces. Air and air movement. Air movement is experienced as draughts, which in this case result in a local cooling of the body. Air temperature and relative humidity. Relative humidity of 40-50% is thermally comfortable. If the humidity is less than 30%, dust particles can fly. Fresh air and air exchange: The ideal is controlled ventilation rather than incidental or permanent ventilation. The C02 content of the air must be replaced by oxygen. A C02 content of 0.10% by volume should not be exceeded, which requires 2-3 air changes per hour in living rooms and bedrooms. The fresh air required by a person is about 32.0 m3/h. Air changes in living rooms: 0.4-0.8 x room volume per person/h. 37 BUILDING BIOLOGY Basics Room climate Electromagnetic fields
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Architects Data 4th Edition Ernst Neufert Peter Neufert
The Project Gutenberg eBook of Johnny Ludlow, Sixth Series
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook. Title: Johnny Ludlow, Sixth Series Author: Mrs. Henry Wood Release date: October 7, 2012 [eBook #40963] Most recently updated: October 23, 2024 Language: English Credits: Produced by David Edwards, eagkw and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive) *** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK JOHNNY LUDLOW, SIXTH SERIES ***
JOHNNY LUDLOW
Johnny Ludlow BY MRS. HENRY WOOD AUTHOR OF “EAST LYNNE,” “THE CHANNINGS,” ETC. SIXTH SERIES London MACMILLAN AND CO., Limited NEW YORK: THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1899 LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS.
Architects Data 4th Edition Ernst Neufert Peter Neufert
CONTENTS The Mystery at Number Seven— PAGE I.—MONTPELLIER-BY-SEA 1 II.—OWEN, THE MILKMAN 26 Caramel Cottage— I.—EDGAR RESTE 54 II.—DISAPPEARANCE 76 III.—DON THE SECOND 101 A Tragedy— I.—GERVAIS PREEN 126 II.—IN THE BUTTERY 152 III.—MYSTERY 178 IV.—OLIVER 204 In Later Years 230 The Silent Chimes— I.—PUTTING THEM UP 257 II.—PLAYING AGAIN 284 III.—RINGING AT MIDDAY 313 IV.—NOT HEARD 341 V.—SILENT FOR EVER 370
“God sent his Singers upon earth With songs of sadness and of mirth, That they might touch the hearts of men, And bring them back to heaven again.” Longfellow. JOHNNY LUDLOW
THE MYSTERY AT NUMBER SEVEN I.—MONTPELLIER-BY-SEA “Let us go and give her a turn,” cried the Squire. Tod laughed. “What, all of us?” said he. “To be sure. All of us. Why not? We’ll start to-morrow.” “Oh dear!” exclaimed Mrs. Todhetley, dismay in her mild tones. “Children and all?” “Children and all; and take Hannah to see to them,” said the Squire. “You don’t count, Joe: you will be off elsewhere.” “We could never be ready,” said the Mater, looking the image of perplexity. “To-morrow’s Friday. Besides, there would be no time to write to Mary.” “Write to her!” cried the Squire, turning sharply on his heel as he paced the room in his nankeen morning-coat. “And who do you suppose is going to write to her? Why, it would cause her to make all sorts of preparation, put her to no end of trouble. A pretty conjurer you’d make! We will take her by surprise: that’s what we will do.” “But if, when we got there, we should find her rooms are let, sir?” said I, the possibility striking me. “Then we’ll go into others, Johnny. A spell at the seaside will be a change for us all.” This conversation, and the Squire’s planning-out, arose through a letter we had just received from Mary Blair—poor Blair’s widow, if you have not forgotten him, who went to his end through that
Gazette of Jerry’s. After a few ups and downs, trying at this thing for a living, trying at that, Mrs. Blair had now settled in a house at the seaside, and opened a day-school. She hoped to get on in it in time, she wrote, especially if she could be so fortunate as to let her drawing-room to visitors. The Squire, always impulsive and good- hearted, at once cried out that we would go and take it. “It will be doing her a good turn, you see,” he ran on; “and when we leave I dare say she’ll find other people ready to go in. Let’s see”— picking up the letter to refer to the address—“No. 6, Seaboard Terrace, Montpellier-by-Sea. Whereabouts is Montpellier-by-Sea?” “Never heard of it in my life,” cried Tod. “Don’t believe there is such a place.” “Be quiet, Joe. I fancy it lies somewhere towards Saltwater.” Tod flung back his head. “Saltwater! A nice common place that is!” “Hold your tongue, sir. Johnny, fetch me the railway guide.” Upon looking at the guide, it was found there; “Montpellier-by-Sea;” the last station before getting to Saltwater. As to Saltwater, it might be common, as Tod said; for it was crowded with all sorts of people, but it was lively and healthy. Not on the next day, Friday, for it was impossible to get ready in such a heap of a hurry, but on the following Tuesday we started. Tod had left on the Saturday for Gloucestershire. His own mother’s relatives lived there, and they were always inviting him. “Montpellier-by-Sea?” cried the railway clerk in a doubting tone as we were getting the tickets. “Let’s see? Where is that?” Of course that set the Squire exploding. What right had clerks to pretend to issue tickets unless they knew their business? The clerk in question coolly ran his finger down the railway list he had turned to, and then gave us the tickets.
“It is a station not much frequented, you see,” he civilly observed. “Travellers mostly go on to Saltwater.” But for the train being due, and our having to make a rush for the platform, the Squire would have waited to give the young man a piece of his mind. “Saltwater, indeed!” said he. “I wonder the fellow does not issue his edict as to where people shall go and where they shan’t go.” We arrived in due time at our destination. It was written up as large as life on a white board, “Montpellier-by-Sea.” A small roadside station, open to the country around; no signs of sea or of houses to be seen; a broad rural district, apparently given over entirely to agriculture. On went the whistling train, leaving the group of us standing by our luggage on the platform. The Squire was staring about him doubtfully. “Can you tell me where Seaboard Terrace is?” “Seaboard Terrace?” repeated the station-master. “No, sir, I don’t know it. There’s no terrace of that name hereabouts. For that matter there are no terraces at all—no houses in fact.” The Squire’s face was a picture. He saw that (save a solitary farm homestead or two) the country was bare of dwelling-places. “This is Montpellier-by-Sea?” he questioned at last. “Sure enough it is, sir. Munpler, it’s called down here.” “Then Seaboard Terrace must be somewhere in it—somewhere about. What a strange thing!” “Perhaps the gentlefolks want to go to Saltwater?” spoke up one of the two porters employed at the little station. “There’s lots of terraces there. Here, Jim!”—calling to his fellow—“come here a minute. He’ll know, sir; he comes from Saltwater.”
Jim approached, and settled the doubt at once. He knew Seaboard Terrace very well indeed; it was at Saltwater; just out at the eastern end of it. Yes, it was at Saltwater. And there were we, more than two miles off it, on a broiling hot day, when walking was impracticable, with all our trunks about us, and no fly to be had, or other means of getting on. The Squire went into one of his passions, and demanded why people living at Saltwater should give their address as Montpellier- by-Sea. He had hardly patience to listen to the station-master’s explanation —who acknowledged that we were not the first travelling party that had been deluded in like manner. Munpler (as he and the rest of the natives persisted in calling it) was an extensive, straggling rural parish, filled with farm lands; an arm of it extended as far as Saltwater, and the new buildings at that end of Saltwater had rechristened themselves Montpellier-by-Sea, deeming it more aristocratic than the common old name. Had the Squire been able to transport the new buildings, builders and all, he had surely done it on the spot. Well, we got on to Saltwater in the evening by another train, and to No. 6, Seaboard Terrace. Mary Blair was just delighted. “If I had but known you were coming, if you had only written to me, I would have explained that it was Saltwater Station you must get out at, not Montpellier,” she cried in deprecation. “But, my dear, why on earth do you give in to a deception?” stormed the Squire. “Why call your place Montpellier when it’s Saltwater?” “I do what other people do,” she sighed; “I was told it was Montpellier when I came here. Generally speaking, I have explained, when writing to friends, that it is really Saltwater, in spite of its fine name. I suppose I forgot it when writing to you—I had so much to say. The people really to blame are those who named it so.”
“And that’s true, and they ought to be shown up,” said the Squire. Seaboard Terrace consisted of seven houses, built in front of the sea a little beyond the town. The parlours had bay windows; the drawing-rooms had balconies and verandahs. The two end houses, Nos. 1 and 7, were double houses, large and handsome, each of them being inhabited by a private family; the middle houses were smaller, most of them being let out in lodgings in the season. Mary Blair began talking that first evening as we sat together about the family who lived in the house next door to her, No. 7. Their name was Peahern, she said, and they had been so very, very kind to her since she took her house in March. Mr. Peahern had interested himself for her and got her several pupils; he was much respected at Saltwater. “Ah, he is a good man,” she added; “but——” “I’ll call and thank him,” interrupted the Squire. “I am proud to shake hands with such a man as that.” “You cannot,” she said; “he and his wife have gone abroad. A great misfortune has lately befallen them.” “A great misfortune! What was it?” I noticed a sort of cloud pass over Mary Blair’s face, a hesitation in her manner before she replied. Mrs. Todhetley was sitting by her on the sofa; the Squire was in the armchair opposite them, and I at the table, as I had sat at our tea-dinner. “Mr. Peahern was in business once—a wholesale druggist, I believe; but he made a fortune, and retired some years ago,” began Mary. “Mrs. Peahern has bad health and is a little lame. She was very kind to me also—very good and kind indeed. They had one son—no other children; I think he was studying for the Bar; I am not sure; but he lived in London, and came down here occasionally. My young maid- servant, Susan, got acquainted with their servants, and she gathered from their gossip that he, Edmund Peahern, a very handsome young man, was in some way a trouble to his parents. He was down at Easter, and stayed three weeks; and in May he came down again.
What happened I don’t know; I believe there was some scene with his father the day he arrived; anyway, Mr. Peahern was heard talking angrily to him; and that night he—he died.” She had dropped her voice to a whisper. The Squire spoke. “Died! Was it a natural death?” “No. A jury decided that he was insane; and he was buried here in the churchyard. Such a heap of claims and debts came to light, it was said. Mr. Peahern left his lawyer to pay them all, and went abroad with his poor wife for change of scene. It has been a great grief to me. I feel so sorry for them.” “Then, is the house shut up?” “No. Two servants are left in it—the two housemaids. The cook, who had lived with them five and twenty years and was dreadfully affected at the calamity, went with her mistress. Nice, good-natured young women are these two that are left, running in most days to ask if they can do anything for me.” “It is good to have such neighbours,” said the Squire. “And I hope you’ll get on, my dear. How came you to be at this place at all?” “It was through Mr. Lockett,” she answered—the clergyman who had been so much with her husband before he died, and who had kept up a correspondence with her. Mr. Lockett’s brother was in practice as a doctor at Saltwater, and they thought she might perhaps do well if she came to it. So Mary’s friends had screwed a point or two to put her into the house, and gave her besides a ten-pound note to start with. “I tell you what it is, young Joe: if you run and reve yourself into that scarlet heat, you shan’t come here with me again.”
“But I like to race with the donkeys,” replied young Joe. “I can run almost as fast as they, Johnny. I like to see the donkeys.” “Wouldn’t it be better to ride a donkey, lad?” He shook his head. “I have never had a ride but once,” he answered: “I’ve no sixpences for it. That once Matilda treated me. She brings me on the sands.” “Who is Matilda?” “Matilda at No. 7—Mr. Peahern’s.” “Well, if you are a good boy, young Joe, and stay by me, you shall have a ride as soon as the donkeys come back.” They were fine sands. I sat down on a bench with a book; little Joe strained his eyes to look after the donkeys in the distance, cantering off with some young shavers like himself on their backs, their nursemaids walking quickly after them. Poor little Joe!—he had the gentlest, meekest face in the world, with his thoughtful look and nice eyes—waited and watched in quiet patience. The sands were crowded with people this afternoon; organs were playing, dancing dolls exhibiting; and vessels with their white sails spread glided smoothly up and down on the sparkling sea. “And will you really pay the sixpence?” asked the little fellow presently. “They won’t let me get on for less.” “Really and truly, Joe. I’ll take you for a row in a boat some calm day, if mamma will allow you to go.” Joe looked grave. “I don’t much like the water, please,” said he, timidly. “Alfred Dale went on it in a boat and fell in, and was nearly drowned. He comes to mamma’s school.” “Then we’ll let the boats alone, Joe. There’s Punch! He is going to set himself up yonder: wouldn’t you like to run and see him?” “But I might miss the donkeys,” answered Joe.
He stood by me quietly, gazing in the direction taken by the donkeys; evidently they were his primary attraction. The other child, Mary, who was a baby when her father died (poor Baked Pie, as we boys used to call him at Frost’s), was in Wales with Mrs. Blair’s people. They had taken the child for a few months, until she saw whether she should get along at Saltwater. But we thought she would get along. Her school was a morning school for little boys of good parentage, all of whom paid liberal terms; and she would be able to let her best rooms for at least six months in the year. “There’s Matilda! Oh, there’s Matilda!” It was quite a loud shout for little Joe. Looking up, I saw him rush to a rather good-looking young woman, neatly dressed in a black-and- white print gown and small shawl of the same, with black ribbons crossed on her straw bonnet. Servants did not dress fine enough to set the Thames on fire in those days. Joe dragged her triumphantly up to me. She was one of the housemaids at No. 7. “It’s Matilda,” he said; and the young woman curtsied. “And I am going to have a donkey-ride, Matilda; Mr. Johnny Ludlow’s going to give the sixpence for me!” “I know you by sight, sir,” observed Matilda to me. “I have seen you go in and out of No. 6.” She had a pale olive complexion, with magnificent, melancholy dark eyes. Many persons would have called her handsome. I took a sort of liking for the girl—if only for her kindness to poor little fatherless Joe. In manner she was particularly quiet, subdued, and patient. “You had a sad misfortune at your house not long ago,” I observed to her, at a loss for something to say. “Oh, sir, don’t talk of it, please!” she answered, catching her breath. “I seem to have had the shivers at times ever since. It was me that found him.”
Up cantered the donkeys; and presently away went Joe on the back of one, Matilda attending him. The ride was just over, and Joe beginning to enlarge on its delights to me, when another young woman, dressed precisely similar to Matilda, even to the zigzag white running pattern on the prim gown, and the black cotton gloves, was seen making her way towards us. She was nice-looking also, in a different way—fair, with blue eyes, and a laughing, arch face. “Why, there’s Jane Cross!” exclaimed Matilda. “What in the world have you come out for, Jane? Have you left the house safe?” “As if I should leave it unsafe!” lightly retorted the one they had called Jane Cross. “The back door’s locked, and here’s the key of the front”—showing a huge key. “Why shouldn’t I go out if you do, Matilda? The house is none so lively a one now, to stop in all alone.” “And that’s true enough,” was Matilda’s quiet answer. “Little master Joe’s here; he has been having a donkey-ride.” The two servants, fellow-housemaids, strolled off towards the sea, taking Joe with them. At the edge of the beach they encountered Hannah, who had just come on with our two children, Hugh and Lena. The maids sat down for a gossip, while the children took off their shoes and stockings to dabble in the gently rising tide. And that was my introductory acquaintanceship with the servant- maids at No. 7. Unfortunately it did not end there. Twilight was coming on. We had been out and about all day, had dined as usual at one o’clock (not to give unnecessary trouble), and had just finished tea in Mrs. Blair’s parlour. It was where we generally took tea, and supper also. The Squire liked to sit in the open bay window and watch the passers-by as long as ever a glimmer of daylight lasted; and he could not see them so well in the drawing-room above. I was at the other corner of the bay window.
The Mater and Mary Blair were on their favourite seat, the sofa, at the end of the room, both knitting. In the room at the back, Mary held her morning school. I sat facing towards the end house, No. 7. And I must here say that during the last two or three weeks I had met the housemaids several times on the sands, and so had become quite at home with each of them. Both appeared to be thoroughly well-conducted, estimable young women; but, of the two, I liked Jane Cross best; she was always so lively and pleasant-mannered. One day she told me why No. 7 generally called her by her two names—which I had thought rather odd. It appeared that when she entered her place two years before, the other housemaid was named Jane, so they took to call her by her full name, Jane Cross. That housemaid had left in about a twelvemonth, and Matilda had entered in her place. The servants were regarded as equals in the house, not one above the other, as is the case in many places. These details will probably be thought unnecessary and uncalled for, but you will soon see why I mention them. This was Monday. On the morrow we should have been three weeks at Saltwater, and the Squire did not yet talk of leaving. He was enjoying the free-and-easy life, and was as fond as a child of picking up shells on the sands and looking at Punch and the dancing dolls. Well, we sat this evening in the bay window as usual, I facing No. 7. Thus sitting, I saw Matilda cross the strip of garden with a jug in her hand, and come out at the gate to fetch the beer for supper. “There goes Jane Cross,” cried the Squire, as she passed the window. “Is it not, Johnny?” “No, sir, it’s Matilda.” But the mistake was a very natural one, for the girls were about the same height and size, and were usually dressed alike, the same mourning having been supplied to both of them. Ten minutes or so had elapsed when Matilda came back: she liked a gossip with the landlady of the Swan. Her pint jug was brimful of
beer, and she shut the iron gate of No. 7 after her. Putting my head as far out at the window as it would go, to watch her indoors, for no earthly reason but that I had nothing else to do, I saw her try the front door, and then knock at it. This knock she repeated three times over at intervals, each knock being louder than the last. “Are you shut out, Matilda?” I called out. “Yes, sir, it seems like it,” she called back again, without turning her head. “Jane Cross must have gone to sleep.” Had she been a footman with a carriage full of ladies in court trains behind him, she could not have given a louder or longer knock than she gave now. There was no bell to the front door at No. 7. But the knock remained unanswered and the door unopened. “Matilda at No. 7 is locked out,” I said, laughing, bringing in my head and speaking to the parlour generally. “She has been to fetch the beer for supper, and can’t get in again.” “The beer for supper?” repeated Mrs. Blair. “They generally go out at the back gate to fetch that, Johnny.” “Anyhow, she took the front way to-night. I saw her come out.” Another tremendous knock. The Squire put his good old nose round the window-post; two boys and a lady, passing by, halted a minute to look on. It was getting exciting, and I ran out. She was still at the door, which stood in the middle of the house, between the sitting- rooms on each side. “So you have got the key of the street, Matilda!” “I can’t make it out,” she said; “what Jane Cross can be about, or why the door should be closed at all. I left it on the latch.” “Somebody has slipped in to make love to her. Your friend, the milkman, perhaps.”
Evidently Matilda did not like the allusion to the milkman. Catching a glimpse of her face by the street lamp, I saw it had turned white. The milkman was supposed to be paying court at No. 7, but to which of the two maids gossip did not decide. Mrs. Blair’s Susan, who knew them well, said it was Matilda. “Why don’t you try the back way?” I asked, after more waiting. “Because I know the outer door is locked, sir. Jane Cross locked it just now, and that’s why I came out this front way. I can try it, however.” She went round to the road that ran by the side of the house, and tried the door in the garden wall. It was fastened, as she had said. Seizing the bell-handle, she gave a loud peal—another, and another. “I say, it seems odd, though,” I cried, beginning to find it so. “Do you think she can have gone out?” “I’m sure I don’t know, sir. But—no; it’s not likely, Master Johnny. I left her laying the cloth for our supper.” “Was she in the house alone?” “We are always alone, sir; we don’t have visitors. Anyway, none have been with us this evening.” I looked at the upper windows of the house. No light was to be seen in any of them, no sign of Jane Cross. The lower windows were hidden from view by the wall, which was high. “I think she must have dropped asleep, Matilda, as you say. Suppose you come in through Mrs. Blair’s and get over the wall?” I ran round to tell the news to our people. Matilda followed me slowly; I thought, reluctantly. Even in the dim twilight, as she stood at our gate in hesitation, I could see how white her face was. “What are you afraid of?” I asked her, going out again to where she stood.
“I hardly know, Master Johnny. Jane Cross used to have fits. Perhaps she has been frightened into one now.” “What should frighten her?” The girl looked round in a scared manner before replying. Just then I found my jacket-sleeve wet. Her trembling hands had shaken a little of the ale upon it. “If she—should have seen Mr. Edmund?” the girl brought out in a horrified whisper. “Seen Mr. Edmund! Mr. Edmund who?—Mr. Edmund Peahern? Why, you don’t surely mean his ghost?” Her face was growing whiter. I stared at her in surprise. “We have always been afraid of seeing something, she and me, since last May; we haven’t liked the house at night-time. It has often been quite a scuffle which of us should fetch the beer, so as not to be the one left alone. Many a time I have stood right out at the back door while Jane Cross has gone for it.” I began to think her an idiot. If Jane Cross was another, why, perhaps she had frightened herself into a fit. All the more reason that somebody should see after her. “Come along, Matilda; don’t be foolish; we’ll both get over the wall.” It was a calm, still summer evening, almost dark now. All the lot of us went out to the back garden, I whispering to them what the girl had said to me. “Poor thing!” said Mrs. Todhetley, who had a sort of fellow-feeling for ghosts. “It has been very lonely for the young women; and if Jane Cross is subject to fits, she may be lying in one at this moment.” The wall between the gardens was nothing like as high as the outer one. Susan brought out a chair, and Matilda could have got over easily. But when she reached the top, she stuck there.
“I can’t go on by myself; I dare not,” she said, turning her frightened face towards us. “If Mr. Edmund is there——” “Don’t be a goose, girl!” interrupted the Squire, in doubt whether to laugh or scold. “Here, I’ll go with you. Get on down. Hold the chair tight for me, Johnny.” We hoisted him over without damage. I leaped after him, and Susan, grinning with delight, came after me. She supposed that Jane Cross had slipped out somewhere during Matilda’s absence. The door faced the garden, and the Squire and Susan were the first to enter. There seemed to be no light anywhere, and the Squire went gingerly picking his way. I turned round to look for Matilda, who had hung back, and found her with her hand on the trellis-work of the porch, and the beer splashing over in her fear. “I say, look here, Matilda; you must be a regular goose, as the Squire says, to put yourself into this fright before you know whether there’s any cause for it. Susan says she has only stepped out somewhere.” She put up her hand and touched my arm, her lips the colour of chalk. “Only last night that ever was, Mr. Johnny, as we were going up the staircase to bed, we heard a sound in the room as we passed it. It was just like a groan. Ask Jane Cross, else, sir.” “What room?” “Mr. Edmund’s; where he did it. She has heard him to-night, or seen him, or something, and has fallen into a fit.” The kitchen was on the right of the passage. Susan, knowing the ways of the house, soon lighted a candle. On a small round table was spread a white cloth, some bread and cheese, and two tumblers. A knife or two had seemingly been flung on it at random.
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  • 6. Ernst and Peter Neufert llliii I Fourth Edition Updated by Professor Johannes Kister on behalf of the Neufert Foundation with support from the University of Anhalt Dessau Bauhaus (Dipl. lng. Mathias Brockhaus, Dipl. lng. Matthias Lohmann and Dipl. lng. Patricia Merkel) TRANSLATED BY DAVID STURGE (5BWILEY-BLACKWELL A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication
  • 7. English language first published 2012 © 2012 Blackwell Publishing Ltd Blackwell Publishing was acquired by John Wiley & Sons in February 2007. Blackwell's publishing program has been merged with Wiley's global Scientific, Technical and Medical business to form Wiley-Blackwell. Registered office: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, P019 8SQ, UK Editorial offices: 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UK The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, P019 8SQ, UK 2121 State Avenue, Ames, Iowa 50014-8300, USA For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at www.wiley.com/wiley-blackwell. The right of the author to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher. Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought. First English language edition published by Crosby Lockwood Staples 1970 Reprinted 5 times Second (International) English language edition published by Granada Publishing 1980 Reprinted 3 times Reissued in paperback by Collins Professional and Technical Books 1985 Reprinted by Blackwell Science Ltd 12 times Third English language edition published by Blackwell Science Ltd 2000 Fourth Edition language edition published by Blackwell Publishing Ltd 2012 Originally Published in the German Language by Vieweg + Teubner, 65189 Wiesbaden, Germany, as "Ernst Neufert: Neufert Bauentwurfslehre. 39. Auflage (39th Edition)" © Vieweg + TeubneriGWV Fachverlage GmbH, Wiesbaden 2009 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Data available on application A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN: 978-1-4051-9253-8 Set in 8/10 Arial by Aptara Printed and bound in Singapore by Markono Print Media Pte Ltd 2012
  • 8. This book provides architects and designers with a concise source of the core information needed to form a framework for the detailed planning of any building project. The objective is to save the designers of buildings time during their basic investigations. The information includes: principles of the design process, basic information on siting, constructing and servicing buildings, as well as illustrations and descriptions of a wide range of building types. Architects need to be well informed about the requirements for all the constituent parts of new projects, to ensure that their designs satisfy their clients and the buildings conform to accepted standards and regulations. The contents list shows how the book is organised and the order of the subjects discussed. To avoid repetition and keep the book to a manageable length, the different subjects are covered only once in full. Readers should therefore refer to several sections to glean all the information they require. For instance, an architect wanting to prepare a scheme for a college will need to refer to sections other than that on universities and colleges, such as: drafting guidelines; multi-storey buildings; various sections on services and environmental control; catering; residential buildings, hotels and flats (for student accommodation); office buildings (for working environments); libraries; car parks; accessible building; indoor and outdoor sports facilities; gardens; details on doors, windows, stairs and other building components; the section on construction, and more. Readers should note that most of the material is from European (substantially German) contributors. This means, for example, that information on climate and daylight is from the perspective of a temperate climate in the northern hemisphere. The actual conditions at the site of a proposed building will always have to be ascertained. Similarly, in the section on roads, illustrations show traffic driving on the right-hand side. References to standards, regulations and guidelines reflect the book's origins. For this translation, the publishers took the decision to leave the specific text references to German standards, regulations and guidelines in place, to indicate where similar standards, regulations and guidelines might exist in other jurisdictions. Users The publishers wish to thank the translator, Mr David Sturge. The publishers also wish to acknowledge and thank the copyeditor Using this book elsewhere must familiarise themselves separately with such national and local legislation and guidance. Again, local conditions must be taken into consideration for each individual case. The terminology and style of the text is UK English, which will need to be taken into account by readers accustomed to American English. These readers will need to be aware that, for example, 'lift' has been used instead of 'elevator' and 'ground floor/first floor' instead of 'first floor/second floor'. The data and examples included in the text are drawn from a wide range of sources; as a result a variety of conventions for dimensions is used throughout. The measurements shown are all metric but a mixture of metres, centimetres and millimetres is used (and sometimes not identified). Readers will also find some superscript numbers associated with measurements. When these appear by dimensions in metres with centimetres, for instance, they represent the additional millimetre component of the measure (e.g. 1.265 denotes 1 m, 26 em, 5 mm). Anyone familiar with the metric system will not find this troublesome. Those people less comfortable with metric units can use the conversion tables (to imperial measures) at the end of the book. The plans and diagrams of buildings do not have scales as the purpose here is to show the general layout and express relationships between different spaces, making exact scaling unnecessary. However, all relevant dimensions are given on the detailed drawings and diagrams of installations, to assist in the design of specific spaces and constructions. To help readers identify relevant background information, details of British Standards Institute (BSI) and German Institute of Standardisation (DIN) building-related standards are provided in two types of location. At the end of the book is a selected list of BS and DIN standards, arranged broadly by topic. Additionally, the margin of many pages of the main text contains relevant BS and DIN codes. Please note that, if a British or Gerrnan code includes EN or ISO (signifying European or international), there is automatically a German dr British counterpart with the same code and title. Acknowledgements and proofreader, Ms Kay Hyman, for the very significant contribution she has made to this publication. v
  • 10. Foreword ................................................................................... xii BASICS Abbreviations and symbols ..................................................... 1 Sl units ........................................................................................2 Drawings Paper formats ..............................................................................4 Technical drawings ...................................................................... 5 Layout of drawings ......................................................................6 Construction drawings ................................................................. 7 Construction drawing symbols .................................................... 8 Water supply and drainage symbols, ........................................ 12 Electrical installation symbols ................................................... 14 Security installation symbols ..................................................... 17 Gas installation symbols ........................................................... 18 Drawing by hand ....................................................................... 19 Computer-aided drawing ........................................................... 20 Accessible Building Dimensions for wheelchair users .............................................. 21 Accessible public buildings ....................................................... 22 Accessible housing ...................................................................23 Dimensional Basics and Relationships Man as measure and purpose .................................................. 26 The universal standard ............................................................. 27 Body measurements and space requirements ......................... 28 Geometrical relationships .......................................................... 30 Dimensions in building .............................................................. 34 Building Biology Basics ........................................................................................ 36 Room climate ............................................................................ 37 Electromagnetic fields ............................................................... 38 Visual Perception The eye ..................................................................................... 39 Perception of colour ..................................................................41 DESIGN PROCESS Design What is design? ......................................................................... 42 Planes of reference ...................................................................43 Questionnaire ............................................................................44 Sustainable Building General, design, construction ...................................................46 Operation, demolition ................................................................47 Facility Management Background ...............................................................................48 Methods ...:................................................................................49 Refurbishment Conservation and alteration ...................................................... 50 Care of historic monuments ...................................................... 51 Listed building protection .......................................................... 52 Recording of old buildings ......................................................... 53 Conversion ................................................................................54 Design and Construction Management Public building and planning law ............................................... 56 Private building law, VOB, HOAI ............................................... 57 Work phases ............................................................................. 58 Measures of building use .......................................................... 63 Setback areas ...........................................................................64 Construction costs .................................................................... 65 Contents BUILDING COMPONENTS Foundations Building excavations .................................................................. 66 Foundations ...............................................................................69 Tanking, basement drainage ..................................................... 71 Repair ........................................................................................73 Walls Natural stone masonry .............................................................. 74 Brick and block masonry ........................................................... 75 Composite construction ............................................................. 78 Repair ........................................................................................79 Floor Slabs Slab construction ....................................................................... 80 Refurbishment ...........................................................................81 Concrete repair ......................................................................... 82 Floors ........................................................................................ 83 Roofs Roof shapes ..............................................................................85 Pitched roofs .............................................................................86 Flat roofs ...................................................................................91 Windows Arrangement .............................................................................96 Requirements ............................................................................97 Design types .............................................................................98 c Thermal insulation ..................................................................... 99 Sound insulation ...................................................................... 100 Cleaning buildings .................................................................. 101 Loft windows ........................................................................... 102 Skylights and dome rooflights ................................................. 103 Glass Basics ......................................................................................104 Insulated glazing ..................................................................... 105 Security and noise control glass ............................................. 107 Optically variable glass ........................................................... 108 Cast glass ............................................................................... 108 Glass doors ............................................................................. 108 Profiled glass .......................................................................... 109 Glass blocks ............................................................................ 110 Fire protection glazing ..............................................................111 Curtain walling ......................................................................... 112 Doors Arrangement ........................................................................... 113 Constructional details .............................................................. 114 Special doors .......................................................................... 115 Garage/industrial doors ........................................................... 116 Lock suites .............................................................................. 117 Security of buildings and grounds ........................................... 118 Stairs Principles ................................................................................ 120 Regulations ............................................................................. 121 Construction ............................................................................ 122 Ramps, spiral stairs ................................................................ 123 Access and escape ladders .................................................... 125 Escalators For shops and offices .............................................................. 126 Moving Walkways For shops and offices .............................................................. 127 Lifts Principles ................................................................................128 Control equipment ................................................................... 129 Passenger lifts for residential buildings ................................... 130 vii
  • 11. Passenger lifts for offices, hotels, banks ................................. 131 Playgrounds Small goods lifts ...................................................................... 132 Playground equipment ............................................................ 190 Hydraulic lifts ........................................................................... 133 Special lifts .............................................................................. 134 Schools General classrooms ................................................................ 191 Specialist classrooms .............................................................. 192 RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS Information and communal area ............................................. 193 Basics Design basics .......................................................................... 135 House-building policy .............................................................. 136 Sanitary facilities, break and circulation area .......................... 194 Arrangement of classrooms, clusters ...................................... 195 Model room programmes for primary schools ........................ 196 Examples ................................................................................ 197 Housing Density Parameters .............................................................................. 137 Universities and Colleges Lecture theatres ...................................................................... 198 Orientation Examples of lecture theatres ...................................................200 Layout of buildings .................................................................. 138 Seating and projection ............................................................ 201 Access Detached and terraced development ...................................... 139 Seminar and service rooms ....................................................202 Laboratories ............................................................................203 Deck access ............................................................................ 140 Stepped houses ...................................................................... 141 CULTURAL VENUES Vertical access ........................................................................ 142 Museums and Art Galleries Floor Plans General ...................................................................................207 Houses ....................................................................................143 Flats ........................................................................................145 Display rooms .........................................................................208 Theatres Rooms Historical review ......................................................................209 Access ..................................................................................... 146 Kitchens .................................................................................. 149 Typology ..................................................................................210 Auditorium ............................................................................... 211 Living areas ............................................................................. 154 Bathrooms ............................................................................... 160 Subsidiary rooms .................................................................... 162 Garages and carports ............................................................. 166 Seating ....................................................................................212 Stage .......................................................................................213 Subsidiary rooms ....................................................................215 Workshops and staff rooms ....................................................216 Rehearsal and public rooms ...................................................217 ACCOMMODATION Modernisation and extension ..................................................218 Student Residences Concert Halls General design notes .............................................................. 167 Origins, variants ......................................................................219 Elderly People's Accommodation Technical requirements, organ, orchestra ............................... 220 Acoustics .................................................................................221 Retirement flats ....................................................................... 168 Nursing and care homes ......................................................... 169 Cinemas Examples ................................................................................ 170 Projection ................................................................................222 Auditorium ...............................................................................223 Hotels Basics ...................................................................................... 171 Rooms ..................................................................................... 172 Multiplex cinemas ...................................................................224 Multiplex cinemas, examples ..................................................225 Drive-in cinemas .....................................................................226 Examples ................................................................................ 173 Circus Catering Restaurants ............................................................................. 174 Stationary ................................................................................227 Dining rooms, serving ............................................................. 176 Zoos Fast food outlets ..................................................................... 177 Basics .....................................................................................228 Restaurant kitchens ................................................................ 178 Keeping animals ..................................................................... 229 Large kitchens ......................................................................... 181 Enclosures ..............................................................................230 Examples of large kitchens ..................................................... 183 Youth Hostels ADMINISTRATION AND OFFICES General design notes .............................................................. 184 Office Buildings Holiday/Weekend Cabins Structures ................................................................................231 General design notes .............................................................. 185 Tendencies/criteria ..................................................................232 Motels General design notes .............................................................. 186 Typology until 1980 ................................................................. 233 Typology since 1980 ...............................................................234 Space requirement ................................................................. 235 Camping Computer workstations ........................................................... 236 General design notes .............................................................. 187 Archives ..................................................................................237 Additional areas ...................................................................... 238 EDUCATION AND RESEARCH Children's Daycare Room typology ........................................................................ 239 Grid ..........................................................................................240 Access ....................................................................................241 Access and building layouts .................................................... 188 Building services ..................................................................... 242 Rooms, outdoor areas ............................................................ 189 Construction ............................................................................ 243 viii
  • 12. High-Rise Buildings Operational areas ....................................................................296 Basics ......................................................................................244 Outpatient area ....................................................................... 297 Construction ............................................................................245 Outpatient medical centre- example ...................................... 298 Requirements .......................................................................... 246 Examination and treatment .....................................................299 Libraries Basics .....................................................................................247 Fittings ....................................................................................249 Space requirement .................................................................250 Care ........................................................................................305 Administration, social services ................................................ 312 Supply and waste disposal ...................................................... 313 Technical supply ......................................................................316 Scientific libraries .................................................................... 251 Archives ..................................................................................252 SPORT AND LEISURE Banks Stadiums Banks ......................................................................................253 Overview ................................................................................. 318 Spectator stands ..................................................................... 319 RETAIL Sports Facilities Retail Outlets Guidelines and typologies ....................................................... 254 Retail regulations ....................................................................255 Entrances and shop windows ................................................. 256 Checkout and waiting zones ................................................... 257 Waiting zones - examples ......................................................258 Routeing, escalators ............................................................... 259 Fittings -dimensions ..............................................................260 Food shops ............................................................................. 261 Self-service shops .................................................................. 262 Playing areas ..........................................................................320 Athletics ................................................................................... 323 Tennis ...................................................................................... 327 Miniature golf ..........................................................................329 Golf courses ............................................................................331 Water sport, marinas ............................................................... 333 Water sport, rowing and canoeing .......................................... 339 Equestrian sport ..................................................................... 341 Ski jumping .............................................................................343 Ice rinks ...................................................................................344 Roller skating rinks .................................................................. 345 INDUSTRY AND TRADE Speed roller skating, skateboarding ........................................ 346 Cycle-cross, BMX ................................................................... 347 Industry Shooting ranges ......................................................................348 Basics .....................................................................................263 Shed construction ................................................................... 265 Sports Halls Dimensions ............................................................................. 350 Multi-storey industrial buildings ............................................... 266 Transport .................................................................................267 Warehousing ...........................................................................268 Layout, construction ................................................................ 352 Equipment ............................................................................... 353 Stands ..................................................................................... 354 Subsidiary rooms ....................................................................270 Examples ................................................................................273 Examples ................................................................................355 Judo ........................................................................................356 Workshops Wrestling .................................................................................356 Joinery ....................................................................................274 Carpenter's shop .....................................................................275 Metalwork ...............................................................................276 Weight-lifting ...........................................................................356 Boxing ..................................................................................... 356 Badminton ...............................................................................356 Vehicle repairs ......................................................................... 277 Bakery .....................................................................................278 Meat processing plant .............................................................279 Other trades ............................................................................280 Squash ....................................................................................357 Table tennis .............................................................................357 Billiards ...................................................................................357 Condition, fitness .................................................................... 358 Laundry ...................................................................................281 Fire station .............................................................................. 283 Climbing halls ..........................................................................360 Bowling alleys ......................................................................... 361 Swimming Pools RELIGIOUS BUILDINGS Indoor swimming pools ........................................................... 362 Christian Churches Liturgical elements ..................................................................285 Furnishing, vestry ....................................................................286 Outdoor pools .........................................................................367 Indoor/outdoor pools ............................................................... 368 Private pools ........................................................................... 371 Bell towers ..............................................................................287 Spa Synagogues Sauna/small sauna/wellness .................................................. 372 General design notes ..............................................................288 Amusement Arcades Mosques Amusement arcades ............................................................... 375 General design notes ..............................................................289 TRANSPORT HEALTH Roads Doctors' Practices Single and group practices .....................................................290 Street spaces ..........................................................................376 Types of road .......................................................................... 377 Motorways ..............................................................................378 Hospitals Traffic space ........................................................................... 379 General, modular grid .............................................................291 Inter-urban roads .................................................................... 380 Building design ........................................................................ 293 Intersections ............................................................................381 Examples ................................................................................294 Footpaths and cycle ways ...................................................... 382 Corridors, doors, stairs, lifts ....................................................295 Bicycle traffic/storage ............................................................. 383 ix
  • 13. Traffic calming .........................................................................385 Noise protection ...................................................................... 386 Parking Facilities Vehicles ................................................................................... 387 Vehicles turning ....................................................................... 389 Parking spaces .......................................................................390 Multi-storey car parks .............................................................. 392 Ramps .....................................................................................393 Multi-storey car park regulations ............................................. 394 Parking systems ...................................................................... 395 Vehicles- trucks ..................................................................... 397 Trucks - parking and turning ................................................... 398 Service areas ..........................................................................399 Petrol stations .........................................................................400 Car wash .................................................................................402 Public Transport Conditions, means of transport ...............................................403 Stops and stations ..................................................................404 Traffic spaces .........................................................................405 Bus stations ............................................................................406 Railways Tracks ......................................................................................408 Typical Continental European structure - gauges and clearances ...........................................................410 UK structure- gauges and clearances ................................... 411 Freight Transport ....................................................................413 Freight transport .....................................................................413 Stations ...................................................................................414 Station buildings ......................................................................415 Platforms .................................................................................416 Platform furniture ....................................................................417 Aviation Basics .....................................................................................418 Airports ...................................................................................419 Runways .................................................................................420 Terminals ................................................................................421 Terminal and apron .................................................................422 Aeroplanes .............................................................................. 423 EXTERNAL WORKS Cemeteries Morgue and crematorium ........................................................424 Graves, cemetery chapel ........................................................ 425 Cemeteries .............................................................................. 426 Landscape Architecture Design aspects and concepts .................................................426 Earthworks Soi1 ..........................................................................................428 Garden Enclosures Walls and fences .....................................................................430 Pergola and Trellis Pergolas .................................................................................. 432 Trellises ...................................................................................433 Examples of plants .................................................................434 Paths, Paving, Steps Design aspects .......................................................................435 Drainage Rainwater management ..........................................................436 Vegetation Plants ......................................................................................437 Plants and lawns .....................................................................438 Biological Engineering Supporting slopes and riverbanks ..........................................439 X Greenhouses Greenhouses ..........................................................................441 Ponds and Pools Garden pond ...........................................................................442 Natural swimming pool ...........................................................443 Water plants for natural swimming pool .................................. 444 External Works - Example Federal Environment Agency ..................................................445 AGRICULTURE FARMYARDS Basics .....................................................................................446 Space requirements ................................................................447 Machinery................................................................................448 Fodder storage ........................................................................449 Dung and drainage .................................................................450 Climate in animal housing .......................................................451 Animal Husbandry Housing poultry .......................................................................452 Keeping small animals ............................................................453 Sheep housing ........................................................................454 Laying hens ............................................................................455 Pig keeping .............................................................................456 Dairy farming ...........................................................................457 Finishing beef cattle ................................................................458 Keeping horses ....................................................................... 459 Supply and Disposal Loading yards .........................................................................461 Loading ramps, bridges, lifting platforms ................................ 462 Rubbish chute systems ...........................................................463 Rubbish collection rooms ........................................................464 Emergency power rooms ........................................................465 BUILDING SERVICES Renewable Energy Overview .................................................................................466 Solar energy ............................................................................ 467 Bioenergy ................................................................................468 Geothermal energy, heat pumps ............................................. 469 CHP, block heating and power, fuel cells ..................................................................................470 Building Physics Thermal insulation ...................................................................471 Sound insulation ......................................................................477 Room acoustics ......................................................................482 Lightning protection .................................................................485 Daylight Physical basics .......................................................................488 Position of the sun ..................................................................489 Insolation .................................................................................490 Shadow ...................................................................................493 Radiation energy .....................................................................494 Window lighting .......................................................................495 Rooflighting .............................................................................497 Quality criteria .........................................................................498 Directing sunlight ....................................................................499 Sun shading ............................................................................500 Lighting Artificial lighting ....................................................................... 501 Lamps .....................................................................................502 Types of lighting ......................................................................505 Lighting layout ......................................................................... 506 Quality criteria ......................................................................... 507 Illuminance .............................................................................508
  • 14. Fluorescent tubes ................................................................... 509 Heating ....................................................................................532 Workplace Guideline 'Artificial lighting' (excerpt) .................... 510 Small sewage treatment plants ............................................... 536 Fire Protection Chimneys and Ventilation Shafts Basics ....................................................................................: 511 Chimneys ................................................................................537 Classification ...........................................................................512 Open fireplaces ....................................................................... 538 Fire compartment walls ........................................................... 513 Ventilation shafts ..................................................................... 539 Building components ............................................................... 514 Fire-resistant glazing ............................................................... 516 References ............................................................................. 540 Fire-resistant door sets ........................................................... 517 BS and DIN Standards ........................................................ 548 Fire fighting installations ......................................................... 518 Smoke and heat extractor systems ........................................ 519 Sprinkler systems .................................................................... 520 Other extinguishing systems ................................................... 521 Conversion of Units Weights and measures ........................................................... 555 Conversion tables ................................................................... 560 Domestic Installation INDEX ..................................................................................... 575 Drainage .................................................................................522 Ventilation ...............................................................................528 xi
  • 15. The 'Neufert' continues to be the most comprehensive, yet compact, first source of information on the design of buildings. Just as the daily office grind of the architect proceeds in many small steps and a few long strides, the sustained progress of the 'Neufert' is characterised not only by meticulous attention to standards and regulations, whose omnipresence in construction is undeniable, but also by reflection of the great issues of our time as they affect building project design. These important matters undoubtedly include concern for our environment and the absolute demand for sustainability in architecture. Sustainable building has many aspects, to be weighted differently according to the design brief. The team working with Professor Johannes Kister has set out, right through the book, to emphasise new sustainability standards and perspectives using the criteria 'objective information' and 'topicality', which is presumably how Ernst Neufert would have approached the task. We hope that this new edition, which continues the redesign commenced in the previous one, will further consolidate the Foundation's reliable and exhaustive reference volume on building design. Neufert Foundation, March 2009 xii Foreword The new German edition has once again been produced at the same location that was formative for Neufert's development as the office manager for Walter Gropius- the Bauhaus in Dessau. The decision to return to the roots here seems to have been the right one, because the previous edition was greeted positively by architects, students, lecturers and other interested parties. The concepts in this edition have been developed further by Nicole Delmes, nee Neufert, and lngo Neufert. My thanks are due to them both, for the trust and understanding they have shown, which made our collaboration straightforward and enjoyable. Also, I would especially like to thank Mathias Brockhaus, Matthias Lohmann and Patricia Merkel, a team that works in an exceptionally professional manner, the students of the Hochschule Anhalt- Fanjuan Kong, Tobias Schwarzwald and Mandy Wagenknecht- and the external consultants, whose valuable advice and reliable collaboration made an essential contribution to the success of the project. Dessau, March 2009 External consultants: Prof. Dr. Dirk Bohne Karl-Heinz Breuer Paul Coral! Thomas Ehrenberg Olaf Gersmeier Lydia Haack, John Hiipfner Karl-Josef Heinrichs Prof. Alfred Jacoby Stefan Jackel, Tobias Micke and Andreas Kotlan Dr. Jiirg Junhold LOr Meyer-Bassin Hans-Peter MOhlethaler Prof. Dr. Gunther Nogge Marcellus Puhlemann Hermann Schnell Finn Stoll Wolfgang Thiede Carsten Thiemann Heiko Uelze Prof. Susanne Weber Carola Wunderlich Johannes Kister Building services Basics Fire protection Filling stations and service areas Design and construction management Filling stations and car wash Building physics Synagogues External works Zoos Theatre Restaurants Zoos Design and construction management Facility management Administration Health Railways Catering Lighting Air transport
  • 16. This handbook developed from the notes made for my lectures at the Bauhochschule in Weimar. They derive from measurements, experience and understanding gained from practice and research in the human sphere, necessary for the design of buildings, but also keeping an eye open for new opportunities and demands. On the one hand we stand on the shoulders of our forebears but, on the other, everything is fluid and we are children of our time with our gaze towards the future, though the outlook of each individual is often different. This results from differences in education and training, the influence of the environment, personal predisposition and the relevant degree of internally driven self-development. Whether the 'fixed opinion' of today is absolutely correct remains to be seen, however, because it is only valid at the time of formation. Experience shows that fairer judgement develops with time than is possible immediately, since we do not have the necessary detachment for breadth of vision. This makes clear what reservations need to be imposed on teaching to prevent heresy. All teaching remains subjective and determined by its time and environment, despite all efforts to achieve truth and objectivity and all intentions to critically examine our favourite opinions. The danger of heresy can be avoided if the teaching also makes clear that it is not an end product but rather serves, and is subject to, all that is vital, upcoming and unfolding This will then provide for our students the attitude meant by Nietzsche when he said, 'Only those who change themselves remain associated with me.' The essential feature of such teaching of continuous progress, the servant of development, is that there are no ready recipes, no 'canned wisdom', but rather only building blocks, components or corners requiring the addition of combination, construction, composition and harmony. Confucius put it like this more than 2500 years ago: 'I give my students a corner and they will have to find the other three themselves!' Born architects, or those who yearn to build, will keep their ears and eyes closed when a solution to a task is prescribed, because born architects are full of their ideas and ideals, and only need the elements in order to set to work and make something of them! Those who have found faith in themselves, an insight into connectivity, the play of forces, materials, colours, dimensions, who can absorb the reality and the appearance of a building, study its effect, investigate it critically and rebuild it in the mind, are on the only true path to the great satisfaction offered by active creation. This view of life should help them on their way. It Preface should liberate them from all teachings, when it comes down to it even from this one, and lead them to their own creative work. It should provide initial assistance: run- everyone must build for themselves. The architectural forms of our time are the result of the same process, which our predecessors underwent in order to produce their splendid temples, cathedrals and palaces. They had no models other than their own imaginations and intentions, ideas and ideals, with which they neared their aspirations. The commission formulated along these lines was enough to enliven concepts, which took solid form in line with the technological possibilities of the time and local conditions, and only bore a remote similarity to what had gone before. These new buildings could be technically much better and deliver more because of improvement in the state of technology. They could, however, also be compared artistically to similar structures from the past. If we compare an industrial building of today- light, roomy, with good dimensions and slimmer, lightweight construction -with a factory from the 18th century or a workshop of the 15th century, then the advantages of our modern buildings will be apparent even to the most blinkered conservationist. This means that, whenever construction projects serve a genuine requirement of our time, work can be expected from energetic contemporary architects that will bear comparison to, or even overshadow, the best of old buildings. A lively-minded university should offer primarily a view of our time and a look to the future, glancing back only to the extent that this is advisable or unavoidable. This was the advice of one of the greatest of our profession, Fritz Schumacher, when he warned a young student in his architecture lectures against getting too lost in art history issues while researching the past. Being led astray by a doctorate into learned byways could be at the cost of the energy required to meet the more varied requirements of the profession. In contrast to this, it is better just to hand students the elements of architecture, as is done in this Architects' Data, where I have attempted to reduce the building blocks of design to the essentials, to schematise and even to abstract in order to make imitation difficult and force students to produce form and content from within themselves. Their various design ideas will be coordinated anyway to a certain extent by current fashion, that idiosyncratic feeling of community which characterises mankind's joint efforts at a particular time and finds a durable and visible expression in contemporary style. Ernst Neufert xiii
  • 18. ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS Abbreviation Meaning Abbreviation Meaning ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS AEG General Railway Law UIC International Union of Railways AFP Agricultural Investment Support Programme VDE Association of German Electrical Engineers ArbStattR Workplace Guidelines VOl Association of German Engineers ArbStattV Workplace Regulations VdS Loss Prevention (fire and security testing institute) BauGB Building Law VkVO Retail Regulations BGB German Civil Code VOB Contract Regulations for Building Works BGR Association of Commercial Accident Insurance VStattVO Places of Assembly Regulations Companies Wh withers height (horse) BlmSchG Federal Prevention of Emissions Law WSG Water Protection Law BOStrab Construction and Operation of Trams Regulation ZH Indicates Guidelines of BGR (Association of BS(I) British Standards (Institute) Commercial Accident Insurance Companies) CEN Committee for European Normalisation ZVEI Central Association of Electrical and Electronics CHP combined heat and power Industries CIE International Lighting Commission CPM Critical Path Method Unit, Abbreviation Greek Alphabet DB Deutsche Bahn - German Railways 1012 10 em 12 mm (superscript A a (a) Alpha DEHOGA German Hotel and Inn Association DFS German Air Traffic Control number= mm) B p (b) Beta DiBt German Institute for Building Technology English inch r y (g) Gamma DIN German Institute for Standardisation English foot 11. 0 (d) Delta ON normal diameter H or h height or high E E (e) Epsilon EBO Construction and Operation of Railways Regulation Worw width or wide z s (z) Zeta EEG Renewable Energy Law h hour H l1 (e) Eta min minute e 1'} (th) Theta EIA Environmental Impact Assessment second I (i) Iota EN European (standard) s l EnEV Energy Saving Regulation 12° degrees in Celsius (C) K K (k) Kappa J joule, energy A 'A (I) Lambda FEA Federal Environment Agency N newton, force M ~ (m) Mu FEU 40-foot equivalent unit (container) Pa pascal, pressure N v (n) Nu FFL finished floor level 2° 3' 4" 2 degrees, 3 min, 3 (x) Xi FIS International Ski Federation X FGSV Research Company for Roads and Traffic 4 s. 360-degree division 0 0 (o) Omicron % per cent, hundredth n TT (p) Pi GEFMA German Facility Management Association %o per thousand, thousandth p p (r) Rho GIF Company for Property Industry Research 0 diameter L ()' (s) Sigma GUV Guidelines of the German Association of I per (e.g. t/m =tonne perm) T 't: (t) Tau Accident Insurers (health and safety) y u (y) Upsilon HeizAniV Heating Plant Regulation <I> <I> (ph) Phi HGV heavy goods vehicle X 'I' (ch) Chi HOAI Fee Regulations for Architects and Engineers '¥ v (ps) Psi HWR auxiliary inverter 0 <p (o) Omega ICAO International Civil Aviation Organisation ICE Inter-City Express Mathematical Symbols Roman Numbers lndBauR Industrial Building Guidelines ISO International Standards Organisation > greater than I= 1 KfW 'Reconstruction' Subsidy Bank ;s equal or greater than II= 2 KFZ vehicle < less than Ill= 3 LBO state building regulation ~ less than or equal IV= 4 LC liquid crystal ~ sum of V= 5 LED llight emitting diode <I angle VI= 6 LIDC luminous intensity distribution curve sin sine VII= 7 LiTG German Technical Light Association cos cosine VIII= 8 LPZ lightning protection zone tan tangent IX= 9 LU large animal unit (500 kg live weight) ctg cotangent X= 10 MBO model building regulation (basis for LBO) equal XV= 15 MPM Metra Potential Method * not equal C= 100 MTA medical/technical assistant approximately CL= 150 MVZ outpatient medical centre infinity CC= 200 ODP operating department practitioner parallel CCC= 300 OPNV public transport X times, multiplied by CD= 400 PKW passenger car I divided by D= 500 RAL German quality assurance mark j_ right-angled DC= 600 RAS-L (-EWI-Q) Road Construction Guidelines - Road Layout v volume DCC= 700 (Drainage I Cross-section) m solid angle DCCC= 800 SchBauR School Building Guidelines --1 square root of CM = 900 StLB Standard Book of Bill Items - congruent M = 1000 StVo Street Traffic Regulations 11. triangle MCMLX= 1960 suv sports utility vehicle It same direction, parallel TEU 20-foot equivalent unit (container) n opposite directions, parallel 1
  • 19. UNITS Sl Units Sl units- Systeme International d'Unites The international system of units: the most commonly used system of measurement and units in science. Basic units, which are not derived from any other. Quantily Basic unit Symbol Definition based on Sl units included name in definition 1 length metre m wavelength of krypton - radiation 2 mass kilogram kg international prototype - 3 time second s period of caesium - radiation 4 electrical current ampere A electrodynamic force kg, m, s between two conductors 5 temperature kelvin K triple point of water - (thenmodynamic temperature) 6 luminous intensity candela cd radiation from freezing kg, s platinum 7 amount ofsubstance mole mol molecular mass kg 0 Basic Sl units a) Thermal insulation Symbol Unit Description t (°C, K) temperature t (K) temperature difference q (Wh) quantity of heat ),. (W/mK) thermal conductivity ),.' (W/mK) equivalent thermal conductivity A (W/m2K) coefficient of thermal transmittance a (W/m2K) coefficient of thermal transmission u (W/m2K) coefficient of thermal transmittance 1/A (m2KIW) thermal insulation value 1/a (m2KIW) thermal transmission resistance 1/k (m2KIW) thermal transmittance resistance, 1/U D' (m2K/Wxcm) thermal resistance per em c (WhlkgK) specific thermal capacity s (Wh/m3K) volumetric specific heat p (1/K) coefficient of thermal expansion a (mK) distance coefficient p (Pa) pressure P, (Pa) (partial) vapour pressure g, (g) vapour quantity g, (g) condensed water quantity v (%) relative air humidity ~ H diffusion resistance coefficient ~xd (em) diffusion-equivalent air layer A, (g/m2hPa) water vapour resistance factor 1/A0 (m2hPa/g) diffusion resistance ~),. (W/mK) layer factor ~A: (W/mK) layer factor of air layers p (EikWh) cost of heat b) Sound insulation ),. (m) wavelength f (Hz) frequency fgr (Hz) limit frequency f, (Hz) resonance frequency Edva (N/cm2) dynamic elasticity modulus S' (N/cm3) dynamic stiffness R (dB) sound reduction CONTENTS (airborne sound) in laboratory Rm (dB) median airborne sound reduction R' (dB) sound reduction CONTENTS with flanking transmission (airborne sound) LSM (dB) airborne sound insulation margin Ln (dB) impact sound pressure level V/M (dB) sound improvement due to one floor or ceiling layer TSM (dB) impact sound reduction a H degree of sound absorption A (m2) equivalent sound-absorbing area r (m) resonance radius L (dB) sound level reduction f) Physical symbols in the Sl system 2 UNITS Sl Units Prefixes and their Abbreviations are: T (!era-) ~ 1012 (million million) G (giga-) ~ 109 (thousand million) M (mega-)~ 106 (million) k (kilo-) 103 (thousand) h (hekto-) ~ 100 (hundred) da(deca-) ~ 10 (ten) d (deci-) ~ 1/10 (tenth) c (centi-) ~ 1/100 m (milli-) ~ 10"3 ~ (micro-) ~ 10~ n (nano-) ~ 1o-12 p (pica-) ~ 10-12 f (femto-) ~ 1o-15 a (alto-) ~ 10-18 only one prefix may be used to describe a decimal multiple C) Decimal multip1ers and dividers of units hundredth thousandth millionth Quantity to be measured Unit in the Sl system, compulsory Conversion from 1978 factor length m metre area m2 square metre volume m' cubic metre mass kg kilogram force N newton ~ 1 kg m/s2 9.8 pressure Pa pascal ~ 1 N/m2 133.3 bar bar~ 100,000 Pa 0.98 Pa ~ 100,000 N/m temperature ·c degree Centigrade 1 K kelvin• 10 work (energy, heat Ws, J, Nm watt second =joule = newton metre 4186 quantity) Wh watt hour~ 3.6 KJ 1.163 kWh kilowatt hour~ 103 Wh ~ 3.6 MJ 1.163 power (energy transfer, w watt 736 heat transfer) w watt "compulsory from 1975 0 Conversion of basic units 1 mxm~1 m2 1 m x 1 s-1~ 1 m s-1(~ 1 m/s) 1 m x 1 s·2~ 1 ms-2(~ 1 m/s2) 1 kg x 1 m x 1 s-2~ 1 kg m s-2(~ 1 kg m/s-2) 1 kg x 1 m-3 ~ 1 kg m-3 (~ 1 kg/m3) 1 m x 1 m x 1 s-1~ 1 m2s-1 (~ 1 m2/s) e Examples of 'derived Sl units' through combining basic units coulomb 1 c 1As ohm 1 n farad 1 F 1AsN pascal 1 Pa henry 1 H 1 Vs/A siemens 1 s 1.163 1V/A N/m2 1/D hertz 1Hz 1 s-1~ (1/s) tesla 1T 1Wb/m2 joule 1 J 1 Nm~1 Ws volt 1V 1W/A lumen 11m 1 cd sr watt 1W 1 J/s lux 11x 11m/m2 weber 1Wb 1 Vs newton 1 N 1 kg m/s2 For apparent electrical power, the watt may be described as volt ampere (VA), idle electrical power as Var (ver). Q Names and symbols for derived Sl units 1 N 21 s 21m2 ~ 1 Nsm2 1 rad 21 s2 ~ 1 rad s1 (~ 1 rad/s) 1A21s~1As~1C 1AsN~1 CN~1 F 8 Examples of Sl units derived through combining basic units with named derived units thermal resistance thermal conductivity coefficient of thermal transmittance coefficient of thermal transmission bulk density calculation weight compressive strength 1/A ~ 1 m2h K/kcal ~ 0.8598 m2K!W l.~1 kcal/m h K ~1.163 W/m K U ~ 1 kcal/m2h K ~ 1.163 Wfm2K a ~ 1 kcal/m2h K ~1 kg/m3 ~1 kp/m3 ~ 1 kp/cm2 ~ 1.163 W/m2K ~ 1 kg/m3 ~0.01 kN/m3 ~0.1 N/mm2 0 Conversion of table values to new units
  • 20. Units of measurement in building The international system of measurement with Sl units has been valid since 1 January 1978. Measurement Symbol Sl unit Statutory unit Old unit Name Symbol Name Symbol Name Symbol normal angle a~y radian rad round angle pia right angle L degree 0 minute 8 second ( gon or grad gon new degree 9 new minute a new second cc length I metre m micrometre ~m inch in millimetre mm foot ft centimetre em fathom fathom decimetre dm mile mil kilometre km sea mile sm area, cross-sectional A,q square metre m2 area, area of plot are a of land hectare ha volume v cubic metre m' litre I normal volume v, normal cubic metre Nm3 cubic metre cbm time, period, duration t second s minute min hour h day d year a frequency f hertz Hz duration of a cycle angular frequency <p reciprocal second 11s angular velocity <p radians per s rad/s speed of revolutions n reciprocal second 1/s revolutions per sec/min r/s revs per sec/min r.p.s. rim r.p.m velocity v metre per second m/s kilometres per hour kmlh knot kn acceleration due to g metre per second m/s2 gal gal gravity squared mass: m kilogram kg weight (on scales) gram g tonne t pound lb metric hundredweight cwt (metric) force F newton N thrust G dyne dyn pond p kilopond kp megapond Mp kilogram force kg tonne force t mech. stress, " newton per square Nlm2 newton per square Nlmm2 strength metre millimetre kplcm2 kplmm work, energy W,E joule J kilowatt hour kWh horsepower per hour h.p.lh erg erg heat quantity Q joule J calorie cal torque M newton metre Nm kilopond metre kpm bending moment Mb or joule J power, p watt w energy current horsepower h.p. thermodynamic T kelvin K degree Kelvin "K temperature degree Rankine Centigrade iJ K degree Centigrade "C oR,"RK temperature temperature interval Mlor oc degree deg and differential b.T Fahrenheit IJF degree Fahrenheit "F temperature Reaumur !JR degree Reaumur "R temperature 0 Sl units and statutory units (excerpt applicable to building) Description UNITS Sl Units 1 rad = 1 mlm = 57.296" = 63.662 gon 1 pla=2rrrad 1L = Y. pia= (rrl2) rad 1" = 1LI90 = 1 plal360 = rrl180 rad 18=1°160 1( = 18160 = 1"13600 1 gon=1 g=1LI100=1 plal400=rrl200rad 1 c= 10-2 gon 1 cc= (10-2) c= 10-" gon 1 in =25.4 mm 1ft= 30.48 em 1 fathom= 1.8288 m 1 mile= 1609.344 m 1 sm= 1.852 km 1 a=102m2 1 ha=104 m2 11=1 dm3 =10·3 m3 1 Nm3 = 1 m3 in normal condition 1 min=60s 1 h = 60 min = 3600 s 1 d = 24 h = 86 400 s 1 a= 8765.8 h = 31.557 x 106 s 1 Hz= 1/s for the expression of frequencies in dimensional equations <p=2xf <p=2xn 11s=tis=Uis 1 m/s = 3.6 kmlh 1kn = 1sm/h = 1.852 mph 1 gal= 1 cmls2= 1o·2 mls2 1 g=10"3 kg 1 t=1 Mg=103 kg 1 lb = 0.45359237 kg 1 cwt (metric)= 50 kg 1 N = 1 kglmls2= 1 Wslm = 1 Jim 1 dyn = 1 g cmls2 = 10·' N 1 p=9.80665x10.3 N 1 kp = 9.80665 N 1 Mp = 9806.65 N 1 kg = 9.80665 N 1 t = 9806.65 N 1 kp/cm2 = 0.0980665 Nlmm2 1 kpimm2 = 9.80665 N/mm2 1 J=1 Nm=1 Ws=107 erg 1 kWh = 3.6 x 106 J = 3.6 MJ 1 h.p. = 2.64780 X 106 J 1 erg= 10·7 J 1 ca1=4.1888 J= 1.163 x 10·3 Wh 1 kpm = 9.80665 J 1 W = 1 Jls = 1 N mls = 1 kg m2 1s3 1 h.p. = 0.73549675 kW 1"K=1 K 1°R=5/9K !J= T- T0T0 =273.15 K !J.!J =b.T, where: 1 K=1°C=1 degree to be used in equations IJF= 915 IJ+ 32=915 T -459.67 !JR = 415 !J, 1"R = 5/4 "C 3 STANDARDS Sl units
  • 21. DRAWINGS Paper formats Technical drawings Layout of drawings Construction drawings Construction drawing symbols Water supply and drainage symbols Electrical installation symbols Security installation symbols Gas installation symbols Drawing by hand Computer-aided drawing BS EN ISO 216 BS 1467 DIN 476 DIN 821 DIN 4999 t-----x/2- 1--------- X - - j 1--------- X - - j 0-0 Basis of paper formats Format Series A Series B Series C 0 841 X 1189 1000 X 1414 917 X 1297 1 594 X 841 707 X 1000 648 X 917 2 420x 594 500 X 707 485x 648 3 297x420 353 X 500 324x458 4 210 X 297 250 X 353 229 X 324 5 148x210 176 X 250 162 X 229 6 105 X 148 125 X 176 114x 162 7 74 X 105 88 X 125 81 X 114 8 52x74 62x88 57 X 81 9 37x52 44x62 10 26x37 31 x44 11 18 x26 22x31 12 13 X 18 15x22 8 Sheet sizes Format Abbreviation mm half length A4 %A4 105 X 297 quarter length A4 Y.A4 52 X 297 eighth length A7 Y.A7 9x 105 half length C4 Y, C4 114 X 324 etc. e Strip formats A4 (it Strip formats in A4 0 Loose-leaf binder r----- 210 -----! fj) Pads, carbonless duplicate books Foot border C) Bound and trimmed books 4 DRAWINGS Paper Formats Standardised formats provide a foundation for office furniture design, which then determines the development of the floor plan. Good knowledge of paper formats is therefore important for the designer. Paper formats have generally been standardised (apart from in the USA) to conform to the internationally accepted {ISO) series of paper sheet sizes {A,B,C,D). These were developed on the basis of an area of 1 m2, divided according to the ratio of the sides: x:y=--12~0 lengthofsidex=0.841 m xxy=1 length of side y = 1.189 m The basic format (a rectangle with an area of 1 m2 and side lengths as above) forms the basis for all the smaller sizes. The A format series is produced by halving or doubling the basic format ~ 0 + f). The additional series B and C are intended for items in dependent paper sizes, e.g. envelopes, binders and files~ 0. The formats in the B series are the geometric mean dimensions of the A series. The formats in the C series are the geometric mean dimensions of the A and B series ~ 0. Strip (orside margin) formats are made by dividing the main formats lengthwise into halves, quarters and eighths (for envelopes, signs, drawings etc.) ~ 0 + e. File cards without tabs correspond exactly to the standard formats. Tab cards are larger to allow for the tab, i.e. they have a projection at the upper edge for classification. Binders, files and folders are wider than the standard format to provide space for the fixing mechanism. Widths should if possible be selected from the possible dimensions from series A, s, c~e. Pads and carbonless duplicate books have precisely the standard formats; if there is a standing perforated edge, then here the sheets are smaller than the standard format~ e. Bound and trimmed books have precisely the standard format. If a further trim is necessary during binding, then the pages will be slightly smaller than the standard format, and the cover will project accordingly. The cover size must be at least the standard format ~ (). The cover width is determined by the binding process. picas mm type area width 39.51 40.5 167 171 type area height (without header/footer) 58.5 1 59 247 250 space between columns 1 5 max. width, double columns 39.5 167 max. width, single column 19 81 inside (gutter) margin, nominal 16 14 outer (side) margin, nominal 27 25 top (head) margin, nominal 20 19 bottom (foot) margin, nominal 30 28 ~ Layouts and type area of the A4 standard format -> C!)
  • 22. uncut drawing sheet, depending on requirement, is 2-3cm wider than final trimmed original drawing and print a box for written details and parts list a 0 Standardised drawing Sheet sizes according to ISOAO ISOA1 ISOA2 ISOA3 ISOA4 ISOA5 ISO series A Format: untrimmed 880 X 1230 625x 880 450x625 330 X 450 240 X 330 165 X 240 blank sheet (mm) Format: trimmed 841 X 1189 594 X 841 420 X 594 297 x420 210 X 297 148 x210 finished sheet (m) f) Sheet sizes ·-·-·-·-·-·:::;-! cut-out ISO A2, A1, AO i..:::.-·-·-·-·-·-·-·::::i e ISOsizeA2;A1;AO ·-·-·-·m 0 ISOsizeA3 ..<;:."" ~ ' I 0 ISOsizeA5 cut-out ISO A4 I .1 I I Division for No. identical fields by sheet size AO I A1 I A2 I A3 I A4 a 16 I 1~ I ~ I ~ I 4 b 12 4 "'"i• l box T., '--· ~ 0 Field divisions (grid squares) ISOA1 0 ISOsizeA4 ISOA2 e Folding schemes and dimensions DRAWINGS Technical Drawings The use of standard drawing formats makes it easier for architects to lay out drawings for discussion in the design office or on the building site, and also facilitates posting and filing. The trimmed, original drawing or print must therefore conform to the formats of the ISO A series--> 0, 8-0. The title block should be the following distance from the edge of the drawing: for formats AO-A3 10 mm for formats A4-A6 5 mm For small drawings, a filing margin of up to 25 mm can be used, which reduces the usable area of the finished format. As an exception, narrow formats can be made by adding together a row of identical or adjacent shapes from the format range. From normal roll widths, the following sizes can be used to provide formats in the A series: for drawing paper, tracing paper 1500, 1560 mm (derived from these: 250, 1250, 660, 900 mm) for print paper: 650, 900, 1200 mm. If all the drawing formats up to AO are to be cut from a paper web, a roll width of at least 900 mm will be necessary. Drawings which are to be stored in A4 box files should be folded as follows --> 0: 1. The title block must always be at the front, in the correct position and clearly visible. 2. At the start of folding, a width of 21 em must always be folded first (fold 1), ideally with the use of a 21 x 29.7 em template. 3. A triangle is folded into the drawing starting from c (fold 2) so that on the completely folded drawing only the below left field marked with a cross is punched or clamped. 4. The drawing is then folded parallel to side a to a width of 18.5 em, for which a template of 18.5 x 29.8 em is useful. The last section is folded in half to adjust the sheet size, bringing the title block to the front. Long narrow formats can be correspondingly folded. 5. The resulting strip is folded from side b. A piece of card of size A5 =14.8 x 21 em can be glued to the back of the punched side to reinforce the edge. Any sheet size can be folded by following the instructions above. If the drawing length remaining after the folding of the first 21 em cannot be divided by 18.5 em into an even number 2, 4, 6, etc., then the remaining width should be folded in the centre. ISOAO 5 DRAWINGS Paper formats Technical drawings Layout of drawings Construction drawings Construction drawing symbols Water supply and drainage symbols Electrical installation symbols Security installalion symbols Gas installation symbols Drawing by hand Computer-aided drawing BS EN ISO 128 BS 1192 BS EN ISO 4157 DIN 824
  • 23. DRAWINGS Paper formats Technical drawings Layout of drawings Construction drawings Construction drawing symbols Water supply and drainage symbols Electrical installation symbols Security installation symbols Gas installation symbols Drawing by hand Computer-aided drawing BS EN ISO 9431 BS EN ISO 10209 BS EN ISO 14617 DIN 406 DIN 825 DIN 1356 south elevation east elevation north elevation west elevation section N $ garden writing basement ground floor upper floor' layout box I I I I m ~,.,Jee ~5 DRAWINGS Layout of Drawings A strip 5 em wide should be left blank at the left- hand edge for binding or filing. The title block on the right 0 should include: 1. Description of the type of drawing (sketch, preliminary design, for construction etc.) 2. Category of building shown or type of drawing (layout plan, ground plan, section, elevation, diagram etc.) 3. Scale 4. If appropriate, details of dimensions. Drawings for building permit applications (to the building regulations authorities) should also include: 1. Name (signature) of the client 2. Name (signature) of the architect foundations layout of joists roof truss layout site plan 3. If required, (signature) of the site manager 0 Suitable layout for a construction drawing 10 10 20 30 40 4. If required, (signature) of the contractor 5. Comments by the building regulations authorities: ~~+H+H------~----+-----4------1 a) About inspection b) About approval f) Suitable layout for scale details Scales --1 f) If necessary, on back of sheet Layout plans, floor plans etc. should show the compass direction with a north pointer. The main scale of the drawing should be shown in large letters in the title block and in smaller letters for other scales; the latter should be repeated next to their respective - diagrams. All objects should be drawn to scale; dimensions of parts which are not drawn to scale should be underlined. Scales should be restricted to the following if at all possible: for construction drawings 1:1, 1:5, 1:10, 1:20, 1:25, 1:50, 1:100, 1:200 C) Example of a standard dimensioned drawing of an angled floor plan. The dimensions given are structural dimensions without finishings ,.,.,.;.;.;.;.;.,.&:.;§;:,.,.,...... +2.75 sz +2.69 y in ground plans G Marking of heights on sections and elevations 6 for site layouts 1:500, 1:1000, 1:2000, 1:2500, 1:5000, 1:10000, 1:25000. Dimensioning Dimensioning is indicating dimensions on a drawing. Levels should be given on sections and plans or elevations. The signs+ or- before the number refer to the difference from level ± 0.00 (generally the planned finished floor level, on the ground floor in the entrance area, related to sea level). For parapets, the structural height above the structural slab level may also be given. If the height of wall openings, particularly for doors and windows, is to be given on drawings in addition to their width, then the width measurement is given above the dimension line and the height measurement is given below it. Rectangular cross- sections can, as a simplification, be dimensioned by stating their side lengths as a fraction, e.g. 12/16 (in section: width/height). Round cross-sections have the diameter sign 0 before the measure: e.g. 0 12. Radii have the capital letter R before the measure. Dimensions and other markings --1 e All dimensions are given in the unfinished structural condition (wall thicknesses). In continental Europe, dimensions of less than 1 m on building drawings are generally given in em, dimensions over 1 mare given in m or mm. (However, recently the trend has been to give all dimensions in mm, which is standard practice in the UK.) Sections on plans On plans, vertical planes of one or more sections are shown as lines with short and long dashes --1 p. 9 0, and the direction of viewing is also given. The entire line of the section does not have to be shown, but if the plane of a section breaks, this does --1 e. If there is more than one section, then each should be clearly labelled. Room numbers are given in a circle. Room areas, in m2 , are shown in a square or rectangle --1 e. 9 -<----- 6250 _,. - e t--- 6250 --t :1'--- + 3.12 f) f- ~~;~ - j f-
  • 24. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Line group I II 1111) IV2l Line weight Application Scale ;;;1:100 "'1:50 Line width (mm) solid line (heavy) boundary of areas in section 0.5 0.5 1.0 1.0 solid line (medium) visible edges and visible outlines of 0.25 0.35 0.5 0.7 building elements, boundary of narrow or small building elements in section solid line (fine) dimension lines, extension lines, pointer 0.18 0.25 0.35 0.5 lines, walking lines, outlines of cut-outs, simplified depictions dashed line (medium) ---- hidden edges and hidden outlines of 0.25 0.35 0.5 0.7 building elements chain dot line (heavy) ·-·-· indication of location of section planes 0.5 0.5 1.0 1.0 chain dot line (medium).--·--· axes and centre-lines 0.18 0.25 0.35 0.5 dotted line (fine) ....................... building elements in front of or over 0.25 0.35 0.5 0.7 section plane dimensions text size 2.5 3.5 5.0 7.0 1l Line group I is only to be used when a drawing has been prepared with line group Ill, was reduced in the ratio of 2:1 and is to be worked on further. In this case, the text size 5.0 mm is to be selected for the drawing with line group Ill. Line group I does not fulfil the requirements for microfilming. 2l Line group IV is to be used for construction drawings if a reduction from scale 1:50 to scale 1:100 is intended and the reduction has to meetthe requirements for microfilming. The reduction can then be further worked on using widths in line group II. If building drawings are manually or mechanically drawn with ink and standardised drawing equipment, then the line widths according to the above should preferably be used. These widths are suitable for the usual application of common reproduction methods. 0 Line types and thicknesses to be used in construction drawings 1 2 3 4 unit for dimensions dimensions dimensions <1m, e.g. >1 m,e.g. 1 em 24 88.5 388.5 2 m and em 24 885 3.885 3 mm 240 885 3885 ~~ 188.5~~2624 236.5+=-----437.5 ---674 NB Recent trend is to give all dimensions in mm, standard practice in UK-; p. 6. Dimensioning outside the drawing (scale 1:100, units~ em) C) Units for dimensions G Dimensioning of pillars and openings, e.g. scale 1:50 em, units= em ..;..,. ... "' "' 0 "' 0 w 0 0 m < <3 m 0 ----- ----- 020B DRAWINGS Construction Drawings Dimensioning consists of: dimension figure, dimension line, extension line, dimension arrow ~ e. Dimension figures are normally located above the relevant continuous dimension line so that they can be read from below or from the right when the drawing is used~ f) + 0. Dimension lines are shown as solid lines~ 0. They are located parallel to the length being dimensioned. Extension lines: dimensions which cannot be shown directly on the arrow at the edge of an area, are relocated outside with the aid of extension lines. These are generally at right angles to the dimension line and extend a little past it. dimension figure dimension line extension line I I _........-dimension arrow -3.76~ ==lJ e Dimensioning terms f) Pointer lines to notes 3E ---- ------m---- ---,M.--- I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I C2 t I I I I I I I I I I I I t t t I I I : -~ t I I I I I t I I I t axis 01 02 01 2 3 4 field Oc Ob Oa a c Ob1 Ob2 9 Dimensioning with coordinate~ e.g. scale 1:50 m, em, units em and mm e Axis-field grid 7 DRAWINGS Paper formats Technical drawings Layout of drawings Construction drawings Construction drawing symbols Water supply and drainage symbols Electrical installation symbols Security installation symbols Gas installation symbols Drawing by hand Computer-aided drawing BS EN ISO 4157 DIN 1356
  • 25. DRAWINGS Paper formats Technical drawings Layout of drawings Construction drawings Construction drawing symbols Water supply and drainage symbols Electrical installation symbols Security installation symbols Gas installation symbols Drawing by hand Computer-aided drawing BS EN ISO 4157 DIN 1356 Monochrome IColour To be used for 1111111llfllll""""""- light green grass ::IC.)C~) tt~ ), 'l sepia peat dust and similar ~~ burnt sienna ground .····· ... black/ white infilled earth ~ brown-red brick masonry in lime mortar ~ brown-red brick masonry in cement mortar ~ brown-red brick masonry in cement-lime mortar ~ brown-red porous brick masonry in cement mortar hollow pot brick masonry in cement ~ brown-red lime mortar ~ brown-red clinker block masonry in cement mortar ~ brown-red sand lime block masonry in lime mortar ~ brown-red alluvial stone masonry in lime mortar ~ brown-red stone masonry in mortar ~ brown-red natural stone masonry in cement mortar ~~J:?.'?~"o: ·. "· ·~'l!ili?"cf. sepia gravel ~:~~~~'II; Cf.'~I;O;.. c. grey black slag :~~~·;~~j~)i~~~t~;tl~{ zinc yellow sand 0.7.#.##.;?:; ochre screed (gypsum) t:"i:~?:·:;·~~~;{~H;~~~~ white plaster 11111111111111111111111 violet pre-cast concrete elements ~ z '/.~""""~ ,"zr ~ ,7 blue green reinforced concrete ~3~%Jf~~~?,~fi. olive green unreinforced concrete T [J:j black metal ~ ~ brown timber in section Uli!JilUI!lll! blue grey insulation materials -- black and white sealants grey existing building elements 0 Symbols and colours used on plans and sections Layout plan - - - - - - existing public road Planned but not yet existing roads amExisting buildings ~Plannedbuildings f: :: :: fTo special fac1h!1es ~Park t___,:,__j I+++ICemetery ~ Pennanent tttti:J allotment ~ Camping and rr=1 ~ weekend site Q Sports field ~Swimming ~pool lA! Children's L£J playground f) Symbols for building permit applications 8 DRAWINGS Construction Drawing Symbols Building element Opening C ceiling BR break-through Wwall G groove Ffloor Dduct FO foundation 8 Labelling of openings: examples .0 ro U.i Description Label slab breakthrough SBR groove in slab (top) GS groove in slab GS (underneath) floor slab breakthrough FSBR (foundation= FO) Dimensions widthx depth x height Dimensions AxB AxBxC AxBxC AxB Location u under o over Plan I:ZH f-A-1 1111111 ~ !111111 ~ L~:J~ 1-A-l Related to Ttop B bottom UF unfinished floor FF finished floor Depiction I Elevation, (section, view) ~ 1-A-l I-A-< ~c ~:c 1-A-l c = I-A-< ~{I) £ C~-~~~~--~~~-+~~~~-t----------~ ~ ~ floor slab duct FSD A x B x C Q) -a floor slab groove FSG ~~ : Is 'II' I HA ~I ~0 wall breakthrough WBR (foundation= FO dashed on basement plan) wall groove(horizont~ WG foundation = FO -> U I <I Ax c IZI2 I-A-< AxBxC wall groove (vertical) WG foundation= FO -> 8 AxBxC :·:·:·:·jzj(·:·:·: IB 1111111? I-A-< A) Under floor duct in section B) Same on plan ~ %?3if//c: /22'10:0 ~2'0 2ZWW w~ A) Pipe sleeve on elevation B) Same on plan Chimney on plan Gas chimney on plan e Presentation of openings, grooves and channels: examples .. !1.1 II 1/1 ltl 't' u Closed in final state Remains open e Grooves , apertures and breakthroughs in walls cJ rCJ:k r=250 U=60 Natural monument (border with points) according to: NSG =conservation area LSG =landscape conseJVation area GLB = Protected landscape element §23 =under §23 HENatG protected habitat GA = Population of particularly protected or threatened species Tree protection Tree with species, trunk centre, crown radius & trunk dia. (Existing: full line, planned: dot-dash line Group of bushes to be partly removed Existing: full line Planned: dot-dash line To be removed: crossed-out full line Tree to be removed with species, trunk centre, crown radius & trunk dia. Border of area to be built on, whose soil is considerably contaminated with harmful substances. Border of areas, whose soil is considerably contaminated with harmful substances. 0 Symbols used in open spaces planning
  • 26. a) Floor surfaces > Without ) in m2 with b) Ceiling surfaces deducti?n 2 figures after c) Wall surfaces of openings decimal oint d) Clear wmdow areas p e) Clear door areas f) Flooring types g) Type of paint or cladding to walls h) Type of paint or cladding to ceilings 0 Dimensions and other information, if required sealing membrane (damp course) • • 8 • • • vapour barrier a a a a a a a a separating/plastic foil - - - - - - oil paper - · - · - · - · - · - · - · - - waterproofing membrane with fabric inlay 11 lllll/l1 1' IIIII IIIII waterproofing membrane with metal foil inlay intermediate layer, spot glued 1111111111111111111111111111111 fully glued layer mastic ~ appliedgravellayer primer coat, paint base crr:r:IICJ:CIC:IC:II:JOTC:r:CII1CCTI1] sealing slurry --:._-----=---------------=-- waterproof paint (e.g. 2-layer) plaster lath/reinforcement llllllillillllllillilllllllll impregnation 0 0 0 {) {) 0 filter mat 111111111111111111111111 tm drain mesh (plastic) sw standing water on ground/slope surface water e•ee emerging damp, mould, dirt etc. ••••••••••••••••• ~ penetratingdamp ~'% earth, undisturbed soil f) Symbols for waterproofing, drainage, insulation, non-pressurised water etc. xxxxxxxx IVVVVJj mlllMlll1llli~MM~ DRAWINGS Construction Drawing Symbols general insulation layer against heat loss and noise mineral wool insulation glass fibre insulation wood fibre insulation peat fibre insulation synthetic foam cork magnesite-bonded wood wool board moom~~%lfm~1W?Ef1Bi~BI cement-bonded wood wool board • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ·:·:·:·:·:·:·: 0 Symbols for insulation gypsum building boards plasterboards 9 DRAWINGS Paper formats Technical drawings Layout of drawings Construction drawings Construction drawing symbols Water supply and drainage symbols Electrical installation symbols Security installation symbols Gas installation symbols Drawing by hand Computer-aided drawing BS EN ISO 4157 DIN 1356
  • 27. DRAWINGS Paper formats Technical drawings Layout of drawings Construction drawings Construction drawing symbols Water supply and drainage symbols Electrical installation symbols Security installation symbols Gas installation symbols Drawing by hand Computer-aided drawing Windows set in reveals, scale 1:100 ~,~ ~,i(l ~~ ~~ 7.~=~(,-l-w-ith----'- '-wit-hou-t---.-E:"""III-.-.11! lllifj_8 _= --- --- ---window niche 0 Single window opening inward gains f) space and offers a place for the Box window (B) opening inward, double window, combined window radiator Sash window, scale 1:100 ~~~ =lli!illm=m=lm=l11oo..,;_.-_- __-__ -'-_ '------ e Single window ~ 0 Single-leaf door without lintel 0) Rising single-leaf door ~ Two-leaf revolving door Sliding window, scale 1:100 ~~~ ""~""W""W""W""11""' __ ·_-_D-_-:--_-=_ - - - Double window (D), box window, combined window '~!) Single-leaf door pair, with lintel e Pivoting door Gi) Sliding door @) Three-leaf revolving door 16 risers 16 risers 17.5/291 17.5/291 12 risers 18.5/25 m I I -2.22 ±0.00 +2.80 +5.60 Cellar Ground floor Upper floor Attic fi Stairs with one flight Cellar Ground floor Attic fi Stairs with two flights 10 ~,i(l 0)<0 ·=llilll1,--m_ ___-_____ - 0 Single window opening outward f) Single window (S) 4) Double-leaf ~ 4D Without threshold G) Double sliding door @) Four-leaf revolving door DRAWINGS Construction Drawing Symbols G Double window (D) opening outward e Double window (SD) 4l} Double-leaf door m~m WLJ u e Threshold one side ~ Sliding door with lifting mechanism ~ Folding partition When drawing windows, the left side is always shown with wall niche and the right side without ----1 0- e. Revolving doors replace wind lobbies ----1 €D - fD and offer an opening without draughts. Because revolving doors can cope with relatively little through traffic, the door leaves can be folded at peak times and pushed to the side. The horizontal section through the stairwell on each floor's plan is shown at about % storey height or 1 m above floor level. The steps should be continuously numbered upwards and downwards starting from ± 0.000. The number of steps below± are preceded by a minus sign-. The numbers begin on the first step and exit on the landing. The centre-line starts at the first step with a circle and ends on arriving with an arrow (also in the cellar).
  • 28. Living room D 0 0 DO IDI II.__________JII Clothes storage I I I II I I "1'1 11 I EH+t*i I D table 85 x 85 x 78 ~ 4 places 130 x 80 x 78 ~ 6 places round table 0 90 ~ 6 places shaped table 70- 100 pull-out table 120 x 180 stool 0 45 x 50 armchair 70 x 85 couch 95 x 195 sofa 80 x 175 upright piano 60 X 140-160 grand pianos: baby grand 155 x 114 salon grand 200 x 150 concert grand 275 x 160 television sewing table 50 x 50-70 sewing machine 50 x 90 nappy changing table 80 x 90 washing basket 40 x 60 chest 40 x 100-150 cupboard 60 x 120 hook spacing 15-20 em hanging rail clothes and linen cupboard 50 x 100-180 desk 70 X 130 X 78 80 X 150 X 78 Bedroom ~ D D ~ D ~ VN/t' Bathroom K oJI 0] D symbol symbol scale 1:50 scale 1:100 CJ Kitchen DJ[J] bed 100 X 200 side table 50x70, 60x70 double bed 100 X 200 twin bed (French bed) 145 X 200 children's bed 70x140-170 clothes cupboard 60 X 120 bath 75 X 170, 85x185 small bath 70 X 105, 70 X 125 shower 80 x 80, 90 X 90, 75 X 90 washbasin 50 x 60, 60x70 2 washbasins double washbasin 60 X 120, 60 X 140 vanity unit 45 x 30 we 38 x 70 urinal 35 x 30 bidet 38 x 60 urinal stand sink 60 x 100 double sink 60 x 150 stepped sink kitchen bucket sink DRAWINGS Construction Drawing Symbols Stoves with fuel type ~ nrlL A Jcgjrul floor cupboard wall cupboard ironing board electric oven dishwasher refrigerator chest freezer solid fuel oil gas electric radiator heating boiler with grate gas-fired oil-fired waste disposal unit waste chute air supply and extraction shaft PTL ~ patient lift GL ~ goods lift PL ~ passenger lift FL ~food lift (paternoster) HL ~ hydraulic lift 11 DRAWINGS Paper formats Technical drawings Layout of drawings Construction drawings Construction drawing symbols Water supply and drainage symbols Electrical installation symbols Security installation symbols Gas installation symbols Drawing by hand Computer-aided drawing
  • 29. Drainage pipes and appliances DRAWINGS Plan Elevation Description Water Supply and Drainage Symbols I I Water supply i!l pressurised blackwater pipe is marked with DS DRAWINGS -os- I Elevation Description Plan Paper formats I ~ Technical I [Q] cellar drainage pump drawings :5 pressurised rainwater pipe is marked with DR Layout of --oR-- I I 4 drawings ~ blackwater lifting system Construction drawings mixed water pipe Construction drawing symbols /C ,1/ "==J bath Water supply jl and drainage ventilation duct, direction given, e.g. starting and symbols --- running upward c:::J shower tray Electrical installation / symbols ~ 0 vanity unit, hand washbasin Security installation [a ! symbols 0 according to type stack, downpipe sitting washbasin Gas installation symbols / direction: Drawing by hand a) a) passing through v v urinal Computer-aided b) ......-""' b) starting and running downward drawing c) c) coming from above and ending ~ d) a' d) starting and running upward ~ urinal with automatic flushing BS EN 12056 DIN 1451 DIN 1986 t = ---r- change of material (QJ ~ we, floor-mounted 1 ----! pipe end closed 6 v we, wall-mounted 77777777 f CJ D slop sink --E3- cleaning opening, round or rectangular [IJ -o single sink -EJ I cleaning opening [[l] CD double sink t -am -am ~ change of nominal diameter dishwasher 125 1- odour trap ill ill washing machine CJ- c::::L_ outlet or drainage gutter without odour trap ~ ~ washer/dryer D- Ci!- outlet or drainage gutter with odour trap -crJ -crJ air conditioner []!]- [][;l- waste outlet with backflow device for faeces-free wastewater ~ small wastewater wet riser pipe --®- IIr fat separator treatment plant, two-level -®- ~ starch separator Q1 small wastewater wet-dry riser pipe FNT petrol interceptor (separator for volatile liquids) treatment plant, -®- -m- multi-level -®-- Lir silt trap -@ small wastewater dry riser pipe FT treatment plant, multi-leve -®- ~ acid separator -(8)-- LBT heating oil separator (separator for volatile liquids) () small wastewater sprinkler pipe F SPR treatment plant, multi-level D- Ci!- heating oil stop valve H Sp H Sp []!]- [][;l- heating oil stop valve with backflow preventer -€) R H Sp HSp soakaway shaft sprinkler system --ao-- --ao-- backflow device for faeces-free wastewater • hi underfloor hydrant spray flooding system '" '" ---cx::J- ---cx::J- backflow device for wastewater containing faeces ill --e- _o_ shaft with open through-flow (shown with blackwater pipe) •above-floor hydrant water spray system H ---9- J:L shaft with closed through-flow •fire fighting hose connection pipe 12
  • 30. Water supply (continued) DRAWINGS water pipe E3 wall or slab opening with Water Supply and Drainage Symbols marking of location of shut- protecting sleeve and stopping off or throttling valve end of pipe l marking of location of X l bleed valve, --{]E]- water softener, DRAWINGS supply valve ) detachable connection, emptying valve demineralisation plant Paper formats general type ofconnection v -[£[]- Technical can be simplified by use of wall battery filter drawings detachable connection short code 0 Layout of s screwed connection 4 pump drawings non-detachable connection T-RL threaded connection free-standing Construction with right-left thread battery '®l drawings F flange connection Construction ~ hose c coupling =t>- !1 30m'/h 5! booster pump drawing symbols mixer ! ! Water supply 1 apparatus without rotating SK socket connection L·-·-·-·-·-·....1 and drainage parts CL clamped connection symbols & flushing cistern -@] washing machine Electrical apparatus with rotating it- installation -o parts, display or registration flange connection symbols instrument 6 showerhead ----[g] dishwasher Security installation symbols 9 display or recording -} screw connection, J, shower hose ----[!] Gas installation instrument threaded connection washer/dryer symbols z Drawing by hand -D- self-closing valve -w Computer-aided measuring instrument built ~ air conditioner drawing into pipe socket connection ~ pressure flusher BS EN 12056 TWBO drinking water pipe, cold, {j- § flow gauge, through-flow DIN 1451 e.g. 0 80 gauge DIN 1986 coupling t pipe anti-vacuum drinking water pipe, warm, device and bleeder ~ TWW50-WD e.g. 0 50 flow meter, water meter + type of connection can be n pipe anti-vacuum drinking water pipe, simplified by use of device and bleeder ~ TWZ40 short code calorimeter circulation, e.g. 0 40 w welded connection with dripping water TW15 drinking water pipe, hose, s soldered connection pipe ~ e.g. 015 G glued connection II' y connection for measuring T threaded connection pipe ventilator instrument marking of location for SK socket connection 50 l 40 change of nominal diameter, p pressed connection ~ , + pipe ventilator, thermometer e.g. from 0 50 to 0 40 through-flow ~ as above but also as l><l shut-off valve, general reducer fitting t B pressure gauge pipe bleeder type ofgauge can be marking of location for indicated by use of short ST ( cu change of material, f>l<l shut-off gate valve I 1 1 1 code e.g. from steel to copper pipe interrupter l!.p differential pressure crossing pipes (without -lSJ- shut-off flap valve I gauge pt pressure pulse connection) * backflow preventer generator l><l shut-off valve, branch, one-sided through-flow valve -.<1-- through-flow valve [i] logger -+- branch, two-sided type of connection can be with backflow if required, mark type of simplified by use of short preventer device with short code 0 riser pipe code v through flow p,P direction: SO screw-down valve z outlet valve with v volume SS slanted seat valve ventilator and T temperature a) passing through threaded hose .6.p pressure difference d' b) starting and running T throttle valve ~ upward BP valve behind plaster connection p c) coming from below ~ --------- control cable .P d) starting and running elbow valve ! draw-off tap with 9 cf downward ~ backflow preventer, fluid-driven e) coming from above and three-way valve ventilator and ending ~ threaded hose '1 electrical separation, ® float-driven ---ljf-- four-way valve connection isolation piece r l potential equalisation, [;:o::] through-flow valve H- pipe rupture valve, weight-driven earthing type of connection can be hose rupture valve ' simplified by use of spring-driven n short code y expansion bend T tap cock free outlet, system T B ball valve separation manual -J1J1r length compensator, wave I:ffJ pipe compensator three-way tap ~ pipe disconnecter <¥> electricity-driven ---<==--- sealing bush compensator @ 9 membrane-driven four-way tap ~ safety valve, pipeline fixed point )CJ-- clamped tapping spring-loaded ~ piston-driven (e.g. at side) sliding pipe fixing ti elbow safety valve, ~ clamped tapping with ~ electromagnet-driven ~ pipe fall, pipe rise, e.g. 5% valve (e.g. top) spring-loaded wall or slab opening with IX1 pressure reducer, --[@]- ~ metering device container, non-pressure, protecting sleeve pressure stopcock open, with overflow 13
  • 31. DRAWINGS Paper formats Technical drawings Layout of drawings Construction drawings Construction drawing symbols Water supply and drainage symbols Electrical installation symbols Security installation symbols Gas installation symbols Drawing by hand Computer-aided drawing BS EN 50110 DIN 18015 Electrical consumer appliances 14 electrical appliance, general electric stove with three rings electric stove with built-in coal oven electric stove with oven for baking oven for roasting and baking microwave cooker infra red grill warming plate dishwasher food processor refrigerator, e.g. freezer compartment, no. stars freezer, no. stars air conditioner water heater, general hot water storage cylinder continuous-flow water heater fryer fan generator, general motor, general motor with statement of protection type hand dryer, hair dryer washing machine washer/dryer infra red lamp room heating, general storage heater electrically heated clear- view screen light fitting, general multiple light fitting stating -7(5 x 60 no. lamps and power, e.g. five lamps at 60 W 0< ~ --7< -¥ ~ ~ (X C) G) CQ ~3 1----+---t----l 36W adjustable light fitting light fitting with switch light fitting with current bridge for lamp chains light fitting, dimmable panic light emergency light searchlight light fitting with additional emergency light light fitting with two separate filaments light fitting for discharge lamps with accessories light fitting for discharge lamps with details light fitting for fluorescent lamp, general light band, e.g. three lamps at36W light band, e.g. two lamps at 2x58W Signal and radio devices ~'.'.I B ill -{Z] ~ ~ -!]] -M ~~' motion detector, e.g. with safety circuit vibration detector (safe pendulum) light beam detector, light barrier press-knob fire alarm automatic fire alarm police alarm fire alarm with drive fusible link alarm, automatic automatic temperature alarm automatic extension fire alarm pass lock security systems centre of fire alarm system light beam alarm system, automatic, e.g. photo cell C9 G 0 ~ fi e L8J g t§] Q] ~ secondary clock main clock main clock with signal amplifier, cable peak denotes amplification direction telephone, general multiple telephone telephone, long-distance telephone, semi-internal telephone, internal loudspeaker radio television intercom, e.g. house or door entry phone two-way intercom, e.g. house or door entry phone telephone exchange, general door opener alarm lamp, signal lamp, light signal bell button call buttons with name labels microphone earpiece main distributor (communications) splitter, flush splitter, surface-mounted beeper or horn, general beeper or horn stating current type house intercom entry phone DRAWINGS Electrical Installation Symbols ll 8 dJ [ZJ [1J ~ -§ 9 tf? LN Si? 9 -0- ~0 ~70 sound recorder sound pick-up magnetic tape recorder call and switch off panel meter meter panel, e.g with a fuse time clock, e.g. for switching tariff temperature detector time relay, e.g. for stair lighting blink relay, blink switch current impulse switch sound frequency ripple control relay sound frequency cut-off alarm clock, general alarm clock, stating current type gong alarm clock alarm clock for safety circuit alarm clock with run-down drive motor alarm clock alarm clock without automatic cancel, continuously ringing alarm clock alarm clock with visual alarm buzzer buzzer siren, general siren stating current type siren stating frequency, e.g. 140Hz siren with wailing tone, e.g. varying between 150 and 270Hz
  • 32. Electricity direct current ~ A alternating current, general ~ 2 kHz stating the frequency ~ T technical alternating current direct current or alternating current (universal current) mixed current sound frequency alternating current high frequency alternating current very high frequency alternating current Supporting points in mast cables cable, general underground cable support point, mast, general 0 guyed mast timber mast roof stands, brackets, tubular mast, general e guyed mast lattice mast, general • guyed mast reinforced concrete mast, general ._ guyed mast 8 8 mast with foot double mast transverse H-mast or portal mast portal mast of lattice masts lengthwise A-mast support point with tension anchor support point with brace mast with lamp Cables and cable connections 0 mm /79 /H mm existing under construction planned mobile cable underground cable overground cable, e.g. mast-mounted cable on porcelain isolators (isolation bells) cable on surface of plaster cable plastered in cable beneath plaster 0 (t) (f) (k) isolated cable in installation duct isolated cable for dry rooms, e.g. sheathed wire isolated cable for wet rooms, e.g. wet room cable cable for outdoor or underground laying Cables, marking, application ! Cu 20 x 4 ,s',SSS7$Wl ++++++ ·X-X-X-X-X· ·0-0-0-0-0· -1-1-1-1-1- D protection cable, e.g. for earthing, neutralisation or protection circuit (old) signal cable telephone cable radio cable cable with marking simplified depiction protective earth cable (PE) PEN cable neutral cable conductor rail foreign cable further markings, e.g. telephone, night circuit, blinking light cable, emergency lighting cable twisted cable, e.g. two- wire coaxial cable rectangular hollow cable, e.g. for very high frequency _ _ } cable running upward I cable running downward I 0 ~IP54 r·-·-·.., ! ! t-·-·-·..J @ 1 ~230/8V cable running upward and downward cable connection branch connection box, depiction if necessary socket sealing end, end branch high-voltage house connection box, general as above, stating protection type distribution framing for devices, e.g. housing, switching cabinet, switching panel earthing, general connection point for earth wire mass, body element, accumulator or battery transformer, e.g. doorbell transformer 816~ 5,-l LJ © ® converter, general rectifier, e.g. alternating current mains connection rectifier, e.g. pole changer, chopper fuse, general screw-in fuse, e.g. 1OA and type Dll, three-pole low-voltage high- performance fuse, e.g. SOA size 00 trip, e.g. 63A, three-pole switch, make contact earth leakage circuit breaker, four-pole cable protection switch, e.g. 16A, three-pole motor protection switch, three-pole excess current switch, e.g. ballast switch emergency off switch star-delta switch starter, rheosta~ e.g. with five starting steps button switch light switch switch with indicator light switch 1/1 (off switch, single-pole) switch 1/2 (off switch, two-pole) switch 1/3 (off switch, three-pole) switch 4/1 (group switch, single-pole) switch 5/1 (series switch, single-pole) switch 6/1 (two-way switch, single-pole) two-way switch as pull switch switch 7/1 (cross-switch, single-pole) time switch dimmer approach switch contact switch DRAWINGS Electrical Installation Symbols r. A J~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 0 IT] 3~E approach effect, general contact effect, general passive infra red motion detector time relay, e.g. for stair lighting current impulse switch empty connection box multiple socket single earthed socket as above but for three- phase current double earthed socket socket with off switch socket, lockable depiction of vertical if required socket for isolating transformer electrical connection, general three-phase connection smoke extraction ventilator switch smoke extraction press- button alarm fire alarm (press-button alarm) IT connection socket broadband communications system telephone distributor telephone socket aerial socket aerial splitter, e.g. twice aerial distributor ,e.g. twice aerial amplifier aerial socket (through sockets) aerial socket with end resistance 15 DRAWINGS Paper formats Technical drawings Layout of drawings Construction drawings Construction drawing symbols Water supply and drainage symbols Electrical installation symbols Security installation symbols Gas installation symbols Drawing by hand Computer-aided drawing BS EN 50110 DIN 18015
  • 33. DRAWINGS Paper formats Technical drawings Layout of drawings Construction drawings Construction drawing symbols Water supply and drainage symbols Electrical installation symbols Security installation symbols Gas installation symbols Drawing by hand Computer-aided drawing BS EN 50110 DIN 18015 Visual indicators indicator light, general blinking indicator light with direction pointer indicator light wilh darkening switch indicator light with glimmer light pointer indicator with automatic return pointer indicator with automatic return, lit pointer indicator with automatic return, lit or swinging pointer indicator without automatic return pointer indicator without automatic return, lit indicator with filling device recording indicator meter meter with indicator lamp multiple detector acknowledgement detector Batteries ITIIIIIIl lil!l!;j 111 elemental battery accumulator battery (four cells) -If--If- If required House supply conne~ ction element, accumulator 16A1 = i: ® *~4~ 16A2 [ ~ ' 16A3 ' -@) 20 A4 WKitchen {' ~ l' 16A5 m 16A6 [ @J £.1iiii.T. __ .::__·-·-·- i: *;o~ 16A8 [ ~ i: 16A9 --'-""-"--![ [I] Utility room Resetve 8 Circuit diagram 16 Lightning protection installations ILT -J-J-1-1- t 0 • @ 1 Q-- --1-t- ----ro- building outline gutter and downpipe reinforced concrete with connection steel construction, metal rails metal covering chimney roof stands for electric Jines diaphragm tank, tank snow guards aerial metal pipe lightning conductor, open lightning conductor, underground lightning conductor, under rbof and under plaster terminal pole, flagpole connection point to pipes separation point pipe and rod earth terminal earthing sparking distance closed sparking distance excess voltage discharge conductor roof fixing lift water meter, gas meter 9 Electrical installation plan DRAWINGS Electrical Installation Symbols No. (min.) of No. Tvoe of aooliance Sockets1) Outlets Connected load 'kW Uvin room and bedroom f~J~:r~~;~~:~t~~~o 8 m2 8-12 m"2 12-20 m2 >20m" Kitchen kitchenette AC 3-ohase sockets,Jlghtlng 5 for kitchenette 6 for kitchen 7 ventilator/extractor hood 8 stove 9 refrigerator/freezer 10 dishwasher 11 waterheater 12 sockets,lighting 13 extractor fan 14 washing machine9) 15 heater 16 water heater 17 sockets, lighting 18 extractor fan 19 20 21 22 23 sockets, lighting extractor fan ~::~~r7d~~~h!ne ironino machine Sockets, lighting Bathroom we Utili room Hall corridor 24 for length up to 2.5 m 25 over2.5 m Outdoorsittin 26 sockets ll htinq Storeroom >3 m2 27 !i hUng Hobb room 1"1 28 sockets I! htin 3 Residential cellar and basement 29 sockets II ht!n 1 Commercial cellar and basement Sockets, lighting 30 forusableareaupto20m2 117) 31 over20m2 117) Cellar and basement assa e 32 fi htin 2'1 2'1 141 1 14),8) 1"1 1 1'1 0.2 3.5 2.0 3.3 2.0 3.3 3.3 2.1 3.3 8.0-14.0 4.5 4.0-6.0 7.5 4.0-6.0 7.5 1) Or jtmcl!on boxes for consumer devices <2 kW 2) Sockets next to beds are double sockets, which, arranged next to aerial sockets, are triple sockets. These multiple sockets, are counted in the table as single sockets. 3) The worktops should be Ill with as little shadow and glare as possible. 4) If a single extract fan Is to be provided. 5) Unless hot water is provided by other means. 6) Of which one may be combined with the vanity unit light. 7) For bathrooms with 4 m2 usable area, one connection above the vanity unit Is sufficient. ~~ fn°[e~7d':~f.W~~~~~~~~~ut ~~~:~~~~~e swltch is via the general lighting, with a time lag. 10) Unless a utility room Is provide:!or the appliances can be accommodated In another suitable room. 11) ForWCswith a vanity unit. 12) Unless accommodated in the bathroom or another suitable room. 13) Switchab!e from one location. 14) Switchab!e from two locations. 15) From 8m2 usable space. j~~ ~~~:~~~~1ag~'~uWei:,"~~~~n~~~:f~~~~o:e~~~i1t~~-rating-l!ke partitions, e.g. wire mesh. 18) For passages >6 m long, one ouUetevery6 m of length begun. 0 Power supply to electrical appliances Uvingarea(m2} up to 50 50--75 75-100 100--125 over125 No. circuits for lighting and sockets f) No. circuits by size of living area r;-L:-:ivi-og_a_re-,a(-cm');:-r--;N-;-o-. c.,-ircu--:;-its-;fo-r:;-llg-;ch!;-in-g-.,-;d-,o-,ck:-e:-1,-, upto45 3 45-55 4 55-75 6 75-100 7 over 100 8 8 High level of equipment
  • 34. DRAWINGS Security Installation Symbols Burglar alarm systems r:: 1!;1 ~ '----' DRAWINGS Lo.J optical signal generator connection relay man Jock Paper formats 1 strike plate contact ------ Technical sea ~ drawings • opening contact connection relay l2J digital line coupler turnstile Layout of drawings r~ ~ E]-r- revolving door Construction • magnetic contact remote switching device analog-digital converter drawings I! ~ with line coupler signal Construction ~ vibration sensor tx' 1~1 flow device drawing symbols alarm searchlight <JOt> electrically unlocked door Water supply and D :.J drainage symbols • oscillation contact ro' Electrical Fire alarm systems display tableau ...... electrically opened door installation + L ..J symbols thread tension switch [g st- Security maximum heat detector overlight installation .J1Jlj"'- foil L::_"::./~ operating panel symbols D Gas installation *" differential heat detector D II II protective grille symbols breakthrough sensor housing Drawing by hand [§;] ~ security escutcheon Computer-aided :::w:. pressure sensor/step mat optical smoke detector drawing r ., A glass breakage sensor ~ ionisation smoke detector L _j monitored housing ~ long security handle plate ~ structure-borne sound A rv-, monitored distributor I~ tilt and turn window sensor <~.,. infra red flame sensor L .J casement lock $(> passive infrared sensor <"'.>.. CCTV surveillance systems 9 lock for four-sided key 1~ ultra violet flame sensor r;_] y TV camera ~ falling bolt lock <}---<> light barrier ~ pressure sensor (sprinkler occ:__ J TV camera with varifocal activation) ~ <$ lens deadbolt lock light sensor [3] manual alarm ~~ ~ TV camera protective hinge bolts (dog bolts) r6' ~ housing L .J' image detector connection relay ~ CJ:m) protective housing with roller shutter locking <J~ microwave doppler motion ~t fire brigade key depot pan and tilt head detector L:. J r:__ }m) ~ folding shutter locking TV camera with pan and <l-- -I> Control centres/accessories tilt head microwave barrier 'f luEMI attack and break-in alarm ~J two-key lock system TV camera with motion ~~ control centre detector 'I' ~ HF field alteration sensor lockable window handle [3~ []ill fire alarm control centre rol LF field alteration sensor monitor [} security strike plate [ill access control centre L!' 0 ·..J ~~ capacitive field alteration ~~ operating panel view cross-bolt lock, double .... sensor [ill CCTV surveillance control L--=.../ selection device •=" bolt lock centre r· ::-, §!---~ HF barrier GJ monitor with video signal- ....-.- cellar grating security [ill shop theft alarm control rr~ ultrasound doppler motion centre L• • •..J dependent picture switching v detector cylinder lock [}{I] intercom control centre Access control systems II ~---~ ultrasound barrier []- vertically sliding door lock [ill door opener control centre pass reader [31 banknote contact ~- -·-~-· fence [2] stand-alone reader with converter additional code entry [3] ·X-X-X-X• barbed wire fence attack detector 0 ~ transmission system online reader rl-, +++ solid fence, mesh electromechanical [6] 1..,; .J switchgear analog-digital converter ® roller shutter with closing ~- pass reader with security r?-, mental switchgear ~ additional code entry @ L'.J mains rectifier steel roller shutters f"J' ~ stand-alone reader with time clock switchgear [Illi- L .J accumulator battery - additional code entry @ roller or concertina shutter rx' light switch device [JJ automatic dialling and bl L: :.J announcement device data terminal with [QJ safe [JJ operating panel rd' acoustic signal generator recording system handle ~ 0 •_j Y5IT. /!_- -:J' laminated safety glass L: :..1 17
  • 35. DRAWINGS Paper formats Technical drawings Layout of drawings Construction drawings Construction drawing symbols Water supply symbols Electrical installation symbols Security installation symbols Gas installation symbols Drawing by hand Computer-aided drawing Gas installations 25 )( exposed horizontal pipe (stating nominal diameter) concealed horizontal pipe (stating nominal diameter) change of cross-section (stating nominal diameter) gas pipe house entry isolating piece riser pipe continuously rising pipe downpipe crossing of two pipes without connection crossing connection branch location ---jRT cleaning T-piece -+RK cleaning K-piece jjj long-threaded connection screwed connection IJ flanged connection ~ welded connection -txKJ-- shut-off tap ---{;::(K)-- shut-off gate valve ~ shut-offvalve thermally activated shut-off device elbow valve ~ pressure regulator ~ gasmeter [><Xl gas stove (four rings) ~ ~ gas oven (four rings) mgas refrigerator 18 ~ gas heat pump 800 exhaust gas/flue pipe (stating diameter) exhaust gas systems (stating dimensions), also for exhaust gas flue/chimney filter gas room heater continuous flow gas water heater combi gas water heater gas storage water heater ~ rn'ln gas room heater for external wall connection (stating connection capacity) gas heating boiler flexible hose f) House supply connection at right angles to front of building 9 Gas meter in cellar t) House supply connection for water and gas in one compartment 1 m wide and 0.30 m deep 8 Gas pipe laid on undisturbed soil; does not have to be frost-free 1 house introduction combination 2 pressure regulator B 3 shut-off 4gas meter 5 riser 6 gas supply line 7 branch line 8 devices connecting fitting thennally activated device 9 gas equipment: stove, water heater 1 power cable, local area network management 2 steel service pipe 3 casing 4 pull out 5 shut off the main with integrated insulating joints 6 boundary between gas valve unit (GVU) and installer 7 pressure regulator (!) Heating room ~35 kW DRAWINGS Gas Installation Symbols Gas Heating Gas appliance capacity volume flow (kW) (m3/h) gas water 8.8-28.1 1.14-3.62 heater circulating 9.5-28.4 1.23-3.67 water heater storage 5.1-13.9 0.70-1.91 water heater heating 2.6-B0.3 0.34-7.79 stove/boiler 0 Connection specifications for gas appliances ~ Introduction and inclined feed tube 8 Flow-operated safety device and flue gas flap valve 0 Gas meters on each storey 1A gas line installed free, gas lines can also be laid outside the building, such as a gas heater on the roof. A gas line needs to be frost-free. 2 Gas pipe laid under plaster. 3 Gas pipelines in shafls or channels have to be loaded and ventilated. Openings approximately 10 cm2• For suspended ceilings, these openings are placed diagonally. e Laying gas pipes 1 Minimum size 1 m3/kW 2 Combustion air opening in boiler output to ~50 kW cmZ at ground level 3 Combustion air opening at about 50 kW boiler capacities. Cross-section of the opening of 150 cm2 per kW + 2cm2, the over 50 kW goes out. Example: boiler output 65 kW 50kW+ 15 kW 150 cm2 + (15 x 2 = 30) cm2 =180 cm2
  • 36. Q Sketching paper G Reinforcing edges 0 Specialised T-square 4Ii) Drawing aids G) Drawing aid ISO p.01 € 017mm f) Sketching: construction engineering f) Cutting paper to size grid cone shape: correct e Drawing board e Drawing aids G French curves 0 Drafting machine f) Good drawing practice a b (D Aid for hatching 4D a) Clutch pencil (lead holder); b) Correct way of holding pencil DRAWINGS Drawing by Hand Designers use drawings and diagrams to communicate in- formation in a factual, un- ambiguous and geometric form that can be understood anywhere in the world. Unlike painting, construction drawing is a means to an end, and this differentiates diagrams/working drawings and illustrations from artistic works. A4 sketch pads with 0.5 em squared graph paper are ideal for freehand sketches to scale. For more accurate sketches, millimetre graph paper with thick centimetre, faint 0.5 em and even finer millimetre divisions should be used -7 0. Different paper is used for drawing and sketching according to standard modular coordinated construction and engineering grids -7 f). Usetrac- ing paperfor sketching with asoft lead pencil. Suitable sheet sizes for drawings can be cut straight from a roll, single pages being torn off using a T-square -7 8 or cut on its underside -7 e. Construction drawings are done in hard pencil or ink on clear, tear- resistant tracing paper, bordered with protected edges -7 e and stored in drawers. Ink drawings are made on transparent paper and water-resistant paper is used for paintings or diagrams. Fix the paper on a simple drawing board (designed for standard formats) made of limewood or poplar, using drawing pins with conical points -7 E). First turn over 2 em of the paper's edge (later to be used as a filing edge- see p. 4): this lifts the T-square a little during drawing and prevents the T-square from smudging the work. (Forthe same reason, draw from top to bottom!) The drawing can be fixed with drafting tape rather than drawing pins -7 e (which means that the drawing underlay can be made of plastic- Cellon or a similar smooth material). Drafting machines are common in engineering disciplines -7 0. In addition to simple parallel rules, there are also special versions with built- in protractors for setting angles; these are ruled with centimetre and octametre divisions -7 0. Other drawing aids feature pocket scale sets, parallel scale for hatching, division of lengths -70. 19 DRAWINGS Paper formats Technical drawings Layout of drawings Construction drawings Construction drawing symbols Water supply and drainage symbols Electrical installation symbols Security installation symbols Gas installation symbols Drawing by hand Computer-aided drawing BS EN ISO 8560 BS 6750 DIN 4172
  • 37. DRAWINGS Paper formats Technical drawings Layout of drawings Construction drawings Construction drawing symbols Water supply and drainage symbols Electrical installation symbols Security installation symbols Gas installation symbols Drawing by hand Computer-aided drawing BS EN ISO 13567 ISO 13567 y ----¥ (X,y) I I I I X X 0 Cartesian coordinate system. All points are defined through their x and y coordinates. The zero point can be set for each drawing or related to world coordinates. Polar coordinate system. All points are defined through their distance I from the zero point and the angle a related to the x-axis. Measurement system Abbr. 1 mm= 1 unit point pt 2.8346 pt 0.3528 mm inch in" 0.0394" 25.4 mm 8 Conversion factors for common computer units Text layer Dimensions layer Furniture layer Openings layer Construction layer Surround and title block layer G Structuring of a CAD drawing by arranging groups of similar objects on their own layers w Who-where-what naming of layers with variable field sizes (according to CadForum). The layer names have suitable abbreviations containing 2 or 3 pieces of information, each separated by an underscore. The content should be clear from the first 20 characters, because some CAD systems restrict the layer names to this length. Special characters should be avoided in order to prevent exchange problems. Who (1-5) =author possible abbreviations for authors Arch Architect lArch Interior architect LArch Landscape architect Bing Building engineer Ei Electrical engineer St Structural engineer HLS Heating/ventilation/sanitary Geom Surveyor What (13-20) =description possible descriptions axes structure openings finishings furniture hatching dimensioning labelling drawing outline Where (7-11) =categorisation possible categories BS basement GR ground floor FL1 1st floor EL_N north elevation SEC_A section A-A examples of layer names Arch_GR_axes Arch_GR_structure Arch_GR_finishes Arch_GR_hatching on smaller projects, the 2nd category (facultative) can be left out: Geom_level curves Arch_structure Bing_openings 9 Example of naming layers with variable, understandable labels 20 Drawings DRAWINGS Computer-Aided Drawing Drawings are always an abstraction of reality because they are in two dimensions. The degree of abstraction depends on the content and, above all, on the intended purpose of the drawing. The lowest degree of abstraction is represented by perspectives, collages and renderings, which attempt to come quite close to reality. In order to produce the desired impression, it is particularly important to leave some free rein for the fantasy of the viewer. Diagrams can be used to explain functional interactions. Working drawings contain all the required information about dimensions, materials and arrangement of the object to be produced. In this case, all details must be unambiguous and comprehensible for the producer, and therefore have a high degree of abstraction. In the age of computer-generated images, it still remains important to have a command of the rules and regulations of traditional drawing --+ pp. 39-40. Computer-aided drawings Drawing with a computer is very different from the classic methods of drawing on paper. There are two basic principles: raster graphics, in which every pixel of a drawing is saved (image processing), and vector graphics, where the start, end and the properties of a drawing element are saved (CAD). Because the output appears on a monitor screen or plot, there are also problems representing bodies and rooms in two dimensions. Only very simple CAD programs work with two-dimensional data models. More common are three-dimensional data models (object-oriented programs), which produce the desired type of illustration on output (monitor, plotting). The information required for this is stored in a database in the computer. This enables the elements of a drawing (line type, line thickness and colour) to be linked to further information, which is not visible, e.g. which layer they belong to, dependence on other objects, material properties, manufacturing information, order numbers etc. These properties can be exploited for the structuring of content or for further use (e.g. tenders or cost estimation). Volume modules permit further simulations. Structural, acoustic, climatic or lighting investigations can make precise statements about a building through the use of the appropriate software. 3D scanners, CNC machines and 3D plotters also enable the input and output of three-dimensional objects. Data exchange Because data is normally processed by a number of operators (various specialist technicians and engineers), a unified, understandable and clear system of organisation is important. When selecting a CAD system or deciding the working methods, it is important to know that all future processors of the data will work with the same software, or which interfaces can be used to exchange data. Exchange formats usually have a limited range of structuring possibilities and therefore organisation categories, which are not supported, will be lost or have to be recreated, with the associated waste of time. The naming of layers is governed by ISO 13567, which, however, uses cryptic abbreviations. It seems more practical to use the more flexible and easily understood naming system published by the specialist magazine CadForum --7 0.
  • 38. f--------1.07-----1 f-- 65-70-! >-25-30-l 0 Standard wheelchair, side elevation f) Front elevation, folded 7 7 H-66---+i 1---- 80 ------1 t) Plan 0 Wheelchair on slope 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 80 a lfc I 1 .'17 f"' Nl XI'J. Ill y b ....... .v"' -t"' 'X. I T 0 ~ All t 0 ~ All 1 1----i;; 1.90----1 Q Space requirement for wheelchair parking space and movement area f---1.00-1.05----l 0 Onstairs 200 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 - ? r--.r--b( ==~IH' , II~ rc::: -1S r- ~ rn; ~ b I' ~ I ~ 100 0 100 80 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 C!) Onaplan t :::: :::: ;;; 1.50 :~:~ (9 Passage through one door 4Ii) From the side T ~~{ ~t.., ,.,.,.,.,~~: ., ... ~1·:. ,.., .,. I :. + :·:_ + :~: 0 .... 0> _........ 1 :·: All .... .L 1- ..- ~~~ ... ;;; 1.50 ::: .. 4D Through two doors ACCESSIBLE BUILDING Dimensions for Wheelchair Users General design basics Building regulations cover the design, construction and furnishing of housing, of accessible public buildings or parts of buildings, of workplaces and their external spaces. These buildings must be accessible for all people free of barriers. The users must be in a position to be almost completely independent of outside help. This applies notably to wheelchair users, the blind and visually impaired, those with other disabilities, old people, children and those of exceptionally short or tall stature. Movement areas Are those necessary for moving a wheelchair and are to be designed according to the minimum space requirement of a wheelchair user. The wheelchair --7 0 - 8 and the movement area for the person --7 0- mprovide the modules for this. The dimensions of the movement area are 0.90-1.80 m and may overlap - except in front of lift doors. A depth and width of at least 1.50 m should be provided in every room for turning. (More information on movement areas is found on the following pages.) Q Computer workplace 200 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 a ~--- ~--- ,..._ -ll ] It II r- ;- -..... b 1'-l 1-r--' IL 100 80 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 mFrom behind 4D With three doors e Atawindow ,_____ <;150 -----1 4!) Minimum turning space r ~ -t~;~ ~It ~l Kl--78--+-i;; 90-H 0 With four doors 21 ACCESSIBLE BUILDING DimensiQns for wheelchair users Accessible public buildings Accessible housing BS 8300 DD266 DIN 18024 DIN 18025 MBO see also: Lifts pp. 128-134
  • 39. ACCESSIBLE BUILDING Dimensions for wheelchair users Accessible public buildings Accessible housing BS 8300 DIN 18024 DIN 18025 MBO see also: Lifts 128-134 I-- <!;1.50 ----1 T 0 "1 Ni 0 "! Ni 1 I-- <!;1.50 ---1 0 Movement areas In front of hand- operated side-hung doors 8 Ramp 15 15 H---- 1.20 --H e Ramp in section ,_;;; 1.10-t e Plan, with clear dimensions of the lift car and movement area in front of the doors f-<;;95-j .. ,~ . ,__ L=::t=:t=ll.i L_(_j f--Hso----j 0 "1 All _l 0 Overlapping of movement areas in sanitary facilities 22 1-- <!;1.90 ---l f.-- ;;;1.90 ----; f) Movement areas in front of hand- operated sliding doors f - - 95-1.35 ----l 0 Dimensions of corridors and passages ,-,1 . "1 All J "' I I L-------1 f) Movement area in front of stairs going up and down l I ~ I ; JJ f--ii;1.50---11 f) Movement area next to operated facility Movement areas must be: ACCESSIBLE BUILDING Accessible Public Buildings min. 1.50 m wide and min. 1.50 m deep ... in every room as a place to turn, at the start and end of rarnps, in front of telephone boxes, public telephones, service counters, passages, pay desks, checkpoints, post boxes, automatic service machines, calling/speaking equipment. min. 1.50 m wide ... in corridors, main routes and next to stairs up and down. min. 1.50 m deep ... in front of therapy facilities (e.g. bath, couch), in front of wheelchair parking places, next to the long side of the vehicle of a wheelchair user in car parks ~ p. 23 41i). min. 1.20 m wide ... alongside facilities which a wheelchair user has to approach from the side, between the wheel kerbs of a ramp and next to operated equipment. min. 0.90 m wide ... in access ways next to cash desks and checkpoints and on side routes. Accessibility without steps All levels of buildings designed in accordance with the principles of accessibility must be accessible without steps, i.e. using a lift or a ramp. Lifts Cars of lifts must have a min. clear width of 1.10 m and a clear depth of 1.40 m. The movement area in front of the doors must be as large as the floor area of the car, but min. 1.50 m wide and 1.50 m deep ~ 0. This area must not overlap with other traffic routes and movement areas. Ramps May have a maximum slope of 6% ~ 0. If ramps are longer than 6 m, an intermediate landing of min. 1.50 m length is required. The ramp and the intermediate landing are both to be provided with 10 em high wheel kerbs and handrails (diameter 3-4.5 em) at a height of 85 em. The clear ramp width must be min. 1.20 m. Wheel kerbs and handrails must project 30 em horizontally into the platform area. There must be no stairs down in the extension of the ramp. Stairs. The movement area next to the stairs going up and down must be min. 1.50 m wide; the tread of the first step is not to be included in the calculation of the movement area ~ f). Doors Clear passage width of doors ~0.90 m ~ 0 +f). Doors to toilets, showers and changing rooms must open outward. Sanitary facilities At least one toilet must be provided for wheelchair users in all sanitary facilities. The seat height should be 48 em ~ 8. Corridors and meeting areas Corridors and routes longer than 15 m must have a passing place for two wheelchair users of at least 1.80 m width and depth. Wheelchair parking place A wheelchair parking place for each wheelchair user is to be included in the design, preferably in the entrance area. Space requirement and movement area ~ p. 21 0.
  • 40. IT .COD -;;;. TI 0 Movement area by shower; alternative - bath r--;;; 1.50 --I 1--;;; 95---+-35+--1 ;;; 30 r---- ;;; 1.50 ----1 C) Overlapping of movement areas in bathroom (with bath) !---;;; 1.50--I 9 Movement area in a double-space kitchen I- 60-i ~ + i 36' 23' Dimensions at the sink, stove and refrigerator f--;;; 1.50--; Wheelchair user's f.-;;; 1.20--1 Non-wheelchair user's C) Space requirement at the long side of a wheelchair user's and non- wheelchair user's bed 1------;;; 1.50--l Movement area in front of and next to we and washbasin 1--- ;;; 1.50 -----i 0 Overlapping of movement areas in bathroom (with shower) 1--;;; 1.50--1 T 0 "l ~ All 1 e Movement area in an L-layout kitchen e Dimensions in the kitchen l 0 0 tti J~I .1.~ 4I!) Space requirement in a garage ACCESSIBLE BUILDING Accessible Housing Movement areas which must be: min. 1.50 m wide and min. 1.50 m deep ..• a turning place in every room (excepting small rooms, which the wheelchair user can use by moving backwards and forwards), the shower ---7 0 +e. in front of the we and vanity unit ---7 f)- e. in an outside seating area, in front of lift shaft doors, at the start and end of a ramp and in front of the intake of a rubbish chute. min. 1.50 m deep .•. in front of the long side of a wheelchair user's bed ---7 e. in front of cupboards, in front of kitchen installations ---7 0-0, in front of the access side of a bath ---7 0 +e. in front of a wheelchair parking place and in front of the long side of a vehicle ---7 G). min. 1.50 m wide ... between walls outside the house, next to steps going up and down, where the tread of the uppermost step is not to be included in the movement area. min. 1.20 m wide ... along furniture which the wheelchair user approaches from the side, along the access side of a non-wheelchair user's bed ---7 0, between walls within the dwelling, next to operated equipment ---7 p. 22 e. between wheel kerbs of a ramp ---7 p. 22 e and on routes within a house. Accessibility without steps All rooms belonging to a dwelling and the communal facilities of a house must either be without steps, or have a lift ---7 p. 22 e. or be accessible with a ramp ---7 p. 22 e. Door stops and thresholds at the bottom of doors should be avoided, but if absolutely necessary may not be higher than 2 em. Wheelchair parking place A wheelchair parking place is to be included in the design for each wheelchair user, preferably located in the entrance area, for transferring from street to indoor wheelchair. Space requirement and movement area ---7 p. 22 e. Bathroom The bathroom is to be provided with a wheelchair-accessible shower. The later installation of a bath should be possible near the shower. The movement area to the right or left of the we must be at least 95 em wide and 70 em deep. From one side of the we towards the wall, or furniture, there must be a distance of min. 30 em ---7 f) - e. No bathroom doors may open inwards. Kitchen The main items of equipment items like the refrigerator, stove and sink, plus the worktop, are to be arranged as close as possible to each other. It must be possible for a wheelchair to pass under the sink and worktop without limitation. For the sink, this means that either a waste fitting behind the plaster or a flat fitting on the surface is necessary. Shelf space must be accessible for the wheelchair user and no tall units should be included in the design. The horizontal reach area is about 60 em, and the vertical activity range is 40-140 em. The optimum height of the worktop (approx. 75-90 em) should be discussed with the disabled person and fixed at a height to suit the user ---7 0 + 0. Car parking place A weather-protected car parking place or garage is to be provided for each dwelling. A movement area of 1.50 m depth should be provided next to the long side of the car ---7 G). 23 ACCESSIBLE BUILDING Dimensions for wheelchair users Accessible public buildings Accessible housing BS 8300 DD266 DIN 18024 DIN 18025 MBO
  • 41. ACCESSIBLE BUILDING Dimensions for wheelchair users Accessible public buildings Accessible housing BS 8300 00266 DIN 18024 DIN 18025 MBO ~~~~~9e shelf letterbox 0 Deep entrance area with coat rack 8 Entrance lobby with double-leaf door 0 Plan of open-air seating area 1--<:; 3.75-----1 ~~r----~o) I I !_ _____ : D 1__0_ I I I I I I I : 0 10 <d l f) Living room for 1-2 people CD Accessible extension to two-family house; ramp to overcome level difference 24 r 0 Transverse layout of entrance area J---3.10----l ~!I IJ[Jc II J-1.40 -t-- 80 -+50-j40l J-1.40-+B0-+--90-J e Dining area layout for two or four people 0 I 0 0 <d 1 Elevation of open-air seating area 1----- 4.75 - - - j §[i'~ D ~~ f5s!-- 2.oo-+- 1.80 ---t-1 f--- 4.75 ------j T 0 10 ,; t 0 <q _l_ e Living room with dining area for 4-5 people (23.75 m2) 4f) Installation of an accessible vertical lift 6 "' t 0 <0 ..L ACCESSIBLE BUILDING Accessible Housing Housing suitable for wheelchairs Wheelchair users must be able to travel into all the rooms of a dwelling, and into all rooms available to the residents of a house in common, and to use all facilities. The wheelchair user must be in a position to be mostly independent of outside help. This applies notably to the blind and visually impaired, the deaf and hearing- impaired, the physically disabled, old people, children and people of exceptionally short or tall stature. In order to turn 180°, a wheelchair user requires at least 1.50 m2 ~ 0 + f). This space requirement determines the size of, and movement area in, corridors, rooms, garages etc. In residential apartment blocks, access through corridors or hallways is the most frequent arrangement. In this case, angles and corners are to be avoided as far as possible; a straight access corridor is suitable. The minimum area of an entrance hall should be 1.50 x 1.50 m, and an entrance lobby with a single-leaf door 1.70 x 1.60 m. A window with a clear view from a parapet height of 60 em should be provided in at least one living room of a dwelling. An entry phone at the flat or house door is an important item of equipment for a blind resident. Living area Adequate freedom of movement for wheelchair users is important in living rooms. There should also be room for at least two further wheelchair users as visitors. For a living room with an eating area, the minimum floor area should be: in a flat for one person 22 m2, for 2-4 people 24 m2, for five people 26 m2 and for six people 28m2 ; minimum room width 3.75 m (1-2 person household). Open-air seating area Every dwelling should be provided with an open-air seating area such as a terrace, loggia or balcony with a min. size 4.5 m2• The movement area must be min. 1.50 m wide and 1.50 m deep~ 0. Additional living space Additional living space should be provided for every wheelchair user if required. The floor area of a flat is normally increased by about 15 m2 by this requirement. I 10 "' ,..: 1 Single-room flat for wheelchair user (40--45 m2 ) G) Accessible flat for three people in a block with two flats per floor 00 00 ~Kitchen Cii) Two-room flat (50--55 m') 0 Accessible flat for four people in a block with three flats per floor
  • 42. C=::J Ll on<) ~. 0'---0 live ~ j <SChild 0 0 Flat in two-family house before conversion --7 f) zy, living room and 1 bedroom flat before conversion ~ 0 0 One-room flat (40 m2) Q Two-room flat (54 m') 41!) Four-room flat (11 0 m') f) Flat in two-family house after conversion for serious disability Sal· One living room and two bedroom flat after conversion (for a visually impaired child) T II!!!!!!-· Flat(60 m2) ACCESSIBLE BUILDING Accessible Housing Accessible building (§50 of MBO- Model Building Regulations- applied at state level) (1) In buildings with more than two flats, the flats on one floor must be accessible. In these flats, the living rooms and bedrooms, one toilet, one bathroom and the kitchen or kitchenette must be accessible with a wheelchair. (2) Buildings which are publicly accessible, must in their parts serving the general public be capable of being accessed and used, according to their purpose, by disabled people, old people and people with small children, without outside help. This requirement applies notably to cultural, educational, sport, leisure and health facilities, offices, administration buildings and courts, sales and catering establishments, parking, garages and toilets. (3) Buildings, according to (2), must be accessible through an entrance with a clear opening width of at least 0.90 m without steps. An adequate movement area must be available in front of doors. Ramps may not have a slope of more than 6%, must be at least 1.20 m wide and have a fixed handrail with a safe grip on both sides. A landing is to be provided at the start and end of the ramp and also an intermediate landing every 6 m. The landings must have a length of at least 1.50 m. Stairs must have handrails on both sides, which are to be continued past landings and window openings and past the last steps. The stairs must have solid risers. Corridors and entrance halls must be at least 1.50 m wide. One toilet must also be suitable and accessible for wheelchair users; this is to be indicated by a sign. (4) Sections 1-3 do not apply if the installations can only be fulfilled with unreasonable expense on account of difficult terrain conditions, the installation of an otherwise unnecessary lift, unsuitable existing buildings or the safety of disabled or old people. 1 person 2 people 3 people living room 20.0 20.0 22.0 dining area 6.0 6.0 10.0 bedroom 16.0 24.0 16.0 child (1 bed) - - 14.0 bathroom 6.0 7.0 7.0 kitchen 8.0 9.0 9.0 corridor 5.0 6.0 6.0 storage room 1.0 1.0 1.5 storage (E-wheelchair) 6.0 6.0 6.0 spare room (washing machine) 1.0 1.0 1.0 living area 69.0 80.0 98.5 Guideline sizes for flats with one wheelchair user -living area in m2 [determination of requirements www.nullbarriere.de] 4D Three-room flat (95 m2 ) 25 ACCESSIBLE BUILDING Dimensions for wheelchair users Accessible public buildings Accessible housing BS 8300 DD266 DIN 18024 DIN 18025 MBO
  • 43. DIMENSIONAL BASICS AND RELATION- SHIPS Man as measure and purpose The universal standard Body measurements and space requirements Geometrical relationships Dimensions in building Throughout history human beings have created things to be of service to them, using measurements relating to their bodies. Until relatively recent times people's limbs were the basis for all the units of measurement. Even today we can still have a better idea of the size of an object if it is compared to humans or their limbs: it was so many men high, so many ells (arm lengths) long, so many feet wider or so many heads bigger. These are expressions that we are born with: it could be said that their sizes are in our nature. But the introduction of the metre brought all that to an end. We should therefore attempt to achieve the most precise and vivid possible idea of this unit. Building clients do the same when they measure out the rooms of their properties in order to envisage the dimensions shown on the drawings. Anyone who intends to learn how to build should start by visualising the size of rooms and objects as clearly as possible, and constantly practise, so that every line they draw and every stated dimension of yet to be designed furniture, rooms or buildings can appear as an image before their eyes. We do, however, immediately have an accurate idea of the scale of an object when we see a person beside it, whether in the flesh or as an illustration. It is a poor reflection on our times that our trade and professional journals only too often depict rooms or buildings without any people in them. Such pictures can often create a false impression of the scale of a building and it is often astonishing how different they look in reality - mostly much smaller. This contributes to the frequent lack of cohesive relationships between buildings, because their designers have worked to various arbitrary scales and not to the only proper scale, human beings. If this is to be changed, then architects and designers must be shown where these haphazard dimensions, mostly accepted without thought, originated. They must understand the relationships of the size of the limbs of a healthy human being and how much space a person occupies in various postures and in movement. They must also be familiar with the dimensions of the appliances, clothing etc. which people encounter every day, in order to be able to determine the appropriate sizes for containers and furniture. They must know how much space a person needs between furniture in the kitchen, dining room, libraries etc. in order to undertake the necessary reaching and working among these fittings in comfort without squandering space. They must know how furniture should be placed so that people can fulfil their tasks or relax in the home, office or workshop. And, finally, the architect and designer need to know the minimum practical dimensions of spaces in which people move around on a daily basis, like trains, trams, vehicles etc. These typically very restricted minimum spaces give the designer fixed impressions, which are then used, even if unintentionally, to derive dimensions of other spaces. The human being, however, is not just a living creature that needs space. The emotional response is no less important. The way a room is dimensioned, divided, painted, lit, entered and furnished has great significance for the impression it makes. Starting from all these considerations and insights, I set out in 1926 to collect, in an organised way, the experience gained from a wide variety of professional practice and teaching. The present data book was developed from this work, starting from DIMENSIONAL BASICS AND RELATIONSHIPS Man as Measure and Purpose dimensions of buildings and their constituent parts. This involved, for the first time, the investigation, development and comparison of many fundamental questions. Current technical options have been included here to the greatest possible extent. Account is taken of common standards. Description is often reduced to the absolute minimum and supplemented or even replaced with illustrations wherever feasible. This should provide the creative architect or designer, in methodically ordered, brief and coherent form, the necessary information which would otherwise have to be laboriously extracted from countless books or researched circuitously by surveying existing buildings. Great value has been placed on the restriction of the content to a digest of the fundamental data and experience, with the inclusion of completed buildings only where they seemed necessary as general examples. By and large, of course, each building commission is different and (apart, of course, from adherence to relevant standards) should be studied, approached and designed anew by the architect. Completed projects can much too easily tempt us to imitate, or at least establish conventions, which the architect entrusted with a similar task can often escape only with difficulty. If, however, as is intended here, creative architects are given only the tools, then this compels independent thinking so that they weave all the components of the current commission into their own imaginative and unified construction. Finally, the tools presented here have not been collected more or less randomly from some journal or other, but systematically sought out in the literature as the data required for each building task. They have been checked against well-known examples of similar buildings and, where necessary, data has also been acquired through models and experiments. This was always with the intention of saving the practising architect or designer the effort of these basic investigations, so that sufficient time and leisure can be devoted to the important creative aspects of the commission. Ernst Neufert the human being and providing the framework for assessing the O Leonardo da Vinci: Rules of Proportion 26
  • 44. T l: geometrical division of length a by employing the golden section a E l Man's dimensional relationships The oldest known canon describing the dimensional relationships of the human being was discovered in a burial chamber among the pyramids near Memphis (about 3000 BcE). Certainly, since then, scientists and artists have been engaged in trying to decipher human proportional relationships. We know about the proportional systems of the Egyptian pharaohs, of the time of Ptolemy, of the ancient Greeks and Romans, and the Canon of Polykleitos, which was long considered the standard, plus the work of the Middle Ages and of Alberti, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo and, above all, DOrer's world-famous advances. In all these systems, the human body was measured according to lengths of head, face or foot, which were than later sub-divided and related to each other so that they were applicable in everyday life. Even into our own times, the foot and the ell (arm's length) have remained common measures. In particular, the details worked out by DOrer became a common standard. He started from the height (h) of a human being and expressed the sub-divisions as fractions: 1f2 h = the entire torso from the crotch upwards 114 h = leg length from ankle to knee, length from chin to navel DIMENSIONAL BASICS AND RELATIONSHIPS The Universal Standard E l: l: E l: l: l: E l: E 1fs h = foot length 1/s h = head length from hair parting to underside of chin, spacing of nipples 1J1o h = face height and width (including ears), hand length to the wrist, 1f12 h = face width at level of underside of nose, leg width (above the ankle) etc. The sub-divisions extend to 1f4o h. In the last century, A. Zeising achieved greater clarity than anyone on this subject with his investigations of the dimensional relationships of man's proportions. He made exact measurements and comparisons based on the golden section --> p. 33. Unfortunately, this work did not earn appropriate recognition until recently, when E. Moessel, an important researcher in this area, endorsed Zeising's work with detailed examinations using his methods. From i 945, Le Corbusier also used, for all his projects, the sectional relationships of the golden ratio, which he called 'Le Modular'. His measures were human height = i .829 m; navel height = i .130 m etc. --> p. 33. 27 DIMENSIONAL BASICS AND RELATION- SHIPS Man as measure and purpose The universal standard Body measurements and space requirements Geometrical relationships Dimensions in building
  • 45. DIMENSIONAL BASICS AND RELATION- SHIPS Man as measure and purpose The universal standard Body measurements and space requirements Geometrical relationships Dimensions in building 0 Crawling J----875---j f) Bending over f----875--l C!) Dimensions: at the desk J---660---l i ~-1 ' ' ' I I e Working while standing 1--1250-----i fli) Sitting on a mattress 28 ~ l----750--- f) Sitting cross-legged t------625-----j Sitting (from the front) DIMENSIONAL BASICS AND RELATIONSHIPS Body Measurements and Space Requirements t-875------1 f---625-----j 0 Sitting (from the side) e Kneeling !-----700-----1 e Squatting }---875---j J----875------1 1----1125----l e Standing leaning forward, 0 In movement standing (!) Outstretched arm (forwards) CD Outstretched arm (sideways) f----875 ------1 l--900-1000--- mDimensions: at the dining table f) Dimensions: in a small easy chair 1----1250----1 Q Dimensions: in an armchair 0) Kneeling Gi) Sitting on a chair cg) Sitting on the floor 1------1875------1 ~ Leaning against sloping backrest ~ Lying with raised back @) Lying
  • 46. DIMENSIONAL BASICS AND RELATIONSHIPS Body Measurements and Space Requirements SPACE REQUIRED BETWEEN WALLS l-375-i I-625 -l 1- 875 ---1 0 Between walls ("'10% supplement for people moving) 1--- 1000 ---1 ~ 11so ------1 f) Two people next to each other 1--- 1700 ----1 1---- 2250 ~ 8 Three people next to each other Q Four people next to each other SPACE REQUIRED BY GROUPS 1- 1250 --1 1 - 1875 -----1 e Closely packed 0 Normal spacing STEP LENGTHS 1 - 2000 ----1 Q Choir group 1-750 -+- 750 -1- 750 -l 4I!) Walking in step 1- 875 -t- 875 -+- 875 --1 CD Marching SPACE REQUIRED FOR VARIOUS BODY POSTURES f - 2125 -----1 e Longer periods of standing 1-- 1250 .__j f.-- 625 -l @) Strolling n ~ - 1- I - )I ~ 2250 -------1 C) With back packs '1'- 2000 G) Max. no. people per m2 : 6 (e.g. cable car) I-- 1125 ---i f-- 1000 --1 0 Kneeling 1- 1125 ---1 0 Atthedesk I- 875 -l I- 625 -I 1-- 875 --l 1- 1000 ---1 1-- 1750 ---I ~ Stretching SPACE REQUIRED WITH HAND LUGGAGE 1- 800 --I @) One suitcase I- 1000 --1 1-- e Two suitcases G) Two people with two suitcases each SPACE REQUIRED WITH WALKING STICK AND UMBRELLA I- 875 --1 a> Handbag I- 750--1 I-- 1125 --1 (D With walking @) With umbrella stick 1--- 2375 @) Two people with umbrellas 29 DIMENSIONAL BASICS AND RELATION- SHIPS Man as measure and purpose The universal standard Body measurements and space requirements Geometrical relationships Dimensions in building
  • 47. DIMENSIONAL BASICS AND RELATIONSHIPS Man as measure and purpose The universal standard Body measurements .and space requirements Geometrical relationships Dimensions in building fourth 3/4 third 4/5 minor third 5/6 0 Pythagorean rectangle includes all interval proportions but excludes the disharmonic seconds and sevenths a a b c p m X y 36"87' 3 4 5 53"13' 1 1 2 22"62' 5 12 13 67"38' 1 2 3 16°26' 7 24 25 73"74' 1 3 4 28°07' 8 15 17 61"93' 0.5 3 5 12°68' 9 40 41 77°32' 1 4 5 18°92' 12 35 37 71°08' 0.5 5 7 43°60' 20 21 29 46°40' 0.5 3 7 31"89' 28 45 53 58"11' 0.5 5 9 0 Number relationships from Pythagorean equations (selection) 8 Equilateral triangle, hexagon Q Pentagon: bisection of the radius gives point B; an arc with centre B and radius AB gives point C; distance AC equals the side of a pentagon CD Pentagon and golden section 30 f) Pythagorean triangle 0 Square e 15-sided polygon AC=~-!_=_1_ 5 3 16 1----M m---l f--M---+-m-1 f---M--t-m--l 1-rn--t--M--tm+-M-i I I 1----m----------j r-------M----~~ Cf} Decagon and golden section DIMENSIONAL BASICS AND RELATIONSHIPS Geometrical Relationships There have been agreements about the dimensioning of buildings since early times. The first specific statements date from the time of Pythagoras, who started from the basis that the numerical proportions found in acoustics must also be optically harmonic. This led to the development of the Pythagorean rectangle --7 0, which contains all the harmonic interval proportions but not the two disharmonic intervals -the second and seventh. Spatial measurements can be derived from these number relationships. Pythagorean or diophantic equations produce number groups f)- 0, which should be used for the width, height and length of rooms: a2 + b2 = c2 a= m (y2 -x2) b=mx2xxxy c=m(y2+x2) Where x, y are whole numbers, x is less than y, m is the magnification or reduction factor. The geometric shapes named by Plato and Vitruvius are also of critical importance: circle, triangle --7 e and square --7 0, from which polygonal traverses can be constructed. Each halving then gives further polygonal traverses. Other polygonal traverses (e.g. heptagon --7 0, nonagon --7 Cli)) can be formed only by approximation or by superimposition. For example, a 15-sided polygon --7 0 can be constructed by superimposing an equilateral triangle onto a pentagon. The pentagon --7 0 or pentagram has a natural relationship to the golden section, as does the derived decagon, but in earlier times its particular dimensional relationships were hardly ever used --7 p. 32 0-0. Polygonal traverses are necessary for the design and construction of so-called 'round' buildings. The determination of the most important measurements- radius r, chord c and height of a triangle h - is shown in --7 0- G) --7 p. 32. Cl) Approximated heptagon: line BC halves line AM at D. Distance BD Is approx. i/7 of circumference CD.Calculation of dimensions in a polygonal traverse__, p. 34 Ci) Approximated nonagon: arc centred on A with radius AB gives point D on line AC. Arc centred on C with radius CM gives point E on arc BD. Distance DE Is approx. 1/9 of circumference h=r.cosp ~=r. sin p 2 s=2·r·sinP h =~. cotang p 2 4D Formula__, 0
  • 48. ~1/2 0 Right-angled Isosceles triangle: can be used for quadrature 45. / !'A 'Av'2 v. - v. v'2 v. 0 n/4 triangle (A. v. Drach) 0 1 V2 1 8 _.e ---........... ....... ' ' 1:~2 rectangle Relationship between square roots Examples of non-rectangular coordination -> p. 34 MERO space frames: based on -./2 and-./3 f) Triangle (base= height) Squares developed from the octagon -> e -e -17 =2.646 l---1 ----1 e Hierarchy of square roots 10 20 28 40 28 4li) Related numbers as approximation of -./2 ('snail') DIMENSIONAL BASICS AND RELATIONSHIPS Geometrical Relationships A right-angled isosceles triangle (two sides of equal length), with a relationship of baseline to height of 2:1, can be used for quadrature (the process of constructing a square of equal area to a given shape) --+ 0. An isosceles triangle with the base and height forming two sides of a square was used successfully by the master cathedral builder Knauth to determine the dimensional relationships of the cathedral in Strasbourg --+ 0. The rr/4 triangle of A. v. Drach --+ 8 is rather more pointed than that described above because its height is determined by the point of the slewed square. It was used successfully by its inventor for details and devices. The investigations of L. R. Spitzenpfeil into a number of old buildings have discovered octagonal relationships. These are based on the so-called diagonal triangle, where the height of the triangle is the diagonal of the square constructed over half of the base --+ G - C). The sides of the rectangle formed from the diagonal triangle--+ 0 have a ratio of 1:-./2, so all halving or doubling of the rectangle produces the same ratio of 1:-./2. This was used as the basis for the ISO A series paper formats --+ p. 4. Geometrical progressions in this relationship are produced by the hierarchies inside an octagon --+ e -e and the hierarchy of the square roots of numbers 1-7--+ e. The relationship between the square roots of whole numbers is shown in --+ C). The factorisation procedure permits the application of square roots for the installation of non-rectangular building elements. Building from approximated values for square numbers, Mengeringhausen developed the MERO space frame. The principle is the so-called 'snail' --+ CD - 0. The imprecision of the right angle is compensated by the screw connections of the rods at the nodes. A different approximate calculation of the square roots of whole numbers -.Jn for non-rectangular building elements is offered by continued fractions (--+ p. 33) according to the formula: G =-.Jn =1 + n -1 --+ 4!). 1+G 1 I 0.5 zkfa 0.6 51 7 0.58333 •.. 12117 0.56821 •.• 29 41 0.5857143 .•. 70 99 _;11 0.5857989 •.• 169 239 0.5857865 •.• v'2 CD Continued fractions of --12 1 1.5 1.4 1.41687 ••• 1.41379 ... 1.4142657 •.• 1.4142011 ••. 1.4142135 .•• 31 DIMENSIONAL BASICS AND RELATION- SHIPS Man as measure and purpose The universal standard Body measurements and space requirements Geometrical relationships Dimensions in building
  • 49. DIMENSIONAL BASICS AND RELATIONSHIPS Man as measure and purpose The universal standard Body measurements and space requirements Geometrical relationships Dimensions in building 0 Roman theatre (according to Vitruvius) C) Gable corner of a Doric temple: dimensional relationships based on the golden section 8 Golden section, buildings in Ostia Antica f) Plan of the entire quarter "10 G) Japanese treasury 32 f) Greek theatre (according to Vitruvius) 1 newest cavea 2 oldest cavea 3 orchestra 4 scenery storage 5 side gangway 6 retaining wall e Theatre in Epidaurus y X y/x (~2 =1.4142... ) 1 1 1 3 2 1.5 7 5 1.4 17 12 1.4166... 41 29 1.4137... 0 Dimensional relationships of the golden section e Floor mosaic in a house in Ostia Antica Rugen guildhall in ZOrich DIMENSIONAL BASICS AND RELATIONSHIPS Geometrical Relationships The use of geometrical and dimensional relationships based on the previous information was described by Vitruvius: according to his investigations, the Roman theatre, for example, is based on a triangle rotated four times -7 0, and the Greek theatre on a square rotated three times -7 f). Both constructions result in a dodecagon, which is recognisable on the stairs. Moessel claims to have verified dimensional relationships according to the golden ratio, although this is unlikely -7 0. The only Greek theatre based on a pentagon is in Epidaurus -7 0. The design principle of the golden (holy, divine) section (ratio, mean) was applied in a Roman residential quarter excavated in Ostia Antica, the ancient harbour of Rome -7 0 - 0. This principle is based on the bisection of the diagonals of a square. If the points at which the arcs (radius ..f2/2) intersect the sides of the square are joined up, this produces a nine-part grid. Its centre is the square of the golden section. The arc AB is with up to 0.65% deviation the same length as the diagonal CD of the original halved square. The golden section therefore represents an approximate method for squaring the circle. The entire complex at Ostia, from layout to fitting out details, was based on this ratio. Palladia, in his four books on architecture, provides a geometrical key based on the work of Pythagoras. He used the same spatial relationships (circle, triangle, square etc.) and harmonies for his buildings -7 0 - (!j). Similar laws of proportion are also expressed in clear rules by the ancient cultures of the East. The Indians with their 'Manasara', the Chinese with their modulation according to the 'Toukou', and above all the Japanese with their 'Kiwariho' methods created building systems which ensure traditional development and offer immense economic advantages -7 $. 0 Geometrical key to Palladia's villas $ Pian of the BMW Administration Building in Munich 41!) Palladia, Villa Pisani in Bagnolo 48-sided polygon developed from a triangle -> 0)
  • 50. B A. C 1--~--l 0 Geometric construction of the golden section 8 Continued fraction: golden section Q Unlimited values Major Minor Relationship between square, circle and triangle 2 parts 3 parts 5 parts 8 parts 13 parts 21 parts 34 parts 55 parts 89 parts 144parts Values expressed in the metric system Red series Blue series Centimetre Metre Centimetre Metre 95280.7 952.80 58886.7 588.86 117773.5 1177.73 36394.0 363.94 72788.0 727.88 22492.7 224.92 44985.5 449.85 13901.3 139.01 27802.5 278.02 8591.4 85.91 17182.9 171.83 5309.8 53.10 10619.6 106.19 3281.6 32.81 6563.3 65.63 2028.2 20.28 4056.3 40.56 1253.5 12.53 2506.9 25.07 774.7 7.74 1549.4 15.49 478.8 4.79 957.6 9.57 295.9 2.96 591.8 5.92 182.9 1.83 365.8 3.66 113.0 1.13 226.0 2.26 69.8 0.70 139.7 1.40 43.2 0.43 86.3 0.86 26.7 0.26 53.4 0.53 16.5 0.16 33.0 0.33 10.2 0.10 20.4 0.20 6.8 0.06 7.8 0.08 2.4 0.02 4.8 0.04 1.5 0.01 3.0 0.03 0.9 1.8 0.01 0.6 1.1 etc. etc. e Illustration of the values and sets of the Modular, according to Le Corbusier DIMENSIONAL BASICS AND RELATIONSHIPS Geometrical Relationships The golden section The 'golden section' means that a length I is divided so that the ratio of the entire length to the larger part is the same as the ratio of the larger part to the smaller part. The golden section of a length can be determined either geometrically or by using a formula: For the geometrical construction, the distance I (to be divided) is drawn as a vertical AB and the horizontal line AC (= AB/2) as the baseline of a right-angled triangle. The length of the baseline AC is transferred using a compass with centre C onto the hypotenuse BC of this triangle, thus dividing the hypotenuse into the parts BD and DC. The distance BD is the major part M of the vertical AB. This distance M is then transferred onto the vertical AB, thus dividing AB into a major part (M) and a minor part (m) ~ 0. Therefore: major major minor The connection between the golden section and the proportions of square, circle and triangle is shown in ~ f). The golden sectioning of the distance can also be determined with the continued fraction 1 G=1 +- G This is the simplest infinite regular continued fraction ~ 8. The Modulor The architect Le Corbusier developed a theory of proportion based on the golden section and the dimensions of the human body. He marked out three intervals in the human body, which formed what Fibonacci named a golden section series: between the foot, the solar plexus, the head, the fingers of the raised hand. Le Corbusier first assumed 1.75 m to be the average height of a European, and divided this, according to the golden section, into the dimensions i 08.2 - 66.8- 4i .45 - 25.4 em ~ e. Because this last dimension is almost exactly i 0 in, Le Corbusier found a connection with the English inch, but this did not apply to the larger dimensions. Consequently he later altered his average body height to 6 English feet(= i .828 m) and from there developed, according to the golden section, the so-called red series upwards and downwards ~ e. Because the steps in this series were too large for practical use, he then developed an additional blue series, starting from 2.26 m (fingertips of the raised hand), with double the values in the red series ~ e. The values in the red and blue series were then implemented by Le Corbusier as practical measurements~ 0. Q unit double extension of shortening of f) The Modular A=i08 8=216 A=C=i75 8= D=83 e Proportional figure 33 DIMENSIONAL BASICS AND RELATION- SHIPS Man as measure and purpose The universal standard Body measurements and space requirements Geometrical relationships Dimensions in building
  • 51. DIMENSIONAL BASICS AND RELATION· SHIPS Man as measure and purpose The universal standard Body measurements and space reqUirements Geometrical relationships Dimensions in building BS 6Y50 BS EN ISO 8560 BS 2045 DIN 323 DIN 4172 stBndard dimensions: 250 x 126 x 62.5mm nominal dimensions: 240 x 115 x 52mm Q Nominal and standard size of continental European wall bricks f) Modular structural dimensions (RR) and nominal dimensions (NM) for brickwork Terms Building preferred numbers are those for modular construction dimensions and the individual, structural and finished dimensions derived from them. Modular dimensions are only theoretical dimensions, but are the basis for the individual, structural and finished dimensions used in practice. Structural dimensions or nominal dimensions (for construction types with joints and wall finishes) are derived from modular dimensions by deducting or adding the component for the joint or the finish thickness. (Example: modular dimension for the length of a brick=25 em; thickness ofthe vertical joint= 1 em; nominal dimension for the length of the brick= 24 em; modular dimension for the thickness of poured concrete walls= nominal dimension= 25 em). Individual dimensions are dimensions (mostly small} for units of structure or finishing such as joint thicknesses, plaster thicknesses, door rebate sizes, wall projection sizes, tolerances. Structural dimensions are of the unfinished structure, such as masonry dimensions (without plaster thicknesses), structural slab thicknesses, sizes of unplastered door and window openings. Finished dimensions are for the finished building, such as clear sizes of plastered rooms and openings, storage space dimensions, floor-to-floor heights. Nominal dimensions are the same as modular dimensions for building types without joints. For building types with joints, the nominal dimension is the modular dimension less the joint thicknesses. Small dimensions are 2.5 em and less. They can be selected from the sizes: 2.5 em; 2 em; 1.6 em; 1.25 em; 1 em; 8 mm; 6.3 mm; 5 mm; 3.2 mm; 2.5 mm; 2 mm; 1.6 mm; 1.25 mm; 1 mm. 34 DIMENSIONAL BASICS AND RELATIONSHIPS Dimensions in Building Preferred numbers Preferred numbers have been introduced for the standardised sizing of machinery and technical devices. The starting point is the continental unit of length the metre (-'> 40 in). The engineering requirement for geometrical graduation made the purely decimal division of the metre impractical. The geometrical 10-part preferred number series is therefore: 1; 2; 4; 8; 16; 31.5; 63; 125; 250; 500; 1000. These are formed from the halving series (1000, 500, 250, 125) and the doubling series (1, 2, 4, 8, 16); the doubling number 32 was rounded down to 31.5 towards the exact value ofthe halving number (31.25), and the halving number 62.5 was rounded up to 63. The larger 5-part and the finer 20- and 40-part series fit in accordingly with their intermediate numbers. Preferred numbers offer many advantages for calculation: products and quotients of any number of preferred numbers are themselves preferred numbers, whole-number percentages of preferred numbers are again preferred numbers, and doubled and halved preferred numbers also remain preferred numbers. Although there is scarcely a need for geometrical graduation in building (considering the predominantly arithmetical addition of similar elements like: blocks, joists, rafters, trusses, columns, windows and similar) the so-called building preferred numbers have been defined and laid down. Brickwork dimensions in the UK differ: in the past large variations in the size of fired clay products often led to critical problems with bonding clay bricks. Now, BS 3921 provides one standard for dimensioning -'> 0: coordinating size (225 x 112.5 x 75 mm, including 10 mm in each direction for joints and tolerances), and the relating work size (215 [2 headers plus 1 joint] x 102.5 x 65 mm). Series preferred for the structure Series preferred for individual Series preferred for finishings dimensions a b c d e f 25 25 1¥ 25 25 5 2 4 TO 2.5 5 5 6% 7.5 8% 10 10 12% 12.5 1211, 15 15 16% 17.5 18% 20 20 22.5 25 25 25 25 25 27.5 31% 30 30 331;3 32.5% 35 35 37% 37Y., 37.5 41% 40 40 43% 42.5 45 45 50 50 50 50 50 50 52.5 56% 55 55 58% 57.5 60 60 62% 62% 62.5 65 65 66 68% 67.5 70 70 72.5 75 75 75 75 75 75 81Yi 80 80 83% 82.5 85 85 87% 87% 87.5 91% 90 90 93?::i 92.5 95 95 97.5 100 100 100 100 100 100 e Building preferred numbers 225 225 225 225 225 215 215 10 215 10 215 10 215 w 102.5w 102.5 ~f102.6w102.6 w 102.5w 102.6 w 102.6 w102.5w102.5w I 112.5 I 112.5 I 112.5 I 112.5 1 112,5 I 112.5 1 112.6 1 112.6 I 112.5 I 0 Wall elevation illustrating brick sizes in the UK g 2x5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 10 h i 4x5 5x5 20 25 40 50 60 75 80 100 100 10 mm: joints 65 mm: actual 75 mm: format 102.6 mm: actual 112.5 mm: format 215 mm: actual 225 mm; format
  • 52. z / / v / v /Y v / v / //X fJ Coordinate system e Coordinate line (intersection of two planes) 0 Coordinate point (intersection of three planes) 0 Non-modular zone e Modular zone with laterally connected, non-modular building components 4Ii) Application example- sloping roof - 0 Coordinate plane r~r Boundary Ce!!e Reference Reference e Boundary reference, centre-line reference ~~ --- 0 Superimposed partial coordinate systems Storey height= 30 m Flight length on plan 42 m Selected: 16 risers 18.75/26.2 em (assuming/em joints) C) Pre-cast reinforced concrete stair element n9 ·M = ,;; (n3 - n6)· M .» n1 · n = (n1 - n9) • M mCompensating measure on the verticals 4f) Construction of a curving roof edge @) Modular polygon traverse--> 0 from regular polygon traverses (site plan) DIMENSIONAL BASICS AND RELATIONSHIPS Dimensions in Building Modular coordination in building The modular system is a means of coordinating the dimensions applicable to building work. The term 'coordination' is the key: a modular building standard contains details of a design and detailing system based on coordination as an aid in the design and construction of buildings. It gives geometrical and dimensional definitions for the spatial coordination of building components. It also enables technical areas, which depend on each other with regard to geometry and dimensions (e.g. building, electrical engineering, transport) to be connected. Geometrical considerations A coordinate system is always object-specific. It is used to coordinate building structures and components, and determine their position and size. From these are derived nominal dimensions of building components, plus joint and connection thicknesses ~ 0 - 0. A coordinate system consists of planes arranged at right angles to each other, spaced according to the coordinate measurements. Depending on the system, these can be of different sizes and in all three dimensions. Building components are normally arranged in one dimension between two parallel coordinate planes so that they fill the coordinate dimension, including the joint component and also taking tolerances into account. A building component is therefore defined in its extent, i.e. its size and position, in one dimension. This is called boundary reference ~ e. In other cases, it can be advantageous not to position a building component between two planes but rather to have its centre- line coincide with a coordinate plane. The component is thus specified in one dimension, but only in terms of position. This is called centre-line reference ~ e. A coordinate system can be sub-divided into various sub-systems for different groups of building elements (e.g. load-bearing structures, space- demarcating components etc.) ~ (). It has become apparent that not all individual components have to be modular (e.g. each step in a staircase, windows, doors, etc.), but only the building elements they are combined into (e.g. staircases, fagade or partition elements etc.) ~ 0. For non- modular building components which continue along or across the whole building, a non-modular zone can be introduced, which completely divides the coordinate system into two sub-systems. The precondition is that the size of the building component in the non-modular zone is already known at the time when the coordinate system is set out, because the non- modular zone can only have completely specified dimensions ~ 0. Further ways of arranging non-modular building components are the so-called central position and edge position in modular zones ~ e. The units of the modular system are the basic module M = 100 mm and the multi-modules 3 M =300 mm, 6 M =600 mm and 12 M = 1200 mm. There are also standardised non-modular supplementary dimensions I = 25 mm, 50 mm and 75 mm for fitting elements or overlapping connections ~ G). Combination rules can be used to fit building components of various sizes into a modular coordinate system. Number groups (e.g. Pythagoras') or factorisation (e.g. continued fractions) can be utilised to fit non-rectangular building components into a modular coordinate ~ 6). The construction of polygon traverses (e.g. triangle, square, pentagon and their halves) can be used to design so-called 'round' building structures ~0-0. 35 DIMENSIONAL BASICS AND RELATION- SHIPS Man as measure and purpose The universal standard Body measurements and space requirements Geometrical relationships Dimensions in building BS EN ISO 8560 BS 6750 DIN 18000
  • 53. BUILDING BIOLOGY Basics Room climate Electromagnetic fields Guidelines of the Association of German Building Biologists VDB e. V. 0 Building biology as the study of the holistic interaction between building and resident ~ ---... South I I I I I I I I l I --..1su/ f) Electromagnetic fields in and around a building ~io----~--------4------------------------- 15 20 30 35 ' t Lu!uu!h!!!ll!hrl!!!l! I J I Rod responses Groundwater running 8 Differences in electrical potential above a groundwater aquifer electrical and magnetic low-frequency alternating electrical fields through fields ('electro-smog,) connected power cables, electrical devices etc. low-frequency alternating magnetic fields through switched-on electrical devices etc. high-frequency fields from mobile phone transmitters, telephone etc. static electricity from synthetic materials, wools etc. static magnetic fields building material heavy metals, toxins, radiation measurements air pollutants air pollution, toxins, gases, fine dust, allergens noise/vibration earth radiation and geopathogenic disturbance zones (e.g. underground earth magnetic field watercourses and 'earth rays') 8 The extent of building biology measurements of the built environment (example) 36 BUILDING BIOLOGY Basics Building biology is a collective term for the study of the holistic interaction between building and resident ---7 0 - f). Its aim is to determine any deleterious effects for the human organism through the consideration of physical, chemical and microbiological conditions in interiors and, if appropriate, take measures to relieve the causes (via 'healthy living'). The themes of building biology partially overlap with other disciplines: building ecology, whose main focus is the protection of nature and environment in the construction and operation of buildings and in the manufacture, processing and final disposal of building materials, building physics and electrical engineering as well as biology, chemistry and medicine. The principles of building biology are especially suitable for application in residential building but also in the construction of schools, hospitals, kindergartens and offices. The fact that the people today spend 90% of their lives inside buildings and are surrounded to an increasing degree by electromagnetic fields has increased public interest in building biology in recent years. Meanwhile, 2-5% of the German population now suffer complaints (e.g. headaches, insomnia, tiredness and concentration problems) due to the presence of building biological pollution of their homes and offices. The investigation of a building therefore normally includes the following areas: - measurement of electric, magnetic and electromagnetic fields from technical devices in the low- and high-frequency ranges - testing of building materials for toxins, heavy metals and radiation - testing of rooms' air quality for pollutants (toxins and gases, fibres, fine dust and allergens) - microbiological investigations of bacteria and mould formation, and measurements of noise, vibration and light ---7 8. Measurements related to radiaesthesia ('radiation sensitivity') can also be carried out, in attempts to demonstrate geopathogenic disturbance zones (e.g. underground watercourses and 'earth rays') can be discovered using dowsing, pendulums and other alternative scientific methods ----> e. The term 'building biology' is not yet officially regulated in Germany. This means that anyone can call themselves a building biologist independent of their level of education and practical experience. It is possible to discern two basic directions in the field of building biology. Scientific-oriented building biology attempts to use scientific methods to create healthy living and working conditions. Measurements must be carried out using scientifically recognised and reproducible methods, in order that harmful effects in buildings can be reliably detected and remedied. Alternative-oriented building biology assumes that the influences affecting people have so far been recognised scientifically only to a limited extent. The resulting measurements, and the theories and threshold values they are based on are therefore disputed, as there are sometimes no reliable methods for measuring such threshold values.
  • 54. Heat loss (%) Breathing 11% Temperature regulating measures of the body Blood circulation under skin, heat transported through veins Evaporation 26% t:----:1-itt--!-- Sweat secretion, cooling Radiation 31% Convection 32% 0 Heat output and temperature-regulating measures of the human body 28"c :·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:-:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:-:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·: f) Thermal comfort p 30 .E 28 <t>"26 I" ~ 24 ~22 E ~ 20 ~ 18 '6 ~ 16 :? 14 ·o; .2 12 0 §5 10 ~ ,---- / I 1-. ) ~Iter"""I~" by 0 ~oedler Frank 2'1 " / )'.9! / "l'qb / 'Zo I'- I / / / I---- 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 Room air temp, -oLin oc 0 Thermal comfort zone (temperature of surrounding surfaces and of air) 40 38 36 34 32 30 28 26 24 22 20 "l*lmf~rtaJiyw~rm still comfortable ' com- ! fortabl uncom- fortably cnlrl 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 Room air temp, i in oc Thermal comfort zone (ceiling and room air temperature) 0 Thermal discomfort /, '/I I I I - uncomfortable I I I 1/ v / comfortable uncom- 1fortfble 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 Room air temp, l'J.L in oc 9 Thermal comfort zone (room air movement and room air temperature) 30 28 p 26 c ·-ll'24 i 22 1ii 20 1l 18 E ~ 16 0 .g 14 - - 1-- - 1- ['-.,. ""'""' com- ~able still J> ~ortfble f--uJcoJ--..._ f--fot1 1-- 12 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 Room air temp, dL in oc f) Thermal comfort zone (floor and room air temperature) BUILDING BIOLOGY Room Climate Thermal comfort is experienced when the thermal circulation regulated by the body is in balance, i.e. the body can regulate warmth with as little effort as possible. This type of comfort is experienced when the heat produced by the body corresponds to the actual heat loss to the surroundings. Temperature-regulating measures in the body Warming: flow of blood through the skin, increase of blood flow rate, vascular enlargement and muscle shivering. Cooling: sweating. Heat exchange between the body and the surroundings Inner heat flow: heat flow from the inside of the body to the skin depending on blood circulation. Outer heat flow: heat conduction through the feet; convection (air speed, room air and temperature difference between clothed and unclothed areas of the body); radiation (temperature difference between the external area of the body and the surroundings); evaporation, breathing (body surface, vapour pressure difference between skin and surroundings) ---7 0. Water content of the air Suitability for Sensation of breathing (g/kg) breathing 0-5 very good light, fresh 5-8 good normal 8-10 satisfactory still bearable 10-20 increasingly bad heavy, muggy 20-25 already dangerous damp heat over 25 unsuitable unbearable 41 water content of exhaled air 37"C (100 %) over41 water condenses pulmonary alveoli e Air humidity values for breathing air Low radiation temperature. Recommendations for room climatic conditions and temperature of air and surrounding surfaces In summer, 20-24°C is comfortable, in winter about 21°C (± 1°C). The temperature of the surrounding surfaces should not differ from the air temperature by more than 2-3°C. Alterations of the air temperature can be compensated for to a certain extent by alteration of the temperature of the surrounding surfaces (sinking air temperature- rising surface temperature). If these temperatures are too different, this causes excessive air movement. The critical locations are above all the windows. Large heat transfers to the floor through the feet should be avoided (floor temperature should be greater than 1?"C). Hot feet and cold feet are experienced by the sufferers and are not properties of the floor. The bare foot feels heat/cold through the floor covering and its thickness, the clothed foot through the floor covering and the temperature of the floor. The surface temperature of the ceiling depends on the room height. The temperatures perceived by people correspond to approximately the average of the temperature of the air and that of the surrounding surfaces. Air and air movement. Air movement is experienced as draughts, which in this case result in a local cooling of the body. Air temperature and relative humidity. Relative humidity of 40-50% is thermally comfortable. If the humidity is less than 30%, dust particles can fly. Fresh air and air exchange: The ideal is controlled ventilation rather than incidental or permanent ventilation. The C02 content of the air must be replaced by oxygen. A C02 content of 0.10% by volume should not be exceeded, which requires 2-3 air changes per hour in living rooms and bedrooms. The fresh air required by a person is about 32.0 m3/h. Air changes in living rooms: 0.4-0.8 x room volume per person/h. 37 BUILDING BIOLOGY Basics Room climate Electromagnetic fields
  • 55. Exploring the Variety of Random Documents with Different Content
  • 59. The Project Gutenberg eBook of Johnny Ludlow, Sixth Series
  • 60. This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook. Title: Johnny Ludlow, Sixth Series Author: Mrs. Henry Wood Release date: October 7, 2012 [eBook #40963] Most recently updated: October 23, 2024 Language: English Credits: Produced by David Edwards, eagkw and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive) *** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK JOHNNY LUDLOW, SIXTH SERIES ***
  • 62. Johnny Ludlow BY MRS. HENRY WOOD AUTHOR OF “EAST LYNNE,” “THE CHANNINGS,” ETC. SIXTH SERIES London MACMILLAN AND CO., Limited NEW YORK: THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1899 LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS.
  • 64. CONTENTS The Mystery at Number Seven— PAGE I.—MONTPELLIER-BY-SEA 1 II.—OWEN, THE MILKMAN 26 Caramel Cottage— I.—EDGAR RESTE 54 II.—DISAPPEARANCE 76 III.—DON THE SECOND 101 A Tragedy— I.—GERVAIS PREEN 126 II.—IN THE BUTTERY 152 III.—MYSTERY 178 IV.—OLIVER 204 In Later Years 230 The Silent Chimes— I.—PUTTING THEM UP 257 II.—PLAYING AGAIN 284 III.—RINGING AT MIDDAY 313 IV.—NOT HEARD 341 V.—SILENT FOR EVER 370
  • 65. “God sent his Singers upon earth With songs of sadness and of mirth, That they might touch the hearts of men, And bring them back to heaven again.” Longfellow. JOHNNY LUDLOW
  • 66. THE MYSTERY AT NUMBER SEVEN I.—MONTPELLIER-BY-SEA “Let us go and give her a turn,” cried the Squire. Tod laughed. “What, all of us?” said he. “To be sure. All of us. Why not? We’ll start to-morrow.” “Oh dear!” exclaimed Mrs. Todhetley, dismay in her mild tones. “Children and all?” “Children and all; and take Hannah to see to them,” said the Squire. “You don’t count, Joe: you will be off elsewhere.” “We could never be ready,” said the Mater, looking the image of perplexity. “To-morrow’s Friday. Besides, there would be no time to write to Mary.” “Write to her!” cried the Squire, turning sharply on his heel as he paced the room in his nankeen morning-coat. “And who do you suppose is going to write to her? Why, it would cause her to make all sorts of preparation, put her to no end of trouble. A pretty conjurer you’d make! We will take her by surprise: that’s what we will do.” “But if, when we got there, we should find her rooms are let, sir?” said I, the possibility striking me. “Then we’ll go into others, Johnny. A spell at the seaside will be a change for us all.” This conversation, and the Squire’s planning-out, arose through a letter we had just received from Mary Blair—poor Blair’s widow, if you have not forgotten him, who went to his end through that
  • 67. Gazette of Jerry’s. After a few ups and downs, trying at this thing for a living, trying at that, Mrs. Blair had now settled in a house at the seaside, and opened a day-school. She hoped to get on in it in time, she wrote, especially if she could be so fortunate as to let her drawing-room to visitors. The Squire, always impulsive and good- hearted, at once cried out that we would go and take it. “It will be doing her a good turn, you see,” he ran on; “and when we leave I dare say she’ll find other people ready to go in. Let’s see”— picking up the letter to refer to the address—“No. 6, Seaboard Terrace, Montpellier-by-Sea. Whereabouts is Montpellier-by-Sea?” “Never heard of it in my life,” cried Tod. “Don’t believe there is such a place.” “Be quiet, Joe. I fancy it lies somewhere towards Saltwater.” Tod flung back his head. “Saltwater! A nice common place that is!” “Hold your tongue, sir. Johnny, fetch me the railway guide.” Upon looking at the guide, it was found there; “Montpellier-by-Sea;” the last station before getting to Saltwater. As to Saltwater, it might be common, as Tod said; for it was crowded with all sorts of people, but it was lively and healthy. Not on the next day, Friday, for it was impossible to get ready in such a heap of a hurry, but on the following Tuesday we started. Tod had left on the Saturday for Gloucestershire. His own mother’s relatives lived there, and they were always inviting him. “Montpellier-by-Sea?” cried the railway clerk in a doubting tone as we were getting the tickets. “Let’s see? Where is that?” Of course that set the Squire exploding. What right had clerks to pretend to issue tickets unless they knew their business? The clerk in question coolly ran his finger down the railway list he had turned to, and then gave us the tickets.
  • 68. “It is a station not much frequented, you see,” he civilly observed. “Travellers mostly go on to Saltwater.” But for the train being due, and our having to make a rush for the platform, the Squire would have waited to give the young man a piece of his mind. “Saltwater, indeed!” said he. “I wonder the fellow does not issue his edict as to where people shall go and where they shan’t go.” We arrived in due time at our destination. It was written up as large as life on a white board, “Montpellier-by-Sea.” A small roadside station, open to the country around; no signs of sea or of houses to be seen; a broad rural district, apparently given over entirely to agriculture. On went the whistling train, leaving the group of us standing by our luggage on the platform. The Squire was staring about him doubtfully. “Can you tell me where Seaboard Terrace is?” “Seaboard Terrace?” repeated the station-master. “No, sir, I don’t know it. There’s no terrace of that name hereabouts. For that matter there are no terraces at all—no houses in fact.” The Squire’s face was a picture. He saw that (save a solitary farm homestead or two) the country was bare of dwelling-places. “This is Montpellier-by-Sea?” he questioned at last. “Sure enough it is, sir. Munpler, it’s called down here.” “Then Seaboard Terrace must be somewhere in it—somewhere about. What a strange thing!” “Perhaps the gentlefolks want to go to Saltwater?” spoke up one of the two porters employed at the little station. “There’s lots of terraces there. Here, Jim!”—calling to his fellow—“come here a minute. He’ll know, sir; he comes from Saltwater.”
  • 69. Jim approached, and settled the doubt at once. He knew Seaboard Terrace very well indeed; it was at Saltwater; just out at the eastern end of it. Yes, it was at Saltwater. And there were we, more than two miles off it, on a broiling hot day, when walking was impracticable, with all our trunks about us, and no fly to be had, or other means of getting on. The Squire went into one of his passions, and demanded why people living at Saltwater should give their address as Montpellier- by-Sea. He had hardly patience to listen to the station-master’s explanation —who acknowledged that we were not the first travelling party that had been deluded in like manner. Munpler (as he and the rest of the natives persisted in calling it) was an extensive, straggling rural parish, filled with farm lands; an arm of it extended as far as Saltwater, and the new buildings at that end of Saltwater had rechristened themselves Montpellier-by-Sea, deeming it more aristocratic than the common old name. Had the Squire been able to transport the new buildings, builders and all, he had surely done it on the spot. Well, we got on to Saltwater in the evening by another train, and to No. 6, Seaboard Terrace. Mary Blair was just delighted. “If I had but known you were coming, if you had only written to me, I would have explained that it was Saltwater Station you must get out at, not Montpellier,” she cried in deprecation. “But, my dear, why on earth do you give in to a deception?” stormed the Squire. “Why call your place Montpellier when it’s Saltwater?” “I do what other people do,” she sighed; “I was told it was Montpellier when I came here. Generally speaking, I have explained, when writing to friends, that it is really Saltwater, in spite of its fine name. I suppose I forgot it when writing to you—I had so much to say. The people really to blame are those who named it so.”
  • 70. “And that’s true, and they ought to be shown up,” said the Squire. Seaboard Terrace consisted of seven houses, built in front of the sea a little beyond the town. The parlours had bay windows; the drawing-rooms had balconies and verandahs. The two end houses, Nos. 1 and 7, were double houses, large and handsome, each of them being inhabited by a private family; the middle houses were smaller, most of them being let out in lodgings in the season. Mary Blair began talking that first evening as we sat together about the family who lived in the house next door to her, No. 7. Their name was Peahern, she said, and they had been so very, very kind to her since she took her house in March. Mr. Peahern had interested himself for her and got her several pupils; he was much respected at Saltwater. “Ah, he is a good man,” she added; “but——” “I’ll call and thank him,” interrupted the Squire. “I am proud to shake hands with such a man as that.” “You cannot,” she said; “he and his wife have gone abroad. A great misfortune has lately befallen them.” “A great misfortune! What was it?” I noticed a sort of cloud pass over Mary Blair’s face, a hesitation in her manner before she replied. Mrs. Todhetley was sitting by her on the sofa; the Squire was in the armchair opposite them, and I at the table, as I had sat at our tea-dinner. “Mr. Peahern was in business once—a wholesale druggist, I believe; but he made a fortune, and retired some years ago,” began Mary. “Mrs. Peahern has bad health and is a little lame. She was very kind to me also—very good and kind indeed. They had one son—no other children; I think he was studying for the Bar; I am not sure; but he lived in London, and came down here occasionally. My young maid- servant, Susan, got acquainted with their servants, and she gathered from their gossip that he, Edmund Peahern, a very handsome young man, was in some way a trouble to his parents. He was down at Easter, and stayed three weeks; and in May he came down again.
  • 71. What happened I don’t know; I believe there was some scene with his father the day he arrived; anyway, Mr. Peahern was heard talking angrily to him; and that night he—he died.” She had dropped her voice to a whisper. The Squire spoke. “Died! Was it a natural death?” “No. A jury decided that he was insane; and he was buried here in the churchyard. Such a heap of claims and debts came to light, it was said. Mr. Peahern left his lawyer to pay them all, and went abroad with his poor wife for change of scene. It has been a great grief to me. I feel so sorry for them.” “Then, is the house shut up?” “No. Two servants are left in it—the two housemaids. The cook, who had lived with them five and twenty years and was dreadfully affected at the calamity, went with her mistress. Nice, good-natured young women are these two that are left, running in most days to ask if they can do anything for me.” “It is good to have such neighbours,” said the Squire. “And I hope you’ll get on, my dear. How came you to be at this place at all?” “It was through Mr. Lockett,” she answered—the clergyman who had been so much with her husband before he died, and who had kept up a correspondence with her. Mr. Lockett’s brother was in practice as a doctor at Saltwater, and they thought she might perhaps do well if she came to it. So Mary’s friends had screwed a point or two to put her into the house, and gave her besides a ten-pound note to start with. “I tell you what it is, young Joe: if you run and reve yourself into that scarlet heat, you shan’t come here with me again.”
  • 72. “But I like to race with the donkeys,” replied young Joe. “I can run almost as fast as they, Johnny. I like to see the donkeys.” “Wouldn’t it be better to ride a donkey, lad?” He shook his head. “I have never had a ride but once,” he answered: “I’ve no sixpences for it. That once Matilda treated me. She brings me on the sands.” “Who is Matilda?” “Matilda at No. 7—Mr. Peahern’s.” “Well, if you are a good boy, young Joe, and stay by me, you shall have a ride as soon as the donkeys come back.” They were fine sands. I sat down on a bench with a book; little Joe strained his eyes to look after the donkeys in the distance, cantering off with some young shavers like himself on their backs, their nursemaids walking quickly after them. Poor little Joe!—he had the gentlest, meekest face in the world, with his thoughtful look and nice eyes—waited and watched in quiet patience. The sands were crowded with people this afternoon; organs were playing, dancing dolls exhibiting; and vessels with their white sails spread glided smoothly up and down on the sparkling sea. “And will you really pay the sixpence?” asked the little fellow presently. “They won’t let me get on for less.” “Really and truly, Joe. I’ll take you for a row in a boat some calm day, if mamma will allow you to go.” Joe looked grave. “I don’t much like the water, please,” said he, timidly. “Alfred Dale went on it in a boat and fell in, and was nearly drowned. He comes to mamma’s school.” “Then we’ll let the boats alone, Joe. There’s Punch! He is going to set himself up yonder: wouldn’t you like to run and see him?” “But I might miss the donkeys,” answered Joe.
  • 73. He stood by me quietly, gazing in the direction taken by the donkeys; evidently they were his primary attraction. The other child, Mary, who was a baby when her father died (poor Baked Pie, as we boys used to call him at Frost’s), was in Wales with Mrs. Blair’s people. They had taken the child for a few months, until she saw whether she should get along at Saltwater. But we thought she would get along. Her school was a morning school for little boys of good parentage, all of whom paid liberal terms; and she would be able to let her best rooms for at least six months in the year. “There’s Matilda! Oh, there’s Matilda!” It was quite a loud shout for little Joe. Looking up, I saw him rush to a rather good-looking young woman, neatly dressed in a black-and- white print gown and small shawl of the same, with black ribbons crossed on her straw bonnet. Servants did not dress fine enough to set the Thames on fire in those days. Joe dragged her triumphantly up to me. She was one of the housemaids at No. 7. “It’s Matilda,” he said; and the young woman curtsied. “And I am going to have a donkey-ride, Matilda; Mr. Johnny Ludlow’s going to give the sixpence for me!” “I know you by sight, sir,” observed Matilda to me. “I have seen you go in and out of No. 6.” She had a pale olive complexion, with magnificent, melancholy dark eyes. Many persons would have called her handsome. I took a sort of liking for the girl—if only for her kindness to poor little fatherless Joe. In manner she was particularly quiet, subdued, and patient. “You had a sad misfortune at your house not long ago,” I observed to her, at a loss for something to say. “Oh, sir, don’t talk of it, please!” she answered, catching her breath. “I seem to have had the shivers at times ever since. It was me that found him.”
  • 74. Up cantered the donkeys; and presently away went Joe on the back of one, Matilda attending him. The ride was just over, and Joe beginning to enlarge on its delights to me, when another young woman, dressed precisely similar to Matilda, even to the zigzag white running pattern on the prim gown, and the black cotton gloves, was seen making her way towards us. She was nice-looking also, in a different way—fair, with blue eyes, and a laughing, arch face. “Why, there’s Jane Cross!” exclaimed Matilda. “What in the world have you come out for, Jane? Have you left the house safe?” “As if I should leave it unsafe!” lightly retorted the one they had called Jane Cross. “The back door’s locked, and here’s the key of the front”—showing a huge key. “Why shouldn’t I go out if you do, Matilda? The house is none so lively a one now, to stop in all alone.” “And that’s true enough,” was Matilda’s quiet answer. “Little master Joe’s here; he has been having a donkey-ride.” The two servants, fellow-housemaids, strolled off towards the sea, taking Joe with them. At the edge of the beach they encountered Hannah, who had just come on with our two children, Hugh and Lena. The maids sat down for a gossip, while the children took off their shoes and stockings to dabble in the gently rising tide. And that was my introductory acquaintanceship with the servant- maids at No. 7. Unfortunately it did not end there. Twilight was coming on. We had been out and about all day, had dined as usual at one o’clock (not to give unnecessary trouble), and had just finished tea in Mrs. Blair’s parlour. It was where we generally took tea, and supper also. The Squire liked to sit in the open bay window and watch the passers-by as long as ever a glimmer of daylight lasted; and he could not see them so well in the drawing-room above. I was at the other corner of the bay window.
  • 75. The Mater and Mary Blair were on their favourite seat, the sofa, at the end of the room, both knitting. In the room at the back, Mary held her morning school. I sat facing towards the end house, No. 7. And I must here say that during the last two or three weeks I had met the housemaids several times on the sands, and so had become quite at home with each of them. Both appeared to be thoroughly well-conducted, estimable young women; but, of the two, I liked Jane Cross best; she was always so lively and pleasant-mannered. One day she told me why No. 7 generally called her by her two names—which I had thought rather odd. It appeared that when she entered her place two years before, the other housemaid was named Jane, so they took to call her by her full name, Jane Cross. That housemaid had left in about a twelvemonth, and Matilda had entered in her place. The servants were regarded as equals in the house, not one above the other, as is the case in many places. These details will probably be thought unnecessary and uncalled for, but you will soon see why I mention them. This was Monday. On the morrow we should have been three weeks at Saltwater, and the Squire did not yet talk of leaving. He was enjoying the free-and-easy life, and was as fond as a child of picking up shells on the sands and looking at Punch and the dancing dolls. Well, we sat this evening in the bay window as usual, I facing No. 7. Thus sitting, I saw Matilda cross the strip of garden with a jug in her hand, and come out at the gate to fetch the beer for supper. “There goes Jane Cross,” cried the Squire, as she passed the window. “Is it not, Johnny?” “No, sir, it’s Matilda.” But the mistake was a very natural one, for the girls were about the same height and size, and were usually dressed alike, the same mourning having been supplied to both of them. Ten minutes or so had elapsed when Matilda came back: she liked a gossip with the landlady of the Swan. Her pint jug was brimful of
  • 76. beer, and she shut the iron gate of No. 7 after her. Putting my head as far out at the window as it would go, to watch her indoors, for no earthly reason but that I had nothing else to do, I saw her try the front door, and then knock at it. This knock she repeated three times over at intervals, each knock being louder than the last. “Are you shut out, Matilda?” I called out. “Yes, sir, it seems like it,” she called back again, without turning her head. “Jane Cross must have gone to sleep.” Had she been a footman with a carriage full of ladies in court trains behind him, she could not have given a louder or longer knock than she gave now. There was no bell to the front door at No. 7. But the knock remained unanswered and the door unopened. “Matilda at No. 7 is locked out,” I said, laughing, bringing in my head and speaking to the parlour generally. “She has been to fetch the beer for supper, and can’t get in again.” “The beer for supper?” repeated Mrs. Blair. “They generally go out at the back gate to fetch that, Johnny.” “Anyhow, she took the front way to-night. I saw her come out.” Another tremendous knock. The Squire put his good old nose round the window-post; two boys and a lady, passing by, halted a minute to look on. It was getting exciting, and I ran out. She was still at the door, which stood in the middle of the house, between the sitting- rooms on each side. “So you have got the key of the street, Matilda!” “I can’t make it out,” she said; “what Jane Cross can be about, or why the door should be closed at all. I left it on the latch.” “Somebody has slipped in to make love to her. Your friend, the milkman, perhaps.”
  • 77. Evidently Matilda did not like the allusion to the milkman. Catching a glimpse of her face by the street lamp, I saw it had turned white. The milkman was supposed to be paying court at No. 7, but to which of the two maids gossip did not decide. Mrs. Blair’s Susan, who knew them well, said it was Matilda. “Why don’t you try the back way?” I asked, after more waiting. “Because I know the outer door is locked, sir. Jane Cross locked it just now, and that’s why I came out this front way. I can try it, however.” She went round to the road that ran by the side of the house, and tried the door in the garden wall. It was fastened, as she had said. Seizing the bell-handle, she gave a loud peal—another, and another. “I say, it seems odd, though,” I cried, beginning to find it so. “Do you think she can have gone out?” “I’m sure I don’t know, sir. But—no; it’s not likely, Master Johnny. I left her laying the cloth for our supper.” “Was she in the house alone?” “We are always alone, sir; we don’t have visitors. Anyway, none have been with us this evening.” I looked at the upper windows of the house. No light was to be seen in any of them, no sign of Jane Cross. The lower windows were hidden from view by the wall, which was high. “I think she must have dropped asleep, Matilda, as you say. Suppose you come in through Mrs. Blair’s and get over the wall?” I ran round to tell the news to our people. Matilda followed me slowly; I thought, reluctantly. Even in the dim twilight, as she stood at our gate in hesitation, I could see how white her face was. “What are you afraid of?” I asked her, going out again to where she stood.
  • 78. “I hardly know, Master Johnny. Jane Cross used to have fits. Perhaps she has been frightened into one now.” “What should frighten her?” The girl looked round in a scared manner before replying. Just then I found my jacket-sleeve wet. Her trembling hands had shaken a little of the ale upon it. “If she—should have seen Mr. Edmund?” the girl brought out in a horrified whisper. “Seen Mr. Edmund! Mr. Edmund who?—Mr. Edmund Peahern? Why, you don’t surely mean his ghost?” Her face was growing whiter. I stared at her in surprise. “We have always been afraid of seeing something, she and me, since last May; we haven’t liked the house at night-time. It has often been quite a scuffle which of us should fetch the beer, so as not to be the one left alone. Many a time I have stood right out at the back door while Jane Cross has gone for it.” I began to think her an idiot. If Jane Cross was another, why, perhaps she had frightened herself into a fit. All the more reason that somebody should see after her. “Come along, Matilda; don’t be foolish; we’ll both get over the wall.” It was a calm, still summer evening, almost dark now. All the lot of us went out to the back garden, I whispering to them what the girl had said to me. “Poor thing!” said Mrs. Todhetley, who had a sort of fellow-feeling for ghosts. “It has been very lonely for the young women; and if Jane Cross is subject to fits, she may be lying in one at this moment.” The wall between the gardens was nothing like as high as the outer one. Susan brought out a chair, and Matilda could have got over easily. But when she reached the top, she stuck there.
  • 79. “I can’t go on by myself; I dare not,” she said, turning her frightened face towards us. “If Mr. Edmund is there——” “Don’t be a goose, girl!” interrupted the Squire, in doubt whether to laugh or scold. “Here, I’ll go with you. Get on down. Hold the chair tight for me, Johnny.” We hoisted him over without damage. I leaped after him, and Susan, grinning with delight, came after me. She supposed that Jane Cross had slipped out somewhere during Matilda’s absence. The door faced the garden, and the Squire and Susan were the first to enter. There seemed to be no light anywhere, and the Squire went gingerly picking his way. I turned round to look for Matilda, who had hung back, and found her with her hand on the trellis-work of the porch, and the beer splashing over in her fear. “I say, look here, Matilda; you must be a regular goose, as the Squire says, to put yourself into this fright before you know whether there’s any cause for it. Susan says she has only stepped out somewhere.” She put up her hand and touched my arm, her lips the colour of chalk. “Only last night that ever was, Mr. Johnny, as we were going up the staircase to bed, we heard a sound in the room as we passed it. It was just like a groan. Ask Jane Cross, else, sir.” “What room?” “Mr. Edmund’s; where he did it. She has heard him to-night, or seen him, or something, and has fallen into a fit.” The kitchen was on the right of the passage. Susan, knowing the ways of the house, soon lighted a candle. On a small round table was spread a white cloth, some bread and cheese, and two tumblers. A knife or two had seemingly been flung on it at random.
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