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Ernst and Peter Neufert
Architects' Data
Third Edition
Edited by
Bousmaha Baiche
DipArch, MPhil, PhD
School of Architecture, Oxford Brookes University
and
Nicholas Walliman
DipArch, PhD, RIBA
School of Architecture, Oxford Brookes University
b
Blackwell
Science

This book provides architects and designers with a concise
source of core information needed to form a framework for
the detailed planning of any building project. The objective is
to save time for building designers during their basic inves-
tigations. The information includes the principles of the
design process, basic information on siting, servicing and
constructing buildings, as well as illustrations and descrip-
tions of a wide range of building types. Designers need to be
well informed about the requirements for all the constituent
parts of new projects in order to ensure that their designs
satisfy the requirements of the briefs and that the buildings
conform to accepted standards and regulations.
The extended contents list shows how the book is orga-
nised and the order of the subjects discussed. To help read-
ers to identify relevant background information easily, the
Bibliography (page 589) and list of related British and inter-
national standards (page 595) have been structured in a way
that mirrors the organisation of the main sections of the
book.
To avoid repetition and keep the book to a manageable
length, the different subjects are covered only once in full.
Readers should therefore refer to several sections to glean all
of the information they require. For instance, a designer
wanting to prepare a scheme for a college will need to refer to
other sections apart from that on colleges, such as -
draughting guidelines; multistorey buildings; the various
sections on services and environmental control; restaurants
for the catering facilities; hotels, hostels and flats for the
student accommodation; office buildings for details on
working environments; libraries; car-parks; disabled access
(in the housing and residential section); indoor and outdoor
sports facilities; gardens; as well as details on doors, windows,
stairs, and the section on construction management, etc.
Readers should note that the majority of the material is
from European contributors and this means that the detail
ABOUT THIS BOOK
on, for example, climate and daylight is from the perspective
of a temperate climate in the northern hemisphere. The
conditions at the location of the proposed building will
always have to be ascertained from specific information on
the locality. A similar situation is to be seen in the section on
roads, where the illustrations show traffic driving on the
right-hand side of the road. Again, local conditions must be
taken into consideration for each individual case.
The terminology and style of the text is UK English and this
clearly will need to be taken into account by readers accus-
tomed to American English. These readers will need to be
aware that, for example, 'lift' has been used in place of
'elevator' and 'ground floor' is used instead of 'first floor'
(and 'first floor' for 'second', etc.).
The data and examples included in the text are drawn from
a wide range of sources and as a result a combination of
conventions is used throughout for dimensions. The mea-
surements shown are all metric but a mixture of metres,
centimetres and millimetres is used and they are in the main
not identified.
Readers will also find some superscript numbers asso-
ciated with the measurements. Where these appear by
dimensions in metres with centimetres, for instance, they
represent the additional millimetre component of the mea-
sure (e.g. 1.265
denotes 1 m, 26 ern, 5 rnrn). Anybody familiar
with the metric system will not find this troublesome and
those people who are less comfortable with metric units can
use the Conversion Tables given on pages 611 to 627 to
clarify any ambiguities.
The plans and diagrams of buildings do not have scales as
the purpose here is to show the general layout and express
relationships between different spaces, making exact scaling
unnecessary. However, all relevant dimensions are given on
the detailed drawings and diagrams of installations, to assist
in the design of specific spaces and constructions.

The Publishers wish to thank, in particular, Dr Bousmaha
Baiche, of the Postgraduate Research School, School of
Architecture, Oxford Brookes University, for his enormous
efforts and patience in overseeing the final English language
edition. They would also like to thank his colleague, Dr
Nicholas Walliman, also of the Postgraduate Research
School, for his valuable contribution on questions of content
and terminology.
The Publishers are also especially grateful to Paul Stringer
for his efforts in managing the editorial and production work
on the new edition and for his exceptional attention to detail.
They would also like to thank Mark Straker of Vector for his
work on the illustrations and text, Richard Moore for proof-
reading, and the following for their work on the translation:
Bantrans Services, Chris Charlesworth, Chiltern Language
Services, Katharina Hesse, Jeff Howell, Keith Murray, Amy
Newland and Wordswop.
Finally, they would like to thank the following for con-
tributing information and illustrations to this edition:
Martin Pugh, Trevor Fish, Group Property Services, Barclays
Bank Pic
Peter J. Clement, Group Property, NatWest Group
Mary Heighway and members of staff, Public Relations,
Environment Agency
Pick Everard, Graham Brown, Andrew Robinson, Pick Ever-
ard (Architects, Surveyors, and Consulting Engineers) and
J. Sainsbury's Pic
AsdaJWCEC Architects
Lesley Baillie, Office of Health Economics
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Simon Marshall, railway expert
Stanley Partnership, Architects, Cheltenham
Malcom Lee, National Small-Bore Rifle Association (NSRA)
British Steel Strip Products
Matthew Foreman, Katy Harris, Jo Olsen and members of
staff, Foster and Partners, London
Liza Kershaw and colleagues at RIBA Publications, the Royal
Institute of the British Architects for permission to repro-
duce forms on page 48 (copyright RIBA Publications 1999)
Derek Wolferdale, Principal Track and Gauge Engineer at
Railtrack, and members of staff of Railtrack
Graeme Loudon, The Met. Office
Pam Beckley (Copyright Administrator), the Controller, and
members of staff of the Copyright Unit, HMSO for per-
mission to reproduce illustrations (Fig. 1, page 541 and Fig
8, page 542) from Health Building Note 36 (Crown copy-
right material is reproduced with the permission of the
Controller of Her Majesty's Stationery Office)
Addison-Wesley Longman for permission to reproduce
illustrations (Fig. 1, page 101 and Fig. 15 page 154) from
The Climate of the British Isles (Chandler & Gregory)
Dr Ray Ogden, Professor Mike Jenks, Margaret Ackrill,
Postgraduate Research School, School of Architecture,
Oxford Brookes University
Chris Kendrick, School of Architecture, Oxford Brookes Uni-
versity.
The illustrations on pages 134-7 are reproduced from The
Building Regulations Explained and Illustrated (Powell-
Smith & Billington), Blackwell Science Ltd.
ix

Throughout history man has created things to be of
service to him using measurements relating to his body.
Until relatively recent times, the limbs of humans were
the basis for all the units of measurement. Even today
many people would have a better understanding of the
size of an object if they were told that it was so many men
high, so many paces long, so many feet wider or so many
heads bigger. These are concepts we have from birth, the
sizes of which can be said to be in our nature. However,
the introduction of metric dimensions put an end to that
way of depicting our world.
Using the metric scale, architects have to try to create
a mental picture that is as accurate and as vivid as
possible. Clients are doing the same when they measure
rooms on a plan to envisage the dimensions in reality.
Architects should familiarise themselves with the size of
rooms and the objects they contain so that they can
picture and convey the real size of yet-to-be designed
furniture, rooms or buildings in each line they draw and
each dimension they measure.
We immediately have an accurate idea of the size of an
object when we see a man (real or imaginary) next to it. It
is a sign of our times that pictures of buildings and rooms
presented in our trade and professional journals are too
often shown without people present in them. From
pictu res alone, we often obtai n a false idea of the size of
these rooms and buildings and are surprised how
different they appear in reality - frequently, they seem
much smaller than expected. One of the reasons for the
failure of buildings to have cohesive relationships with
one another is because the designers have based their
work on different arbitrary scales and not on the only true
scale, namely that of human beings.
If this is ever to be changed, architects and designers
must be shown how these thoughtlessly accepted
measurements have developed and how they can be
avoided. They have to understand the relationship
between the sizes of human limbs and what space a
person requires in various postures and whilst moving
around. They must also know the sizes of objects,
utensils, clothing etc. in everyday use to be able to
determine suitable dimensions for containers and
furniture.
In addition, architects and designers have to know
what space humans need between furniture - both in the
home and in the workplace - as well as how the furniture
can best be positioned. Without this knowledge, they will
be unable to create an environment in which no space is
wasted and people can comfortably perform their duties
or enjoy relaxation time.
Finally, architects and designers must know the
dimensions for minimum space requirements for people
moving around in, for example, railways and vehicles.
These minimum space requirements produce strongly
fixed impressions from which, often unconsciously, other
dimensions of spaces are derived.
Man is not simply a physical being, who needs room.
Emotional response is no less important; the way people
feel about any space depends crucially on how it is
divided up, painted, lit, entered, and furnished.
Starting out from all these considerations and
perceptions, Ernst Neufert began in 1926 to collect
methodically the experiences gained in a varied practice
and teaching activities. He developed a 'theorv of
planning' based on the human being and provided a
framework for assessing the dimensions of buildings and
their constituent parts. The results were embodied in this
INTRODUCTION
leonardo da Vinci: rules of proportion
book. Many questions of principle were examined,
developed and weighed against one another for the first
time.
In the current edition up-to-date technical options are
included to the fullest extent and common standards are
taken into consideration. Description is kept to the
absolute minimum necessary and is augmented or
replaced as far as possible by drawings. Creative building
designers can thus obtain the necessary information for
design in an orderly, brief, and coherent form, which
otherwise they would have to collect together laboriously
from many reference sources or obtain by detailed
measurement of completed buildings. Importance has
been attached to giving only a summary; the fundamental
data and experiences are compared with finished
buildings only if it is necessary to provide a suitable
example.
By and large, apart from the requirements of pertinent
standards, each project is different and so should be
studied, approached and designed afresh by the architect.
Only in this way can there be lively progress within the
spirit of the times. However, executed projects lend
themselves too readily to imitation, or establish
conventions from which architects of similar projects may
find difficulty in detaching themselves. If creative
architects are given only constituent parts, as is the
intention here, they are compelled to weave the
components together into their own imaginative and
unified construction.
Finally, the component parts presented here have been
systematically researched from the literature to provide
the data necessary for individual building tasks, checked
out on well-known buildings of a similar type and, where
necessary, determined from models and experiments.
The objective of this is always that of saving practising
building planners from having to carry out all of these
basic investigations, thereby enabling them to devote
themselves to the important creative aspects of the task.

® Symbols and units: electromagnetism
meaning
temperature
(note: intervals in Celsius and kelvin are identical)
meaning and relationships
current
potential difference: 1 V = 1 W/A
resistance: 1 U = 1 VIA
charge: 1 C = 1 As
power
conductance: 1 S = 1/i2
capacitance: 1 F = 1 AsN
inductance: 1 H = 1 Vs/A
magnetic flux: 1 Wb = 1 Vs
magnetic flux density: 1 T = 1 Wb/m 2
UNITS AND SYMBOLS
ampere (A)
volt (V)
ohm (U)
coulomb (C)
watt(W)
siemens (S)
farad (F)
henry (H)
weber (Wb)
tesla (T)
name (unit)
(unit)
!
V
R
o
P
G
F
H
et>
8
symbol
symbol
basic unit definition Sl units in
unit symbol based on the definition
1 length metre m wavelength of
krypton radiation
2 mass kilogram kg international
prototype
3 time second duration period of
caesium radiation
4 electrical ampere A electrodynamic power kg, m, s
current between two conductors
5 temperature kelvin K triple point of water
6 luminous candela cd radiation from freezing kg, s
intensity platinum
7 quantity of mole mol number of carbon atoms kg
matter
G) 51 basic units
The statutory introduction of SI Units took place in stages between 1974 and 1977.
As from 1 January 1978 the International Measurement System became valid using
Sl Units (SI = Svsterne Internationale d'Unites).
c1t (K)
(J)
temperature differential
quantity of heat
(also measured in kilowatt hours (kWh))
o Decimal multipliers
prefixes and their abbreviations are:
T (tera) = 1012 (billion) c (centi) = 1/100 (hundredth)
G (giga) = 109 (US billion) m (milli) = 10 3 (thousandth)
M (mega) = 106 (million) p (micro) = 10-6 (millionth)
k (kilo) = 103 (thousand) n (nano) = 10-9 (US billionth)
h (hecto) = 100 P (pico) = 10 12 (billionth)
da (deca) = 10 f (femto) = 10- 15 (US trillionth)
d (deci) =1/10 (tenth) a (atto) = 10- 18 (trillionth)
no more than one prefix can be used at the same time
area
velocity
acceleration
force
1 rn x 1 m= 1 m 2
1 m x 1 s 1 = 1 ms 1 = 1 rn/s
1 m x 1 s 2 = 1 ms? = 1 m/s?
1 kg x 1 m x: 1 s 2 = 1 kg m S2 = 1 kg m/s-'
"A'
1//
1/(,(
l/k
D'
S
~
(W/mK)
(W/mK)
(W/m 2K )
(W/m2K )
(W/m 2K )
(m 2K;W)
(m 2K;W)
(m 2K;W)
(m 2K;W cm)
(Wh/kgK)
(Wh/m3K)
(l/K)
(Pa)
(Pa)
(g)
(g)
(%)
(-)
thermal conductivity (k-value)
equivalent thermal conductivity
coefficient of thermal conductance (C-value)
coefficient of heat transfer (If-value)
coefficient of heat penetration
value of thermal insulation
heat transfer resistance (R-value)
heat penetration resistance
coefficient of heat resistance
specific heat value
coefficient of heat storage
coefficient of linear expansion
pressure
vapour pressure
quantity of steam
quantity of condensed water
relative atmospheric humidity
coefficient of diffusion resistance
® Examples of deriving 51 units
quantity unit dimensions
(symbol) (M = mass,
L = length,
T = time)
area A m 2 L2
volume V m 3 L3
density I) kgm 3 ML3
velocity v ms 1 LT1
acceleration a ms 2 LT 2
momentum p kgms 1 MLT1
moment of inertia !,J kgm 2 ML2
angular momentum L kgm2s 1 ML2T 1
force F newton (N) MLT 2
energy, work E. W joule (J) ML2T 2
power P watt tw) ML 2T 3
pressure, stress p, (T pascal (Pa) ML 1T 2
surface tension y Nm 1 ML1T-2
viscosity '1 kgm 1S1 ML1T1
CD Summary of main derived 51 units (}) Symbols and units: sound
® Symbols and units: heat and moisture
layer factor
layer factor of atmospheric strata
heating cost
resistance to water vapour penetration
coefficient of water vapour penetration
equivalent atmospheric layer thickness
(ern)
(g/m2hPa)
(m 2hPa/g)
(W/mK)
(W/mK)
(£,$/kWh)
'0
pd
symbol (unit) meaning
(m) wavelength
(Hz) frequency
fg r (Hz) limiting frequency
fll
(Hz) frequency resonance
Edva (N/cm2) dynamic modulus of elasticity
S' (N/cm3) dynamic stiffness
R (dB) measurement of airborn noise reduction
Rm (dB) average measurement of noise reduction
R' (dB) measurement of airborn noise suppression in a
building
t, (dB) impact noise level standard
(-) degree of sound absorption
A (rn-') equivalent noise absorption area
(m) radius of reverberation
.L (dB) noise level reduction
1 bar = 105 Pa
1 W = 1 J/s
1 Pa = 1 N/m2
1 N = 1 kqrn/s?
1 J = 1 Nm = 1 Ws
1 kca I = 4186 J,
1 kWh = 3.6 MJ
relationships
1 kg x 1 m 3 = 1 kg m 3 = 1 kg/m3
density
2

UNITS AND SYMBOLS
quantity symbol 51 unit statutory unit old unit relationships
name symbols name symbols name symbols
normal (cll.'{ radian rad 1 rad = 57.296 = 63.662 gon
angle perrqon pia 1 pia = 2rr rad
right angle L 1L = 1/4 pia = (rr/2) rad
degree old degrees 1 = 1L/90 = 1 pla/360 = (rr/180) rad
minute t: = 1 /60
second 1" = 1'/60 = 1 /3600
gon gon new degrees g 1 gon = 1 g = l L/100 = 1 pla/400
= rr/200 rad
new minute a 1 c = 10-2 gon
new second cc 1 cc = 10-2) C = 10-4 gon
length I metre m micron urn inch in 1 in = 25.4 mm
millimetre mm foot ft 1 ft = 30.48 cm
centimetre cm fathom fathom 1 fathom = 1.8288 m
decimetre dm mile mil 1 mil = 1.609 km
kilometre km nautical mile sm 1 sm = 1.852 km
area A square m 2
cross metre square foot (= 0.092 rn-):
section acre (0.405 hal still in use
of land are a 1 a = 102m
plots hectare ha 1 ha = 104m
volume V cubic metre rn-
litre I 1 1= 1 drn-' = 10 3 m 3
normal normal cubic metre Nm 3 1 Nm 3 = 1 m3 in norm condition
volume cubic metre cbm cbm = 1 m 3
time. t second s
time span. minute min 1min = 60s
duration hour h 1h = 60min = 3600s
day d 1d = 24h = 86400s
year a. y 1a = 1Y = 8765.8h = 3.1557><107s
frequency f hertz Hz 1Hz = 1/s for expressing
reciprocal frequencies in dimensional equations
of duration
angular (I) reciprocal l/s (1)=2,,(
frequency second
angular II) radians per rad/s (t)=2"n
velocity second
no. of revs. n reciprocal 1/s
speed of second revs per second r/s revs per second r.p.s. 1/s = tis = r/s
revolutions revs per minute r/rnin revs per minute r.p.m.
velocity v metres per rn/s kilometres krn/h 1 m/s = 3.6 krn/h
second per hour knots kn 1 kn = 1 srn/h = 1.852 km/h
acceleration 9 metres per rn/s-
due to second per gal gal 1 gal = 1 cm/s? = 10 2 rn/s?
gravity second
mass m kilogram kg
weight (as a gram g 1 g = 10-3 kg
result of tonne t 1 t = 1 Mg = 103 kg
weighing pound Ib 1 Ib = 0.45359237 kg
metric pound 1 metric pound = 0.5 kg
ton ton 1 ton = 2240 Ib = 1016 kg
force F newton N 1 N = 1kgm/s2 = 1 Ws/m = 1 J/m
thrust u dyn dyn 1 dyn = 1 q crn/s? = 10, N
pond p 1 P = 9.80665 " 10-3 N
kilopond kp
megapond Mp
kilogram force kg/f
tonne force t/f
stress () newtons N/m! newtons N/mm1
strength per square per square kiloponds per kp/crn? 1 kp/crn? = 0.0980665 N/mm2
2lLGUaHJ bGL2dn9L6 b6L 2dn9L6 ~lIobouq2 b6L ~bcws J ~bcws = 0'Oa80ee2 It1WWs
sn ess (I lIe~colis 1-4)111· IleNrolls 1-4)flHli'
strength per square per square kiloponds per kp/crn-' 1 kp/cm 2 = 0.0980665 N/mm2
metre millimetre square crn/rnrn kp/rnrn-' 1 kp/rnrn-' = 9.80665 N/mm2
energy WE joule J 1 J = 1 Nm = 1 Ws = 107 erg
kilowatt hour kWh 1 kWh = 3.6 " 106 J = 3.6 MJ
h.p. per hour h.p./h 1 h.p./h = 2.64780" 106 J
erg erg 1 erg = 10-7 J
quantity of Q Joule J calorie cal 1 cal = 4.1868 J = 1.163" 10 3 Wh
heat
torque M newton metre Nm kilopond metre kpm 1 kpm = 9.80665 J
bending MI. or joule J
moment
power P watt W 1 W = 1 J/s = 1 Nrn/s = 1 kg m 2/s 3
energy
current horsepower h.p. 1 h.p. = 745.7 kW
thermodynamic T kelvin K deg. kelvin K
temperature deg. Rankine R. Rk R = 5/9 K
CelSIUStemp H degrees Celsius C H = T - T" (T" = 273.15 K)
temperature Tor K .H = . T, therefore
Interval and 1. 1 K = 1 C = 1 deg.
differential
Fahrenheit HI deg. Fahrenheit F HF = 9/5 H + 32 = 9/5 T - 459.67
temperature
Reaumur temp HR deg. Heaurnur R HR = 4/5 H, 1 R 5/4 C
G) SI and statutory units for the construction industry
Mathematical symbols
> greater than
2 greater than or equal to
< smaller than
:::; smaller than or equal to
L sum of
L angle
sin sine
cos cosine
tan tangent
cotan cotangent
on average
equals
identically equal
7:- not equals
roughly equals, about
congruent
asymptotically equal
(similar) to
infinity
II parallel
equal and parallel
$ not identically equal to
x multiplied by
divided by
1- perpendicular
V volume, content
<.D solid angle
root of
~ final increment
- congruent
~ triangle
tt same direction, parallel
~ ~ opposite direction, parallel
Greek alphabet
An. (a) alpha
B~ (b) beta
ry (g) gamma
~8 (d) delta
Er (e) epsilon
Zr., (z) zeta
H 11 (e) eta
88 (th) theta
It (i) iota
II (!) !0!9
It (i) iota
KK (k) kappa
1A (I) lambda
Mil (m) mu
Nv (n) nu
:=:S (x) xi
00 (0) omicron
flIT (p) pi
Pp (r) rho
La (s) sigma
TT (t) tau
Yu (u) upsilon
<P<p (ph) phi
:=:X (ch) chi
fl'V (ps) psi
12 <.D (0) omega
3

format A series B series C series
0 841 x 1189 1000 x 1414 917x1297
1 594 X 841 707 x 1000 648 x 917
2 420 x 594 500 x 707 458 x 648
3 297 x 420 353 '< 500 324 x 458
4 210 x 297 250 '<353 229 x 324
5 148'< 210 176 x 250 162 x 229
6 105,< 148 125'< 176 114 x 162
7 74,< 105 88'< 125 81 x 141
8 52 x 74 62 x 88 57 x 81
9 37 '< 52 44'< 62
10 26 x, 37 31 '< 44
11 18 X 26 22 x 31
12 13,< 18 15 x 22
DOCUMENTATION AND DRAWINGS
The format of documentation (whether in the form of
plans, reports, letters, envelopes etc.) has, apart from in the
USA, generally been standardised to conform to the
internationally accepted (ISO) series of paper sheet sizes in
the lA', 18', 'C' and 10' ranges. These standard paper
formats are derived from a rectangular sheet with an area
of 1 m 2. Using the 'golden square', the lengths of the sides
are chosen as x = 0.841 m and y = 1.189 m such that:
x x y = 1
x:y = 1:'./2
This forms the basis for the A series. Maintaining the same
ratio of length to width, the sheet sizes are worked out by
progressively halving (or, the other way round, doubling)
the sheet area, as would happen if the rectangular sheet
was repeatedly folded exactly in half ---) CD - Q).
Additional ranges (8, C, and D) are provided for the
associated products that require larger paper sizes, i.e.
posters, envelopes, loose-leaf file binders, folders etc. The
formats of range 8 are designed for posters and wall-
charts. The formats in ranges C and 0 are the geometric
mean dimensions of ranges A and 8 and are used to
manufacture the envelopes and folders to take the A sizes.
~ @ The extra size needed for loose-leaf binders, folders
and box files will depend on the size and type of clamping
device employed.
The strip or side margin formats are formed by halves,
quarters, and eighths of the main formats (for envelopes,
signs, drawings etc.) ~ @ + @.
Pads and duplicate books using carbonless paper also
have standard formats but may have a perforated edge or
border, which means the resulting pages will be a
corresponding amount smaller than the standard sheet
size ~ @.
During book-binding, a further trim is usually necessary,
giving pages somewhat smaller than the standard format
size. However, commercial printers use paper supplied in
the RA or SRA sizes and this has an allowance for
trimming, which allows the final page sizes to match the
standard formats.
1/2A4
'118
1118'
1/4 I
y/2
1I
x/2 J-
~
11
+,~
f--- x - - - l
----------T----------
t-- x/2 -
8) Sheet sizes
® Strip formats
format abbre- mm
viation
half length A4 1/2 A4 105,< 297
quarter length A4 1/4 A4 52 x 297
one eighth A7 1/8 A7 9 X 105
half length C4 1/2 C4 114 x 324
etc.
G)-0 Basis of paper formats
A4
® Format strips in A4
1------210 ---------l
(}) loose-leaf binder
® Pads (including carbonless)
I--- layout width header area ---4
T
81 5
.:c
type width,
1
double
column ::J
0
~
f----
type width,
-
single column
167
footer area
picas mm
type area width 39.5
I 40.5 167 171
type area, height (without header/footer) 58.5
I 59 247 250
space between columns 1 5
max. width, single column 39.5 167
max. width, double column 19 81
inside (gutter) margin, nominal 16 14
outer (side) margin, nominal 27 25
top (head) margin, nominal 20 19
bottom (foot) margin, nominal 30 28
® Bound and trimmed books @ layouts and type area with A4 standard format
4

The use of standard drawing formats makes it easier for
architects to layout drawings for discussion in the design
office or on the building site, and also facilitates posting and
filing. The trimmed, original drawing or print must therefore
conform to the formats of the ISO A series. ----? @ - ®
The box for written details should be the following
distance from the edge of the drawing:
for formats AO-A3 10 mm
for formats A4-A6 5 mm
For small drawings, a filing margin of up to 25 mm can be
used, with the result that the usable area of the finished
format will be smaller.
As an exception, narrow formats can be arrived at by
stringing together a row of identical or adjacent formats out
of the format range.
From normal roll widths, the following sizes can be used
to give formats in the A series:
for drawing paper, tracing paper 1500, 1560 mm
(derived from this 250, 1250,660,900 mm)
for print paper 650, 900, 1200 mm
If all the drawing formats up to AO are to be cut from a
paper web, a roll width of at least 900 mm will be necessary.
Drawings which are to be stored in A4 box files should
be folded as follows: ----? @
(1) The writing box must always be uppermost, in the
correct place and clearly visible.
(2) On starting to fold, the width of 210 mm (fold 1)
must always be maintained, and it is useful to use a
210 x 297 mm template.
(3) Fold 2 is a triangular fold started 297 mm up from the
bottom left-hand corner, so that on the completely
folded drawing only the left bottom field, indicated
with a cross, will be punched or clamped.
(4) The drawing is next folded back parallel to side 'a'
using a 185 x 298 mm template. Any remaining area
is concertina-folded so as to even out the sheet size
and this leaves the writing box on the top surface. If
it is not possible to have even folds throughout, the
final fold should simply halve the area left (e.g. A 1
fold 5, AO fold 7). Any longer standard formats can be
folded in a similar way.
(5) The resulting strip should be forded from side 'b' to
give a final size of 210 x 297 mm.
To reinforce holes and filing edges, a piece of A5 size
cardboard (148 x 210 mm) can be glued to the back of the
punched part of the drawing.
~
. . . . / ~
VNW
cut-out ISO A2, A 1, AO
cut-out ISO A3
cut-out ISO A4
~ - l:':7:.. . . . .. .
~
I
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divisions
for
12
594
® ISO size A5
o Field divisions (grid squares)
ISO A2
lil
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ISO A3
D
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-+20 l-
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® ISO size A4
® Dimensions and scheme for folding
IH-+--+--
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.......--'-_~t-L--.~_----L-...lL_."..-L-...L-_..&....-.lII~----L..._--~
o ISO size A2; A1; AO
uncut drawing sheet,
depending on requirement,
is 2-3cm wider than
final trimmed original
drawing and print
box for written
r--9
details and
parts list
I a
I
sheet sizes in acc. ISO AO ISO A1 ISO A2 ISO A3 ISO A4 ISO A5
with ISO A series
uncut blank 880" 1230 625,,880 450,625 330,450 240 x 330 165 x 240
paper (mm)
format trimmed, 8410..1189 594,841 420,594 297,420 210,,297 148 x 210
finished sheet (rnrn]
G) Standard drawing
o Sheet sizes
5

Arrangement
Leave a 5cm wide blank strip down the left-
hand edge of the sheet for binding or
stapling. The writing box on the extreme
right ~ CD should contain the following
details:
(1) type of drawing (sketch, preliminary
design, design etc.)
(2) type of view or the part of the
building illustrated (layout drawing,
plan view, section, elevation, etc.)
(3) scale
(4) dimensions, if necessary.
On drawings used for statutory approvals
(and those used by supervisors during
construction) it might also contain:
(1) the client's name (and signature)
(2) the building supervisor's name (and
signature)
(3) the main contractor's signature
(4) the building supervisor's comments
about inspection and the building
permit (if necessary on the back of
the sheet).
A north-point must be shown on the
drawings for site layouts, plan views etc.
writing
box
I I
30
I
site plan
north elevation west elevation
20
I
...... : .. <
...:.,.: .... <
.:
/ : .
•
::::
:::.:: ::::::
roof truss layout
upper floor
south elevation east elevation
layout of joists
ground floor
foundations
basement
section
~
.
.
.•...... . ..•
•....:....•...
:......•.•......•....
:
•.....•.
::
.•.••.•.•.:..•....
:..
:.•.......•..••.••..•......•....•....:•..
::.:
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•.•..•....•.•......•.
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.....•..........•..•..•..•..:..:.::..
::.:.:.:
. . • • • • . . . . . • . • . . . . • . . . • •
::::.~.::.•
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:::.:::;
..
::::
::::::
..
:.:
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::::.::.:
..
:.:::
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..•.•..
:.•: ::.::
..
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: :.:.:::
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:.:
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.......... --',',',". .. ",-. ' , " ' . , . - _- -_ _--- ..
G) Suitable arrangement of a construction drawing
10 5 0 10
II I I I II I I I I I
o Suitable arrangement of scale details
o Standard method of dimensioning an
oddly shaped plan (measurements
given are structural dimensions)
··················j£·:~·¥:.:····F
+ 275
SZ
+ 2.69
'Y
in ground plans
Scales
The main scale of the drawing must be given in large type in the box for written
details. Other scales must be in smaller type and these scales must be repeated
'y next to their respective diagrams. All objects should be drawn to scale; where the
drawing is not to scale the dimensions must be underlined. As far as possible, use
the following scales:
for construction drawings: 1:1, 1:2.5, 1:5, 1:10, 1:20, 1:25, 1:50, 1:100, 1:200, 1:250
for site layouts: 1:500,1:1000,1:2000,1:2500,1:5000,1:10000,1:25000.
Measurement Figures and Other Inscriptions
In continental Europe, for structural engineering and architectural drawings,
dimensions under 1 m are generally given in cm and those above 1 m in m.
However, recently the trend has been to give all dimensions in mm, and this is
standard practice in the UK.
Chimney stack flues, pressurised gas pipes and air ducts are shown with their
internal dimensions as a fraction (width over length) and, assuming they are
circular, by the use of the symbol (2) for diameter.
Squared timber is also shown as a fraction written as width over height.
The rise of stairs is shown along the course of the centre-line, with the tread
depth given underneath (~ p. 13).
Window and door opening dimensions are shown, as with stairs, along the central
axis. The width is shown above, and the internal height below, the line (~ p. 13).
Details of floor heights and other heights are measured from the finished floor
level of the ground floor (FFL: zero height ± 0.00).
Room numbers are written inside a circle and surface area details, in rn-', are
displayed in a square or a rectangle ~ @.
Section lines in plan views are drawn in chain dot lines and are labelled with
capital letters, usually in alphabetical order, to indicate where the section cuts
through the building. As well as standard dimensional arrows ~ @ oblique arrows
and extent marks ~ ® + (f) are commonly used. The position of the dimensional
figures must be such that the viewer, standing in front of the drawing, can read the
dimensions as easily as possible, without having to turn the drawing round, and
they must be printed in the same direction as the dimension lines.
:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:#i::¥;.:..b
- 25
o Heights as shown in sections and
elevations
® +------ 6250 --+ +--
® f-- 6250 ----4 f--
+ 312
(}) r-- ~~~~ r-

Designers use drawings and
illustrations to communicate
information in a factual,
unambiguous and geometric
form that can be understood
anywhere in the world. With
good drawing skills it is simpler
for designers to explain their
proposals and also give clients a
convincing picture of how the
finished project will look. Unlike
painting, construction drawing
is a means to an end and this
differentiates diagrams/working
drawings and illustrations from
artistic works.
Sketch pads with graph
paper having a.5cm squares are
ideal for freehand sketches to
scale ----) CD. For more accurate
sketches, millimetre graph
paper should be used. This has
thick rules for centimetre
divisions, thinner rules for half
centimetres and fine rules for
the millimetre divisions.
Different paper is used for
drawing and sketching accord-
ing to standard modular
coordinated construction and
engineering grids ----) (2). Use
tracing paper for sketching with
a soft lead pencil.
Suitable sheet sizes for
drawings can be cut straight
from a roll, single pages being
torn off using a T-square or cut
on the underside of the T-square
----) @. Construction drawings are
done in hard pencil or ink on
clear, tear-resistant tracing paper,
bordered with protected edges ----)
® and stored in drawers or hung
in vertical plan chests.
Fix the paper on a simple
drawing board (designed for
standard formats), made of
limewood or poplar, using
drawing pins with conical points
----) @. First turn over 2cm width
of the drawing paper edge,
which can later be used as the
filing edge (see p. 4), for this lifts
the T-square a little during
drawing and prevents the
drawing being smudged by the
T-square itself. (For the same
reason, draw from top to
bottom.) The drawing can be
fixed with drafting tape rather
than tacks ----) @ if a plastic
underlay backing is used.
The T-square has tradit-
ionally been the basic tool of the
designer, with special T-squares
used to draw lines at varying
angles. They are provided with
octameter and centimetre
divisions ----) (f). In general,
however, the T-square has been
replaced by parallel motion
rulers mounted on the drawing
board ----) @. Other drawing aids
include different measuring
scales ----)@, 45° set squares with
millimetre and degree divisions,
drawing aids for curves ----) @,
and French curves ----) @.
a
.....;jIJ
b
CONSTRUCTION DRAWINGS
)!iSt <:1...
guided by little finger
on the edge
® Set squares
® Specialist drawing board
~
.~
o Cutting paper to size
@ Drawing movements
@ Correct way of holding a
pencil
'$i5wrong shape
(drawing pin)
folding over prevents
tearing
Sketching: construction
engineering grid
set of
kales
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250
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cone shape:
correct
® Drawing equipment
CD
® Drawing table
@ French curves
@ Aid for hatching
G) Paper for sketching
ISO A4
CD Taping edges
(]) T-square
@ Drawing aids
@ Drawing aids
7

To maintain accuracy i n
construction drawings req-
uires practice. For instance, it
is essential to hold the T-
square properly and use
pencils and pens in the
correct manner. Another
important factor in elirnin-
ating inaccuracy is keeping a
sharp pencil point. There are
various drawing aids that can
help: grip pencils, for
example, are suitable for
leads with diameters of 2 rnrn
or more and propell ing
pencils are useful for thinner
leads. Lead hardnesses fr orn
68 to 9H are available. Many
models of drafting pens are
available, both refillable and
disposable, and offer a wide
range of line thicknesses. For
rubbing out ink use rnech-
anical erasers, erasing knives
or razor blades whereas non-
smear rubbers should be used
for erasing pencil. For
drawings with tightly packed
lines use eraser templates
• <11-
Write text preferably
without aids. On technical
drawings use lettering stencils,
writing either with drafting
pens or using a stipple brush
12). Transfer lettering
(Letraset etc.) is also
commonly used. The
international standard for
lettering ISO 3098/1.
To make the designer's
intentions clear, d iag rarns
should be drawn to con-
vincingly portray the finished
building. lsornetrv can be
used to replace a bird's eye
view if drawn to the scale of
1:500 • Q3) and perspective
grids at standard angles are
suitable for showing internal
views '~6
@ Perspective grid
Underlay for perspective
drawing
Reilesch's perspective
apparatus
-f--
@
® Typewriter for lettering
@
o Rotary pencil sharpener
CD Drafting pens
&L
ABeL-
ABCDF...--
A ISCDEE.......--
Circular drawing board for
perspective drawing
lettering sizes measured in
points
®
®
o lettering stencils
Three-armed drawing
instrument
Isometry
Self-adhesive or letraset
lettering
st1ilrper)lr)~l with
il sCill Pt~ I
- - ~ -
- ~ '- ~
:!~~~~~')~-&~ --.
~~~
f1 Erasers, eraser template,
V eraser blades, etc.
@
8

line types (weight) primary application scale of drawings
1:1 1:20 1:100
1:5 1:25 1:200
1:10 1:50
line thickness (mm)
solid line boundaries of buildings in section 1.0 0.7 0.5
(heavy)
solid line visible edges of components; boundaries of narrow 0.5 0.35 0.35
(medium) or smaller areas of building parts in section
solid line dimension guide lines; dimension lines; grid lines 0.25 0.25 0.25
(fine)
indication lines to notes; working lines 0.35 0.25") 0.25
dashed line') hidden edges of building parts 0.5 0.35 0.35
(medium)
----
chain dot line indication of section planes 1.0 0.7 0.5
(heavy)
._._.
chain dot line axes 0.35 0.35 0.35
(medium)
.__.__.
dotted line') parts lying behind the observer 0.35 0.35 0.35
(fine)
'I
dashed line - - - - - - dashes longer than the distance between them
dotted line dots (or dashes) shorter than the distance between them
"I
0.35 mm if reduction from 1:50 to 1:100 is necessary
In some European countries the
measurement unit used in connection
with the scale must be given in the
written notes box (e.g. 1:50 ern). In the
UK, dimensions are given only either in
metres or millimetres so no indication of
units is required. Where metres are used
it is preferable to specify the dimension
to three decimal places (e.g. 3.450) to
avoid all ambiguity.
1 2 3 4
unit dimensions
under 1 m over 1 m
e.g. e.g.
1 m 0.05 0.24 0.88 3.76
2 cm 5 24 88.5 376
3 m,cm 5 24 885 3.76
4 mm 50 240 885 3760
® Units of measurement
- - - - - tiles
-- mortar
- screed
damp-proof membrane
insulation
structural floor
® Indication lines to notes
note: for plotter drawings using electronic data processing equipment and drawings destined for microfilm, other combinations of
line widths may be necessary
4
3
a
Oa
o Designation for dimensioning
i-----------dimension figure
I 1-----dimension line
: r -~ extension line
I .>; dimension arrow
-3.76~
==u
01
Ob
Ob1 Ob2
02
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3E
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field
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® Axis-field grid
000
426
188.S - - - # - # - - - - - - -
24
Dimensions given by coordinates
(drawn at 1:50cm, m; units = cm and m)
Dimensions given around the drawing
(drawn at 1:100cm; units = cm)
I
~
I I
~O>
~ ~~
~l .=--1~
24r188.s*~i-- 426 - 24
236.S-"1 -437.S-
-674-
885
___.t:::======1...._.J::::======L__I-~ 625
CD
G) Types and thicknesses of lines to be used in construction drawings
1#=~-J615t625l1135J615l1~1865
266 138.S 437 -S_1--.;38;...;:.-:.S'---_____+_
236 674
CD Dimensions of piers and apertures
(drawn at 1:50 cm; units = cm)
9

10
CAD application in architectural design
The acronym CAD usually means either computer-aided
design or computer-aided draughting. CADD is sometimes
used to mean computer-aided draughting and design.
Computer-aided design is a highly valued technique because
it not only enables a substantial increase in productivity but
also helps to achieve neater and clearer drawings than those
produced using the conventional manual drafting techniques
described in the preceding pages. Standard symbols or
building elements can be compiled as a library of items,
stored and used to create new designs. There is also a
possibility of minimising the repetition of tasks by linking
CAD data directly with other computer systems, i.e.
scheduling databases, bills of quantities etc.
Another advantage of CAD is that it minimises the need
for storage space: electronic storage and retrieval of
graphic and data features clearly requires a fraction of the
space needed for a paper-based system. Drawings currently
being worked on may be stored in the CAD program
memory whereas finished design drawings that are not
immediately required may be archived in high-capacity
electronic storage media, such as magnetic tapes or
compact disks.
A drawback relating to the sophisticated technology
required for professional CAD has been the high expense of
the software packages, many of which would only be run on
large, costly computer systems. However, various cheap,
though still relatively powerful, packages are now available
and these will run on a wide range of low-cost personal
computers.
CAD software
A CAD software package consists of the CAD program,
which contains the program files and accessories such as
help files and interfaces with other programs, and an
extensive reference manual. In the past, the program files
were stored on either 51/ 4
11
or 31/i l
floppy disks. The low
storage capacity of the 51/ 4
11
floppy disks and their
susceptibility to damage has rendered them obsolete.
Besides their higher storage density, 31/i l
disks are stronger
and easier to handle. Nowadays, the program files are
usually stored on compact discs (CD-ROM) because of their
high capacity and the ever increasing size of programs; they
are even capable of storing several programs.
When installing a CAD program onto the computer
system, the program files must be copied onto the hard disk
of the computer. In the past, CAD was run on
microcomputers using the MS-DOS operating system only.
New versions of the CAD programs are run using MS-DOS
and/or Microsoft Windows operating systems.
laser printer
CD CAD workstation: examples of hardware elements
CONSTRUCTION DRAWINGS: CAD
Hardware requirements
Once the desired CAD software has been selected, it is
important to ensu re that the appropriate hardware
(equipment) needed to run the program is in place. A typical
computer system usually includes the following hardware:
Visual Display Unit (VDU): Also called a screen or monitor,
these are now always full-colour displays. The level of
resolution will dictate how clear and neat the design
appears on the screen. For intricate design work it is better
to use a large, high-resolution screen. The prices of such
graphic screens have fallen substantially in recent years
making them affordable to a wide range of businesses and
they are hence becoming commonplace. In the past, using
CAD required two screens, one for text and the other for
graphics. This is not necessary now because some of the
latest CAD programs have a 'flip screen' facility that allows
the user to alternate between the graphics and text display.
In addition, the Windows version of some CAD programs
also has a re-sizable text display that may be viewed in
parallel with the graphics display.
Disk drives and disks: The most usual combination of disk
drives for desktop CAD systems initially was one hard drive
and one 31/i l
floppy drive. The storage capacity of hard
disks increased rapidly throughout the 1990s, from early 40
MB (megabyte) standard hard drives to capacities
measured in gigabytes (GB) by the end of the decade. The
storage capability of floppy disks is now generally far too
restrictive and this has led to the universal addition of
compact disc drives in new PCs. These can hold up to
650MB. This storage limitation has also led to the use of
stand-alone zip drives and CD writers (or CD burners) to
allow large files to be saved easily.
Keyboard: Virtually every computer is supplied with a
standard alphanumeric keyboard. This is a very common
input device in CAD but it has an intrinsic drawback: it is a
relatively slow method of moving the cursor around the
screen and selecting draughting options. For maximum
flexibility and speed, therefore, the support of other input
devices is required.
Mouse: The advantage of the mouse over the keyboard as
an input device in CAD is in speeding up the movement of
the cursor around the screen. The mouse is fitted with a
button which allows point locations on the screen to be
specified and commands from screen menus (and icons in
the Windows system) to be selected. There are several
types of mouse, but nowadays a standard CAD mouse has
two buttons: one used for PICKing and the other for
RETURNing.
processor

Graphic tablet, digitising tablet (digitiser): A digitiser
consists of a flat plate with a clear area in the centre,
representing the screen area, the rest divided into small
squares providing menu options. An electric pen (stylus)
or puck is used to insert points on the screen and to pick
commands from menus. The selection of a command is
made by touching a command square on the menu with
the stylus (or puck) and at a press of a button the
command is carried out. Data can be read from an overlay
menu or a document map or chart. The document should
first be placed on the surface of the digitiser and its
boundaries marked with the stylus or puck. The position
of the puck on the digitiser may be directly related to the
position of the cursor on the screen.
Most pucks have four buttons: they all have a PICK
button for selecting the screen cursor position and a
RETURN button for completing commands but, in
addition, they have two or more buttons for quick
selection of frequently used commands.
Printers: Hard-copy drawings from CAD software can be
produced by using an appropriately configured printer.
Printers are usually simple and fast to operate, and may
also be used for producing hard copies from other
programs installed in the computer. There are several
types of printer, principally: dot-matrix, inkjet, and laser
printers. The graphic output of dot-matrix printers is not
of an acceptable standard, particularly when handling
lines that diverge from the horizontal or vertical axes.
Inkjet and laser printers are fast and quiet and allow the
production of high-quality monochrome and coloured
ECSC MegaProject 5 demonstration building at Oxford Brookes
University, designed using customised CAD software
(courtesy of British Steel Strip Products)
CONSTRUCTION DRAWINGS: CAD
graphic diagrams up to A3 size. Colour prints are also no
longer a problem since there is now a wide range of
printers that can produce high-quality colour graphic
prints at a reasonably low cost.
Plotters: Unlike printers, conventional plotters draw by
using small ink pens of different colours and widths. Most
pen plotters have up to eight pens or more. Usually the
CAD software is programmed to enable the nomination of
the pen for each element in the drawing.
Flat-bed plotters hold the drawing paper tightly on a
bed, and the pens move over the surface to create the
desired drawing. Although they are slow, their availability
in small sizes (some with a single pen, for instance)
means that a good-quality output device can be installed
at low cost.
Rotary (drum) plotters operate by rolling the drawing
surface over a rotating cylinder, with the pens moving
perpendicu larly back and forth across the direction of the
flow. They can achieve high plotting speeds. With large-
format drafting plotters, it is possible to produce
drawings on paper up to AD size. Depending on the
plotter model, cut-size sheets or continuous rolls of paper
can be used.
Modern printer technology has been used to develop
electrostatic plotters, inkjet plotters and laser
printer/plotters. These are more efficient and reliable, and
produce higher line quality than pen plotters. As well as
drawing plans and line diagrams, they can also be used to
create large colour plots of shaded and rendered 3D
images that are close to photographic quality.
11

GL= goods lift
PL = passenger lift
FL = food lift
HL = hydraulic lift
ventilation and
extraction shaft
cookers/hobs fuelled
by gas
by oil
by solid fuels
top cupboard
ironing board
cupboard/
base unit
central heating
radiator
® oil fired boiler
@ gas fired boiler
@
@ laundry chute
@ refuse chute
@ boiler (stainless)
® cooker
@ dishwasher
@ electric cooker/hob
@
@
@
@
@ freezer
@ refrigerator
Other symbols
-"-
.x:n?~ .
~
J..·....·..··..·L
Jitn
.
:
:
:
:
:..::: ::
.:..r r :/.::.
fi
:?·:::~::::::::
:.~::
:::t t.:::
JiXIt
.
~
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.. ..
:: ~ :.
.::.} .::I::
urinal bowl
35/30
shower
80 x 80, 90 x 90, 75 x 90
bidet
38 x 60
stepped sinks
corner shower
90 x 90
twin sinks,
single drainer
60 x 150
sit-up bath
70 x 105,70 x 125
row of urinals
single sink
and drainer
60 x 100
built-in wash-basin
45 x 30
kitchen waste sink
wardrobe
60 x 120
twin wash-basins
60 x 120,60 x 140
bath
75 x 170,85 x 185
wash-basin
50 x 60, 60 x 70
two wash-basins
toilet
38 x 70
double bed
150 x 195
child's bed
70 x 140-170
twin bed
2(95 x 195, 100 x 200)
bed 95 x 195
bedside table
50 x 70, 60 x 70
CONSTRUCTION DRAWINGS: SYMBOLS
@
@)
@
o ]1
D@
Kitchen
Bedroom
Bathroom
~
l~ool
DO
o
rn @
o @
[] ®
coat rack
hooks,
15-20cm apart
laundry basket 40/60
baby's changing unit 80/90
sewing table 50/50-70
sewing machine 50/90
grand pianos
baby 155 x 114
drawing-room 200 x 150
concert 275 x 160
chair, stool (3 45 x 50
extending table
round table
(3 90 = 6 people
table
85 x 85 x 78 = 4 people
130 x 80 x 78 = 6 people
'19' linen cupboard
~ 50 x 100-180
f2i'o desk
'e:!J 70 x 1.30 x 78
80 x 1.50 x 78
@
@)
@ flower stands
@ chest 40/1.00-1.50
@ cupboard 60/1.20
@
@
® television
@
® upright piano 60/1.40-1.60
® arm chair 70 x 85
()) chaise-longue 95 x 195
® sofa 80/1.75
®
® shaped table 70-100
®
CD
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EUilWrlliJ
Cloakroom
D
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DO
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11--11
living room
12

Window frame set in
opening without reveals
® Double-leaf door
_ u _
Windows without reveals
o Window set on nib
rl;l;l;lmm~mrmmH;
o Single-leaf door pair
Window frame set in external
reveal
® Single-leaf door pair
(3)
Window frame set in
internal reveal
J~f ~i!!'- W_ith_O_Ut__l_:1 .~__-_-_-_-__-_- _
window niche
It)1lt)
..... (1
~~
Windows set in reveals
Doors
CD
® Single-leaf door
® Pivoting door @ Pivoting door @ Swing door @ Double-leaf swing door
Sliding door with a lifting
device
@
® Double sliding door
@ Sliding door
~mmmm1il(j1;1;1;lmrl;
@ Rising butt single-leaf door
m::::::J ( ( ~
~~~
@ Revolving door, two flaps @ Revolving door, three flaps
::::::::::::1
............
@ Revolving door, four flaps @ Folding partition
® Threshold both
sides
@ With
threshold
Windows are always drawn with the niche shown on the
left-hand side but not on the right.
Revolving doors are often used in place of lobbies to
give a draught-free entrance. However, they restrict
through-traffic so the arrangement should allow the door
flaps to be folded away during peak times.
Wooden construction is suitable for single flights of
stairs, whereas double flights generally require stone or
concrete.
In every plan view of a storey, the horizontal section
through the staircase is displayed about 1/3 of the storey
height above the floor. The steps are to be numbered
continuously from ±O.OO upwards and downwards. The
numbers for the steps that lie below ±O.OO are given the
prefix - (minus). The numbers start on the first step and
finish on the landing. The centre-line begins at the start with
a circle and ends at the exit with an arrow (including for the
basement).
@ Without
threshold
top floor
top floor
1+ 2.750 I
8 STG A 21290
first floor
first floor
12STG
187.51250
ground floor
ground floor
8STG
187.51250
basement
basement
@ Single flight of stairs
@ Double flight of stairs
13

insulation material of peat fibre
magnesite bonded wood wool board
insulation material of glass fibre
insulation material of Rockwool
cork
plastic foam
cement bonded wood wool board
penetrating damp
surface water
plaster lath/reinforcement
waterproof coating (two layers)
sealing slurry
primer coat, paint base
static water on ground/slope
impregnation
filter mat
emerging damp, mould, dirt etc .
drain mesh (plastic)
ground, soil
mastic
sand coating
applied gravel layer
intermediate layer spot glued
fully glued layer
waterproofing membrane with metal foil
inlay
waterproofing membrane with fabric inlay
oil paper
sealing membrane (damp course)
separating/polystyrene foil
vapour barrier
a
a
a
a
a
a
xrrxxxTX
~[~[~[flfJWQIMllMNJ~
-
1///711//11'
11111 11I1I
insulation material of wood fibre
••••
•••••••••••••••••
CD Drawing conventions for waterproofing membranes and other
roof and drainage layers
general insulation layer
~ (and noise barrier)
=
[rCT rr I lIT 11---,-1
1/111111111111 " /11111111111111
~
-sw
••••••
••••••••
G) Symbols and colours in plan views and sections
monochrome coloured
to be used for
display display
1111111IIifillI··H
.......- light green grass
")C~)
tl~~ )' (i sepia ground peat
~~ burnt sienna natural ground
.........
black/white infilled earth
~ red brown brick walling with lime mortar
~ red brown brick walling with cement mortar
~ red brown brick walling with lime cement mortar
~ red brown porous brick walling with cement mortar
~ red brown hollow pot brick walling with lime cement mortar
~ red brown clinker block walling with cement mortar
~ red brown calcium-silicate brick walling with lime mortar
~ red brown alluvial stone walling with lime mortar
~ red brown walling of ... stone with ... mortar
~ red brown natural stone walling with cement mortar
~if~~& sepia gravel
. '. ~ ..~ '.
~tii~' grey/black slag
zinc yellow sand
0'47;6/;0; ochre floor screed
~..
~:: ..
:.~;.::..
~:~~.::.~:/;;~"::/:.~~ white render
violet pre-cast concrete units
~ blue green reinforced concrete
'/~'~":«'~~"$
~;~f~?~;~~~,?~~~ olive green non-reinforced concrete
T [I:j black steel in a section
~ brown wood in section
---
Ol~LJlJalHIO blue grey sound insulation layer
black barrier against damp, heat or cold
--and white
grey old building components
• • • • • • • •
• • • • • • •
• • • • • • • •
gypsum building board
• • • • • • • •
• •••••••••••• • •
gypsum plasterboard
o Drawing conventions for thermal insulation
14

MAN: THE UNIVERSAL STANDARD
E
E
~
E
,,,

,
,
,

geometrical division of
length a by employing
the golden section
E
T
a
Man's dimensional relationships
The oldest known code of dimensional relationships of
man was found in a burial chamber of the pyramids near
Memphis and are estimated to date back to roughly 3000
Be. Certainly since then, scientists and artists have been
trying hard to refine human proportional relationships.
We know about the proportional systems of the Empire
of the Pharaohs, of the time of Ptolemy, the Greeks and the
Romans, and even the system of Polycletes, which for a
long time was applied as the standard, the details given by
Alberti, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo and the people of
the Middle Ages. In particular, the work of Durer is known
throughout the world. In all of these works, the
calculations for a man's body were based on the lengths of
heads, faces or feet. These were then subdivided and
brought into relationship with each other, so that they
were applicable throughout general life. Even within our
own lifetimes, feet and ells have been in common use as
measurements.
The details worked out by Durer became a common
standard and were used extensively. He started with the
height of man and expressed the subdivisions as
fractions:
'/2 h the whole of the top half of the body, from the
crotch upwards
'/4 h leg length from the ankle to the knee and from the
chin to the navel
'/6 h length of foot
'/8 h head length from the hair parting to the bottom of
the chin, distance between the nipples
'/10h = face height and width (including the ears), hand
length to the wrist
'/12h = face width at the level of the bottom of the nose, leg
width (above the ankle) and so on.
The sub-divisions go up to '/40 h.
During the last century, A. Zeising, brought greater
clarity with his investigations of the dimensional
relationship of man's proportions. He made exact
measurements and comparisons on the basis of the golden
section. Unfortunately, this work did not receive the
attention it deserved until recently, when a significant
researcher in this field, E. Moessel, endorsed Zeising's work
by making thorough tests carried out following his
methods. From 1945 onwards, Le Corbusier used for all his
projects the sectional relationships in accordance with the
golden section, which he called 'Le Modulor' ~ p. 30.
15

r---700 --1
1--------1125-------1
@
~
(
0
~
(")
~
N
1250
@ Dimensions: armchair
r--625 -----i
r------ 875 ---------1
r-----900 - 1000---1
Dimensions: small easy
chair
r---875~
In accordance with normal measurements and energy
consumption
@
•
r---- 875--1
t------625 -----1
o
MAN: DIMENSIONS AND SPACE
REQUIREMENTS
Body measurements
~875------1
Dimensions: sitting and
dining room chair
-=====r
r---750~
CD
r--625 --i ~ 300-i
® ®
I 1375-------4
CD
~---r
I ' )
I
I
I
I ~
(])
~875------i
@ Dimensions: work table
I - - - 710-----1
: I
I I
i -----!]
'0
IN
:~
I
I
I
I
I
I
1
8
~
T
~660---1
I .
I
I
@ Working while standing @ Kneeling @ Sitting @ Squatting
f---------2000-----~
~----1625--------1
~----1500-----l
1---1250-----1
16

2250 ~
(j)
~ 1700 -----1
®
Space Requirements
In accordance with normal measurements and energy
consumption
~115O ~
CD
~ 1000~
CD
~875 ~
CD
~625~
CD
MAN: DIMENSIONS AND SPACE
REQUIREMENTS
for moving people, add> 10% to widths
SPACE REQUIREMENTS BETWEEN WALLS
~375-l
CD
SPACE REQUIREMENTS OF GROUPS
l - - - - 2250
@ With back packs
~ 2125 -----1
@ Waiting queue
I---- 2000 ----l
@ Choir
I-- 1250 -----4 I---- 1875 -----1
® Closely packed ® Normal spacing
STEP MEASUREMENTS
L; 750 ~ 750 -+- 750 ~ ~ 875 -+- 875 ~ 875 ~
@ Walking in step @ Marching
SPACE REQUIREMENTS OF VARIOUS BODY POSTURES
I-- 1250 ~
@ Strolling
~ 625 ~
@
2000
Max. density: 6 people
per m 2 (e.g. cable railway)
~ 1750 ----l
@
I-- 1000 --1
@
~
~
1
1
I- 875 ---4 ~ 625 ~ ~ 875 --l
@ @ @
~ 1125 --1
@)
~ 1000 ---1
@
~1125~
@
SPACE REQUIREMENTS WITH LUGGAGE SPACE REQUIREMENTS WITH STICKS AND UMBRELLAS
2125 -----1 ~ 875 ~ ~ 750 ~ ~ 1125 ~ I - - 2375
17

old and new rolling
stock as an example
of minimum space
requirements for
passenger transport
2.80 -4
cross-section through CD
1----------
i
!
I
'--'- - _._~ ~
: n ~__---I
45 72
~ 1.54 ~ ~ 1.62
68 seats, 0.45m per seat; overall length 19.66m, compartment carriage
length 12.75m; luggage van length 12.62m, step height 28-30cm
50 54
,...,
":
+
,...,
'4
~
S
Local passenger train carriage,
plan view
MAN: SMALL SPACES
DIMENSIONS FOR RAILWAY CARRIAGES
CD
..- 2.10
first class
..r
c;
~
~ N
~
.i. 1
T
longitudinal section through (2)
t- 1.97
second class
1908 --+ 28 seats, second class
100 seats; 18 folding seats
""'-1050 ----4
top deck
restaurant car with 32 seats
luggage area
~1908
48 seats; overall length 20.42m, luggage van 18.38m ....... ~ first class
o Intercity express carriage,
plan view
o Lower deck: 4-axle double decker carriage
~ 1200 ---+-- 1.1.
® Lower deck: 4-axle double decker carriage with catering
compartment, restaurant and luggage van
18

15kN/m average
hourly work output
on the Ergostat
o Working
0.0167m3/h
carbon dioxide
o Resting
••:..•.:·:·:·:·.·.·:::·:·i·~
.:-::·:::··22:·3~:O~~o:::a:~:v·~e~r~a~gg::e~::r;e~l~
a::t:P:i:v~e:;~h;:u~:m
;~:i:d:::i·t::yt::::::.::.:.•
:::
.•...
:
••:.:·.::::~.. •...:::::.:.:.:.:~
•..:.:..
:··22··0;··:o~o:::a:iv!~·e~r;a:~g·g::e~:r~e~l~a::t:p:l:v~e:;~h:;:u~:m;~:I:d~:I:t::y?::::.::.:...:....... • ~...•.:-:.:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::-:-~...... .
.'~ " . '.~" '.'....."
...::::::):::~k ~i~;,Ca~~~:~~er:~:::i~:r~~u~~~:i·;~::::::::::·:?::::::.:-.
~::::-.., about 0.02 m3/h oxygen .. -::~?::-:-. about 0.015 m3/h oxygen .. ":'::::::-'" about 0.03 m3/h oxygen .-:.::::}
58g/h
water vapour
/-[..~=-&=:=-
with low - .r.:------
humidity, - - - --
considerably
more
MAN AND HIS HOUSING
0.015 m3/h carbon dioxideif'
G) Sleeping
70kg t
G) - 0 Production of carbon dioxide and water vapour by humans
The function of housing is to protect man against the weather
and to provide an environment that maintains his well-being.
The required inside atmosphere comprises gently moving (i.e.
not draughty), well oxygenated air, pleasant warmth and air
humidity and sufficient light. To provide these conditions,
important factors are the location and orientation of the
housing in the landscape (~ p. 272) as well as the arrangement
of spaces in the house and its type of construction.
The prime requirements for promoting a lasting feeling of
well-being are an insulated construction, with appropriately
sized windows placed correctly in relation to the room
furnishings, sufficient heating and corresponding draught-free
venti lation.
The need for air
Man breathes in oxygen with the air and expels carbon dioxide
and water vapour when he exhales. These vary in quantity
depending on the individual's weight, food intake, activity and
surrounding environment ~ CD-@.
It has been calculated that on average human beings
produce 0.020 m3/h of carbon dioxide and 40 g/h of water
vapour.
A carbon dioxide content between 1 and 3%0 can stimulate
deeper breathing, so the air in the dwelling should not, as far as
possible, contain more than 10/00. This means, with a single
change of air per hour, a requirement for an air space of 32 m3 per
adult and 15m3 for each child. However, because the natural rate
of air exchange in free-standing buildings, even with closed
windows, reaches 1'/2 to 2 times this amount, 16-24m3 is
sufficient (depending on the design) as a normal air space for
adults and 8-12 m3 for children. Expressed another way, with a
room height ~2.5m, a room floor area of 6.4-9.6m2for each adult
is adequate and 3.2-4.8 m2 for each child. With a greater rate of
air exchange, (e.g. sleeping with a window open, or ventilation
via ducting), the volume of space per person for living rooms can
be reduced to 7.5m3 and for bedrooms to 10m3 per bed.
Where air quality is likely to deteriorate because of naked
lights, vapours and other pollutants (as in hospitals or factories)
and in enclosed spaces (such as you in an auditorium), rate of
exchange of air must be artificially boosted in order to provide
the lacking oxygen and remove the harmful substances.
Space heating
The room temperature for humans at rest is at its most pleasant
between 18° and 20°C, and for work between 15°and 18°C,
depending on the level of activity. A human being produces
about 1.5 kcal/h per kg of body weight. An adult weighing 70 kg
therefore generates 2520 kcal of heat energy per day, although
the quantity produced varies according to the circumstances.
For instance it increases with a drop in room temperature just
as it does with exercise.
When heating a room, care must be taken to ensure that low
temperature heat is used to warm the room air on the cold side
of the room. With surface temperatures above 70-80°C decom-
position can take place, which may irritate the mucous
membrane, mouth and pharynx and make the air feel too dry.
Because of this, steam heating and iron stoves, with their high
surface temperatures, are not suitable for use in blocks of flats.
Room humidity
Room air is most pleasant with a relative air
humidity of 50-600/0; it should be maintained
between limits 400/0 and 700/0. Room air
which is too moist promotes germs, mould,
cold bridging, rot and condensation. ~ @.
The production of water vapour in human
beings varies in accordance with the
prevailing conditions and performs an
important cooling function. Production
increases with rising warmth of the room,
particularly when the temperature goes
above 37°C (blood temperature).
tolerable for tolerable for immediately
several hours up to lh dangerous
(roo) (0/00) (roo)
iodine vapour 0.0005 0.003 0.05
chlorine vapour 0.001 0.004 0.05
bromine vapour 0.001 0.004 0.05
hydrochloric acid 0.01 0.05 1.5
sulphuric acid - 0.05 0.5
hydrogen sulphide - 0.2 0.6
ammonia 0.1 0.3 3.5
carbon monoxide 0.2 0.5 2.0
carbon disulphide - 1.5* 10.0*
carbon dioxide 10 80 300
*mg per litre
o Harmful accumulation of industrial gases
activity energy expenditure
(kJ/h)
at rest in bed (basal metabolic rate) 250
sitting and writing 475
dressing, washing, shaving 885
walking at 5km/h 2050
climbing 15cm stairs 2590
running at 8km/h 3550
rowing at 33 strokes/min 4765
note that this expenditure in part contributes to heating air in
a room
® Human expenditure of energy
g/m 3 ,---------,----,------,.-
25 f-------+---+------+---+---II~
20
::J
0
g-
> 15
~
~
10
temperature
® Room humidity
temper- water
ature content
(DC) (g/m 3)
50 82.63
49 78.86
48 75.22
47 71.73
46 68.36
45 65.14
44 62.05
43 59.09
42 56.25
41 53.52
40 50.91
39 48.40
38 46.00
37 43.71
36 41.51
35 39.41
34 37.40
33 35.48
32 33.64
31 31.89
30 30.21
29 28.62
28 27.09
27 25.64
26 24.24
25 22.93
24 21.68
23 20.48
22 19.33
21 18.25
20 17.22
19 16.25
18 15.31
17 14.43
16 13.59
15 12.82
14 12.03
13 11.32
12 10.64
11 10.01
10 9.39
9 8.82
8 8.28
Il
7.76
7.28
6.82
6.39
5.98
5.60
+ 1 5.23
0 4.89
- 1 4.55
~i
4.22
3.92
3.64
3.37
3.13
2.90
8 2.69
9 2.49
10 2.31
11 2.14
12 1.98
13 1.83
14 1.70
15 1.58
16 1.46
17 1.35
18 1.25
19 1.15
20 1.05
21 0.95
22 0.86
23 0.78
24 0.71
25 0.64
maximum water
content of one
cubic metre of
air (g)
19

ROOM CLIMATE
absolute water relative temperature description
content (g/kg) humidity (%) (OC)
2 50 0 fine winter's day, healthy
climate for lungs
5 100 4 fine autumnal day
5 40 18 very good room climate
8 50 21 good room climate
10 70 20 room climate too humid
28 100 30 tropical rain forest
In the same way as the earth has a climate, the insides of buildings also
have a climate, with measurable values for air pressure, humidity,
temperature, velocity of air circulation and 'internal sunshine' in the form
of radiated heat. Efficient control of these factors leads to optimum room
comfort and contributes to man's overall health and ability to perform
whatever tasks he is engaged in. Thermal comfort is experienced when
the thermal processes within the body are in balance (i.e. when the body
manages its thermal regulation with the minimum of effort and the heat
dissipated from the body corresponds with the equilibrium loss of heat
to the surrounding area).
Temperature regulation and heat loss from the body
The human body can raise or lower the rate at which it loses heat using
several mechanisms: increasing blood circulation in the skin,
increasing the blood circulation speed, vascular dilation and secreting
sweat. When cold, the body uses muscular shivering to generate
additional heat.
Heat is lost from the body in three main ways: conduction,
convection and radiation. Conduction is the process of heat transfer from
one surface to another surface when they are in contact (e.g. feet in
contact with the floor). The rate of heat transfer depends on the surface
area in contact, the temperature differential and the thermal
conductivities of the materials involved. Copper, for example, has a high
thermal conductivity while that of air is low, making it a porous insulating
material. Convection is the process of body heat being lost as the skin
warms the surrounding air. This process is governed by the velocity of
the circulating air in the room and the temperature differential between
the clothed and unclothed areas of the body. Air circulation is also driven
by convection: air warms itself by contact with hot objects (e.g.
radiators), rises, cools off on the ceiling and sinks again. As it circulates
the air carries dust and floating particles with it. The quicker the heating
medium flows (e.g. water in a radiator), the quicker is the development
of circulation. All objects, including the human body, emit heat radiation
in accordance to temperature difference between the body surface and
that of the ambient area. It is proportional to the power of 4 of the body's
absolute temperature and therefore 16 times as high if the temperature
doubles. The wavelength of the radiation also changes with temperature:
the higher the surface temperature, the shorter the wavelength. Above
500°C, heat becomes visible as light. The radiation below this limit is
called infra-red/heat radiation. It radiates in all directions, penetrates the
air without heating it, and is absorbed by (or reflected off) other solid
bodies. In absorbing the radiation, these solid bodies (including human
bodies) are warmed. This radiant heat absorption by the body (e.g. from
tile stoves) is the most pleasant sensation for humans for physiological
reasons and also the most healthy.
Other heat exchange mechanisms used by the human body are
evaporation of moisture from the sweat glands and breathing. The
body surface and vapour pressure differential between the skin and
surrounding areas are key factors here.
Recommendations for internal climate
An air temperature of 20-24°C is comfortable both in summer and in
winter. The surrounding surface areas should not differ by more than
2-3°C from the air temperature. A change in the air temperature can be
compensated for by changing the surface temperature (e.g. with
decreasing air temperature, increase the surface temperature). If there
is too great a difference between the air and surface temperatures,
excessive movement of air takes place. The main critical surfaces are
those of the windows.
For comfort, heat conduction to the floor via the feet must be avoided
(i.e. the floor temperature should be 17°C or more). The surface
temperature of the ceiling depends upon the height of the room. The
temperature sensed by humans is somewhere near the average between
room air temperature and that of surrounding surfaces.
It is important to control air movement and humidity as far as
possible. The movement can be sensed as draughts and this has the
effect of local cooling of the body. A relative air humidity of 40-50% is
comfortable. With a lower humidity (e.g. 30%) dust particles are liable
to fly around.
To maintain the quality of the air, controlled ventilation is ideal. The
CO2 content of the air must be replaced by oxygen. A CO2 content of
0.10% by volume should not be exceeded, and therefore in living
rooms and bedrooms provide for two to three air changes per hour.
The fresh air requirement of humans comes to about 32.0 m 3/h so the
air change in living rooms should be 0.4-0.8 times the room volume
per person/h.
<,
""'""r-. I
I
I
r-. I
I
<,
f---- I'"
f----
.------~
1-------.
r-----------
f------------- ~--
--~-,--~---
uncomfortably humid
.:~
t~
<,
1
--,
"'~

CI) IfI irtable
'--r--r--~
~Itill clomf?rta~le
£ 80
~ 70
12
10
12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
room air temperature ta (OC)
100
90
E
o
:2
Q.)
>
.~
~
® Field of comfort
® Human heat flows
30
28
2
26
~
24
Q.)
22
::J
cu
20
Q.)
Q.
18
§
0
16
0
14
;;::::
60
50
40
30
20
10
o
12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
o Field of comfort
o Heated walls
E
o
2
Factors that affect
thermal comfort
c
~
o
E
water content of the air suitability for breathing sensation
(g/kg)
oto 5 very good light, fresh
5 to 8 good normal
8 to 10 satisfactory still bearable
10 to 25 increasingly bad heavy, muggy
over 25 becoming dangerous very humid
41 water content of the air breathed out 3rC (100%)
over 41 water condenses in pulmonary alveoli
physical conditions
air movement (draughts)
relative humidity
ambient surface temperature
air temperature
atmospheric charge
air composition and pressure
room occupancy
optical/acoustic influences
clothing
physiological conditions
sex
age
ethnic influences
food intake
level of activity
adaptation and acclimatisation
natural body rhythms
state of health
psycho-sociological factors
o Field of comfort
12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28°C
room air temperature ta
® Field of comfort
28
26
24
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28°C
room air temperature ta
o Field of comfort
30 I
28 ~
e 26
.Y 24
Q.)
::J 22
ro
Q.)
~
r
.~ 14
12
10
12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
® Humidity values for air we breathe @ Comparative relative humidity values
20

BUILDING BIOLOGY
For over a decade, medical doctors such as Dr Palm and Dr
Hartmann at the Research Forum for Geobiology, Eberbach-
Woldbrunn-Waldkatzenbach, among others, have been
researching the effects that the environment has on people: in
particular the effects of the ground, buildings, rooms, building
materials and installations.
Geological effects
Stretched across the whole of the earth is a so-called 'global net'
•CD consisting of stationary waves, thought to be induced by the
sun. However, its regularity, according to Hartmann, is such that it
suggests an earthly radiation which emanates from inside the
earth and is effected by crystalline structures in the earth's crust,
which orders it in such a network. The network is orientated
magnetically, in strips of about 200 mm width, from the magnetic
north to south poles. In the central European area these appear at
a spacing of about 2.50 m. At right angles to these are other strips
running in an east/west direction at a spacing of about 2 m • (jJ.
These strips have been revealed, through experience, to
have psychologically detrimental effects, particularly when one
is repeatedly at rest over a point of intersection for long periods
(e.g. when in bed) --> (2). In addition to this, rooms which
correspond to the right angles of the net do not display the
same pathogenic influences.
These intersection points only become really pathogenic
when they coincide with geological disturbances, such as faults
or joints in the ground, or watercourses. The latter, in particular,
are the most influential···..@. Hence, there is a cumulative effect
involved so the best situation is to make use of the undisturbed
zone or area of 1.80x2.30m between the global strips • 01 .
According to Hartmann, the most effective action is to move the
bed out of the disturbance area, particularly away from the
intersection points -> @.
According to Palm, the apparent global net of about
2 x 2.50 m is made up of half-distance lines. The actual network
would be, as a result, a global net with strips at 4-5 m and 5-6 m
centres, running dead straight in the east/west direction all
round the earth. Every 7th one of these net strips is reported to
be of a so-called 2nd order and have an influence many times
greater than the others. Also based on sevenths, an even
stronger disturbance zone has been identified as a so-called 3rd
order. This is at a spacing of about 250 and 300 m respectively.
The intersection points here are also felt particularly strongly.
Also according to Palm, in Europe there are deviations from
the above norm of up to 15% from the north/south and the
east/west directions. Americans have observed such strips with
the aid of very sensitive cameras from aeroplanes flying at a
height of several thousand meters. In addition to this, the
diagonals also form their own global net, running north-east to
south-west and from north-west to south-east • @. This, too,
has its own pattern of strong sevenths, which are about one
quarter as strong again in their effect.
It is stated that locating of the global strips depends on the
reliability of the compass, and that modern building construction
can influence the needle of the compass. Thus variations of 1-20
already result in faulty location and this is significant because the
edges of the strips are particularly pathogenic. Careful detection
of all the relationships requires much time and experience, and
often needs several investigations to cross-check the results. The
disturbance zones are located with divining rods or radio
equipment. Just as the radiation pattern is broken vertically at the
intersection between ground and air (i.e. at the earth's surface),
Endros has demonstrated with models that these breaks are also
detectable on the solid floors of multistorey buildings • (V. He
has shown a clear illustration of these breaks caused by an
underground stream -> ® and measured the strength of the
disturbances above a watercourse. (~)
The main detrimental effect of such pathogenic zones is that
of 'devitalisation': for example, tiredness, disturbances of the
heart, kidneys, circulation, breathing, stomach and metabolism,
and could extend as far as serious chronic diseases such as
cancer. In most cases, moving the bed to a disturbance-free zone
gives relief within a short space of time ~ @. The effect of so-
called neutralising apparatus is debatable, many of them having
been discovered to be a source of disturbance. Disturbance does
not occur, it seems, in rooms proportioned to the golden section
(e.g. height 3 m, width 4 m, length 5 m) and round houses or
hexagonal plans (honeycomb) are also praised.
north
f - - - - - 2.00 - - - - - 1
Disturbance-free zone be-
tween net strips 1.80" 2.30 m
Left bed on an intersection
point; right bed is crossed by
edge zone; the hatched edge
strips are not deleterious
I b I
~ .. ....~ '-0f-.-1 L , 1t,r,+-
~~~ .... 1 j-t .~I: 1 t"r4 t+ 1
.,- ~ jl ~ .. LI'~~ .L- ..... .
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+ ~ ~.~ -t- ...... II/,
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r- t- ;'.. .... -1 .... -..J
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fl +1 i;"T ~I-ll
.l 1 .,. -tfil' T...J t"H ~/
: :liN.. : : I IYi :
west
g 0 a net Intersection
~ .;......
T'
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iiiUimtiUiUiDUUiiiHtli
iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii
................................
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:::::=:::::::::::::::::::::::: c
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:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::i··.
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1.80
o
U'l
south
o 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1112 13 141516
o
1
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
f6 Global net at centres of
!:!...) 4" 5 m, with dashed
half-distance lines 2" 2.5 m
centres • U)
CD
north
10 15 20
,1'111__"11111111"1 lillI, I I
west
Experimental model showing
how quadrant lines of force
split/multiply to vertical
lines at surfaces
underground watercourse
Measured differences in electrical potential and divining rod
reactions above an underground watercourse
Left bed is particularly at risk
- crossed by net intersection
and a watercourse, which
intensifies the bad effects
MV
10.0
MV
IS.0
north
- 250-
est eas
I
2.00
I
south
marble
Global net, magnetically
ordered, with pathogenic
intersection points
®
CD With bed against the wall,
health suffered; moving it
as shown resulted in a
speedy recovery
granite i··U·_ .t;.1$t"'~22-r
I, ':;1 I' iJO
granite , .,. Jl.y·.·.·.·.·.fJ ·.·.i22+
: ': : ~
• +
E
E
~
I
0. conductor
@ towards north
+ffft+~t+
earth's magnetic field
o
CD
21

BUILDING BIOLOGY
Physicists recognise that matter exists in three 'phases', depending on
its temperature and external pressure: (a) solid, (b) liquid and (c)
gaseous. For example, with water, when under O°Cit exists as a solid
(a), namely ice; at normal temperature = (b) = water; when over 100°
= (c) = steam. Other materials change phase at different temperatures.
The atoms or molecules that make up the material are in constant
motion. In solid metals, for example, the atoms vibrate around fixed
points in a crystalline structure -~ CD. When heated, the movement
becomes increasingly agitated until the melting point is reached. At this
temperature, the bonds holding specific atoms together are broken
down and metal liquefaction occurs, enabling the atoms to move more
freely -+ @. Further heating causes more excitation of the atoms until the
boiling point is reached. Here, the motion is so energetic that the atoms
can escape all inter-atom forces of attraction and disperse to form the
gaseous state -+ @. On the reverse side, all atomic or molecular
movement stops completely at absolute zero, 0 kelvin (OK= -273.15°)C).
These transitions in metals are, however, not typical of all
materials. The atomic or molecular arrangement of each material
gives it its own properties and dictates how it reacts to and affects its
surroundings. In the case of glass, for example, although it is
apparently solid at room temperature, it does not have a crystalline
structure, the atoms being in a random, amorphous state. It is,
therefore, technically, a supercooled liquid. The density of vapour
molecules in air depends on the temperature, so the water molecules
diffuse to the cooler side (where the density is lower). To replace
them, air molecules diffuse to the inside, both movements being
hindered by the diffusion resistance of the wall construction i, @.
Many years of research on building materials by Schroder-Speck
suggests that organic materials absorb or break up radiation of mineral
origin. For instance, asphalt matting, with 100mm strip edge overlaps
all round, placed on concrete floors diverted the previously penetrating
radiation. The adjacent room, however, received bundled diverted
rays. -+ @ - o:In an alternative experiment, a granulated cork floor
showed a capacity to absorb the radiation. Cork sheets 25-30 mm thick
(not compressed and sealed), tongued and grooved all round are also
suitable -+ @.
Clay is regarded as a 'healthy earth' and bricks and roofing tiles
fired at about 950°C give the optimum living conditions. For
bricklaying, sulphur-free white lime is recommended, produced by
slaking burnt lime in a slaking pit and where fatty lime is produced
through maturation. Hydraulic lime should, however, be used in
walls subject to damp. Lime has well known antiseptic qualities and
is commonly used as a lime wash in stables and cow sheds.
Plaster is considered best when it is fired as far below 200°C as
possible, preferably with a constant humidity similar to animal
textiles (leather, silk etc.). Sandstone as a natural lime-sandstone is
acceptable but should not be used for complete walls.
Timber is light and warm and is the most vital of building
materials. Timber preservation treatments should be derived from
the distillation of wood itself (e.g. as wood vinegar, wood oil or
wood tar). Timber reacts well to odours and it is therefore
recommended that genuine timber be used for interior cladding, if
necessary as plywood using natural glues. Ideally, the 'old rules'
should be followed: timber felled only in winter, during the waning
moon, then watered for one year in a clay pit before it is sawn.
However, this is very expensive.
For insulation, natural building materials such as cork granules
and cork sheets (including those with bitumen coating) are
recommended, as well as all plant-based matting (e.g. sea grass,
coconut fibre etc.), together with expanded clay and diatomaceous
earth (fossil meal). Plastics, mineral fibres, mineral wool, glass fibre,
aerated concrete, foamed concrete and corrugated aluminium foil
are not considered to be satisfactory.
Normal glass for glazing or crystal glass counts as neutral. Better
still is quartz glass (or bio-glass), which transmits 70-800/0 of the
ultra-violet light. Doubts exist about coloured glass. Glazing units
with glass welded edges are preferable to those with metal or plastic
sealed edges. One is sceptical about coloured glass.
Metal is rejected by Palm for exterior walls, as well as for use on
large areas. This includes copper for roofs on dwellings (but not on
churches). Generally the advice is to avoid the extensive use of metal.
Copper is tolerated the best. Iron is rejected (radiators, allegedly, cause
disturbance in a radius of 4m). Zinc is also tolerated, as is lead. Bronze,
too, is acceptable (;~750/0 copper) and aluminium is regarded as having
a future. Asbestos should not be used. With painting it is recommended
that a careful study is made of the contents and method of manufacture
of the paint in order to prevent the introduction of damaging radiation.
Plastics are generally regarded as having no harmful side effects.
Concrete, particularly reinforced concrete, is rejected in slabs and
arches but is, however, permitted in foundations and cellars.
/
I
I
I
I
I
/
cold
exterior
air molecule
obeoeo
oeoooe
oooeoo
oeoooo
eooooe
ooeooo
oooeo.
ooeoeo
oooeoe
oeoooo
ooeoeo
oooeoo
eoooeo
~
/
/
reinforced concrete
floor
/
reinforced concrete floor
I /
/
I
/
I
/
I
I
I
/~
I
outer wall
~
I
/
I
3m
warm
interior
I
3m
~~~~~ 1f /. ~
•
I I I
/
/</I~I I I I
/
I I I I
/
• = carbon
• = calcium
0= oxygen
® Atomic structure of calcite
o Arrangement of atoms:
metal in liquid phase
water vapour
I molecule
.oeoeo
oeoeoe
eoeoeo
oeoeo
eoeoeo
oeoeo
eoeoeo
oeoeo
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oeoeo
eoeoeO
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3m
asphalt sheet (2-2.5mm)
:e
/
/--,~r--)
~:,=--~;-~
;' / ;' / /r
/ I I I I
/ / / I /
/ / ground radiation
I I I I I
I I / /
/ / / I /
/ I / / I
I I / I /
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ .~ ~ .
reinforced concrete floor
Water vapour moves from
warm interior of a building,
hindered by outer wall, to
cooler outside air; air
molecules move inside in
exchange
Cork granules or tongue and grooved cork sheets ~ 25-30 mm
thick (not compressed and sealed; bitumen coated) absorb
the harmful radiation
Asphalt sheeting diverts the southerly inclined radiation
away but emanations at the beginning of the next room are
concentrated, resulting in increased potential harm
4 N
®
® Radiation from the ground
passes unhindered through
concrete floors
CD Arrangement of atoms:
metal in solid phase
0
0 00
0 0
0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
CD Arrangement of atoms:
metal in gaseous phase
22

BUILDING BIOLOGY
A differentiation should be made between concrete with clinker
aggregate and man-made plaster (which have extremely high
radiation values) and 'natural' cement and plaster. Lightweight
concrete with expanded clay aggregate is tolerable.
All pipes for water (cold or hot), sewage or gas radiate to
their surroundings and can influence the organs of living
creatures as well as plants. Therefore, rooms that are occupied
by humans and animals for long periods of time (e.g. bedrooms
and living rooms) should be as far away as possible from
pipework. Consequently, it is recommended that all
installations are concentrated in the centre of the dwelling, in
the kitchen or bathroom, or collected together in a service wall
(~p. 277 @).
There is a similar problem with electrical wiring carrying
alternating current. Even if current does not flow, electrical
fields with pathogenic effects are formed, and when current is
being drawn, the electromagnetic fields created are reputed to
be even more harmful. Dr Hartmann found an immediate cure
in one case of disturbed well-being by getting the patient to pull
out the plug and therefore eliminate the current in the flex
which went around the head of his bed ~ CD. In another case
similar symptoms were cured by moving a cable running
between an electric heater and the thermostat from behind the
head of the double bed to the other side of the room --~ (2).
Loose cables are particularly troublesome, as they produce a
50 Hz alternating field syndrome. In addition, electrical
equipment, such as heaters, washing machines, dish washer,
boilers and, particularly, microwave ovens with defective seals,
situated next to or beneath bedrooms send out pathogenic
radiation through the walls and floors, so that the inhabitants
are often in an area of several influences ~ @. Radiation can
largely be avoided in new buildings by using wiring with
appropriate insulating sheathing. In existing structures the only
solution is to re-Iay the cables or switch off the current at the
meter. For this purpose it is now possible to obtain automatic
shut-off switches when no current is being consumed. In this
case, a separate circuit is required for appliances that run
constantly (e.g. freezers, refrigerators, boilers etc.),
Additionally, harmful radiation covers large areas around
transformer stations (Schroder-Speck measured radiation from
a 10-20000V station as far away as 30-50 m to the north and
120-150 m to the south), electric railways and high-voltage
power lines. Even the power earthing of many closely spaced
houses can give rise to pathogenic effects.
The human metabolism is influenced by ions (electrically
charged particles). A person in the open air is subjected to an
electrical voltage of about 180V, although under very slight
current due to the lack of a charge carrier. There can be up to
several thousand ions in one cubic metre of air, depending on
geographical location and local conditions ~ @. They vary in
size and it is the medium and small ions that have a biological
effect. A strong electrical force field is produced between the
mostly negatively charged surface of the earth and the
positively charged air and this affects the body. The research of
Tschishewskij in the 1920s revealed the beneficial influence of
negative ions on animals and humans, and showed a
progressive reduction in the electrical potential of humans with
increasing age. In addition, the more negative ions there are in
the air, the slower the rate at which humans age. Research in
the last 50 years has also confirmed the beneficial effects of
negative ions in the treatment of high blood pressure, asthma,
circulation problems and rheumatism. The positive ions are
predominant in closed rooms, particularly if they are dusty,
rooms; but only negatively charged oxygenated air is
biologically valuable. There is a large choice of devices which
can be placed in work and utility rooms to artificially produce
the negative ions (i.e. which produce the desirable steady field).
Such steady fields (continuous current fields) change the
polarisation of undesirably charged ions to create improved
room air conditions. The devices are available in the form of
ceiling electrodes and table or floor mounted units.
(SU is a measurement value; derived from Suhr, the home
town of Schroder-Speck)
20
.1
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I 1 SU
transformer
station
surface cable
24h
' " I I I I I t I
schematic
thermostat
house
house
(;' Mean annual concentration
~ of convertible negative and
positive ions on days with
moderate rainfall in the centre
of Philadelphia depending on
the time of day (according
t to R. Endros)
'i
I
I
I
__ ~~p--?:~i~~~d_~a-?~~ J
o Similarly to CD disturbances
.::.) can be eliminated by moving
the cable behind the bed head
to the other side of the room
(according to Hartmann)
Disturbance area around a transformer station, with harmful
effects on people in beds 9 to 12 (according to K.E. Lotz)
I
t t t t , t t t , t
Electrical equipment creates areas of disturbance, made stronger
by concrete floors: radiation ~ 2.9 SU produced no problem;
> 3 SU, more colds, rheumatism, bladder disorders etc.; > 6 SU,
powerful disturbances, with effects dependent on constitution
R
1
P. negative ~..J' .
", / ~
1 f
1-6 transformer station and
distribution cables
double beds
child's bed
small child's bed
small child's bed before
the illness
14 north-south axis of the
disturbance area
9-10
11
12
13
400 +--r-"""""""""or-T"""""""""""T"-r"T"'"""l"""""""""""""'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''
o
700
600
500
CD
I
I
I
I
1 SU I
global net
f1 The flex running around the
~ bed head to the lamp disturbs
the sleeping space. Health is
best preserved if the plug is
pulled out (according to
Hartmann)
<lllorth)( ~
south
0)
ions
(crn-)
23

Black areas and objects
appear smaller than those
of the same size which are
white: the same applies to
parts of buildings
f C
Lengths a and b are equal,
as are A-F and F-D, but
arrowheads and dissimilar
surrounds make them
appear different
)>-------«
( )
A E 0
/SD
8
8)
THE EYE: PERCEPTION
These vertical rules are
actually parallel but appear
to converge because of
the oblique hatching
CD
To make black and white
areas look equal in size,
the latter must be drawn
smaller
CD
r-==
=
=-l1l1--11from a
distance
11111I11I11 the black
circle
looks
about 30%
smaller
than the
white
circle
b
The colour and pattern of clothing can change people's appearance:
(a) thinner in black (black absorbs light); (b) more portly in white
(white spreads light); (c) taller in vertical stripes; (d) broader in
horizontal stripes; (e) taller and broader in checked patterns
(j)
Two identical people seem
different in height if the
rules of perspective are
not observed
®
Although both are equal
in diameter, circle A looks
larger when surrounded by
circles that have a
smaller relative size
®
~ ..-
i=== ;::;:=
- I
- ')
Q
~
...: <, I Q
.::«
...
",'"
",'"
,,~
";,,,;
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with different divisions, identical rooms can appear to differ in size and form f' 2.5Q
® Dynamic effect
r----CJ~-------
,., ..
HH1HffiHffiHIH
HIE....•.ffiB.···.··•••
.•HIBHIB
ffilKmH HUlmE
® Static effect
'qCJIP9;QqIqq
qOP9i9P99
0·.0·.·····.0•.0··•••·.0.:0:·.·.·.·0·0···
t1(i Vertical dimensions appear disproportionately more impressive
~ to the eye than horizontal ones of the same size
r--CJt----------1
(j1 _f14 The perception of scale is changed by the ratio of the window area to the remaining area of wall as well as by architectural
~ ~ articulation (i.e. vertical, horizontal or mixed ~ @); glazing bars can contribute substantially to this
1
20
1
f.15 _@7ThepositioningOfWindows,doorsandfurnishi!!!Js
~ can give a room different spatial appearances: Q§) long
and narrow; @ seems shorter with the bed across the
room, or the table below the window; @ with windows
opposite the door and appropriate furniture, the room
seems more wide than deep
@ A structure can appear
taller if viewed from above;
there is a greater feeling of
certainty when looking up
The walls slanting suitably
inward seem vertical; steps,
cornices and friezes when
bowed correctly upwards
look horizontal
24

Interpretation
THE EYE: PERCEPTION
The activity of the eye is divided into seeing and observing.
Seeing first of all serves our physical safety but observing
takes over where seeing finishes; it leads to enjoyment of
the 'pictures' registered through seeing. One can
differentiate between a still and a scanned picture by the
way that the eye stays on an object or scans along it. The
still picture is displayed in a segment of the area of a circle,
whose diameter is the same as the distance of the eye from
the object. Inside this field of view the objects appear to the
eye 'at a glance' ~ @. The ideal still picture is displayed in
balance. Balance is the first characteristic of architectural
beauty. (Physiologists are working on a theory of the sixth
sense - the sense of balance or static sense - that underpins
the sense of beauty we feel with regard to symmetrical,
harmonious things and proportions (~ pp. 27-30) or when
we are faced with elements that are in balance.)
Outside this framework, the eye receives its impressions
by scanning the picture. The scanning eye works forward
along the obstacles of resistance which it meets as it directs
itself away from us in width or depth. Obstacles of the same
or recurring distances are detected by the eye as a 'beat' or
a 'rhythm', which has the same appeal as the sounds
received by the ear from music. 'Architecture is Frozen
Music. This effect occurs even when regarding a still or
scanned picture of an enclosed area ~ CD and @.
A room whose top demarcation (the ceiling) we
recognise in the still picture gives a feeling of security, but
on the other hand in long rooms it gives a feeling of
depression. With a high ceiling, which the eye can only
recognise at first by scanning, the room appears free and
sublime, provided that the distance between the walls, and
hence the general proportions, are in harmony. Designers
must be careful with this because the eye is susceptible to
optical illusions. It estimates the extent of width more
exactly than depths or heights, the latter always appearing
larger. Thus a tower seems much higher when seen from
above rather than from below ~ p. 24 @ and @. Vertical
edges have the effect of overhanging at the top and
horizontal ones of curving up in the middle ~ p. 24 CD - @,
(j]). When taking these things into account, the designer
should not resort to the other extreme (Baroque) and, for
example, reinforce the effect of perspective by inclined
windows and cornices (St Peter's in Rome) or even by
cornices and vaulting painted in perspective and the like.
The decisive factor for the measurement of size is the size
of the field of view ~ @ and, if applicable, the field of vision
~ @ and, for the exact differentiation of details, the size of
the field of reading ~ @ and @. The distance of the latter
determines the size of the details to be differentiated.
The Greeks complied exactly with this rule. The size of
the smallest moulding under the cornice of the individual
temples of varying height is so dimensioned that, at an
angular distance of 27° ~ (j), it complies with the reading
field of 0°1'. From this also results the reading distances for
books (which varies with the size of the letters) and the
seating plans for auditoriums etc.
a 'L.;.b
beadln~~
the main
cornice
As in the previous examples,
the size of structural parts
which are differentiable
can be calculated using the
viewing distance and
trigonometry
~ 3.0 ---i
The field of view of the
normal fixed eye takes in a
perimeter of 10
(approx. the
area of a thumbnail of an
outstretched hand)
---"
In higher rooms, the eyes
must scan upwards (l.e, scan
picture)
individual
features can
present larger
surfaces to the
eye with a
little shaping
(j)
CD
15.0
~" ',.~"
" __- l"t
-----6~-- -- 2tO
.1.75
~ height necessary for
same effect at a
distance of 8.50 m
viewing distance E = object size -:- tan 0°1'
object size = E x tan 0°1' = 0.000291E
human 8.50m
To be readable at a distance
of, say, 700m the width w
of the letters must be:
? 700 x 0.000291 = 0.204;
height h is usually 5w:
5xO.204 = 1.020m
The eye can resolve detail within a perimeter of only 0 01'
(the
field of reading), thus limiting the distances at which objects
and shapes can be distinguished accurately ~ @
~ 3.0 ~
The human field of vision
(head still, moving the eyes
only) is 540
horizontally,
270
upwards and 100
downwards
The perception of a low room
is gained 'at a glance' (i.e.
still picture)
printed text T
17-34cm L!)
~""' N
~._ VI .0
f
70 ~ 1 '.:
jewellery
<,30cm hHntUre .- ~
~an4.0 m 'tU re 3.3011'
r te ~urn
y---orna
E
~ w?E,tanOol'=E-:-3450
E < 3450 x w
r·,::-__~T
~1
.-- lh ~
finer details
~ 2h ----1
general appearance
I 3h I
total overview of surrounding area
w = 1 part
)-- ~"1
h = 5 parts
only applicable with : .'
good illumination;
otherwise 1'/2 to
twice the size
CD
®
CD
® Street widths play an
important role in the level
of detail which is perceived
from ground level
® Parts of buildings meant
to be seen but sited above
projections must be placed
sufficiently high up (see a)
25

Colours have a power over humans. They can create
feelings of well-being, unease, activity or passivity, for
instance. Colouring in factories, offices or schools can
enhance or reduce performance; in hospitals it can have a
positive influence on patients' health. This influence works
indirectly through making rooms appear wider or narrower,
thereby giving an impression of space, which promotes a
feeling of restriction or freedom ~ @ - (J). It also works
directly through the physical reactions or impulses evoked
by the individual colours ~ @ and @. The strongest impulse
effect comes from orange; then follow yellow, red, green,
and purple. The weakest impulse effect comes from blue,
greeny blue and violet (i.e. cold and passive colours).
Strong impulse colours are suitable only for small areas
in a room. Conversely, low impulse colours can be used for
large areas. Warm colours have an active and stimulating
effect, which in certain circumstances can be exciting. Cold
colours have a passive effect - calming and spiritual. Green
causes nervous tension. The effects produced by colour
also depend on brightness and location.
Warm and bright colours viewed overhead have a
spiritually stimulating effect; viewed from the side, a
warming, drawing closer effect; and, seen below, a
lightening, elevating effect.
Warm and dark colours viewed above are enclosing or
dignified; seen from the side, embracing; and, seen below,
suggest safe to grip and to tread on.
Cold and bright colours above brighten things up and
are relaxing; from the side they seem to lead away; and,
seen below, look smooth and stimulating for walking on.
Cold and dark colours are threatening when above; cold
and sad from the side; and burdensome, dragging down,
when below.
White is the colour of total purity, cleanliness and order.
White plays a leading role in the colour design of rooms,
breaking up and neutralising other groups of colours, and
thereby create an invigorating brightness. As the colour of
order, white is used as the characteristic surface for
warehouses and storage places, for road lines and traffic
markings ~ @.
MAN AND COLOUR
active
carmine
Bright colours give a lift:
rooms seem higher with
emphasis on walls and
light ceilings
The colour circle's twelve
segments
passive
Bright and dark colours and
their effect on humans
®
CD
greeny
yellow
green
red
Dark colours make a room
heavy: rooms seem to be
lower, if ceilings are heavily
coloured
red
Light and heavy colours
(not the same as bright
and dark colours ~ @):
create a 'heavy' feeling
green
Goethe's natural colour circle:
red-btue-vellow triangle are
basic colours (from which all
colours can be mixed); green-
orang~violettriangle shows
colour mixtures of the first
rank
®
violet ..........---'"'*"------tyellow
CD
(j) Long rooms seem shorter
if end cross walls stand
out heavily
® White as a dominant colour,
e.g. in laboratories, factories
etc.
® Dark elements in front of
a bright wall give a
powerful effect
Bright elements in front of
a dark background seem
lighter, particularly when
over-dimensioned
Brightness of surfaces
Values between theoretical white (1000/0) and absolute black (00/0)
approx.20
approx.5
approx. 18
approx.33
approx. 18
approx.50
83
16
asphalt, dry
asphalt, wet
oak, dark
oak, light
walnut
light spruce
aluminium foil
galvanised iron sheet
grass green approx. 20
lime green, pastel approx. 50
silver grey approx. 35
grey lime plaster approx. 42
dry concrete, grey approx. 32
plywood approx.38
yellow brick approx. 32
red brick approx. 18
dark clinker approx. 10
mid stone colour 35
approx.25
approx.25
approx. 15
approx.40
16
10
approx.5
40-50
30
15
light brown
pure beige
mid brown
salmon pink
full scarlet
carmine
deep violet
light blue
deep sky bl ue
turquoise blue, pure
white paper 84
chalky white 80
citron yellow 70
ivory approx. 70
cream approx. 70
gold yellow, pure 60
straw yellow 60
light ochre approx. 60
pure chrome yellow 50
pure orange 25-30
26

DIMENSIONAL RELATIONSHIPS
Basis
There have been agreements on the dimensioning of
buildings since early times. Essential specific data
originated in the time of Pythagoras. He started from the
basis that the numerical proportions found in acoustics
must also be optically harmonious. From this, Pythagoras
developed his right-angled triangle --1 CD. It contains all the
harmonious interval proportions, but excludes both the
disharrnonious intervals (i.e. the second and seventh).
Space measurements are supposed to have been
derived from these numerical proportions. Pythagoras or
diophantine equations resulted in groups of nurnerals v- (2)
- @ that should be used for the width, height and length of
rooms. These groups can be calculated using the formula
a2 + b2 = c2.
a2 + b2 = c2
a = m(y2 - x2)
b=m-2-x-y
c = m(y2 + x2)
In this x and yare all whole numbers, x is smaller than y,
and m is the magnification or reduction factor.
The geometric shapes named by Plato and Vitruvius are
also of critical importance (i.e. circle, triangle --1 @ and square
~ ® from which polygonal traverses can be constructed).
The respective bisection then results in further polygonal
traverses. Other polygonal traverses (e.g. heptaqon v- @,
nonagon ~ @) can only be formed by approximation or by
superimposition. So we can construct a fifteen-sided figure
~ @ by superimposing the equilateral triangle on the
pentagon.
The pentagon or pentagram has a natural relationship
with the golden section, just like the decagon which is
derived from it @, @ and ~ p. 30. However, in earlier times
its particular dimensional relationships found hardly any
application. Polygonal traverses are necessary for the
design and construction of so-called 'round' structures. The
determination of the most important measurements (radius
r, chord c, and height of a triangle h) are shown in --1 @ and
@.
Pythagoras's triangle
~
12
® Square
8) Example
(3)
Equilateral triangle, hexagon
minor third 5/6
fourth 3/4
Some numerical relationships
from Pythagoras's equations
Pythagoras's rectangle includes
all interval proportions and
excludes the disharmonious
second and seventh
®
a a b c ~ m x y
36°87' 3 4 5 53°13' 1 1 2
22°62' 5 12 13 67°38' 1 2 3
16°26' 7 24 25 73°74' 1 3 4
28°07' 8 15 17 61°93' 0.5 3 5
12°68' 9 40 41 7]032' 1 4 5
18°92' 12 35 37 71°08' 0.5 5 7
43°60' 20 21 29 46°40' 0.5 3 7
31°89' 28 45 53 58°11' 0.5 5 9
h = %. cotanp
B
%=r.sin~
h = r • cos p
arc of the circle at A with AS results
in point 0 on AC = c-:
arc of the circle at C with CM results
in point E on arc of SO = a;
segment DE approximately corresponds
with 1/9 of the circle's circumference 0
@ Approximated nonagon
straight SC bisects AM at 0;
SO is approx. 1/7 of the circumference
of the circle
® Approximated heptagon
I---m---i
.....-....---M-------I
c
B
A
Fifteen angle Be =~ - ! =1-
5 3 15
~ M I m---4
~M-+-m-1
~M~m----i
r-m-t--M--tm+-M-i
I
®
I
I
I
I
I
I
I I I
~M-+--m--i
r-M--f-m"'"
~M--+--m~
f-m+-M~M-+-m-1
I I I I
I I I IT
I I
I I
: : m
, ,t
1
chord = r
A
bisection of the radius , S;
arc at S with AS C
A - C . side of a pentagon
o Pentagon
@ Pentagon and golden section @ Decagon and the golden
section
Measurement calculation in
polygonal traverse ~ p. 28
@ ~ @formula
27

Basis
~n = 1 + ~--=-l ~ Q]).
1+G
A right-angled isosceles (i.e. having two
equal sides) triangle with a base-to-height
ratio of 1:2 is the triangle of quadrature.
An isosceles triangle with a base and
sides that can be contained by a square was
successfully used by Knauth, the master of
cathedral construction, for the determination
of the dimensional relationships for the
Strasbourg Cathedral.
Drach's rr/4 triangle ~ CD is somewhat
more pointed than the previous one described, as its height
is determined by the point of a slewed square. It, too, was
successfully used for details and components.
Apart from these figures, the dimensional proportions of
the octagon can be detected on a whole range of old
structures. The so-called diagonal triangle serves as a basis
here. The triangle's height is the diagonal of the square built
on half the base ~ (2)- @.
The sides of the rectangle depicted in @ have a ratio of
1:~2. In accordance with this, all halvings or doublings of
the rectangle have the same ratio of 1: ~2. The 'step ladders'
within an octagon make available the geometric ranges in
(2)- @. The steps of square roots from 1-7 are shown in @.
The connection between square roots of whole numbers is
shown in (f).
The process of factoring makes possible the application
of square roots for building in non-rectangular components.
By building up approximated values for square figures,
Mengeringhausen developed the MERD space frames. The
principle is the so-called 'snail' ~ @ - @. The inaccuracies
of the right angle are compensated for by the screw
connections of the rods at the joints. A subtly differentiated
approximated calculation of square roots of whole numbers
vn for non-rectangular components is available from the
use of continued fractions (~ p. 30) in the formula
expressed as G =
7 = 2.646
t-- ----.,.;..... 6 = 2.450
1 (square)
2 = 1.414
~1
~---- 5 = 2.236
t--_-- 4 = 2.000
(double square)
3 = 1.732
1---1 ~
® Step ladder of square roots
10
o Squares developed from the
octagon ~ (2)- @
450
'At
'At If.
'At v'2
If. '12
If. v'2
'12
rr/4 triangle
(according to A. V. Drach)
r------- 1 - - - - . . I
® 1: 2 rectangle
CD
(}) Connection between square
roots
20
28
40
28
® The 'Snail'
1 I )11 1
0.5 2ktJ' 1.5
0.6 51 7 1.4
0.58333 ... 12 17 1.41667...
0.58621 ... 29~4t 1.41379 ...
0.5857143 ... 701 99 1.4142857 ...
0.5857989 ... 169 !239 1.4142011 ...
0.5857865 ... v'2 1.4142135...
® Non-rectangular co-ordination -
MERO space frames: building
on 2 and 3 ..
~ pp. 90-91
@ Continued fraction 2
28

Application
The application of geometrical and dimensional relationships on
the basis of the details given earlier was described by Vitruvius.
According to his investigations, the Roman theatre, for example,
is built on the triangle turned four times ~ CD the Greek theatre
on a square turned three times ~ (2). Both designs result in a
dodecagon. This is recognisable on the stairs. Moessel has tried
to detect the use of proportional relationships in accordance with
the golden section ~ @, although this is not obvious. The only
Greek theatre whose plan view is based on a pentagon stands in
Epidaurus ~ @.
In a housing estate recently uncovered in Antica-Ostia, the old
harbour of Rome, the golden section is recognised as being the
design principle. This principle consists of a bisection of the
diagonal of a square. If the points at which the arc of the circle cuts
the sides of the square are joined with '-J2/2, a nine-part grid is
obtained. The square in the middle is called the square of the Holy
Section. The arc AB has up to a 0.60
/0 deviation and the same
length as the diagonal CD of the base square. Thus the Holy
Section shows an approximate method for squaring the circle ---4
@- @. The whole building complex, from site plan to the general
arrangement details, is built with these dimensional proportions.
In his four books on architecture, Palladia gives a
geometrical key, which is based on the details given by
Pythagoras. He uses the same space relationships (circle,
triangle, square, etc.) and harmonies for his structures ( '> ®
and @).
Such laws of proportion can be found formulated in
absolutely clear rules by the cultures of the ancient peoples of
the Far East ~ @. The Indians with their 'Manasara', the
Chinese with their modulation in accordance with the 'Toukou'
and, particularly, the Japanese with their 'Kiwariho' method
have created structural systematics, which guarantee
traditional development and offer immense economic
advantages.
In the 18th century and later, it was not a harmonic but an
additive arrangement of dimensions which was preferred ~ @.
The Octameter system developed from this. It was only with the
introduction of the modular ordering system that the
understanding of harmonic and proportional dimensional
relationships returned ~ @ and @. Details of the coordination
system and coordination dimensions are given on pp. 34-5.
1 newest
cavea
2 oldest
cavea
3 orchestra
4 scenery
storage
5 side
gangway
6 retaining
wall
Greek theatre (according to
Vitruvius)
® Geometrical principle
x x y/x (12 = 1.4142...)
1 1 1
2 3 1.5
5 7 1.4
12 17 1.4/66...
24 41 1.4/37...
o Theatre at Epidaurus
CD
Holy Section, building in
Antica-Ostia
Dimensional proportions of
the gable corner of a Doric
temple on the basis of the
golden section (according
to Moessel)
CD
G) Roman theatre (according to
Vitruvius)
29
@ Palladio, Villa Pisani at Bagodo
@ Octagonal coordination system
for columns made of squares,
each subdivided into six
fa~ade elements, 48 angles
developed from a triangle ---4 @
Plan view of the BMW
Administration Building in
Munich
Geometric key to Palladio's
villas
®
@
Floor mosaic in a house at
Antica-Ostia
®
@ Guildhouse Rugen in Zurich
I:H
Plan view of the whole
installation
® Japanese treasury building

Application of Le Modulor
The architect Le Corbusier developed a theory of
proportion, which is based on the golden section and the
dimensions of the human body. The golden section of a
segment of a line can be determined either geometrically or
by formulae. It means that a line segment can be divided so
that the whole of the line segment can be related to a bigger
dividing segment, just as the larger is to the smaller -4 CD.
That is: _1_ major
major minor
and shows the connection of proportional relationships
between the square, the circle and the triangle ~ (2).
The golden section of a line segment can also be
determined by a continued fraction
G = 1 + l
G
This is the simplest unending regular continued fraction. Le
Corbusier marked out three intervals in the human body,
which form a known golden section series according to
Fibonacci. These are between the foot, the solar plexus, the
head, the finger of the raised hand. First of all Le Corbusier
started out from the known average height for Europeans
(1.75m ~ pp. 16-17), which he divided up in accordance
with the golden section into 108.2 - 66.8 - 41.45 - 25.4cm >
@.
As this last dimension was almost exactly equal to 10
inches, he found in this way a connection with the English
inch, although not for the larger dimensions. For this
reason, Le Corbusier changed over in 1947 to 6 English feet
(1.828 m) as the height of the body. By golden section
division he built the red row up and down -> @. As the steps
in this row are much too big for practical use, he also built
up a blue row, starting from 2.26 m (i.e. the finger tips of the
raised hand), which gave double the values expressed in
the red row ~ @. The values of the red and blue rows were
converted by Le Corbusier into dimensions which were
practically applicable.
2 parts
3 parts
5 parts
8 parts
13 parts
21 parts
34 parts
55 parts
89 parts
- 144 parts
1
G= 1 +G
G= 1 +..!..
1+1
1+1
1+1
1+1
1+1
1...
major minor
Connection between square,
circle, and triangle
I~
B
minor
E
major
Geometric design of the
golden section
~ m=O.382 -~---M=O.618-----1
A------.a---......-...
representation of the Lamesch Row from Neufert
'Bauordnungslehre'
o Continued fraction: golden section
o Proportional figure
values expressed in the metric system
red row: re blue row: bl
centimetre metre centimetre metre
95280.7 952.8
58886.87 588.86 117773.5 1177.73
36394.0 363.94 72788.0 727.88
22492.7 224.92 44985.5 449.85
13901.3 139.01 27802.5 278.02
8591.4 85.91 17182.9 171.83
5309.8 53.10 10619.6 106.19
3281.6 32.81 6563.3 65.63
2028.2 20.28 4056.3 40.56
1253.5 12.53 2506.9 25.07
774.7 7.74 1549.4 15.49
478.8 4.79 957.6 9.57
295.9 2.96 591.8 5.92
182.9 1.83 365.8 3.66
113.0 1.13 226.0 2.26
69.8 0.70 139.7 1.40
43.2 0.43 86.3 0.86
26.7 0.27 53.4 0.53
16.5 0.16 33.0 0.33
10.2 0.10 20.4 0.20
6.3 0.06 7.8 0.08
2.4 0.02 4.8 0.04
1.5 0.01 3.0 0.03
0.9 1.8 0.01
0.6 1.1
®
~
75 216
C ~
106 ,.... B
A 0
~
unit A = 108
double B = 216
o increase in length of A = C = 175
oreduction in length of B = 0 = 83
.....:..: ~..:::::::::::::.'
o Le Modulor
® Explanation of the values and sets of the Le Modulor according
to Le Corbusier
® The limitless values of figures
30

BUILDING SUPERVISION
CD A sheet from the room record book
.....10...
~~
-...........
~
~
~~
element
subject
1 ~o ....• floor
la 21-- skirting
2 5 ~ ""~ wall sockets
2a "1-' wall
2h 2.. - trieze
3 cetlrng
4 door
4a architrave
4b door Illlrng
4c door Ironrnongery
4d lock group
5 window
5a curtain rods
5b rronrnongery
5c closures
5d window Sill
6 radiator
6a pipes
6b
7 venttlatorgrille
8 lights
9 SWitches
9a plugs
10 public telephone
lOa house telephone
11 bell push
lla bell
12 washbasin
12a hot/cold
12b taps
13 huilt m cupboards
14 otherlterns
15 furniture
code no.
For any construction project, completed standard description
forms give the most valuable and clearest information, and are
ideal for estimating, for the construction supervisor and as a
permanent reference in the site office. Any time-consuming
queries based on false information are virtually eliminated; the
time gained more than compensating the effort involved in
completing the record book. At the top of the form, there are
columns for entering relevant room dimensions, in a way easily
referred to. The inputs are most simply made using key words.
The column 'size' should be used merely for entry of the
necessary dimensions of the items, e.g., the height of the
skirting board or the frieze, the width of the window sill, etc.
Finally, several spaces are provided for special components. A
space should be left free under each heading, so that the form
can easily be extended for special cases. The reverse side of the
form is best left free so that drawings may be added to
elaborate on the room description on the next sheet. The A4
format pages are duplicated, each position containing exactly
the same text; the sheets are kept up to date and eventually
bound together. At the conclusion of the building work, the
record book is the basis for the settlement of claims, using the
dimensions at the head of the room pages. Later, the record
book provides an objective record of progress, and is available
for those with specialist knowledge.
BASIC MEASUREMENT
mantissas
I
.1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 .0
coupling with measurement system: 2.5m = 25dm = 250cm = 2500mm
o Representation of the Standard Number Series (base series 10)
1
K 4444
zone boundaries
standard number series R10
n.Z
approx. n
values {7
Kienzle I
T.H. Berlin
1941
~ = lV'1Q¢:::::J coupling with decimal and doubling/halving systems 1On
IT
~10 Zrr g ~ rr2
! V
CD ~ <9>0 ~ <@>GJ 0 <§> 81 [10'
<1D> CJI) ~ <E> @ ~ <§> @ [~J ~O<p
@ ~<§>@B ~<§>@ ~<~~U~:
axial lines
Standard measurements
The controlling dimensions are dimensions between key
reference planes (e.g. floor-to-floor height); they provide not
only a framework for design but also a basis which components
and assemblies may refer to --7 @.
Standard dimensions are theoretical but, in practice, they
provide the basis for individual, basic structural and finished
measurements; thus all building components are linked in an
organised way (e.g. standard building brick length = 250 mm
(225 mm in UK), in situ concrete wall thickness = 250 mm.)
9 controlllll g ?controlling?
I~ ( Jl
dirnenslon.llrnenslon_
Jj!=~~~~-~-l~~
g' gI i i
Jj~----~---~t
i I I
i i i
o Horizontal controlling dimension
Standard Numbering System
Metric units of linear measurement were first defined in France
in 1790, although official recognition did not take place until
1840. The metre was established as the new decimal unit of
length on a scientific basis, defined as the length of a simple
pendulum having a swing of one second at sea level on latitude
45°. A standard numbering system was devised in Germany,
shortly after World War I, to achieve uniformity and
standardisation in the measurement of machines and technical
equipment - a system also used in France and the USA. The
starting point for measurement is the Continental unit of
measurement: the metre. In the Imperial system (used in the
UK, USA and elsewhere), 40 inches = 1.016m;:::; 1.00m.
The requirement of building technology for geometrical
subdivisions precluded the use of the purely decimal
subdivision of the metre, so the Standard Numbering System,
based on the structure of 2s, was introduced into the decimal
structure: 1,2,4,8, 16,31.5,63, 125,250,500, 1000 --7 @. (The
coarser 5-part division and the finer 20- and 40-part division
series are inserted appropriately with their intermediate
values.) The geometrical 10-part division of the standard
number series was formed from the halving series (1000, 500,
250, 125, ...) and from the doubling series (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, ...).
Because IT = 3.14 and 110;::; 3.16, the number 32, following 16 in
the series, was rounded down to 31.5. Similarly, in the halving
sequence, 62.5 was rounded up to 63.
Standard numbers offer many advantages in calculations:
the product and quotient of any two standard numbers are
standard numbers
2 integer powers of standard numbers are standard numbers,
and
3 double (or half) a standard number is a standard number.
Building measurements
In contrast to engineering, in building construction, there is little
requirement for a geometric division as opposed to the
prevailing arithmetic addition of identical structural components
(e.g. blocks, beams, joists, girders, columns and windows).
Routine measurements for standard components must,
therefore, comply with these requirements. However, they
should also conform to concepts of technical standardisation
and the standard numbering system. A standard system of
measurement for building construction was based on the
standard numbering system, and this is the basis for many
further building standards and of measurement for design and
construction, particularly in building construction above ground.
31

preferred series for basic preferred series for preferred series for
construction individual finishing
measurements
a b c d e f g h I
25
25 as ~ ~=~
5 2 x 5 4x5 5 X 5
2 3 4 10 2
2.5
5
6 1/ 4 7.5
8 1/3 10 10 10
12 1/ 2 12.5
12 1/ 2 15 15
162/3 17.5
183/ 4 20 20 20 20
22.5
25 25 25 25 25 25 25
27.5
31 1/ 4 30 30 30
33 1/3 32.5
35 35
37 1/ 2 37 1/ 2 37.5
41 2/3 40 40 40 40
43 3/ 4 42.5
45 45
50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50
52.5
56 1/ 4 55 55
58 1/3 57.5
60 60 60 60
62 1/ 2 62 1/ 2 62.5
65 65
66 2/3 68 3/ 4 67.5
70 70 70
72.5
75 75 75 75 75 75 75
77.5
81 1/ 4 80 80 80 80
83 1/3 82.5
85 85
87 1/ 2 87 1/ 2 87.5
912/3 90 90 90
93 3/ 4 92.5
95 95
97.5
100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
CD Standard building dimensions
BASIC MEASUREMENTS
Individual (mostly small) dimensions are used for details of
basic construction/ finishing (e.g., thickness of joints/ plaster,
dimensions of rebates, wall fixings/tolerances). Basic
structural measurements relate, for example, to masonry
(excluding plaster thicknesses), structural floor thicknesses,
unplastered doors and window openings. Finished
measurements refer to the finished building (e.g. net
measurements of surface finished rooms and openings, net
areas and finished floor levels). For building construction
without joints, nominal dimensions equal the standard
dimensions; with joints, the allowance for the joint is
subtracted: e.g. building brick nominal length = standard
length (250mm) - thickness of intermediate joint (10mm) =
240 mm; nominal thickness of in-situ concrete walls =
standard thickness = 250 mm. In accordance with the
standard number and measurement systems, small
dimensions (~25mm), are chosen (in mm) as: 25, 20,16,12.5,
10, 8, 6.3, 5, 3.2, 2.5, 2, 1.6, 1.25, 1. In many European
countries, even small structural components conform with
the standard building numbering system, e.g. standardised
building bricks. A nominal brick dimension of 240x 115 mm
reconciles the old non-metric format (250 x 120 mm or
260x 130 mm with joints) with the new standard
(250x 125 mm with joints). With the appropriate height, with
joint, of 62.5 mm (nominal brick dimension = 52 rnrn), this
gives an aspect ratio of 250x125x62.5 - 4:2:1. -4 @
Other basic construction component dimensions (e.g.
concrete blocks _ p. 63, window and door openings--4 p.
176-87 and floor levels) are similarly aligned, so these
numerical values reoccur. The UK brickwork dimensions
differ: in the past, large variations in the size of ordinary
fired clay products often led to critical problems when
bonding clay bricks; now, BS 3921: 1895 provides one
standard for dimensioning (_ @): coordinating size
(225x112.5x75mm, including 10mm in each direction for
joints and tolerances), and the relating work size (215 (2
headers plus 1 joint) x 102.5 x 65mm).
A wall elevation illustrating brick sizes in the UK
Standard dimensions for
basic construction (RR) and
nominal dimensions (NM)
for brickwork
For openings: NM = RR + 2
x 1/2 joint = RR + 2.5 mm
CD
one course of
headers
one course of
stretchers
10 mm joints
65 mm actual
75 mm format
102.5 mm actual
112.5 mm format
215 mm actual
225 mm format
10
II
215
225
10
II
215
225
10
II
215
225
10
II
standard dimensions: 250 x 125 x 62.5 mm
nominal dimensions: 240 x 115 x 52 mm
215
225
10
II
215
225
I 112.5 I 112.5 I 112.5 I 112.5 I 112.5 I 112.5 I 112.5 I 112.5 I 112.5 I
10102.510102.5101025101025101025101025101025101025 10 102 510
II II I I ' II . II . II . II . II . II . II
I II II II II IC=-
JDDDDDDDDDD--
I II II II II I[
JDDDDDDDDDD
I II II II II IE~---l...--- joints
JDDDDDDDDDD
LCl
r--
LCl
r--
LCl
r--
LCl
r--
LCl
r--
LCl LCl
r-- <.0
®
® Nominal and standard dimensions for continental European wall bricks
32

roof slope for slate roofs
and pantiled roofs
roof slope for all plain
tiled roofs
felt roofing for
625 -I 25% Iaccommodation,
also appropriate for flat
roman-tiled roofs
200 - c::=:iXJ felt roofing for
125 -C1KJ wooden structures
felt roofing for steel and
reinforced concrete/steel
concrete construction
I
I 2.500 -1100 %1
I
I
03.125 -1125% I
, I
/ I pointed roof for specific
/' areas and purposes
"
,"
,,I
I
,
""
,
,,"
1°22'ZO·
4 °
BASIC MEASUREMENTS
(accommodation or slab structures), a basic measurement
of 2.50/2 = 1.25 m, or a multiple thereof, can be used. This
results in intermediate dimensions of 1.25, 3.75, 6.25,
8.75 m. However, so far as possible, these sub-dimensions
should not be used above 10m.
Appropriate geometric steps over 10m are recommended
as follows: 12.50 m, 15.00 m, 20.00 m, 25.00 m, 30.00 m,
40.00m, 50.00m, 60.00m, (62.50m), 80.00m, 100.00m.
Roof slopes depend on the type of roofing and the sub-
construction employed. The following roof slopes have been
established to correspond with practical requirements:
1:20 for boarded roofing on steel and reinforced
concrete structures and wood cement roofs, with
the exception of special designs such as shell and
saw-tooth roofs, etc.
1:12.5 for boarded roofing on wooden structures
1:4 for corrugated cement roofing, ridged zinc
roofing, corrugated sheet roofing, steel roofs on
lattice work or casings, ribbed steel roofs of
galvanised, double folded sheet and roofing in
waterproof paper-based materials for
accommodation premises
1:2 for flat roofs, etc.
The systematic unification of industrial and
accommodation structures has been a gradual process of
type development.
The cited axis spacings influence the individual
structural components: columns, walls, ceilings, trusses,
purlins, rafters, roof planking, windows, glazing, doors,
gates, crane runways and other elements. The
establishment of a specified basic measurement for the
spacing of axes creates the prerequisites for a hierarchical
system of measurement standardisation for individual
structural components and their matching interconnection.
The spacings between axes are simply added together,
without intermediate measurements. However, masonry,
glass panes, reinforced concrete panels etc., must include
an element for the jointing arrangements.
The points of support for a travelling crane can be
unified on the basis of the standardised axis spacings.
The matched, standardised components and assemblies
are interchangeable, can be prepared off-site and used in a
versatile manner. Mass production, interchangeability of
components/assemblies and the availability of standardised
components and assemblies in store result in savings in
work, materials, costs and time. The arrangement of the
structural axes brings considerable simplification to
building supervision.
--'-- 2 ellen --iIr- 2 ellen ---i- 2 ellen -4- 2 ellen ------ 2 ellen ~
~ 4 feet -t- 4 feet -+- 4 feet -f- 4 feet -t- 4 feet +--
--;---125 • 125 + 125 • 12S * 125~ CIIl
• • k * • *
Japan has the oldest building size regulations where,
following the great fire in Tokyo in 1657, the style and size
of houses were laid down on the basis of systematic
measurement according to the 'Kiwariho method'. The
basic dimension was the Ken = 6 Japanese feet = 1.818m.
The distances between the wall axes were measured in half
or whole Ken, windows doors and even mat sizes were
determined on this basis, which considerably simplified
house building in Japan, making it quicker and cheaper.
Examples ~ BOL.
In Germany, a similar system was developed in the area
of half-timbered construction, prior to the introduction of
the metre. The determining unit was the Prussian foot,
which was most widely propagated and corresponded to
the Rhenish and Danish foot.
The dimension between the axes of uprights was mostly
1 Gefach = 2 Ellen = 4 feet ----) CD. The Prussian, Rhenish and
Danish foot, still in use in building practice in Denmark, is
translated as 312.5mm, the Elle as 625mm and the Gefach
as 1.25 m, in the metric system. Private construction firms
had adopted a similar system of 1.25 m, for their system
buildings, particularly for wood panel construction.
The UK and USA adopted a system of measurement
based on 4 feet, which is close to 1.25 m, with 4 English feet
= 1.219 m. Building panels (e.g. hardboard) manufactured
on US machines are therefore 1.25 m wide in countries
using the metric system. German pumice boards for roofs
also have the standard dimension of 2 x 1.25 = 2.50 m, the
same as plaster boards. Finally, 125 is the preferred number
in the standard number system. The series of
measurements resulting from 1.25 m was standardised in
Germany in 1942 with the corresponding roof slopes ----) CV.
In the meantime, thousands of types of structural
components have been produced to this system of
measurement. The distance between the axes of beams in
finished ceilings today is, accordingly, usually 125/2 =
625mm = the length of the stride of a human adult ----) p. 17.
Unified distances between axes for factory and
industrial premises and accommodation
Industrial structures and structures for accommodation are
mostly subdivided in plan into a series of axes at right
angles. The line of measurement for these axes is always
the axis of the structural system of the construction. The
separations between axes are dimensional components of
the plan, which determine the position of columns,
supports, the centres of walls, etc. In the case of rigid
frames, the centre axes of the bearing points of the
foundations are decisive. The measurements are always
referenced to the horizontal plan and vertical projection
plane, even in the case of sloping roofs.
In industrial structures, a basic measurement of 2.5 m
applies to the spacing of axes. Multiples of this give axis
spacing of 5.0, 7.5 and 10.0 m, etc. In special cases
G) Old Danish framed building with 1 'Gefach' separation between
the axes of the uprights CD Roof slopes at regular intervals appropriate to specified types of
roof construction
33

Floor-to-floor height:
30M = 300:19 = 15.8
select 16 steps
step rise:
h = 3
1°6°
= 18.75 cm
Overall length:
16.26 = 416cm
select 420 = 42 M
Tread going:
b=419=26.2cm
16
(assuming joint dimension of 1em)
MODULAR SYSTEM
International agreements on the planning and execution of
building work and for the design and manufacture of
building components and semi-finished products are
incorporated into national standards. The modular system
is a means of coordinating the dimensions applicable to
building work.
The term 'coordination' is the key, indicating that the
modular layout involves an arrangement of dimensions and
the spatial coordination of structural components. Therefore,
the standards deal with geometrical and dimensional
requirements. The modular system develops a method of
design and construction which uses a coordinate system as a
means of planning and executing building projects. A
coordinate system is always related to specific objects.
Geometric considerations
By means of the system of coordinates, buildings and
components are arranged and their exact positions and
sizes specified. The nominal dimensions of components as
well as the dimensions of joints and interconnections can
thereby be derived. ~ CD - ®, @
A coordinate system consists of planes at right angles to
each other, spaced according to the coordinate
measurements. Depending on the system, the planes can
be different in size and in all three dimensions.
As a rule, components are arranged in one dimension
between parallel coordinate planes so that they fill up the
coordinate dimension, including the allowance allocated to
the joints and also taking the tolerances into account. Hence
a component can be specified in one dimension in terms of
its size and position. This is referred to as boundary
reference. ~-1 (f) -~ @
In other cases, it can be advantageous not to arrange a
component between two planes, but rather to make the
central axis coincide with one plane of the coordinate system.
The component is initially specified in one dimension with
reference to its axis, but in terms of position only. -C> (]) • C!~
A coordinate system can be divided into sub-systems for
different component groups, e.g. load-bearing structure,
component demarcating space, etc ...~ ®
It has been established that individual components need
not be modularised, e.g. individual steps on stairways,
windows, doors, etc. ~ @
For non-modular components which run along or across
the whole building, a so-called 'non-modular' zone can be
introduced, which divides the coordinate system into two-
sub systems. The assumption is that the dimension of the
component in the non-modular zone is already known at
the time of setting out the coordinate system, since the non-
modular zone can only have completely specified
dimensions. ~ ®
Further possible arrangements of non-modular
components are the so-called centre position and edge
position within modular zones.-1 ® - @
•
Relationship between axis
reference and modular
material zone
Superimposed partial
coordinate system
@
®
",
o Coordinate plane
r~ •
Boundary reference Axis reference
(j) Boundary reference,
axis reference
~@
o Coordinate space (bounded
by 6 planes)
Laterally connected, non-
modular components in an
edge position
Laterally connected, non-
modular components in a
central position
Coordinate point (point of
intersection of 3 planes)
Alignment of coordinate
(intersection line of 2 planes)
Components in the
coordinate system
l:l:lltl:]
l=lj:t:l=l
204M
r
~~72M- -48M- -----84M~
~
112 12Y18 30 30 18 12Y 30 18?1212
Y ? i 6t--61
I T 121
1
r ~itchen ...ztore 33M T
v
staff WCF WCM
r-, L ~ :12T 15
3i
M
V cafeteria/ T
3JM
96M 114M
till/
snacks JP
)
I
kiosk r-,
12 l 0
" 12
V ""
'" ~ 12 12M
I
1
, r
I
;:)=tz;;I~==r::
® Non-modular zone
®
CD
CD Coordinate system
@ Preliminary design - motorway service area @ Reinforced concrete staircase unit
34

35
mosaic
modules
switching facilities
measuring
instruments
gas, water
valves
method of
construction for
electronic equipment
means of transport loading devices
I transportation I
Example of the linkage of technical areas using modular arrangements
building
furniture
®
® Application of rotation about 45° using 12 M in the plan view
COORDINATE SYSTEM AND
DIMENSIONING
Modular Arrangements in Building Practice
The units for the modular arrangement are M = 100mm for
the basic module and 3 M = 300 mm, 6 M = 600 mm, and
12 M = 1200 mm, for the multi-modules. The limited
multiples of the preferred numerical series are generated in
this way. The coordinate dimensions - theoretical standard
dimensions - are, ideally, generated from these. These
limitations are the result of functional, constructional and
economic factors. ~ CD
In addition, there are standardised, non-modular
extending dimensions, 1= 25mm, 50mm and 75mm, e.g., for
matching and overlapping connection of components. --) @
The coordinate system in practical usage
Using rules of combination, different sizes of components
can also be arranged within a modular coordinate system.
~@
With the help of calculations with numerical groups (e.g.
Pythagoras) or by factorisation (e.g. continued fractions),
non-rectangular components can also be arranged within a
modular coordinate system. ~ (2) + ®
By constructing polygonal traverses (e.g. triangular,
rectangular, pentagonal and the halves of the same), the so-
called 'round' building structures can be devised. --) (J) - @
Using modular arranqernents, technical areas such as those
for structural engineering, electrotechnology, transport-
ation, which are dependent on each other from a
geometrical and dimensional viewpoint, can be combined.
--)@
Compensating
measures on the
horizontals
n9 M =
0> (n3 - n6) . M
1M
the smallest dimension to be
achieved from which a
continuous sequence
commences, is calculated with
the critical number (crit N)
crit N = (a -1) x (b -1)
Modular polygonal traverse
"7'"=
(n, - "9)' M
Compensating measure on
the verticals
I I
IIat + a2 = n•. M
a2 + a3 = n5 · M
n, M(n,:n,l .Mil"' + ". = ", . M
~
®
1M series 30 fold
12 M and 6 M series unlimited
3 M series 16 fold
vertical:
6M and 3 M series 20 fold
1 M series 30 fold
12 M series unlimited
horizontal:
limitation:
CD
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
l
56
57
~4 I i I I i I I
Construction of a curving
roof edge from regular
polygonal traverses (site plan)
c:::J 0
12 M + 5 M crit N = (12-1) • (5-1) = 44
Combination of component dimensions without a common divisor
4 n M
or . 4 n m M or. 4 n m M
Example application, sloping
roof
0 000 U~'
0 0 0
BD 0
0 0 J:J 0 ,g
D Il 0 ---J
,.---, n ,.....-,1,.....-, ,.---,
c 0
1 r ?
22 29 139
22 34 34
27 24 39
27 129" 4
27 41 22
139 29 22
22 46 22
I ~,g 51
I 51 39
I 56 34
I 68 22
22 68
4--f ~....- 90
63
I I I I I
o
'l1ult,plesofttJef1lolt'll1odule rnuluptes of tne
17M 6M 3M nasn rnooule M
-- >--
I--.~
I--- - f---
1-...
~.
--~
~. -
F7L~.
~I:
..------
~
./
./
.... 1M
_.-
15M
-----
-, 111M
-
~~-~.
21M
M ". 4101
~
~_._-
:~
-------- '101
~
M
36M 1Ii~
~-I
~, YI~~
>-_ _ _ 7 ~;7J ~ I-
~ '-----
""-- 60- MJI z=:~
----~
--.- -
IIt
- --
:=::=-m -
l - - - - - _
t- --
- - - -
__ I M
1 - - - -
~------
, - 1---- ----- -----
us.
G) Preferred numbers
r~ /
<>--1 E
~ c
CD

BUILDING DETAILS
Functional Use of Materials
In the earliest civilisations, building form was dictated by
the techniques of binding, knotting, tying, plaiting and
weaving. Building in timber followed later, and in nearly all
civilisations became the basis for architectural form (see the
example of the Greek temple ~ CD and (2)).
Recognition of this is relatively recent, but there is an
increasing number of examples which support the accuracy
of this theory. Uhde researched this matter at length and
established that Moorish architectural skills originate from
timber construction, in particular the Alhambra at Granada.
The internal surface decor of Moorish buildings has its
source in weaving techniques (like the ribbons and beaded
astragals on Greek buildings), although it was actually
pressed into the gypsum by moulds or inlaid as 'Azujelos'
(glazed strips of clay). In several rooms of the Alcazar in
Seville one can clearly see in the corners of the rooms the
knotting together of the walls in the gypsum finish exactly
in the way that the wall carpets of the tents were knotted at
the corners in earlier centuries. Here the form derived from
tent construction was simply transferred to the gypsum
mould.
Under the same conditions, forms which result from the
material, construction and functional requirements are
similar or even identical in every country and time.
The 'eternal form' was traced by V. Wersin with
convincing examples. He showed that utensils used in the
Far East and in Europe in 3000 Be are strikingly similar to
those in use today. With new material, new technology and
changing use, a different form inevitably evolves, even
though embellishments can obscure or conceal the true
form, or even give the impression of something quite
different (baroque). The spirit of the age tends to decide the
form of the building.
Today, in the buildings of other periods, we study not so
much the result as the origin of the art. Each style arrives at
its 'eternal form', its true culmination, after which it is
developed and refined. We still strive after a true expression
with our use of concrete, steel and glass. We have achieved
success in finding some new and convincing solutions for
factories and monumental buildings, in which the need for
extensive window areas determines and expresses the
structure.
The plain and distinct representation of the building
parts, in conformity with their technical functions, provides
possibilities for new forms in the details and the outward
expression of buildings. Herein lies the new challenge for
architects today. It is wrong to believe that our age needs
only to develop clean technological solutions and leave it to
the next period to cultivate a new form emanating from
these structures ~ (2). On the contrary, every architect has
the duty to harness contemporary technical possibilities
extensively and to exploit their artistic potential to create
buildings that express the ethos of the modern world (} p.
39). This requires tact, restraint, respect for the
surroundings, organic unity of building, space and
construction, and a harmonious relationship between the
articulation of interior spaces and the exterior form, in
addition to fulfilling technological, organisational and
economic demands. Even major artists with true creative
drive Cthose who have something to say') are subject to
these restrictions and are influenced by the spirit of the age.
The clearer the artistic vision or the view of life of the
artist, the more mature and rich the content of his work, and
the longer it will endure as a beautiful object of true art for
all time.
Reinforced concrete building
with supports in external
wall, fronted by outer leaf of
parapet wall supported by
the cantilevered floor
Rubble walls need framing
with dressed stones ~ p. 37
Stone construction
developed by the Greeks
and based on CD
®
CD
Nailed timber frame.
Practical and economical
but without character; best
hidden behind cladding
Original timber construction
used as a basis for the
design of the Greek temple
®
CD Timber construction
3 (similar to (J))still used in
many countries
36
CD Reinforced concrete
structure with internal
columns, cantilevered floor
and continuous ribbon
windows
® Reinforced concrete
mushroom structure with
light steel supports in
outer wall between
windows ~ p. 38

------
The Sassanians in Persia
(6th century AD) constructed
their first domes on a square
plan; transition from square
to circle via squinch arches
The Result of Construction
FORM
The Romans built the first
stone domes on a circular
plan (e.g., in its purest form,
Pantheon, Rome)
/'
o
entry
ice for windows
Similarly, Eskimos build
summer houses of skin-
clad whale ribs with
windows made from seals'
intestines, akin to the
wigwam; winter houses are
made of snow blocks
winter house
'igloo'
snow blocks
(3)
Primitives build circular
huts with local materials:
stones, poles and woven
lianas are clad with leaves,
straw, reeds, hides etc.
VAULTING
® 1400 years ago, Byzantine
architects created domes on
the square plan of the Hagia
Sophia, using the pendentive.
Construction obscured inside
(i.e. dematerialisation)
® As well as circular domes,
barrel vaulting was widely
used (e.g. Mesopotamia:
reed ribs were covered
with rush mats)
o Barrel vaulting in masonry
was first used by the
Romans and later appeared
in Romanesque architecture
(e.g. Sibenik church,
Yugoslavia)
® Gothic architecture evolved
from cross-vaulting, allowing
the vaulting of oblong bays
by using the pointed arch
(characteristic buttresses
and flying buttresses)
TIMBER
STONE
Panel construction uses
large prefabricated wall
panels, which are quick and
inexpensive to erect
@
In contrast, this framed
building has isolated
windows and corner struts;
the panels are interlaced
wickerwork with mud or clay
rendering (wattle and daub)
In areas short of timber,
buildings used wood posts;
posts have windows between
them and there are braces in
the window breasts
Block-houses in wooded
countries have a universal
form dictated by the nature of
their construction
®
,/"'-II~ .
I :'
( "
/ : ~
@ Buildings of field stones
without mortar (uncoursed
random rubble) must have a
low plinth; the structure
consists almost entirely of
roof, with a low entrance
Cut and dressed stones
allow the construction of
higher walls; with mortar
joints, gables in stone with
arched or vaulted openings
become practicable
@ From a later period: framed
openings and corners with
carefully formed, dressed
stones; the rest of the
walls in rubble masonry
which was then rendered
@ The desire for larger windows
in town buildings led to a
stone pillar construction style
similar to the earlier timber
post method . -) @
To begin with, it is always construction that is the basis of
form. Later it develops onto a pure, and often abstract form,
which is initially adopted when new building materials are
introduced. Numerous examples of this can be found in
history, from ancient stone tombs, in which even the lay
observer can discern the basic timber form, to the
automobile of 1900 that imitated the horse-drawn carriage
(even down to the provision of a whip holder).
37

STEEL
..-"
Modern Construction Techniques and Forms
FORM
f3 Architect:
V L. Mies van der Rohe
CD
Slender supports give steel-framed construction the lightest
possible appearance -~ CD. However, this form is not
permitted everywhere. Exterior unenclosed supports are
rarely allowed -~ ~ but, if combined with externally visible
horizontal girders, can create an especially light but solid
appearance of unobstructed space -~ @. Steel and
aluminium structures are particularly suitable for light open
halls with few supports and cantilevered roofs ---> @.
REINFORCED CONCRETE
® ® Architect:
Frank Lloyd Wright (})
Architect:
7 Frank Lloyd Wright ®
Architect:
8 Frank Lloyd Wright
SHELL ROOFS
For many building types, building regulations require fire
resistant or even fire proof construction and encased steel
members consequently resemble reinforced concrete.
@
2 Architect:
Neufert
Typical characteristics are cantilevered floors on beams.
@ from tower cores -) @, or house core supports • (j), or
as mushroom structures -) @.
(.;:; Architect:
~ Oscar Niemeyer
®
shell -) @, rhythmically arranged transverse shells -4 (iv, rows
of shells with inclined supports at neutral points @.
@
concrete suspended diaphragms with rigid edge beams can
create economical and impressive buildings ) @, and may
be used as basis for cantilever constructions --~ @.
W Architects:
!..::J M. Novicki with M. Deitrick
Cable structures for long spans have been in use since early
times ~ @. Circus tents are the best-known lightweight
suspended diaphragm structure -) @. Modern reinforced
In shell structures, forces are distributed uniformly in all
directions. Types include: cupola with segments -) @, oblong
CABLE STRUCTURES
The challenge for architects is to create form based on a
fusion of architectural expression and knowledge of the
technological principles of modern construction
techniques. This unity was lost in the wake of the Industrial
Revolution, before which available forms were used on a
'decorative' basis in any construction type, whether in
stone, wood or plaster.
The latest fire protection techniques can obviate the need
for concrete encasement altogether. Intumescent coatings
are often used for protecting structural steelwork against
fire (especially the visually expressed elements). These look
like normal paint but, in the event of fire, they foam, thus
creating a protective layer around the steel.
38

Twentieth century: covered
walkway leads from car to
door (wired plate glass),
which slides open when an
electric eye is activated
Twentieth century houses
have no enclosure (in the
US, particularly) and stand
unobtrusively among trees in
large communal parks
®
Around 1700, doors had
clear glass panes with
decorative glazing bars
(also, a bell-pull)
In the 1800s, detached
houses were built in open
surroundings with low
fences
THE DESIGN OF HOUSES
The Expression of the Period and its
Conventions
(])
By 1500: heavy, studded
doors with knocker, and
windows with bars and
bull's eye panes
By 1700 walls and gates were
only symbolic, giving
glimpses of the garden
®
CD
~~~
Around AD 1500, houses and
towns were protected by high
walls and heavy gates
" »>>,>,>>»»>>> ».>~
AD 1000: log cabins had low
doors, high thresholds; no
windows; lit through an
opening in the roof
ROOM CONNECTIONS
ENTRANCES
ACCESS
Twentieth century rooms
are flexible: sliding walls
and plate glass windows;
venetian blinds/shutters as
protection from the sun
@
By 1900, sliding doors were
fitted between rooms,
linoleum flooring, sliding
windows, and draw curtains
In the 1700s, wide double
doors led into suites of
rooms with parquet flooring
AD 1500: low, heavy doors,
sparse daylighting, and
floors of short, wide boards
HOUSES
®
open
terrace
Architect:
Mies van der Rohe
scullery
servery
We,and
washroom
street side
dining room
garden side
toilet
bedroom
ground
floor
valley
..-=---=-.. side
hill
.a;;;;;;:;:;::ij. side
@ The timber house (AD 1500)
was influenced by the
environment, method of
construction and the way of
life; e.g. Walser house
The stone house (AD 1500):
massive walls, to combat
enemies/cold, required the
same area as the rooms
themselves
The house of the 2000s will have slender steel supports and
slim non-load-bearing curtain walling, the composition of which
affords full protection against the weather, and maximum noise
and heat insulation. Open plan, with dividing screens between
living area, dining room and hall (no doors)
In the time between the beginning of the 16th century (the
period of witch-hunts, superstition, leaded lights and fort-
like houses, a form which is still occasionally in demand)
and the present day, astonishing advances have been made
in science, technology and industry. As a result the outlook
of society has changed radically. In the intervening
centuries it is clearly evident from buildings and their
details, as well as other aspects of life, that people have
become freer and more self-aware, and their buildings
lighter and brighter. The house today is no longer perceived
as a fortress offering protection against enemies, robbers or
'demons' but rather as a complementary framework for our
way of life - open to nature and yet in every respect
protected against its inclemency.
People generally see and feel things differently.
Designers must therefore use their creativity as far as
possible to translate our shared experience into reality and
express it through the materials at their disposal. The
attitude of the client is of the greatest significance in this
issue. In some ways, many clients and architects are still
living in the 15th century while few of each have arrived in
the new millennium. If the 'centuries' meet in the right way,
then a happy marriage between client and architect is
assured.
39

Building programme
The work begins with the drawing-up of a detailed brief,
with the help of an experienced architect and guided by the
questionnaire shown on the following pages. Before
planning starts, the following must be known:
1 Site: location, size, site and access levels, location of
services, building and planning regulations and
conditions. This information should be sought from the
local authority, service providers and legal
representatives, and a layout plan to comply with this
should be developed.
2 Space requirements with regard to areas, heights,
positioning and their particular relationship with one
another.
3 Dimensions of existing furniture.
4 Finance: site acquisition, legal fees, mortgages etc. -~ pp.
43-50.
5 Proposed method of construction (brick, frame
construction, sloping roof, flat roof etc.).
DESIGN METHOD
Working Process
The sketch scheme is begun by drawing up individual
rooms of the required areas as simple rectangles drawn to
scale and put provisionally into groups. After studying the
movements of the people and goods (horizontally and
vertically), analyse circulation and the relationships of
rooms to each other and the sun ~ p. 272. During this stage
the designer will progressively obtain a clearer
understanding of the design problems involved. Instead of
starting to design at this stage they should, on the basis of
their previous work to establish the building area,
determine the position of the building on the site, by
exploring the various means of access, the prevailing wind,
tree growth, contours, aspect, and neighbourhood. Tryout
several solutions to explore all possibilities~ CD and use
their pros and cons for a searching examination - unless of
course a single obvious solution presents itself. Based on
the foregoing, decision-making is normally fairly quick, and
the 'idea' becomes clearer; then the real picture of the
building emerges ~ (2).
Now the first design stage can begin, firstly as an
organisational and spiritual impression in the mind. From
this, a schematic representation of the general
configuration of the building and its spatial atmosphere is
built up, from which the designer can develop the real
proposal, in the form of plans and elevations. Depending
upon temperament and drawing ability a quick charcoal
sketch, or a spidery doodle, forms the first tangible result of
this 'birth'.
The first impetus may become lost if the efforts of
assistants are clumsy. With growing experience and
maturity, the clarity of the mental image improves, allowing
it to be communicated more easily. Older, mature architects
are often able to draw up a final design in freehand,
correctly dimensioned and detailed. Some refined mature
works are created this way, but the verve of their earlier
work is often lacking.
After completion of the preliminary design, ~ @, a pause
of 3-14 days is recommended, because it provides a
distancing from the design and lets shortcomings reveal
themselves more clearly. It also often disposes of
assumptions, because in the intervening time preconceived
ideas are put aside, not least as a result of discussions with
staff and clients. Then the detailed design of the project is
begun with the assistance of various consultants (e.g. a
structural engineer, service engineers for heating, water
and electricity) firmly establishing the construction and
installations.
Following this, but usually before, the plans are
submitted to the relevant authorities for examination and
permission (which might take about 3-6 months). During
this time the costs are estimated and specification and Bill
of Quantities produced, and the tendering procedure is
undertaken, so that as soon as the permission to proceed is
received, contracts can be granted and the work on site
commenced.
All these activities, from receiving the commission to the
start of building operations for a medium-sized family
house, takes on average 2-3 months of the architect's time;
for larger projects (hospitals, etc.) 6-12 months should be
allowed. It is not advisable to try to make savings at this
juncture; the extra time spent is soon recovered during
building operations if the preparation has been thoroughly
carried out. The client thus saves money and mortgage
interest payments. The questionnaire (--j pp. 41 and 42) and
the room specification folder (-~ p. 31) will be important
aids.
This development, with a SE
slope in front of the house,
uses the contours correctly:
yard to the west; entry from
road to the north
{;' Improved design for @:
~ better room plans; bedrooms
2.5 m above ground, using
the site's natural slope;
garage at ground level
CD
room with a bay window
House sketch design with
faults: cloakroom and porch
are too big; bathroom and
servery are too narrow; the
steps in the corridor are
dangerous; restricted view
from kitchen
Four site layout proposals
for development of a
3000 m 2 plot with a NE
slope: proposal 4 planned
by the client; proposal 1
accepted-~ (2)
40

BUILDING DESIGN
Preparatory Work: Collaboration with Client
Preparatory work is often done in a rush, resulting in an insufficiently detailed scheme being put out to tender and
commenced on site. This is how 'final' drawings and costs only become available when the building is nearly complete.
Explanations are of no help to the client. The only way of solving the problem is faster and better organised work by the
architect and sufficient preparation in the design office and on the construction site.
Similar information is required for most building projects, so detailed questionnaires and pro formas, available when the
commission is received, can be used to speed things up. Certainly there will be some variations, but many factors are
common and make questionnaires useful to all those involved in the project, even if they are only used as checklists.
The following questionnaire is only one of the labour saving pro formas which an efficient and well-run architect's office
should have available, along with pro formas for costing purposes, etc.
Briefing Questionnaire
Commission No.:
Employer:
Project Description:
Information collected by:
Copies to:
I Information on the client
1 What is their financial status? }
Business outlook? Total capital employed? confidential
Where was the information obtained?
2 How does the business seem to be conducted?
3 Who is our main contact? Who is our contact is his
absence? Who has the final authority?
4 Has the client any special requests regarding design?
5 Have they any special interest in art? (In particular with
regard to our attitude and design method.)
6 What personal views of the client need to be taken into
account?
7 Who is liable to cause us difficulties and why? What could
be the effects?
8 Is the customer interested in publication of his building
later on?
9 Do the drawings have to be capable of being understood
by laymen?
10 Who was the client's architect previously?
11 For what reason did he or she not receive this
commission?
12 Is the client thinking of further buildings? If so, when, what
type, how large? Have they already been designed? Is
there the possibility that we might obtain this
commission? What steps have been taken in this
direction? With what success?
/I Agreements on fees
1 On what agreement with the client are the conditions of
engagement and scale of professional charges based?
2 What stages of the work are included in the commission?
3 Is the estimated project cost the basis for the fee
calculation?
4 What is the estimated project cost?
5 Are we commissioned to carry out the interior design?
6 Has a form of agreement between employer and architect
been signed and exchanged?
/II Persons and firms involved in the project
1 With whom do we have to conduct preliminary
discussions?
2 Who is responsible for what special areas of activity?
3 Who is responsible for checking the invoices?
4 Which system of ordering and checking will be used?
5 Will we have authority to grant contracts in the name of
the client? If so, to what value? Do we have written
confirmation for this? Who does the client recommend as
contractor or sub-contractor? (Trade; Name; Address;
Telephone)
6 Is a clerk of works essential or merely desirable, and
should he or she be experienced or junior? When is he or
she required, and for how long (duration of job or only
part)?
7 Have we explained duties and position of clerk of works to
client?
8 Is accommodation available for site offices and material
storage? What about furniture, telephone, computers, fax,
heating, lighting, WC and water?
IV General
1 Is hoarding required? Can it be let for advertising? Is
signboard required and, if so, what will be on it?
2 Exact address of the new building and name after
completion?
3 Nearest railway station?
4 Postal district/town?
5 Is there a telephone on site, and if not when will one be
available? Alternatively is there a telephone in the vicinity?
6 Have we obtained a local edition of the national working
rules for the building industry? Are there any additional
clauses?
V The project
1 Who has drawn up the building programme? Is it
exhaustive or has it to be supplemented by us or others?
Has the client to agree again before the design work starts?
2 Has the new building to be related to existing and future
buildings?
3 Which local regulations have to be observed? Who is
building inspector or district surveyor? Who is town
planning officer?
4 What special literature is available on this type of building?
What do we have in our files?
5 Where have similar buildings been built?
6 Have we taken steps to view them?
VI Basic design factors
1 What are the surroundings like? Are landscaping and trees
to be considered? What about climate, aspect, access, and
prevailing wind?
2 What is the architecture of existing buildings? What
materials were employed?
3 Do we have photographs of neighbourhood with
viewpoints marked on plan? If not, have they been
ordered?
4 What other factors have to be considered in our design?
5 What are the existing floor-to-floor heights and heights of
buildings? What is the situation with regard to roads,
building lines, future roads, trees (types and sizes)?
6 What future development has to be considered?
7 Is it desirable to plan an area layout?
8 Are there regulations or restrictions concerning elevational
treatment in district?
9 What is known of attitude of town planning officer or
committee towards architecture? Is it advisable to discuss
initial sketches with town planning officer before
proceeding?
10 In case of appeal, is anything known of the time taken and
the ministry's decision in similar cases in this district?
41

42
VII Technical fact finding
1 What sort of subsoil is common to this area?
2 Has the site been explored? Where have trial holes been
sunk? What were the results?
3 What is load-bearing capacity of subsoil?
4 Average ground water level? High water level?
5 Has the site been built on previously? Type of buildings?
How many storeys? Was there a basement and, if so,
how deep?
6 What type of foundation appears to be suitable?
7 What type of construction is envisaged?
In detail:
Basement floor: Type? Applied load? Type of load? Floor
finish? Insulation? Tanking?
Ground floor: Type? Applied load? Type of load?
Finishes?
Other floors: Type? Applied load? Type of load?
Finishes?
Roof: Structure? Loading? Type of loading? Roof
cladding? Protective finishes and coatings? Gutters?
Internal or external downpipes?
8 What insulation materials are to be employed? Sound
insulation: horizontal/vertical? Impact sound:
horizontal/vertical? Heat insulation: horizontal/vertical?
9 Type of supports? Outer walls? Partitions?
10 Staircase structure? Applied load?
11 Windows: steel/timber/plastic/wood/aluminium? Type
and weight of glass? Internal or external seating? Single,
double or combination windows? Double glazing?
12 Doors: steel frames? Plywood? Steel? Lining? Fire
grading? Furniture? With an automatic door closing
device?
13 Type of heating: solid fuel/gas/electricity/oil? Fuel
storage?
14 Domestic hot water: amount required and at what times?
Where? Water softener required?
15 Ventilation: air conditioning? Type? Air change? In which
rooms? Fume extraction? Smoke extraction?
16 Cooling plant? Ice making?
17 Water supply? Nominal diameter of supply pipe and
pressure? Is pressure constant? Water price per cubic
metre or water rate? Stand pipes required? Where and
how many?
18 Drainage and sewerage? Existing? Connection points?
Nominal bore of main sewer? Invert levels? Where does
the sewage flow to? Soak pits? Possible, advisable,
permitted? Septic tank or other sewage treatment
necessary?
19 Nominal bore of the gas supply pipe? Pressure? Price per
cubic metre? Reduction for large consumption? Special
regulations concerning installation of pipes? Ventilation?
20 Electricity? A.C. or D.C.? Voltage? Connection point?
Voltage drop limit? Price per kW? Off-peak? Price
reduction for large consumption? Transformer? High-
voltage transformer station? Own generator? Diesel,
steam turbine, windmill?
21 Telephone? Where? ISTD? Telephone box? Where? Cable
duct required?
22 Intercom? Bells? Lights? Burglar alarm?
23 What type of lift? Maximum load? Speed? Motor at top
or bottom?
24 Conveyor systems? Dimensions? Direction of operation?
Power consumption? Pneumatic tube conveyor?
25 Waste chutes or sink destructor disposal units? Where?
Size? For what type of refuse? Waste incineration? Paper
baling press?
26 Any additional requirements?
BUILDING DESIGN
Preparatory Work: Questionnaire (cont.)
VIII Records and preliminary investigations
1 Have deeds been investigated? Copy obtained?
Anything relevant with regard to the project planning?
2 Map of the locality available? Ordered? Transport
details?
3 Does site plan exist? Ordered?
4 Does contour map exist? Ordered?
5 Water supply indicated on plan?
6 Mains drainage drawing checked out and cleared?
7 Gas supply shown on the drawing?
8 Is electricity supply agreed with Board and shown on
plan? Underground cable or overhead line?
9 Telephone: underground cable or overhead wires?
10 Have front elevations of the neighbouring houses been
measured or photographed? Has their construction been
investigated?
11 Has datum level been ascertained and fixed?
12 Is site organisation plan required?
13 Where does the application for planning permission
have to be submitted? How many copies? In what form?
Paper size? With drawings? Prints? On linen? Do
drawings have to be coloured? Are regulations for signs
and symbols on drawings understood?
14 Requirements for submission of the structural
calculations? Building inspector? (Normally decided by
council planning department)
IX Preliminaries
1 How far is the construction site from the nearest rail
freight depot?
2 Is there a siding for unloading materials? What gauge?
What are the off-loading facilities?
3 What are access roads like, in general? Are temporary
access roads necessary?
4 What storage space facilities are available for materials?
Available area open/under cover? What is their level in
relation to site? Can several contractors work alongside
one another without any problems?
5 Will the employer undertake some of the work himself;
supply some material? If so what: landscaping, site
cleaning/security services?
6 Method of payment, interim certificates, etc.? Otherwise
what terms and conditions of payment are to be
expected?
7 What local materials are available? Are they particularly
inexpensive in the area? Price?
X Deadlines for:
1 Preliminary sketches for discussion with staff and
consultants?
2 Preliminary sketches for meetings with the client, town
planning officer, district surveyor or building inspector?
3 Sketch design (to scale) with rough estimates?
4 Design (to scale)?
5 Estimate? Specification? Bill of Quantities?
6 Submission of the application for planning permission
and building regulations approval with structural
calculations, etc.?
7 Anticipated time for gaining permits? Official channels?
Possibilities for speeding things up?
8 Pre-production drawings, working drawings?
9 Selection of contractors? Letters of invitation?
Despatching of tender documents?
10 Closing date for tenders? Bill of Quantities?
11 Acceptance of tender? Progress chart? Date for
completion?
12 Possession of site? Commencement of work?
13 Practical completion?
14 Final completion?
15 Final account?

Organisation
The range of topics discussed in this section are listed
below:
A Definition of terms
1.0 Building design
2.0 Building construction
B Duties and outputs for construction management
1.0Construction planning
1.1Definition of duties and outputs/contents
1.2Aims/risks of construction planning
1.3Means and tools for construction management
* Construction drawings
* Sectional drawings (component drawings, junction
drawings)
* Special drawings
* Specifications
* Area/room/component schedules, specifications, bills
of quantities
2.0Tender action and letting of contracts
2.1 Definition of duties and outputs/contents
2.2Aims/risks of tender action and letting of contracts
2.3Means and tools of tender action and letting of contracts
* Contract laws and regulations
* Contract conditions and articles of agreement
* Technical conditions and preambles
* Standard specifications, manufacturers' specifications
and performance specifications
3.0 Construction supervision
3.2 Aims/risks of construction supervision
3.3 Means and tools of construction supervision
* Standard procedures
* Techniques of project management/time management
A Definition of terms
Definition of duties describing the necessary architectural
services and the relevant fees are contained in the
respective guidelines for each country or professional body,
e.g. the RIBA Architects' Plan of Work in the UK, or the HOAI
[Honorarordnung fur Architekten und Ingenieurel in
Germany.
1.0 Building design
The briefing and design stages (A-D in RIBA Plan of Work,
1-4 in HOAI) include inception/feasibility (30/0), outline
proposals (70/0), scheme design (110/0) and approvals
planning (6%). Design services typically represent 270/0 of
the total fee.
2.0 Building construction
The production drawings and information stages (E-H in
RIBA Plan of Work, 5-9 in HOAI) include detail design,
production information, bill of quantities (if applicable)
(250/0), preparing tender documents (100/0), tender action
(4%), site supervision (310/0), project administration and
documentation (30/0). Construction management duties
typically represent 73% of the total fee.
B Duties and outputs for construction management
1.0 Construction planning
Basic services
* Working through the results of stages 2 and 4 (stage
by stage processing information and presenting
solutions) - taking into account the urban context,
design parameters, and functional, technical,
structural, economic, energy (e.g. rational energy use)
biological, and economical requirements - and co-
operating with other building professionals, to bring
the design to the stage where it can be constructed
* Presenting the design in a full set of drawings with all
the necessary documentation including detail and
construction drawings, 1:50 to 1:1, and accompanying
specifications in text
CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT
* In schemes which include interior fittings and design,
preparing detailed drawings of the rooms and fittings
to scales 1:25 to 1:1, together with the necessary
specifications of materials and workmanship
* Coordination of the input of the other members of the
design team and integrating their information to
produce a viable solution
* Preparation and co-ordination of the production
drawings during the building stage
Additional services
These additional services can be included as basic services
if they are specifically listed in a schedule of services. This
will negate some of the limitations in the standard list of
basic services.
* Setting up a detailed area-by-area specification in the
form of a room schedule to serve as a basis for a
description of materials, areas and volumes, duties
and programme of works
* Setting up a detailed specification in the form of a bill
of quantities to serve as a basis for a description of
materials, duties and programme of works
* Inspection of the contractors' and sub-contractors'
specialist design input developed on the basis of the
specification and programme of works, to check that
it accords with the overall design planning
* Production of scale models of details and prototypes
* Inspection and approval of design drawings produced
by organisations outside the design team, testing that
they accord with the overall design planning (e.g.,
fabrication drawings from specialist manufacturers and
contractors, setting-up and foundation drawings from
machine manufacturers), insomuch as their contracts
do not form a part of the main contract sum (upon
which the professional fees have been calculated)
1.2 Aims/risks of construction planning
Construction planning aims to ensure a trouble- and fault-
free execution of the works. This requires a complete and
detailed establishment of the formal and technical
requirements, and their compliance with formal, legal,
technical and economic matters.
* Legal basis: planning and building regulations, and
other regulations such as safety guidelines, e.g. for
places of assembly
* Technical basis: established standards and techniques
of construction and materials, e.g. building standards,
consultation/agreement with specialists and specialist
contractors
* Economic basis: cost control techniques, e.g. cost
estimates/calculations, and consultation/agreement
with specialists in this field
Insufficient construction planning results in - among other
things - wastage of materials (correction of errors,
breakages and decay), waste of productive time (time
wasting, duplicated work),and persistent loss of value
(planning mistakes/construction faults).
1.3 Means and tools for construction management
Construction drawings contain all the necessary
information and dimensions for construction purposes;
normal scale is 1:50.
Sectional drawings (component drawings, junction
drawings), expand on the construction drawings with
additional information on parts of the building works;
normal scale is 1:20,1:10,1:5 or 1:1.
Special drawings are tailored to the specific
requirements of elements of the work (e.g. reinforced
concrete work, steelwork or timber structural work) and
show only the essential aspects of the other building
features which relate to that particular specific element of
work; normal scale is 1:50, depending on the particular
needs. National standards and conventions govern the
43

44
drawing modes which, ideally, should be compatible with
CAD (computer aided design) and the standard methods of
specification and measurement of quantities and pricing.
Suitable software packages are available.
Area/room/component schedules, specifications, bills of
quantities, contain full information - in the form of lists and
tables - about the sizes (e.g. length, width, height, area and
volume), the materials (e.g. wall coverings and floor
finishes), and equipment (e.g. heating, ventilation, sanitary,
electrics, windows and doors) of which make up the
building, building elements, rooms or other areas. They
serve as a basis for a full specification of materials and
workmanship. Bills of quantities are commonly used in the
UK and for large contracts in other countries.
2.0 Tender action and letting of contracts i.e. the
preparation/co-operation during tender action and letting of
contracts
2.1 Definition of duties and outputs/contents i.e. stages G + H
in RIBA Plan of Work, and 6 + 7 in HOAI
Basic services
* Production and collation of quantities as a basis for
setting up specifications, using information from
other members of the design team
* Preparation of specifications with schedules
according to trades
* Co-ordination and harmonisation of specifications
prepared by other members of the design team
* Compiling the preambles of the specifications for all
the trades
* Issuing the tender documents and receiving tenders
* Inspection and evaluation of the tenders, including
preparation of a cost breakdown by element, in co-
operation with the rest of the design team engaged in
these stages
* Harmonisation and collation of the services of the
design team engaged in tender action
* Negotiation with tenderers
* Setting up of cost predictions, including the fixed
price and variable price elements of the tenders
* Co-operation during the granting of contracts
Additional services
* Setting up specifications and bills on the basis of area
schedules and building schedules
* Setting up alternative specifications for additional or
specific works
* Compiling comparative cost estimates for the
evaluation and/or appraisal of the contributions of
other members of the design team
* Inspection and evaluation of the tenders based on
specifications of materials and workmanship,
including a cost breakdown
* Setting up, inspecting and valuing cost breakdowns
according to special conditions
2.2 Aims/risks of tender action and letting of contracts
The tender action aims to formulate contract documents
which will enable the construction work of a project to be
carried out within the civil legal framework, thus affording
the relevant structure of regulation and guarantees. Tenders
can be sought when all the relevant information is available
for costing. Tender documents consist of: schedule of
conditions (e.g. specifications and contractual obligations)
plus clauses with descriptions (e.g. possibilities for
inspecting the details of the conditions / location, date of the
project commencement and completion / limits to time and
additional costs).
Tender documents that include the price of the work and
signature of the contractor (or his rightful representative)
become an offer, which can be negotiated or accepted
unchanged, resulting in the formulation of a contract,
governing everything necessary for the carrying out of the
works (e.g. type and extent of the work, amount and
manner of payment, timetable and deadlines, and
responsi bi Iities).
To prevent, from the outset, differences of
understanding and opinion between the members of the
contract - and to make clear their mutual responsibilities -
contract documents (and hence also the tender documents)
must be comprehensive and complete.
Unclear, incomplete tender documents lead to poor
building contracts, which provoke conflict, time overruns,
defects, loss of value and additional costs.
2.3 Means and tools of tender action and letting of contracts
Contract laws and regulations depend on the country and
local situation, and regulate, through the building contract,
the legal relationship between the client and the contractor.
They generally determine what constitutes a valid contract,
how long the liabilities of the contract are valid, recourse to
damages, dispute settlement, professional responsibilities
and liabilities, and other aspects with regard to contractual
relationships.
Contract conditions and articles of agreement are
specific to the particular form of contract being used.
Because there are many types of standard contract
document, it is important that a suitable contract type is
chosen to meet the needs of the particular project. Typical
headings of clauses of a contract for larger works are listed
here:
* Identification of the different members mentioned in
the contract, and a description of their role and duties,
e.g. employer, contractor, sub-contractors or architect
* Interpretation, definitions, etc.
* Contractor's obligations
* The contract sum, additions or deductions,
adjustments and interim certificates for partial
completion of work
* Architect's instructions, form and timing of
instructions du ri ng the contract
* Contract and other documents, and issues of
certificates for completions
* Statutory obligations, notices, fees and charges
* Levels and setting out of the works
* Materials, goods and workmanship to conform to
description, testing and inspection
* Royalties and patent rights
* Identification of the person in charge of the works
* Access for architect to the works
* Clerk of works or client's representative on site
* Details and procedure in the event of variations and
provisional sums
* Definition of the contract sum
* Value added tax (VAT) and other taxes
* Materials and goods unfixed off or on site, ownership,
responsibilities incurred
* Practical completion of the contract and liability in the
case of defects
* Partial possession by employer
* Assignment of sub-contracts and fair wages
* Insurance against injury to persons and property, and
employer's indemnity
* Insurance of the works against perils
* Date of possession, completion and postponement
* Damages for non-completion
* Extension of time
* Loss and expenses cause by matters materially
affecting regular progress of the works
* Determination (pulling out of contract) by contractor
or employer
* Works by employer or persons employed or engaged
by employer, part of, or not part of, the contract
* Measurement of work and certificates for completed
work and payment

* Tax obi igations
* Unusual eventualities, e.g. outbreak of hostilities, war
damage, discovery of antiquities
* Fluctuations in labour and material costs and taxes,
and the use of price adjustment formulae
Technical conditions and preambles relate directly to the
work to be undertaken and are formulated as general
specifications, schedules of duties, general quality of
workmanship, programmes of work, etc. and are often
divided into the various trades. Typical headings under this
section are listed below:
* Scope of work and supply of goods, e.g. includes
provision of all necessary tools, purchase, delivery,
unloading, storage and installation of all goods
* Quality of goods and components, national or
international standards which must be adhered to
* Quality of workmanship, national or international
standards of workmanship which must be achieved
* Additional and special duties, specification of the
types and range of additional works included within
the price, and those special duties which are to be
charged in addition
* Method of calculating the amount to be paid to the
contractor, and determination of the means of
measurement of the work done, e.g. quantitative
units, boundaries between different sections of work,
measuring techniques, and types of pay calculations
(on a time basis, piece work, fixed rates, fluctuating
rates, etc.)
* Preambles, more specific and general items of
agreement not covered in detail in the main contract
conditions can be classed under three headings:
necessary items are prescriptive (e.g. methods of
handover), recommended items are advisory (e.g.
sequence of work and programming) and possible
items are suggested (e.g. feedback protocols,
meetings, etc.l - taking care that there is no conflict
between the preambles and the main contract
Specifications, manufacturers' specifications, performance
specifications are detailed descriptions for every part of the
work which needs to be carried out. The extent and
sophistication of these specifications vary, depending on
the size and complexity of the project: for small, simple
projects, drawings and specifications will suffice; larger
projects need, in addition, schedules (e.g. door and window
ironmongery) and bills of quantities (listing the extent of the
various elements of the work and giving a basis for the
pricing of the work) together with a variety of additional
specialist drawings, specifications and schedules (e.g.
reinforced concrete work, steelwork, mechanical and
electrical equipment, etc.).
To help in the production of specifications and bills of
quantities, various systems of standardised texts, split into
units or paragraphs, can be included or omitted as required.
The suitability and acceptability of the various systems
depends on the regulations of each country and profession
(e.g. National Building Specification and Standard
Measurement of Works in the UK, and the
Standardleistungsbuch and LV-Muster in Germany).
Manufacturer's information in relation to materials and
equipment, offers additional, useful information in
application and installation techniques, constructional
details and necessary safety precautions.
In general, in relation to tender action, the use of suitable
computer software which links CAD drawings with
specifications and bills of quantities is recommended.
3.0 Construction supervision (inspection and supervision of
the building works and necessary documentation)
3.1 Definition of duties and outputs/contents i.e. stages J-L
in RIBA Plan of Work, and 8 + 9 in HOAI
Basic services will vary according to the conditions of
appointment agreed by the architect with the client, and the
type of contract agreed between the employer and
contractor. The list of basic services will also vary from
country to country, depending on the local professional
norms. Typical services are listed below.
* Inspection during the progress of the building works
to check compliance with the planning approval, the
contract drawings and the specifications, as well as
with generally accepted qualities of workmanship and
adherence to safety regulations and other relevant
standards
* Inspection and correction of details of prefabricated
components
* Setting up and supervision of a time plan (bar chart)
* Writing of a contract diary
* Combined measuring up of work with the building
contractor
* Measuring up and calculating the value of completed
work with the co-operation of other members of the
design and supervision team while establishing
defects and shortcomings, and issuing of certificates
* Inspection of invoices
* Establishing final cost estimates according to the
local or regulated method of calculation
* Application to the authorities for grants or
subventions according to local and specific
circumstances
* Handing over of the building, together with compiling
and issuing the necessary documents, e.g. equipment
instruction manuals
* Testing protocol
* Listing the guarantee periods
* Supervising the making good of defects listed at
handing over
* Ongoing cost control
* Inspection of the project for defects before the end of
the guarantee periods of the various sub-contractors
and contractor
* Supervision of the making good of defects detected in
the inspections before the end of the guarantee periods
* Depending on local laws, inspections for up to five
years after completion
* Systematic compilation of the drawings and
calculations related to the project
Additional services
* Setting up, supervision and implementation of a
payment plan
* Setting up, supervision and implementation of
comparative time, cost or capacity plans
* Acting as the agent responsible for the works, as far
as these duties go beyond the responsibilities listed
as basic services
* Setting up of progress plans
* Setting up of equipment and material inventories
* Setting up of security and care instructions
* Site security duties
* Site organisation duties
* Patrol of the project after handover
* Supervision of the security and care tasks
* Preparation of the measurement data for an object
inventory
* Enquiries and calculation of costs for standard cost
evaluations
* Checking the building and business cost-use analysis
3.2 Aims/risks of construction supervision
Construction supervision consists of two major elements:
Control, measurement, accounting in relation to the
contract conditions and plan of work, and building
programme planning through the use of project
management techniques (availability of people, machines,
material at the right time, in the right amount, at the right
place). Important aids include operation planning
45

46
techniques and time planning techniques using various
recognised methods.
Poor building supervision and insufficient control lead,
among other things, to unsatisfactory execution of the
works, faults (obvious or hidden), faulty measurements and
payments for work, additional costs, and danger to
operatives (accidents) and materials. Unsatisfactory project
management and poor co-ordination normally lead to
building delays and extra costs.
3.3 Means and tools of construction supervision
Standard procedures vary according to the country and
profession, together with techniques/instruments for
project management. Supervision of the works,
measurement of works and accounting is based on the
drawings (production drawings, detail drawings, special
drawings), specifications, schedules, possibly a bill of
quantities, and the contract conditions.
The techniques of operation and time planning make use
of various common methods: bar charts, line diagrams and
networks.
Bar charts (according to Gantt, bar drawings), show the
work stages/trade duties on the vertical (Y) axis, and the
accompanying building duration or time duration
(estimated by experience or calculation) on the horizontal
(X) axis. The duration of the various stages/duties are
shown by the length of the particular bars (shown running
horizontally).
Building stages which follow on from another should be
depicted as such on the chart. The description of the
building stages and trade categories help in the setting up
of the bar chart, and make possible the comparison of the
planned programme and the actual progress of the work.
* Advantages: provides a good overall view; clarity;
ease of interpretation (type of presentation shows
time scales)
* Disadvantages: strict separation of work tasks; no
identification of sub-tasks; difficult to show
connections and dependence relationships of the
work stages (thus critical and non-critical sequences
are not identified, and if altering the time duration of
one stage will result in the alteration of the duration
of the whole project)
* Context of use: illustration of straightforward, self-
contained building projects which have a simple
sequence of tasks and no directional element (e.g. as
in road construction), planning of individual tasks,
resource planning (staffing programme/equipment
and plant planning) ~ CD p. 49
Line diagrams speed-time distance-time (or
quantities-time diagrams) - show measures of time
(selected) on the one axis (which ones depending on the
building task), and measures of length (or, less frequently,
building quantities) on the other axis. The speed of the
production process (the slope of the line), and the division (in
terms of time and space between tasks) are clearly portrayed.
* Advantages: clear presentation of speed of progress
and critical separations
* Disadvantages: poor portrayal of parallel and layered
task sequences (spacing and timing of tasks which
have no directional element)
* Context of use: illustration of building projects with a
strong directional element, e.g. length, height,(roads
or tunnels) or (towers or chimneys) ~ (2) p. 49
Networks resulting from network planning techniques (as
part of operational research) -~ Q) p. 49 help in the analysis,
presentation, planning, directing and control of tasks. The
relationships between different operations show how they
are influenced by many possible factors (e.g. time, costs
and resources).
To calculate the overall project duration, assume a
project starting point at time PTo and show (calculating
forward) the earliest point in time ET (earliest time of start
event EST/ earliest time of finish event EFT) for each task (0
= duration, time span, beginning/finish of the task). The
overall project duration is the duration of project path
(critical pathl/project finish time ETn . Incorporating
estimated float (buffer time) elements (added together)
produces the given project finish time point PTno To
determine the latest project start time, perform a backward
pass (from right to left), taking the latest time point LT
(latest time of start event LST, latest time of finish event
LFT) for each task (calculating backwards), and hence the
latest project start time for the project PTo' respectively the
total float TF of the individual tasks = (latest time point LT -
latest start/finish LST/LFT) - (earliest time point - earliest
start/finish EST/EFT)--) ® p. 49
The critical path method (CPM) puts task arrows into
order. Nodes show the start or finish events of the tasks.
The fundamental arrangement of relationships (=
dependence between tasks, quantifiable) in CPM is the
normal sequence (order relationship from the finish of the
previous to the beginning of the following; finish event of
task A = start event of task B). The time frame is determined
(i.e. the task is allotted a definite estimated duration time).
Tasks which are running parallel and are dependent on each
other, dependencies of parts of tasks with each other which
are a condition for the progress of a further task, are
displayed as dummies (dummy arrows, order relationships
in the network with time interval of 0). ..
~ CD + (2) p. 50
The content of the critical path chart mirrors the list of
tasks (list of individual activities together with timing
estimates). ~ Q) p. 50
The metra-potential method (MPM) orders the task
nodes. Arrows display the order relationships. The
fundamental arrangement of relationships with MPM is the
order of starts (order relationship between the start of the
previous task to the start of the following task; start event of
task A = start event of task B). The time frame is determined
(as with CPM). The content of the task node network mirrors
the list of tasks (cornpare with CPM). ) (2), Q), @ p. 50
The programme evaluation and review technique (PERT)
orders the task nodes. Arrows display the order
relationships. The time model is normally stochastic (i.e.
the determination of the time intervals between the events
is by probability calculations). Geometric models of PERT +
CPM can be combined in a mixed presentation (tasks as
arrows, and events as nodes). Theoretically, an event
arrow-network plan is feasible; however, no practical
method is available.
Adva ntages/disadvantages/appropriate appl icati0 ns of
the various network planning methods:
* Pre-organised networks with deterministic time
model (CPM/MPM) are the most suitable for detailed
direction/control of building operations (emphasis on
individual tasks).
* Event-orientated networks (PERT) are more suitable
for strategic planning and overview of the project
(events = milestones).
* Task node networks (MPM) are easier to set up and
alter (consistent separation of tasks planning/time
planning), and reproduce a greater number of
conditions than task arrow networks (CPM; however,
CPM is more widely used in practice, being older,
more developed, and because 70-800/0 of ordering
relationships which occur in network plans are
standard sequences).
Networks are primarily very detailed but are difficult to read,
so additional presentation of the results as a
barchart/diagram is necessary. Computers are predestined
to be an aid, particularly in setting up large networks
(resulting from entries of relevant data from the list of tasks).
Suitable software is available (the majority being for CPM).

risks,
responsi bi Iities.
guarantees
carrying out of the
works, hindrances,
completion
finishing work
plastering and rendering
floor and wall tiling, and paving
work
screeding work
asphalt laying
joinery work
floor laying and finishing work
construction work
brickwork
concrete and reinforced concrete
work
stonework
blockwork
carpentry work
steelwork
waterproofing work
roofing and tiling work
plumbing work
22 insurance of the works against perils
23 date of possession, completion and
postponement
24 damages for non-completion
25 extension of time
26 loss and expense caused by matters
materially affecting regular progress
of the works
27 determination by employer
28 determination by contractor
29 works by employer or persons
employed by employer
30 certificates and payment
31 finance - statutory tax deduction
scheme
32 outbreak of hostilities
33 war damage
34 antiquities
Conditions: Part 2: Nominated subcon-
tractors and nominated suppliers
35 nominated subcontractors - general,
procedure for nomination, payment.
extension of period for completion of
works, failure to complete works,
practical completion, final payment.
position of employer in relation to
subcontractor, etc.
36 nominated suppliers
Conditions: Part 3: Fluctuations
37 choice of fluctuations conditions
38 contribution, levy and tax fluc-
tuations
39 labour and material cost. and tax
fluctuations
40 use of price adjustment formulae
the payment
the works -c
scope of contract and
determination conditions
building
contract
groundworks
excavations
boreholes
diversion of springs
retaining walls
bored piling
water retention works
land drainage
underground gas and water mains
underground drainage
consolidation
retaining works on water courses,
ditches and embankments
underwater excavation, dredging
underpinning
sheet piling
sprayed concrete work
® Typical division of the work into sections
ARTICLES OF AGREEMENT
1 contractor's obligations
2 contract sum
3 architect
4 quantity surveyor
5 settlement of disputes
Conditions: Part 1: General
1 interpretation, definitions, etc.
2 contractor's obligations
3 contract sum - additions or deduc-
tions - adjustment - interim certificates
4 architect's instructions
5 contract documents - other docu-
ments - issue of certificates
6 statutory obligations, notices, fees
and charges
7 levels and setting out of works
8 materials, goods and workmanship
to conform to description, testing
and inspection
9 royalties and patent rights
10 person-in-charge
11 access for architect to the works
12 clerk of works
13 variations and provisional sums
14 contract sum
15 VAT - supplemental provisions
16 materials and goods unfixed or off-site
17 practical completion and defects
liability
18 partial possession by employer
19 assignment and subcontracts, fair
wages
20 injury to persons and property, and
employer's indemnity
21 insurance against injury to persons
and property
o General contract conditions
® Typical headings for contract clauses
building supervision
handing over and documentation
tender documentation
tender action
production design
design
applications for consents
brief formulation
preliminary design
c
o
.~
"D
o
n.
c
OJ
.~
"D
price +
quotation
price
calculation
Definition of
services
i_
15mm cement render -+--T:";Ik-A---"""'"'"'i~~1
waterproof membrane +--_-¥:"!!~_
......
"""-'l.., I
115mm brickwork -+--....:.'!!l~-- HI./JI
20mm cement render +----":"~-- './~.., I
grating __---!'~""""--_----.~~~~--J
steel angle frame --+-,~"'""-------+v,..r,.r,.t,H--~
30/30/4mm
set In concrete
o Building contract
I I
I I
I I
I • • I
~I I
~I (/) I
~ I Vl ~ I
(/)I O"D '+- I
: .~~ I
I ~ ~ :
L __ ~~ __J
jJ
ro 0
n.n.
o Detailed drawing
o Construction drawing
A2 room description B2 room dimensions B4 service connections for B5 values
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 3 6
provo room number use user (l) area (l) height (l) volume heat- venti sanit- elec. other mech temp. vent light notes
0. 0. 0 . _
A B C C rn-' C m C m3 mq lation ation supply wiring conv. -C per h lux (key)
W 104 hall N 6.92 L 2.47 N 14.87 - -
SW TS - 20 1 AS dt'l I<~ I ~(ll' ke-t
CL SI CL l~11 1f1q II q tl!
FB SSG ~PLJf red '-I,ll kt1
t lJLJtlt't
W 204 bathlWC N 3.47 L 2475 N 8.588 CH MV BA WB - -
24 7 1~ tfdllS t t ll l l1 t' 1
WB SO SW SI,Vltlrl
WC TF SI Slllk
W 304 kitchen N 6.09 L 2.47 N 15.04 CH MV SI SW - - 20 4 Ie IIl(t'[()lll
SO so ::)I)( ~ t't l) rl lt~t
SWL
TS tt'lt'pthl1lt' ~lh.'kt't
SSO
BA 1),11"
CL
WB I'o',lshtlJS!f)
Wl w~llj li~lllt .wun.n.t SWltl'fl
- - - -
SWl w,ill i,qhl ,Will' -.;wltlh,
W 404 loggia N 1.69 L 2.363 N 4.000 CH MV SW AS - 21 1 we we
W 504 liv./din. N 19.77 L 2.47 N 48.63 SO HJ tLJ~t·t)(Ufd
CL eH It'rlll,-tlht',itlf 1l1
W 604 service rm F L 2.475 N 0.891 -
Mil f1)t'dl~H1Il',J: Vt'!ltd.lt:)1l
® Example of a room schedule (Raumbiicher in Germany) (abbreviated version)
47

blackor galvanrsec f.rushto Bf
qual11
Information on this page was provided by the Stanley Partnership, Cheltenham.
Interim
Certificate
--
G
I/W" ~I"r'h' re-rtrfv that the amou nt d ue toth. l'untradHrfn,rn tht
~:lJlpk"':l'r l~ (1Il wurd''''f
11 l'h,· tont ractor ha-. ~I't'n notu-c t ha t th,· rah'llfVXrdlttr~t'ablt'(lll th,
,..upph l!f);:uud~ <111,1 s,-'r'o'l''S to wtucb tilt" Contruct rvlates I:;' "o
An interim certificate according to RIBA
(3)
-IBO: STEFLPIPLWURI SCRFWFIlr-;O HAr-;GED)U[:-"l'S
thereaftershallbebuuweldecor weldedflanged jonusoa.,. Weldedioimsmoll
however.beusedonanlllleo!bla.:ksleelpIjJeworke..:er'loltlallel"pl!Jeltne
anc.llanes andconnecnons toecuiprnem Allweldediom'; shal:havebeveliec
mitredends
Above:)Ommdiameter p.llanlled sle~l pipework<nai.hale all buttweidecand
weldedflangedtonus
-IB.03BLACK ASOGALAISED STITL PIPESUPTU I)OMMOlA~lLTER
ShallbemIICIleeleie<:rn.:alreIlSLlIKe.:onIH1GOulilseamweidedlubeo!tubeo!
,~lD5S_101 ~8) andIll' heav. weight
.lB.().lBLACK STEELPIPL5OVERIlOMM DIA~lET[R
Blacksteelpipesabove150mm snallbecarbonsteelhOI timshedseamlesslube
11IJ·.""'.U<I"UJ_'c~.BS'bOi ISO:bO.l::N.l.ll :bO.lbandBSSllf,
Iq8Q Thenururnum wallth.ckness shall'eolslheioliowtng table
SOl:llnal Diameter
100
350,-Ili,)
-150 olnd ol~lle
Extract from a specification of piped services
Architect's
Instruction
Fdbrl.catedweldablesteel,8S4360Grdde43,treated
~~~andtopcoatasclauseGlO/640atttroOrks
Wlm1i-x)sts, as drawings 953 SK 118-119;
Hd.:tenHKTtlesat225centres; i nc Lud i nq
p Lat e s , ariq Le brec ket s , and all bolt.s
e
UI LD: IlG
E WAL:.S
E MJrr."'2
eorrn:i<lC
BUILD:IlG
E WAL:.S
I ' ,
I
Contractor
address
Wor ks
situated at
C0I-.llnys;proflleasdrawlnq735jWD/6J
4':JCxgUi type A.; horizontal; splayed
t;.Jp;grooves-2
225x55;tyt:JleB;hut"l.zontal;
top;grooves-l
horlzontal.;splayed [ l SI~lw.1 EnJU'~' [ ] PIan"u,. Supon_"
__ Q.'_Omua""'SOb(~,,,~wn n-"..
~('o".ol~l_ __LI
[
II
[I""
CD Extract from a bill of quantities
Summary
31/07/97
Valuation No 2
Phase 2
City works
Alfred Street
Gloucester
o An architect's instruction according to RIBA form
Stanley Partnership
RECORD
Date
Job HOUSE AT BLOCKLEY 82i19
Telephone Number 01242242943
Meeting/Telephone/Drawing is sc e
1 As valuation summary
2 Materials on site:
[ 32,933.32
[ 3,750.00
I have spoken to the engineer and the CtLCUN ~UlA~ blocks rnov tle used
provrdeo they ore the 3Sk version
Use dense blocks for Internal partitions tor sound re s.st.mce and butt JOint With
Inner skin
At each butt JOint use expanded metal folded to lorm on l With JO() mm leq,
Incorporate every other course
All corners thus formed to have double plaster slop beaejs m movemenl
48
Valuation total f 36,683.32
Less retention 5.00% [1,834.17
[ 34,849.16
Less previously certified [ 8,816.92
[ 26,032.24
VAT @ 17.50% [4,555.64
Valuation for payment [ 30,587.88
Page 1
® Example of architect's valuation ® Architect's record of a communication

1 AT
1 AT
1 AT
0.5 AT
P5 ground covering
days
P8 level base layer
493m
sequence of works:
site installation and clearing
demolition and earthworks
construction of road profile
metalling, paving and kerbs
Building time plan
40--+---------------------.,;;;;;;;;::::::::..-.....
35
30
20
10
CD
D
formwork and steelwork
scaffolding erection
scaffolding removal
1998
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep 0-
--- 1--- --- -- ----
-
21 I:ii file:
20 1:
l:1 g
19 t: ,: CI
18
.1:
fj/ =- ,
17 I: ,.c: ,
16 lite :~
15 1: ,., CI ,
14 Ii Fic ,
13 Ii Erg
I
I" Iiiii CI
~
.,
IiiiJ c::
-c -a-
8 ,..:::ll 1
s:::; . . CI
l'
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4 c
P"
,
3 I: il"CI
2 Joc::J F== ~
1 I c:=.r--~~
b
..,=.-~-:.~= ~=..:..:.~=== ~=:.-=- ~-:.-:.:
plant and equipment programme
timetable bar diagram, divided into separate trades
building programme
IIDI site installation
c::J groundworks
~ concrete works
type of 199ff
work Jan Feb Mar Apr May I Jun I Jul I Aug Sep
ground
F====I
I I I
c
works .. g
concrete I
works
I T I
shuttering
steel
reinforce
rnent works
materials I I
transport
scaffoldinq
site
installation
frllstprutel , I I
!IUI1 wurks
number of
work
positions
list building job unit amount consurn- Lh duration comparison
no. section descr- ption h/time unit
rption hiE (day, week,
month)
should be
is
should be
is
should be
is
given project
finish time pornt
latest time points
LST = latest start time point
LFT = latest finish time point
network
{
linear programming
simulation
operation research
network planning techniques
other methods
o Network calculation
o Network
/ 1 shift work
1 shift work
- 2 shift work
50
I.'
'I
I'
Jan I Feb I Mar I Apr 1 May 1 Jun 1 Jul I Aug I Sep 10-Dec)
time
8 Check list for measured work o Network orientation and precedence
49

tasks point dummy earliest latest
of time
g short
c
from I to from Ito
ro
.S2 0
description c; L C L
;;:
ui cu (J)
(f)
OJ
(f)
§~
0 ::::l task number task number Q) c Q) c:
0- w .D '+- .D .;:
103 excavation P2 2 2 3 1 2 0 2 0 2 0
102 excavation P1 2 4 5 1 or 3 4 2 4 2 4 0
101 excavation W1 4 6 7 1 or 5 6 4 8 4 8 0
104 excavation W2 5 8 9 1 or 7 8 8 13 13 18 5
203 piling 17 3 10 2 19 11 28 9
302 foundations P1 4 11 12 5 11 4 8 4 8 0
301 foundations W1 8 13 14 7 or 12 13 8 16 8 16 0
304 foundations W2 10 15 16 9 or 14 15 16 26 18 28 2
303 foundations P2 4 17 18 10 or 16 17 26 30 28 32 2
402 concrete
columns P1 8 19 20 12 19 8 16 8 16 0
401 concrete
columns W1 16 21 22 14 or 20 21 16 32 16 32 0
403 concrete
columns P2 8 23 24 18 or 22 23 32 40 32 40 0
~
0"
time-dependent
dummy arrow
task number
task duration
network plan number
earliest start
earliest finish
latest start
latest finish
total float
task (arrow)
dummy arrow
critical path
TN
TO
NPN
ES
EF
LS
LF
TF
J
OJ OJ
normal
sequence
finish start
relationship
(dummy arrow)
--------
o
nodes
LS ES
LF EF TN ..
TF NPN TO
...
task number
task duration
network plan number
earliest start
earliest finish
latest start
latest finish
total float
arrow (relationship)
critical path
relationship
order
LS
order number
node order
relationship
LF TN
TO
NPN
TN ES
EF
NPN TO TF LS
LF
TF
~
8) Network plan (CPM)
pos. description dura- previous earliest latest total
no. of task tion task c L C L
float
.~
(fl
.~
(fl time 11
'c 'c
.D ;;:: .D '+-
103 excavation P2 2 0 2 0 2 0
102 excavation P1 2 103 2 4 2 4 0
101 excavation W1 4 102 4 8 4 8 0
104 excavation W2 5 101 8 13 13 18 5
203 piling 17 103 2 19 11 28 9
302 foundations P1 4 102 4 8 4 8 0
301 foundations W1 8 101,302 8 16 8 16 0
304 foundations W2 10 104,301 16 26 18 18 2
303 foundations P2 4 203,304 26 30 28 32 2
402 concrete
columns P1 8 302 8 16 8 16 0
401 concrete
columns W1 16 301, 402 16 32 16 32 0
403 concrete
columns P2 8 303,403 40 60 40 60 0
501 beams P1-W1 12 401, 402 32 44 36 48 4
502 beams P1-W2 12 403, 501 44 56 48 60 4
503 beams P2-W2 12 404,502 60 72 60 72 0
11 added up
o Task list (CPM) cf. ~ CD
/
/
/
~
- 10'2-- ""¥
~
1
standard methods network planning methods
order
CPM MPM
line diagrams bar charts label-
ling arrow-orientated node-orientated
,ll~ D-!--CJ ---.(JJ-+
,~ ~
Q)
c
Q)
::::l
Z=01
cr
o--o-c-o
Q)
-.oJ---t{I}+
(flo
ro II
E-
...... Cf)
g~
Q)
~
c
~
Q)
Z = 0 1+ 1
cr
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~
Q)
-+OJ---.oJ-+
.-
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t
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t
I g~
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Q)
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c
~
Q)
::::l
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t -
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::::l
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t tl~
1
CD Task-arrow network planning method
H&
4 10llTITI ~830~16
16 ~6
16 40m-32
32 _
I
0 6 4~r... r.., 0 13 -8 0 4 r 0 21 '6 0 22 l
I I ..
/ ~~: "- I ~" ~ 36 32 50 48 44
I "'- I -.~ I "-.. ~ 4 27 12 4 28
/ ~2
10rnl,y~ .f7T7llQ2rsTs1lraTaJ;o2fifu6l~/ /
I I 0 4 2'1:TIIJ I L2lIr4~11iliil 8LITill ~ II
/ / : : tf I
[iTO) "... I I ~
@ill network... I I ,.... ~L....~ ..... t--t---il---i~--t
... I I ~
I I ..
I I
, 2 2 3 28 I
3 1 9
I
I
r------I
I
o Comparison of the display forms of different process diagrams
1) added up
® Process list (MPM) cf. -----? @
50

struts
steel suspension
straps (min. dia
16mm or lOmm '
30mm)
@ Vertical sheet iron piles
Excavation with prop
support
Foundations, Excavation, Trenches
THE BUILDING SITE
timber capping
~~O.6-1 (min. dia. 10cm~nderlay timber
(min 16 , 16cm or dia
16cm) (if necessary)
Surveying, site investigation, appraisal
Failure to accurately assess the building site and water table
conditions and to specify the correct foundations generally
leads to irreparable structural damage and serious cost
overruns.
Lateral ground displacement due to the load on the
foundations causes the foundations to sink into the ground
or become laterally displaced. This leads to total failure of
the foundations.
Settlement due to compression of the building site under
the foundations due to the load on the foundations and/or
loads caused by neighbouring structures leads to
deformations and damage (cracks) in the superstructure.
Where there is adequate local knowledge of the nature,
mechanical properties, stratification and bearing strength of
the sub-soil layers, calculations can be made which
determine the dimensions of shallow foundations
(individual and strip foundations; foundation pads and
rafts) and deep foundations (pile foundations). If such
knowledge is not available, timely investigation of the
ground is required, if possible in consultation with an
appropriate expert. This involves examination of the strata
by excavation (manual or mechanical excavator), borings
(auger/rotary bit or core drilling) with the extraction of
samples and probes. The number and depth of inspections
required depends on the topography, type of building and
information available.
The depth of the ground water table can be investigated
by inserting measuring pipes into boreholes and taking
regular measurements (water table fluctuations). The
ground water samples should also be tested to assess
whether it is aggressive towards concrete (i.e. presence of
sulphates, etc.),
Ground probes (and sample cores) are used to
investigate granular composition, water content,
consistency, density, compressibility, shear strength and
permeability. Probes provide continuous information on
soil strength and density as they penetrate the various sub-
soi I layers.
All test results and the opinion of an expert site
investigator should be brought to the attention of the
building supervisors.
Consult local and national standards for ground (rock)
descriptions, classification of earthworks, sub-soi I
characteristics, stratification, ground water conditions,
necessary foundation/excavation depths, calculation of
excavation material quantities, and construction and safety
of excavations.
cellar floor
level
/'
existing
building
surface of terrain
ground level
existing building section
ground level
Securing existing
neighbouring buildings
-1ci • foundation
All ground water
!lrA;::s::::s::~
I .
envisaged building I I
rlr~
® Partly secured excavation
limit of soil
excavation . Q)
II)
,~ lower ed e of
(j) Plan view ~ ®
®
CD
II)
OTl:=::-:::-:;:;::-:--;::;----::;;a,.---.....(1'1
AI~~--:--~__:::I,,-c.~--_~lMlI·
existing
building
cellar floor
level
T
Excavation with banked
edges
excavation
ground water
underpin
(masonry,
concrete or
reinforced
concrete)
It)
TO
+~
--'II~_ _-+- __---::-~_....L..ci
~O.5 AI
~ -t
®
~~O.6""
CQ base of excavation
o
("')
VI
f4 Section through
~ underpinning ~ @
Banked excavation with terrace for the
collection of precipitating material
® Plan view ~ ®
lower ed e of
foundation
limit of soil
excavation
following
completion of
underpin
--1..-__ -------JII,'-~~AAV
o Formwork
51

Site and Building
Measurements
EXCAVATIONS
The building site must be
surveyed and the plan of the
proposed house entered on
the official site plan > CD - (2).
When the requirements of the
planning and building reg-
ulations have been met and
planning permission granted,
the foundations are pegged
out as shown by wooden pegs
and horizontal site boards
@ - @. The excavation must
exceed the cross-sectional
area of the house to provide
adequate working space
~500mm ~ @-@. The slope
of the sides of the excavation
depends on the ground type;
the sandier the soil, the flatter
the slope t @.
After excavation, string
lines are tightly stretched
between the site boardst @
to mark out the external
dimensions of the building.
The outside corners of the
house are given at the
crossing points of the lines by
plumb bobs. The correct level
must be measured ~-t (f).
Dimensions are orientated by
fixed points in the
surroundings. Setting boards
~ @, of wood or aluminium,
3 m long, with a level built-in
or fixed on top, are installed
horizontally with the ends
supported on posts. Inter-
mediate contour heights are
measured with a scaled rod.
A water-filled, transparent,
flexible hose 20-30 m long,
with glass tube sections at
each end marked out in mm,
when held vertically, is used
to read water levels. After
calibrating by holding both
glass tubes together, levels
between points on the site
can be compared accurately
to the mm, without the need
for visual contact (e.g. in
different rooms).
neighbour
. _'-; _~
__ SI9_h~~a~ _
..'
•••• .1 ••
line
road
The planned house in
relation to the site
level
setting board, mostly 3 m long;
intermediate levels measured
with a scaled rod
@ Setting board
CD
site board
survey rod
on the site
boundary
short building line
(string below)
bracing
.s«>:
datum point
long building line -......:..,.......
~-:lo.,.
(string above)
setting out
CD Corner site boards
® Setting out: how the building is measured into place ~ ®
o Site plan with the building
dimensions drawn in
embankment
angle
embankment
profile
® Boning rods
type of ground
loose soil
medium loose soil
firm soil
loose and firm rock
® The house in the excavation
8) Excavation
G) Official site plan
neighbouring
building
level marker
o Measuring levels for the building
road height
(manhole cover)
measuring rod
pavement
levelling
instrument
excavation for planned building
finished ground
floor level ±O.OO
52

EARTHWORKS AND FOUNDATION
STRUCTURES
Technical investigations of the ground should provide
sufficient data for efficient construction planning and
execution of the building work. Depending on the
construction type, the ground is evaluated either as
building (for foundations), or as building material (for earth
works). Building structures are planned (if legally possible
and with local approval), according to expert assessment
(i.e. avoiding marshy areas, landfill, etc.), The building
construction type and the prevailing ground conditions
affect the design of the foundations, e.g. individual footings
~ (f), strip foundations ~ @, raft foundations; @, or if the
ground strata are only able to carry the load structure at
greater depth, pile foundations ~ @. Pressure distribution
must not extend over 45° in masonry, or 60° in concrete.
Masonry foundations are seldom used, due to high cost.
Unreinforced concrete foundations are used when the load
spreading area is relatively small, e.g. for smaller building
structures. Steel reinforced concrete foundations are used
for larger spans and at higher ground compression; they
contain reinforcement to withstand the tensile loads .. ~ @ +
@. Reinforced, instead of mass, concrete is used to reduce
foundation height, weight and excavation depth. For
flexible joints and near to existing structures or boundaries
~ @. For cross-sections of raft foundations ~ @ - used
when load-bearing capacity is lower, or if individual
footings or strip foundations are inadequate for the
imposed load. Frost-free depth for base ~ 0.80 m, for
engineering structures 1.0-1.5 m deep.
Methods to improve the load-bearing capacity of the site
Vibratory pressure process, with vibrator, compact in a
radius of 2.3-3 m; separation of the vibration cores approx.
1.5 m; the area is thus filled; improvement depends on the
granulation and original strata. Ground compression piles:
core is filled up with aggregate of varied grain size without
bonding agent. Solidification and compression of the
ground: pressure injection of cement grout; not applicable
to cohesive ground and ground which is aggressive to
cement; only applicable in quartzous ground (gravel, sand
and loose stone); injection of chemicals (silicic acid
solution, calcium chloride); immediate and lasting
petrifaction.
Foundations on
a hillside: lines
of pressure
distribution =
angle of slope
of the ground
Wide foundations result
in higher stresses than
thinner ones with the
same base pressure
Strip foundations are most
frequently used for
building
®
0-0
Foundations on a
sand filling of
0.8-1.20 m high,
applied in layers
of 15cm in a
slurry; the load
is distributed
over a larger
area of the site
®
Individual foundations for
light buildings without
cellars
3.0m
~
~
3'Ow
3.0m
~
Intersection of
foundation
influence lines
causes danger of
settlement and
crack formation
(important when
new building is
adjacent to old
building)
In practice, it is incorrect
to assume that pressure is
distributed at an angle of
45° or less; lines of equal
pressure (isobars) are
almost circular
(})
(c) with divided (d) foundation next
sole plate to existing
building
@ Application of foundations
on dividing lines and
movement joints
(d) strengthening under supports
(b) raft reinforced with beams
(a) raft of uniform thickness
~zzz9zzzzz9J
@ Cross-sections of raft
foundations
1
I
J~~
(a) divided (b) non-divided
foundation (false) foun ation
p
in situ concrete pile
Grid pile and sinking
caisson arrangement for
deep foundations
Raft foundation reinforced
with structural steel
®
53
Yet wider foundation in the
form of a steel reinforced
concrete plate
@
Chamfered foundation in
unreinforced concrete
Widened, stepped
foundation in unreinforced
concrete
@
Simple strip foundation on
lean concrete

EARTHWORKS AND FOUNDATION
STRUCTURES
To calculate the active soil pressure on retaining walls-) CD and
the permissible loading sub-soil, the type, composition, extent,
stratification and strength of the ground strata must be known.
Where local knowledge is inadequate, trial excavation and
boreholes are necessary (separation of the bore holes -:; 25 m).
For pile foundations, the bore depths should extend to the foot
of the piles ~ (2). According to the method of measurement,
these depths can be reduced by a third (T = 1.0 B or 2 x pile
diameter, but ~6.0 m). For the required pile separations for bored
piles ~ @; for driven piles ~ @. The stated values do not apply
to load-bearing plugged and bored pile walls. For the requisite
depth of the load-bearing ground under bored piles -4 @; for
compressed concrete bored piles, Brechtel System-) @.
Pile foundations: Loads can be transmitted by the piles to the
load-bearing ground by surface friction, end bearing or both
bearings; the type of load transfer depends on the building site
and the nature of the piling. Bearing pile foundations: load
transmission takes place at ends of the piles onto the load-
bearing ground and/or through skin friction. Suspended pile
foundations: the piles do not extend downwards until the ends
are on the load-bearing region. Weak load-bearing layers are
compacted by pile driving.
Type of load transfer: Friction piles essentially transfer the load
through surface friction via the load bearing region around the
circumference of the pile. End bearing piles: the load is principally
transmitted by the pile end on to the bearing stratum; in this case,
surface friction is not significant. The permissible end pressure is
significantly increased in some types of pile by widening the
bases of the piles.
Position of the piles in the ground: Foundation piles are in the
ground over their whole length. Retaining and projecting piles
are free standing piles, whose lower portions only are below
ground; the tops of these piles are exposed and therefore
subject to buckling stresses.
Materials: wood, steel, concrete, reinforced concrete and
prestressed concrete piles.
Method of insertion in the ground: Driven piles are rammed
into the ground by pile driving hammers. Jacked piles are
inserted by pressure. Bored piles are inserted by way of a bore
hole. Screwed piles are inserted by rotation. With driven tube
piles, a steel tube former is driven into the ground and
withdrawn as the concrete pile is cast in situ. A distinction is
made between piles which compact the ground, pierce it, or
pass through a hole in it.
Type of loading: Axially loaded piles. Bearing piles are
subject to compressive stresses - the load being transmitted
through point pressure and surface friction. Tensile piles are
subjected to tensile stress with loads transmitted through
surface friction. Horizontally loaded piles. Retaining or
projecting piles are subject to bending stresses, e.g., horizontally
loaded large bore piles, sheet piles.
Manufacture and installation: Prefabricated piles are made in
finished sections and delivered to the point of use, and driven
into the ground by hammering, pressing, vibrating, screwing or
by inserting in ready-prepared bore holes. In situ piles are
created in a hollowed-out chamber in the ground, such as bored
piles, tube piles, auger piles
and cylinder piles. Mixed
foundation piles are
assembled from in situ and
prefabricated parts. In situ
piles provide the advantage
that their length is not critical
pre construction, and can be
designed on the basis of
compaction results, and
examination of cores of the
ground strata obtained during
the boring process.
:····u·'~~·~m·d~;·..:~
• ' • • • o '
'.' .~2~·1 :. :..' ..
(f) retaining wall with
heel and toe
(c) in situ concrete or sheet
piling retaining wall built
into structure
e .
.....
c)
~3d
~1.10m
(e) gravity wall
(b) rear anchored in situ
concrete or sheet piling
retaining wall
r-~
§ I
0
0,
.~
ro
Cl>
.0
:
z
"
.. ;
:
;
§ ., ~ ~ - ~.'.
:.
J J.':
0
rn ...:....
e e e l- e-
inlet fork
" determined by greatest bore depth
(ci) concrete structure
against a retaining
wall
® Requisite depth of load supporting ground under bored piles
(a) ground retained In situ
concrete or sheet piling
retaining wall
e~3d~l m+d
o Requisite pile separations for driven piles
o Requisite pile separations for bored piles
(3) Minimum depths for trial bores
G) Building structures rated for the retention of soil pressure
o Compressed concrete bore pile (Brechtel System)
54

u/ground rainwater
(f)
drains drains
c (f)
~
C1:J c
D ro
D D
OJ (f)
C C ::J (l)
material 0 D (f)
Q.
u
~ '= ~
'0.
(l)
c (l)
c;
ai
~
u
c - c .2 ~ c
8 8 :0 (f)
(l)
ro~ C1:J
i
(l) ::J
Q. (f)
C1:J
1
.r::: Q. D 0 ~ '0
.~
c (f) '0. c (l)
(l).D
C1:J
~
s: DE
(l) u (l) c (l)
C1:J (l)
C 0
C (f)
'= > ~ c 8..:: '+-
clay pipes
Al non-
with -
+ + + - + -
+
combustible
sleeves
clay pipes
with straight - + + + + - + - + Al
ends
thinwalled
clay pipes t t + + + + + - + Al
with straight
ends
concrete pipes - - - - + - - - - Al
with rebate
concrete pipe - + + + - - - - Al
with sleeve
reinforced - - + + + - - - - Al
concrete pipe
glass pipe + + + - - + + + Al
cement + + + + + + + + -
Al non-
fibre pipe combustible
cement - - + + + - - - -
A2
fibre pipe
metal pipe
(zinc, copper, - - - - - - - + -
Al
aluminium,
steels)
cast Iron
pipe without + + + + + + + + - Al
sleeve
steel pipe + + + + + + + + - Al
stainless + + + + + + + + + Al
steel pipe
PVC-U pipe - - - + + - - - +
81 low com-
bustibility
PVC-U pipe,
corrugated - - - + + - - - + -
outer surface
PVC-U pipe, - - - + + - - - + -
profiled
PVC-U foam - - - + + - - - + -
core pipe
PVC-C pipe + + + + - + + + + 81
PEHD pipe + + + + - + + + +
82
combustible
- - - + + - - - + -
PEHD pipe,
with profiled - - - - + - - - + -
walling
PP pipe + + + + - + + - + 81
PP pipe,
mineral + + + + - + + - + 82
reinforced
A8S/ASA/ + + + + - + + - + 82
PVC pipe
A8S/ASA/PVC
pipe, mineral + + + + - + + - + 82
reinforced outer
layer
UP/GF pipe - - + + - - - +
nhCI: bibs - - + + - - - +
1
9A6l
l61UlolC6q orucr
brbs: UJIlJ6l91 + + + + - + + - + B:5
VB2W2'dbAC
bAC brbs
VB2W2V + + + + - + + - + B:5
l61lJlOlC6q
UJIlJ6l91 + + + + - + + - + B:5
BUILDING AND SITE DRAINAGE
External underground drains are understood to be those
which are laid outside the plan area of the building. Drains
underneath cellar areas are taken as interior drains.
Depending on topography, the depths required are 0.80 m,
1.00 m and 1.20 m. In severe climates, measures must be
taken to protect against frost.
Changes in direction of main drains must be constructed
only with prefabricated bend fittings and no individual bend
should be greater than 45°, If a junction of drains cannot be
formed with prefabricated fittings, then a manhole must be
constructed. Inaccessible double junctions are not
permitted and a drain must not be reduced by connection
into a narrower pipe in the direction of flow (with the
exception of rainwater drainage outside buildings).
minimum falls for:
nominal foul water rainwater combined foul water rainwater and
dimensions, drains drains drains drains combined
DN within within within outside drains outside
(mm) buildings buildings buildings buildings buildings
up to 100 1:50 1:100 1:50 l:DN l:DN
125 1:66.7 1:100 1:66.7 l:DN l:DN
150 1:66.7 1:100 1:66.7 l:DN l:DN
from 200
l:DN l:DN l:DN
l:DN l:DN
2 2 2
fill level
0.5 0.7 0.7 0.5* 0.7 ~ ~
hid
* for ground drains greater than 150 mm dia.; also 0.7
** for ground drains greater than 150 mm dia. connected to a manhole with open
throughflow; also 1.0
CD Minimum falls for drains

56
term symbol unit explanation
rainfall value (Tin) lI(s hal rainfall value, calculated according to
the building section of the drainage
system, with accompanying rain
duration (T) and rain frequency (n)
rainfall area A m 2 the area subjected to rainfall measured
in horizonal plane (A) from which the
rain water flows to the drainage system
discharge coefficient lJI 1 in the meaning of this standard, the
relationship between the rainwater
flowing into the drainage system and
the total amount of rainwater in the
relevant rainfall area
water flow Ve I/s effective volume of water flow, not
taking into account simultaneity
rainwater Vr I/s discharge of rainwater from a
discharge connected rainfall area by a given
rainfall value
foul water Vs I/s discharge in the drainage pipe, resulting
discharge from the number of connected sanitary
units taking into account simultaneity
combined water v; l/s sum of the foul water discharge and
discharge rainwater discharge V
m = V
s + Vr
pumping v, I/s calculated volume flow of a pump etc.
flow
connection AWs 1 the value given to a sanitary fitting to
value calculate the following drainage pipe
(lAWs 11/s)
drainage K l/s amount depending on the type of
discharge factor building; results from the characteristics
of the discharge
discharge v, I/s calculated discharge through a drainage
capacity pipe when full, without positive or
negative static pressure
partial fill VT I/s discharge through a drainage pipe
discharge while partly full
degree ti/d, 1 relationship between the filling height h
of fill and the diameter d, of a horizontal
drainage pipe
fall I crn/rn difference in level (in cm) of the base of
a pipe over 1m of its length or its
relative proportion (e.q. 1:50 = 2 cm/m)
functional klJ mm roughness value, which takes into
roughness account all the loss in flow in drainage
pipes
nominal ON - this is the nominal size, which is used
bore for all compatible fittings (e.g. pipes,
pipe connectors and bends); it should
be similar to the actual bore; it may
only be used instead of the actual bore
in hydraulic calculations when the
cross-sectional area calculated from the
smallest actual bore is not more than
5% less than that calculated from the
nominal bore (in relation to a circular
cross-section this represents about
2.5%)
actual bore OS mm internal dimension (diameter) of pipes,
fittings, manhole covers etc.. with
specified permitted tolerances* (used as
production specification to maintain the
necessary cross-sectional properties
(area, circumference etc.)
minimum OSmill mm according to the regulations the
bore smallest permissible bore, given by the
smallest tolerated actual bore
dimension
minimum d'Ill1l1 mm the minimum inner diameter of
Inner drainage pipes, related to the 5%
diameter tolerance allowed from the dimension
of the nominal bore
flooding - - the situation when foul and/or rainwater
escapes from a drainage system or
cannot enter into it, irrespective of
whether this happens in the open or
inside a building
overloading - - the situation when foul and/or rainwater
runs under pressure in a drainage
system, but does not leak to the surface
and therefore causes no flooding
drainage i, m a section of the drainage system in
section which the volume of effluent, the
diameter d, and/or the fall I of the
drainage pipe does not alter
• now: lower dimensional limit
OJ Il![miosls8x tS[ ~HiI~!DO llD~ li!te 11[!I!DlIOIl
G) Terminology for building and site drainage
Calculation of foul water flow
The deciding factor in calculating the size of the nominal
bore is the maximum expected foul water discharge Vs'
which is given by the sum of the connection values and/or,
if appropriate, the effective water consumption, while
taking into account the simultaneous use of the various
sanita ry fitti ngs.
V
s = K . LAWs + tie
Guide values for the drainage discharge factor K are shown
in (2) and example connection values AWs are given in @.
If the foul water discharge tis is smaller than the largest
connection value of an individual sanitary fitting, then the
latter value is to be taken. For drainage systems that do not
fit into the categories of building listed in (2), K values
should be calculated according to individual specific uses.
type of building, drainage system K
(l/s)
apartment buildings, pubs/restaurants, guest 0.5
houses, hostels, office buildings, schools
hospitals (wards), large pubs/restaurants, hotels 0.7
launderettes, rows of showers 1.0'
laboratory installations in industrial organisations 1.2*
*in the cases when the total water flow V
e is not relevant
o Factors for drainage discharge
sanitary fitting or type of drainage pipe connection ON of the
value single connecting
AWs drain
hand basins, vanity units, bidets, 0.5 50
row of wash basins
kitchen waste run-off (single/double sink), 1 50
including dishwasher for up to 12 covers,
floor gully, washing machine (with trapped
drain) for up to 6 kg dry laundry
washing machines for 6-12 kg dry laundry 1.5* 70'
commercial dishwashers 2* 100*
floor gullies: nominal bore 50 1 50
nominal bore 70 1.5 70
nominal bore 100 2 100
we, basin type dishwasher 2.5 100
shower tray/unit, foot bath 1 50
bath tub with direct connection 1 50
bath tub with direct connection, 1 40
(up to 1m length) above floor level,
connected to a drain ON "270
bath tub or shower tray with an 1 50
indirect connection, connection from
the bath outlet less than 2 m length
bath tub or shower tray with an 1 70
indirect connection, connection from
the bath outlet longer than 2 m length
connecting pipe between bath - '40
overflow and bath outlet
laboratory sink 1 50
outlet from dentists' treatment 0.5* 40*
equipment (with amalgam trap)
urinal (bowl)" 0.5 50
nominal bore of
internal collecting
drain
number of urinals: up to 2 0.5 70
up to 4 1 70
up to 6 1.5 70
over 6 2 100
* using these given estimated values, the actual values should be calculated
Connection values of sanitary fittings and basic values for
nominal bores of individual drainage connections (branch drains)

type of unit LAWs
(a) multi-room flat 5
for drainage from all sanitary rooms and kitchen
(b) multi-room flat 4
for drainage from all sanitary rooms,
but without the kitchen
studio flat 4
for drainage from all sanitary fittings
hotel rooms and similar 4
for drainage from all sanitary fittings
Connection values for specific units (for stacks, above- and
underground drainage)
In the calculation of water flows for load types listed in (2),
no conversion of the connection value AWs needs to be
carried out.
type of load flow measurement
launderettes. rows of showers water flow Ve
laboratory Installations water flow Vp
sundry separators (e.g. oil) water flow Ve
drainage pumps, sewage pumps and large
washing and dishwashing machines, connected pumped flow v,
to the mains water and to the drains
rainwater share in a combined drainage system rainwater discharge Vr
o Load types
individual connecting dram pipe ON with regard
to the layout
criteria
nominal layout criteria
unvent- vent-
bore
ilated i1ated
sanitary units
(ON) length height number of
basis L(m 11) H(m 11) bends?' ON ON
up to 3 40 40
sink unit, 40 up to 3 up to 1
over 3 50 40
washbasin,
bidet 40 over 3
or over 1
over 3 70 50
up to 3
bath tubs
- connection to a stack
40 up to 1
up to without
40 40
above floor level 0.25 limit
ON of the stack' 70
up to 3
up to
50 50
bath tub with
0.25
without
50
direct connection
over 3 or
over 1 limit
70 50
up to 3
bath tub with connection
'40 up to 3
up to without
40 40
to floor gulley 0.25 limit
up to 5 up to 1 70 70
floor gully (bath drain)
without
with connection to bath 70 over 5 over 1
limit
tub or shower tray or 100 70
up to 10 up to 3
single connection pipes 50 over 3
over 1 without
70 50
up to 3 limit
over 5 over 1
single connection pipes 70 or 100 70
I up to 3
up to 10 up to 1
without
100 100
limit
sinqle connection pipe
100 over 10 I over 1
without we or 125 100
up to 3
we 100 up to 5 up to 1 100 100
we over 1 without
max. 1 rn horizontal 100 up to 5 100 100
distance to stack
up to 4 limit
sinqle connection pipes all over 3
ventilation
essential
11
I. P
J
H difference in height between the
connection to a ventilated pipe
and the trap of a sanitary unit
L straightened out length of pipe
L
up to the trap
(maximum permitted lengths and height differences of single connection pipes)
/1 number of bends including exit bend of trap
Dimensioning of drainage systems following the
connection of a pump installation
Non-pressurised drainage following a pump installation is
to be calculated as follows.
(a) With rainwater drainage, the pumped flow from the
pump Vp is to be added to the rainwater discharge v;
(b) With foul water and combined drainage, the relevant
highest value (pumped flow or the remaining effluent
flow) is to be taken, under the condition that the addition
of Vp and v; or Vs does not result in a complete filling of
the underground or above-ground drainage pipework. The
calculated testing of the complete filling of pipes is only to
be carried out on pipes for which there is a filling level of
h/d, = 0.7. If there are several foul water pump installations
in a combined underground/above-ground drainage
system, then the total pumped flow of the pumps can be
reduced (e.g. for every additional pump add 0.4 Vp ).
Dimensioning of foul drain pipes: connecting pipes >
Single connecting pipes from hand basins, sink units and
bidets, which do not have more than three changes of
direction (including the exit bend of the trap) can be
constructed from nominal bore 40 pipes. If there are more
than three changes of direction, then a nominal bore 50
pipe is necessary.
Internal collecting drainage
With unventilated internal collection drains, the drain length
L, including the individual connection furthest away, should
not exceed 3 m for nominal bore 50 pipe, 5 m for nominal
bore 70, and 10m for pipes with a nominal bore of 100
(without we connection). Where greater lengths are
required, wider bores or the use of ventilated pipework
should be considered. Internal collection drain pipes over
5 m in length with a nominal bore of 100, we connections
and falls H of 1 m or more must be ventilated.
above-ground collecting drain pipes ON with regard
to the layout
highest permitted layout criteria Criteria
LAWs
ON
unvent- vent- length L height H unventilated ventilated
i1ated i1ated m!' m 1 1 ON ON
1 50 up to 3 up to 1 50 -
1 1.5 50 up to 6
over 1 70
50
up to 3 from stack
3 - 70 up to 5 up to 1 70
3 4.5 70 up to 10
over 1 100
70
up to 3 from stack
100
up to 1 100
16 - without up to 10
over 1
we up to 3
- 100
1.5 50 over 6 ~r over 3
- 4.5 70 over 10 dr over 3 ventilation
100
over 10 dr
essential
- 25
without we over 3
16 -
100
up to 5 up to 1 100
with we
- 25
100
over 5 over 1 ventilation essential
with we
- >16 all ventilation essential
3 -
100 we with 1 sink unit on the ground floor
- H at least 4 rn above the hariz. drain pipe
- distance of we from stack max. 1rn
1)
If rU fa yyyNy~
~ ~l
L
r
~~--L--d'~;~:2
_J diagram 1
H difference in height from the connection to a ventilated pipe (stack,
above-ground, underground) to the highest situated trap
L straightened out pipe length to the furthest situated trap
CD Nominal bores of above-ground drainage in connection with the
layout criteria of the pipe runs
Nominal bores of above-ground drainage in connection with the
layout criteria of the pipe runs
57

G) Foul water stack drains with top ventilation
o Foul water stack drains with secondary ventilation
8) Discharge coefficient (jI) to calculate the rainwater discharge (lir)
rainwater discharge in I/s
connected rainfall area in m 2
rainfall value in I/(s· ha)
discharge coefficient according to -) @
(T(n)
1fJ
where Vr
A
Rainwater drainage pipes inside and outside buildings are
fundamentally to be calculated with a minimum rainfall value of
at least 300 l/(s· ha). It is also important to ensure that there are
enough emergency overflows for large internal rainwater
drainage systems. The requirements can be checked using the
following standard figures for the location:
(15(1) Fifteen minute rainfall value, statistically exceeded
once per year. This rainfall value should only be
used in exceptionally well reasoned cases for the
calculation of rainwater drainage pipe sizes.
(5(0.5) Five minute rainfall value, statistically exceeded
once every two years.
(5(0.05) Five minute rainfall value, statistically seen is
exceeded once every twenty years.
For above- and underground drains within a building, subject to
agreement with local guidelines, a rainfall value of less than 300
can be employed, though it must be at least as great as the five
minute rainfall value in two years ((5(0.5))' Across Germany,
(5(0.5) va ries from arou nd 165 up to as much as 4451/(s· ha) so it
is important to check the figures with the local authority.
If smaller rainfall values are proposed and there are large
roof drainage areas (e.g. above 5000 m 2), it is necessary to carry
out an overloading calculation on the basis of what can be
expected in the case of rainfall equivalent at least to a five
minute rainfall value in 20 years ((5(0.05))' These rainfall values
can be as high as 950 I/(s· ha). Within the overload sector, take
into account the resistances due to the layout of the pipes. If a
special roof form is proposed (e.g. those with areas of planned
flooding) they must be waterproofed to above the flood level
and the additional loads must be taken into consideration.
Underground rainwater drainage pipes should have a
nominal bore of ON 100 or more. If the pipe is outside the
building and for mixed drainage (i.e. will also carry foul water),
and connects to a manhole with open access, the nominal bore
should be ON 150 or above.
Foul water stacks
The nominal bore of all foul water stacks must be at least ON 70.
For foul water stacks with top ventilation the figures given in Gj
should be used for design calculations. The nominal bores
shown for the stacks considered are associated with the
maximum sum of the connection values with which the stack
can be loaded. It should be noted that to avoid functional
disruptions a limit is put upon the number of WCs (i.e. sanitary
units that introduce quantities of large solid objects and surges
of water) that may be connected to the various stacks. In
addition to foul water flows, tables CD - @ also show examples
of sums of connection values (see p. 56).
Foul water stacks with secondary ventilation can be loaded
with 700/0 more foul water flow than stacks with top ventilation.
They can be estimated in accordance with -) @.
Calculations governing underground and above-ground
collection pipes (horizontal foul water drains) should be made
based on the ratio h/d. = 0.5 although for under-ground pipes
outside the building over ON 150 can use h/d, = 0.7. The values
for the partial fill discharge flow of the pipes with minimum falls
'min are identified in relation to whether the pipes are laid inside
or outside the building. Values below the given size steps are
allowed for pipe calculations only in individually justified cases.
Calculations for rainwater pipes: rainwater discharge
and rainfall value
The discharge from a rainfall area is calculated using the
following relationship:
. (T(n)
@ Vr = lfJ' A . 10000 in I/s
Foul water stack drains with direct or indirect additional
ventilation
type of surface coefficient
waterproof surfaces, e.g.
- roof areas> 3° falls
- concrete surfaces, ramps
- stabilised areas with sealed joints 1.0
- asphalt roofs
- paving with sealed joints
- roof area <;3° falls 0.8
- grassed roof areas 11
- intensive planting 0.3
- extensive planting above 100 mm built-up thickness 0.3
- extensive planting less than 100 rnrn built-up thickness 0.5
partially permeable and surfaces with slight run-off, e.g.
-
concrete paving laid on sand or slag,
areas with paving 0.7
- areas with paving, with joint proportion> 15%
(e.g. 100 'x, 100mm and smaller) 0.6
water consolidated areas 0.5
- children's play area, partly stabilised 0.3
- sports areas with land drainage
- artificial surfaces 0.6
- gravelled areas 0.4
- grassed areas 0.3
water permeable surfaces with insignificant or no water run-off, e.g.
-
park and planted areas
- hardcore, slag and coarse gravelled areas, even
with partly consolidated areas such as:
- garden paths with water consolidated surface or 0.0
- drives and parking areas with grassed concrete grid
11 according to guidelines for the planning, construction and maintenance of roof
planting
K = 0.51/s K=0.71/s K = 1.01/s
upper
ON *1 limit max max max
d, min Is lAWs number lAWs number lAWs number
(mm) (lis) ofWCs ofWCs ofWCs
70**1 68.2 2.6 27 - 14 - 7 -
100 97.5 6.8 185 37 94 24 46 12
125 115.0 9.0 324 65 165 41 81 20
121.9 10.5 441 88 225 56 101 28
150 146.3 17.2 1183 237 604 151 296 74
*1 see explanations -~ p. 56
**1 it is not permitted to connect more than four kitchen sanitary units
to one separate stack (kitchen stack)
CD
K = 0.51/s K=0.71/s K = 1.01/s
upper
d, mill Is LAWs number LAWs number LAWs number
70**1 68.2 2.1 18 - 9 - 4 -
100 97.5 5.6 125 25 64 16 31 8
125 115.0 7.4 219 44 112 28 55 14
121.9 8.7 303 61 154 39 76 20
150 146.3 14.1 795 159 406 102 199 50
'1 see explanations ~ p. 56
K = 0.51/s K=0.71/s K = 1.01/s
upper
d"ll11' Is LAW~ number LAWs number LAWs number
70*'1 68.2 1.5 9 - 5 -
2 -
100 97.5 4.0 64 13 33 8 16 4
125 115.0 5.3 112 22 57 14 28 7
121.9 6.2 154 31 78 20 38 10
150 146.3 10.1 408 82 208 52 102 25
*1 see explanations -~ p. 56
58

DAMP-PROOFING AND TANKING
Cellars are used less these days as storage rooms and more
as places for leisure or as additional rooms for
accommodation and domestic purposes. So, people want
greater comfort and a better internal climate in the cellar. A
prerequisite for this is proofing against dampness from
outside. For buildings without cellars, the external and
internal walls have to be protected from rising damp by the
provision of horizontal damp-proof courses ----. @ - @. On
external walls, the damp-proofing is 150-300 mm above
ground level ~ @ - @. For buildings with brick cellar walls,
a minimum of 2 horizontal damp-proof courses should be
provided in the external walls ----. CV-@. The upper layer may
be omitted on internal walls. Bituminous damp-proof
membranes, asphalt, or specifically designed high-grade
plastic sheet should be used for the vertical tanking in walls.
Depending on the type of back filling used in the working
area and the type of tanking used, protective layers should
be provided for the wall surfaces ~ @ - @. Rubble, gravel
chippings or loose stones should not be deposited directly
against the tanking membrane.
water occurs as proofing required against type of proofing
rising damp capillary effect on vertical protective layers against ground
building elements dampness (damp proofing)
precipitation, seepage of water not under proofing against seepage
running water pressure on sloping surfaces (tanking)
of building elements
ground water hydrostatic pressure pressure retaining proofing
(tanking)
finished floor
level
/
Damp-proofing of building
with no cellar and with non-
habitable room use; floor at
ground level
Good protection required on
hill side of building; hillside
water conducted away by
drainage ---1 @ - @
ground
level
CD
air space
supporting
floor
finished floor
level
/
/
finished floor
level
with no cellar and with non-
habitable room use; hardcore
at the level of the damp-
proof course
Cellar level protected
horizontally and vertically
against rising damp
·CV-@
CD
CD
corrugated fibre
protective layer
fibre cement
sheet over
tanking
material
finished
cellar floor
level
finished
cellar floor
level
raft foundation
@ Protective layer of fibre
cement boards
@ Damp-proofing and tanking
of building with cellar;
masonry walls on a raft
foundation
ventilated f,a<;:ade ~
gravel bed
for splash
protection ""
finished
cellar floor
level
finished ground
floor level
- waterproof mat
seepage layer
Damp-proofing and tanking
of building with cellar;
walls of concrete
@ Waterproof mat
®
finished
cellar floor
level
tanking
protective layer
of concrete grid
units
o
M
/I
Protective wall of concrete
grid units
with cellar; masonry walls
on strip foundations
with no cellar; low lying
floor at ground level
ground
level
@
finished
cellar floor
level
with cellar with non-
habitable room use (masonry
walls on strip foundation)
with no cellar; floor with
ventilated air gap between
floor and ground level
(])
water seepage
through pores
@ Drainage and tanking
®
59

30 40 50
15 20
- - - corrugated plastic drainpipe
5 6 7 8 9 10
flow rate Q (I/s) ~
- - concrete land drains
y /
// II' II
lJI
v...~
/
b%g !~#~
VL
/
Q'
/ ~I
/~7 °1
I
/ I /
I /, I !I
I I II I
I / / IJ I
/ I
!J I
I I / lh / /
/ II
I
!/
/' / I
I I / I /; / /
" #/ /;' ~ / 'II
"" s. I ~ II It --f---- ~
"'-.(~ ~ I 'I / /
,,~/ jJ V /
k' ~'/
V I
"rtj /
'-II r-~~I
V
"l~I
0.1
0.05
1
3.0
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.8
0.6
~
~ 0.4
0.3
drainpipe: nominal diameter 100mm, 0.5% fall
washout and inspection pipe: nominal diameter 300 rnrn
washout, inspection and collecting shaft: nominal diameter 1000 mm
Ground Water Drainage
0.2
Ground water drainage involves the removal of water from
the building site area through drainage layers and
drainpipes to prevent the build-up of water pressure. This
process should prevent blocking by soil particles (fixed filter
drainage). A drainage facility consists of perforated drains,
inspection and cleaning devices, and drainage pipes for
water disposal. Drainage is the collective term for drain
pipes and drainage layers. If drainage at the wall is
necessary, reference should be made to the cases ,G) - ]1.
~~... CD is relevant if ground dampness only occurs in very
porous ground.-. (2)is relevant if the accumulation of water
can be avoided by means of a drain, so that water under
pressure does not occur..) Qj is relevant if water is present
under pressure, as a rule in the form of ground water, or
when removal of the water via a drain is not possible.
@ Measurement nomogram for drainage pipework
@ Specifications and depths of granular materials for drainage layers
position material thickness (Ill)
in front of walls sand/gravel '0.50
filter layer coarseness 0-4 rnrn '0.10
seepage layer coarseness 4-32 rnrn '0.20
gravel coarseness 4-32 mm and geotextile -0.20
on roof slabs gravel coarseness 4-32 mm and geotextile '0.50
under floor slabs filter layer coarseness 0.4 mm '0.10
seepage layer coarseness 4-32 mill
gravel coarseness 4-32 mm and geotextile
around land drains sand/gravel -0.15
seepage layer coarseness 4~32 mill and '010
filter layer coarseness 0-4 rnrn
gravel coarseness 4-32 mm and geotextile -0.10
finished
ground
floor level
ON 300
~ - 0 -
-6'. . ~~o_~'~lIiiIi~~~
OVlroo
ON 100
ON 100
Key to diagrammatic
representation
Drainage system for deep
building work
Non-pressurised water in
slightly porous ground
I *-
I~~
Is
rr7---r-J.....,....r-T'.......-7'~~.......,....,...A , ~
~~~---~]
representation component material
~ filter layer sand
geotextile
----- (filter fleece)
IlS
•
Q
c.«i1 drainage gravel
layer individual/
composite
~
elements
(drainage
units, boards)
~ (drainage mat)
-- protective, membrane,
~ separating render
-- d/proofing
_.. _.. - drainpipe
washout!
_.~. inspecnon
-~~-
pipe
washout!
inspection/
collecting
shaft
CD
finished
cellar floor
level
finished
ground
floor level
0 - - -
OVl300
ON 300
0--
~Ni
Dl4i888
Y7ZZzzz:z.ZZI:2.-:z::zz..Z:Z:Z:::;;"::Z:Z:2-.:z::z:z.zzz:z.::z:zz:;'[IZZ:z:;~
I I
I
#- I
~ ~I
I
~I
~~-
Example of an arrangement of drainpipes, inspection and
cleaning access in a ring drainage system
Soakaway for low drainage
requirement
l:0.3.l
Drainage system with ®
granular material around
the pipe (tile drain)
ON 300 ~~
0 - - -
o 0
o
o
o 0
(])
®
o
o .
. . 0 0 . G.·
o
o..~ .......
,....,..,r"'7'"7~".....,....~
O .
.'~'. ~:-Oo 0~.o.~0 ..~o•.~".o:~·
o Water under pressure in
ground containing ground
water
60

Water pressure
If parts of buildings are immersed in ground water, a water
pressure retaining barrier layer (tanking) must be
positioned over the base and side walls. To plan this design,
the type of subsoil, the maximum ground water level and
the chemical content of the water must be known. The
tanking should extend to 300 mm above the maximum
ground water level. The materials can be 3-layer asphalt or
specially designed plastic membranes, with metal fittings if
necessary.
When the water level has sunk below the cellar floor
level, the protective walls are constructed on the concrete
base layer and rendered ready to receive the tanking. After
the tanking is applied, the reinforced floor slab and
structural cellar walls are completed hard against the
tanking. NB the rounding of the corners • ® - OJ. The
tanking must be in the form of a complete vessel or enclose
the building structure on all sides. Normally, it lies on the
water side of the building structure • ® - c: For internal
tanking, the cladding construction must be able to
withstand the full water pressure -.) @.
If the precipitation on the site is not absorbed quickly, a
build-up of water pressure can occur and tanking against
the water pressure is needed, with drainage to conduct
water away. For these measures • (Jj - Q); for tanking
methods. @-@.
positional plan
fall? 0.5%
1-3.50-1
18.80
0100
concrete bed
o
,...
ci
I
~~~~I~t~on ~. p~p~n~~ ~::
drainage
Building walls on hillside must be well drained
wall drainage
CD
pr of ile d sheet
prism pavorr s
Joint se almq
compound
(b) sealing a pipe penetration
of the tanking with flanges
(a) sealing anchor fittings
which connect two walls
through the tanking
A.
Tanking at connections to
windows and access openings
Details: tanking between
two walls
s=
asphalt
@
®
reinforced
concrete tray
protective layer
concrete base
asphalt
wearing layer
1
30
anchoring to
prevent upward
movement
JOint grouting
water
table. I
max~
Tanking over expansion joint
in reinforced concrete slab;
thermal insulating screed
reinforced concrete
CI'n---i
1. supporting course over
detail X joint sealing - 100 mm
wide - no adhesive
IY/Xo/JXW~ <vy/AY)I
Iprote~~~:r~~to~rng -roi ~" fi IIing "' I
mastic
~!llgBllt~grouting
~ F;~~~ctlve
elastic
/ / / / ~ ~o~~~~lape
/ / / / / ~ :~~~~~y laid
~
/ / . waterproofing
-, -c
... -, / // ~
, ~/.
~~~" /'//~~ reinforced
~~ -, L .;~j concrete
flange thickness 1.5mm bolted
flange width 12cm separation 15cm
bolts M20
® Tanking over a flexible joint
in reinforced concrete slab
2-layer copper band-
Joggled assembly
0.1 mm thick,
300mm wide
waterproof
concrete
tanking
protective layer
supporting wall
existing ground
clay, sandy
water repellent
covering
radius
porous ground
ground level
tanking
protective layer
supporting wall
I
I radius
~~~·n~a:~~~~~, drainpipe ~~~~~~~~~~~
with 20 mm dia.
perforations base concrete infill
f5 Pipe drainage with layered
::V infill (tile drain)
/ sand/gravel
to main drainage
base concrete
Pipe drainage with mixed
infill (French drain)
Surface drainage with perforated land drains and ring drainage
pumped to main drain
perforated
pipe
exrstrnq
ground
clay,
sandy
drainpipe
dia.150mm
o Cross-section A-B .) (2)
CD
® Continuous water pressure
resistant tanking
(j) Continuous water pressure
resistant tanking
@ Subsequently constructed
tanking
Tanking at junctions of slab
bearing on retaining wall
61

Permissible compressive stresses on natural stone masonry in
kp/cm2 (MN/m2 )
Basic values - permissible compressive stress on natural stone
masonry in kp/cm2 (MN/m2 )
slenderness ratio
or eft. sl. ratio 8 (0.8) 10 (1.0) 12 (1.2) 16 (1.6) 22 (2.2) 30 (3.0) 40 (4.0) 50 (5.0)
1 10 8 (0.8) 10 (1.0) 12 (1.2) 16 (1.6) 22 (2.2) 30 (3.0) 40 (4.0) 50 (5.0)
2 12 6 (0.6) 7 (0.7) 8 (0.8) 11 (1.1) 15 (1.5) 22 (2.2) 30 (3.0) 40 (4.0)
3 14 4 (0.4) 5 (0.5) 6 (0.6) 8 (0.8) 10 (1.0) 14 (1.4) 22 (2.2) 30 (3.0)
4 16 3 (0.3) 3 (0.3) 4 (0.4) 6 (0.6) 7 (0.7) 10 (1.0) 14 (1.4) 22 (2.2)
5 18 3 (0.3) 4 (0.4) 5 (0.5) 7 (0.7) 10 (1.0) 14 (1.4)
6 20 3 (0.3) 5 (0.5) 7 (0.7) 10 (1.0)
MASONRY
Natural Stone
Masonry in natural stone is referred to as random rubble,
squared, dressed, ashlar, uncoursed, coursed, etc. -) (j) - QQ).
Stone quarried from natural deposits should be laid in the
orientation as found in the quarry ) G), @, @, to give an
attractive and natural appearance; this is also better from a
structural viewpoint, as the loading is mainly vertical in pressure
between the courses. Igneous stone is suitable for random,
uncoursed masonry ----j (2). The length of the stones should be
four or five times their height, no more, and certainly no less
than the stone height. The stones' size is of great significance to
the scaling of a building. Attention must be paid to good
bonding on both sides. In natural masonry, the bonding should
show good craftsmanship across the whole cross-section.
The following guidelines should be observed:
(a) Nowhere on the front and rear faces should more than
three joints run into each other.
(b) No butt joint should run through more than two courses.
(c) There must be a minimum of one header on two-
stretcher courses, or the header and stretcher courses
should alternate with one other.
(d) The depth of the header must be approx. 1.5 times the
height of a course and not less than 300 mm.
(e) The stretcher depth must be approx. equal to the course
height.
(f) The overlap of the butt joints must be ~100mm (masonry
courses) and 150 mm on ashlar walling @ - (j).
(g) The largest stones should be built in at the corners ~ G)- @.
The visible surfaces should be subsequently pointed.
The masonry should be levelled and trued for structural bearing
every 1.5-2.0m (scaffold height). The mortar joints should be
:s30mm thick, depending on coarseness and finish. Lime or lime
cement mortar should be used, since pure cement mortar
discolours certain types of stone. In the case of mixed masonry, the
facing layer can be included in the load-bearing cross-section if the
thickness ~ 120 mm ----j @. Front facing (cladding) of 25-50 mm
thickness (Travertine, limestone, granite, etc.) is not included in the
cross-section and the facing is anchored to the masonry with non-
corroding tie-rods, with a 2mm separation from it ----j @.
@
@ Minimum compressive strengths of types of stone
masonry type mortar group as in 11
group
A B C D E
1 quarry stone I 2 (0.2) 2 (0.2) 3 (0.3) 4 (0.4) 6 (0.6)
2 IIllla 2 (0.2) 3 (0.3) 5 (0.5) 7 (0.7) 9 (0.9)
3 III 3 (0.3) 5 (0.5) 6 (0.6) 10 (1.0) 12 (1.2)
4 hammer finished I 3 (0.3) 5 (0.5) 6 (0.6) 8 (0.8) 10 (1.0)
5 masonry courses 1I/IIa 5 (0.5) 7 (0.7) 9 (0.9) 12 (1.2) 16 (1.6)
6 III 6 (0.6) 10 (1.0) 12 (1.2) 16 (1.6) 22 (2.2)
7 irregular and I 4 (0.4) 6 (0.6) 8 (0.8) 10 (1.0) 16 (1.6)
8 regular masonry I1/11a 7 (0.7) 9 (0.9) 12 (1.2) 16 (1.6) 22 (2.2)
9 courses III 10 (1.0) 12 (1.2) 16 (1.6) 22 (2.2) 30 (3.0)
10 ashlar walling I 8 (0.8) 10 (1.0) 16 (1.6) 22 (2.2) 30 (3.0)
11 1IIIIa 12 (1.2) 16 (1.6) 22 (2.2) 30 (3.0) 40 (0.4)
12 III 16 (1.6) 22 (2.2) 30 (3.0) 40 (4.0) 50 (5.0)
group type of stone min. compressive strength
in kp/crn? (MN/m 2 )
A limestone, travertine, volcanic tufa 200 (20)
B soft sandstone (with argillaceous binding agent) 300 (30)
C dense (solid) limestone and dolomite (inc.
500 (50l
marble) basalt lava and similar
D quartzitic sandstone (with silica binding agent),
800 (80)
greywacke and similar
E granite, synite, diorite, quartz porphyry,
1200 (120)
melaphyre, diabase and similar
Stone cladding: structurally
ineffective
Ashlar faced mixed
masonry walling
Hammer-faced squared
random rubble irregularly
coursed walling
Rough hewn uncoursed
random rubble walling
@
®
® Regular masonry courses
structurally effective
cross-section
CD
I
1.50
1
I
1.50
1
Mixed masonry with
structurally effective cross-
section
Squared random rubble
uncoursed walling
®
o Ashlar walling
CD Irregular masonry courses
o
o Dry stone walling
62

Bricks and Blocks
MASONRY
As per BS 6100: Section 5.3: 1984, masonry units include
several terms: unit (special, shaped, standard shaped, cant,
plinth, bullnose, squint, solid, cellular, hollow, perforated,
common, facing, split-faced, lintel, fixing, concrete, calcium
silicate, sandlime, flintlime, fired-clay, terracotta, faience),
header, stretcher, closer (king, queen) and air brick. Brick: a
masonry unit not over 338 mm in length, 225 mm in width or
113 mm in height. The term 'brick' includes engineering,
frogged, hand-made, stock, wire-cut, rusticated, rubber, tile
and damp proof course bricks. Block: a masonry unit
exceeding the size of any dimension of brick, including
dense concrete, lightweight concrete, lightweight
aggregate concrete, aerated concrete, autoclaved aerated
concrete, thermal insulation, foam-filled concrete, clinker,
dry walling, cavity closer and quoin blocks. All masonry
work must be horizontally and vertically true, and properly
aligned in accordance with regulations. On double leafed
masonry ~ (f) + @, floors and roof must be supported only
by the inner leaf. Masonry leafs should be joined with a
min. of 5 stainless steel wire ties, 3 mm in diameter, per sq.
m. The ties are separated 250 mm vertically and 750 mm
horizontally.
@ Interrelationship between bricklblock height dimensions -~ eLv
@ Masonry formats
designation length (ern) breadth (cm) height (em)
thin format TF 24 11.5 5.2
standard format SF 24 11.5 7.1
11/ 2 standard format 11/ 2 SF 24 11.5 11.3
21/ 2 standard format 21/ 2 SF 24 17.5 11.3
~ ~ ~ ~ LO
.6 ~
Single leaf with thermal
insulated facing
o Single leaf fairfaced
Double leaf with brick
facing
CD
G) Single leaf plastered
63
dimensions (cm) thickness of wall (cm)
11.5 I 17.5 I 24 I 30 I 36.5
recesses in breadth -
1 < 51 I '
6351
' 76
masonry bonding residual wall thickness - ?' 11.5 -, 17.5' 24
sawn out slots breadth <0 wall thickness
depth S 2
I s 3
I < 4
I <, 5
I <, 6
min. spacing between recesses and slots 199
distance from openings :>36.5
distance from wall junctions ? 24
thickness of the height bracing wall in the
supporting wall of storey 1st to 4th and 5th and 6th spacing length
to be braced (m) full storey levels from top (m)
11.5 <; d < 17.5 <; 3.25 thickness (cm) <, 4.50 -, 1/5
17.5 <; d < 24
I
< 6.00 of the
?' 11.5 ?' 17.5 height
24 <; d < 30 <; 3.50
":-- 8.00
30 <; d <; 5.00
@ Thickness, spacing and length of bracing walls
@ Minimum thickness of cellar walls
@ Permissible vertical recesses and slots in braced and bracing walls
cellar wall thickness, d height h (m) of ground above cellar floor
(cm) with vertical wall loading (dead load) of
> 50kN/m < 50kN/m
36.5 2.50 2.00
30 1.75 1.40
24 1.35 1.00
Tile hanging on insulating
blockwork
Double cavity wall with full
fill insulation
Single leaf with internal
insulation
®
®
Rendered facing
with/without air cavity
Double leaf cavity wall
with partial fill cavity
insulation
Single leaf with tile
hanging
®
®
(j)

Masonry walling has to be braced with lateral walls and the
tops restrained by upper floors (cellular principle). Bracing
walls are plate-like components which stiffen the structure
against buckling ~ p. 63 @. They are rated as supporting
walls if they carry more than their own weight from one
storey. Non-supporting walls are plate-like components
which are stressed only by their own weight and do not
provide buckling support. Recesses and slots have to be cut
out or positioned in the masonry bonds. Horizontal and
slanting recesses are permitted, but with a slenderness
ratio of ~ 140 mm and thickness ~ 240 mm under special
requirements ~ p. 63 @. Ties should be provided for
connection between external walls and partition walls
acting as bracing walls that transmit horizontal loads.
Horizontal reinforcement is required in structures of more
than two complete storeys or which are more than 18[t]m
long, if the site conditions demand it, or where there are
walls with many or large openings (if the sum of the
opening widths is more than 600
/0 of the wall length, or
where the window width is over 2/3 of the storey height or
more than 400/0 of the wall length).
MASONRY
Bricks and Blocks
block block dimension number wall per me per m '
format format (em) of courses thickness of wall of masonry
per 1rn (em)
no. of mortar no. of mortar
height
blocks (litre) blocks (litre)
OF 24" 11.5 5.2 16 11.5 66 29 573 242
~
132 68 550 284
36.5 198 109 541 300
:n
~ NF 24,11.5,7.1 12 11.5 50 26 428 225
~~ 24 99 64 412 265
36.5 148 101 406 276
~-:
u~ 2 OF 24" 11.5" 11.3 8 11.5 33 19 286 163
~ 0 24 66 49 275 204
e E
36.5 99 80 271 220
.g ~
~~
3 OF 24" 17.5 -, 11.3 8 175 33 28 188 160
~ 24 45 42 185 175
2
Q. 4 OF 24,24 11.3 8 24 33 39 137 164
::J
8 OF 24 ' 24 ' 23.8 4 24 16 20 69 99
blocks blocks 49.5, 17.5 ,23.8 4 17.5 8 16 46 84
and and 49.5 " 24 " 23.8 4 24 8 22 33 86
hollow hollow 49.5 " 30 " 23.8 4 30 8 26 27 88
blocks blocks 37,24 ,23.8 4 24 12 26 50 110
37 ,30 " 23.8 4 30 12 32 42 105
245 " 36.5 ' 23.8 4 36.5 16 36 45 100
@ Setting out dimensions for masonry work
@ Building material requirements for masonry work
heading
lengthwise number
height dimension (rn). with block thickness (rnm:
dimension" (rn) of
number
00 OS OL courses 52 71 113 155 175 238
1 0.115 0.135 0.125 1 0.0625 0.0833 0.125 0.1666 01875 025
2 0.240 0.260 0.250 2 0.1250 0.1667 0.250 0.3334 0.3750 050
3 0.365 0.385 0.375 3 0.1875 0.2500 0375 0.5000 0.5625 0.75
4 0.490 0.510 0.500 4 0.2500 0.3333 0.500 0.6666 0.7500 100
5 0.615 0.635 0.625 5 0.3125 0.4167 0.625 0.8334 0.9375 125
6 0.740 0.760 0.750 6 0.3750 0.5000 0.750 1.0000 1.1250 1.50
7 0.865 0.885 0.875 7 0.4375 0.5833 0.875 1.1666 1.3125 175
8 0.990 1.010 1.000 8 0.5000 0.6667 1.000 1.3334 1.5000 2.00
9 1.115 1.135 1.125 9 0.5625 0.7500 1.125 1.5000 16875 2.25
10 1.240 1.260 1.250 10 0.6240 0.8333 1250 1.6666 1.8750 250
11 1.365 1.385 1.375 11 0.6875 0.9175 1.375 1.8334 20625 2.75
12 1.490 1.510 1.50 12 0.7500 1.0000 1.500 2.0000 2.2500 3.00
13 1.615 1.635 1.625 13 0.8125 10833 1.625 2.1666 24375 3.25
14 1.740 1.760 1.750 14 0.8750 1.1667 1.750 2.3334 2.6250 3.50
15 1.865 1.885 1.875 15 0.9375 1.2500 1.875 2.5000 2.8125 3.75
16 1.990 2.010 2.000 16 1.0000 1.3333 2000 2.6666 3.0000 400
17 2.115 2.135 2.125 17 1.0625 1.4167 2.125 2.8334 3.1875 4.25
18 2.240 2.260 2.250 18 1.1250 1.5000 2.250 3.0000 3.3750 450
19 2.365 2.385 2.375 19 1.1875 1.5833 2375 3.1666 3.5625 475
20 2.490 2510 2.500 20 1.2500 1.6667 2500 33334 3.7500 5.00
* 00 = outer dimension, as = opening size, OL = overlap
Special wall blocks with
insulation and mortar
filling channels
Poroton blocks with mortar
filling
Masonry in hollow blocks
with in situ reinforced
trough lintel
Reinforced masonry for
door or window lintel
®
®
o Detail at base
Building blocks with 5 cm
insulation layer and mortar
filled cavities
Masonry of light concrete
blocks (hollow blocks) with
reinforced pumice concrete
lintel
Crossover with reinforced
light concrete masonry
blocks
Double leaf masonry with
full fill cavity insulation
(}) Aerated concrete blocks
with cemented joints: 1 mm
®
®
CD
I~
L 11
5
L
4 J L 17
5
r 1 ;>10 (24)
insulation ~
layer ,~~
CD
64

o Supporting internal walls with d < 24cm; conditions of use
Bricks and Blocks
MASONRY
Minimum thickness (in cm) of the internal leaf in double leaf
masonry external walls
Solid masonry walling comprises a single leaf, where the
facing work is attached to the background masonry by a
masonry bond. Each course must be at least two bricks/
blocks in depth, between which there is a continuous, cavity-
free longitudinal mortar joint of 20 mm thickness. The facing
leaf is included in the load-bearing cross-section -p. 63.
In double leaf walling without cavity, for load
considerations, only the thickness of the inner leaf is taken
into account. For calculating the slenderness ratio and
spacing of the bracing components, the thickness of the
inner shell plus half the thickness of the outer is used. If
regulations allow it the cavity can be completely filled
(double leaf cavity walling with insulating cavity fill).
Double leaf cavity walling without cavity fill: min.
thickness of inner leaf ) @; outer leaf 2 115 mm; the air gap
should be 60 mm wide; the leafs are connected by ties ,~f
-~. The outer leaf must be supported over the whole area
and attached at least every 12 m. The air gap is to extend
from 100 mm above the ground to the roof, without
interruption. The outer leafs are to be provided with
ventilation openings top and bottom, on every 1500 rnrn-'
wall area (including openings). Vertical movement joints are
to be provided in the outer leaf, at least at the corners of the
building, and horizontal movement joints should be
provided at the foundation level·-, ~.
Reinforced masonry: wall thickness 2115 mm;
block/brick strength classification 212, mortar III; joints with
~ 20 mm reinforcement; steel diameter < 8 mm, < 5 mm at
crossover poi nts.
Wall types, wall thicknesses: Evidence must be provided
of required structural wall thicknesses. This is not necessary
where the selected wall thickness is clearly adequate. When
selecting the wall thickness, particular attention should be
paid to the function of the walls with regard to thermal and
sound insulation, fire protection and damp-proofing. Where
external walls are not built of frost resistant brick or stone,
an outer rendering, or other weather protection should be
provided.
Supporting walls are predominantly subjected to
compressive stresses. These panel type structural elements
are provided for the acceptance of vertical loads (e.g. floor
and roof loads) and horizontal loads (e.g. wind loads).
thickness of storey bracing wall
the supporting height
1st and 4th 5th and 6th spac.nq
wall to be
braced
storeys from the storeys from the
top, thickness top, thickness
(ern) (m) (ern) (ern) (rn)
:> 11.5 < 17.5 <:3.25 . 4.50
.>17.5 < 24 6.00
> 11.5 <, 17.5
:>24 < 30 ? 3.50 ',8.00
:>30 <:5.00
number of permissible full storeys including 2 3
the finished roof structure
for ceilings that only load single leaf transverse 11.5 11 17.5
walls (partitioned type of construction) and on
heavy ceilings with adequate lateral distribution
of the loads
for all other ceilings 24 24
1) highest permissible vertical live load including p = 2.75 kN/m 2
addition for light dividing walls
I- 75 4
Anchoring of the outer leaf
~ pp. 63-4
expansion
joint
CD
Wire ties for external double
leaf cavity walls
plastic disk (only
for cavity walls)
Only permissible as intermediate support for one way spanning floors of span
4.5 rn: while for two way spanning floors, the smaller span is to be taken 3).
Between the bracing walls, only one opening is permitted with a width of -::1.25 rn.
11 Including any storeys with walls 11.5cm thick
;'1 If the floors continuously span in both directions, then the values for the direction
which results in the lower loading of the walls from the floor should be multiplied
by 2.
" Individual loads from the roof construction imposed centrally are permissible if the
transference of the loads on to the walls can be proved. These individual loads
must be ' 30 kN for 11.5cm thick walls and '-.50 kN for walls which are 17.5cm thick.
description gross outer party and
density walls staircase
(kg/m3 ) walls
light hollow concrete blocks 1000 300 300
two and three chambers 1200 365 240
1400 490 240
light solid concrete blocks 800 240 300
1000 300 300
1200 300 240
1400 365 240
1600 490 240
aerated concrete blocks 600 240 365
800 240 365
autoclaved aerated concrete 800 175 312.5
large format components with expanded clay, 800 175 312.5
expanded shale, natural pumice, 1000 200 312.5
lava crust without quartz sand 1200 275 250
1400 350 250
light concrete with porous debris structure 1600 450 250
with nonporous additions such as gravel 1800 625 250
2000 775 250
as above, but with porous additions 1200 275 250
1400 325 250
1600 425 250
o Areas of openings in non-supporting walls (only mortar lIa or III)
wall permissible maximum value for openings (m 2)
thickness at a height above ground level of
(ern: 0-8m 8-20m 20-100m
I' = 1.0 f > 2.0 f = 1.0 r ? 2.0 f = 1.0 f :> 2.0
11.5 12 8 5 5 6 4
17.5 20 14 13 9 9 6
·24 36 25 23 16 16 12
wall thickness (ern) 17.5
I 11.5
storey height (rn) <, 3.25
live load (kN/m 2 ) including addition for light dividing walls <, 2.75
number of complete storeys above 411
2 1
I
221
® Minimum thicknesses of external party and staircase walls
plastered on both sides
(j) Thickness and spacing of bracing walls
65

0.27
W/(m 2·K)
19
19~0
120
o
Timber frame (insulation
between the posts)
EXTERNAL WALLS
wind
barrier
cavity
ventilation
Low-energy Building
Construction
The thermal insulation
characteristics of external
walls is an important
element in the savi ng of
thermal energy. The insu-
lation provided by low
energy building construc-
tion is greatly affected by
the connections between
the various building compo-
nents. Significant heat
losses can occur in these
locations. Standard cross-
sections depicting various
types of building materials
indicate the insulation
values which can be
achieved. A large range of
building materials are
available, such as concrete,
masonry, timber, insulation
materials, plaster, cork,
reeds and clay. Clay has
proved itself as a building
material for thousands of
years. It is the most
common and most tested
material in the world and,
biologically and ecologically,
is an exemplary material.
Finished clay insulation
products are now available
and are well suited to
today's level of technology •
@-@.
@
cork
fibre
reinforced
plaster
board
0.14-0.20
W/(m 2·K)
Timber panel construction
® Aerated concrete cavity wall
"<.~ 0.23
387,,>- W/(m
2
·K)
@
2 LOW energY Wali w it h f aCing
brick
10~
240
300
365 10
o Natural clay insulation
blocks (Bioton)
0.11-0.19
W/(m 2.K)
insulation
insulation
concrete
boarding
wood
/ shavings
insulation
.-/
lightweight
clay units
plaster
0.22-0.30
W/(m 2·K)
Walling with applied
sheathing
10~'"
175+240~
80+12~~
12~
fibre-
board
insulation
timber
boarding
-:
concrete /
022-0.24
W/(m 2.K)
® Double skin concrete
®
3~~~ 0.14
16~ W/(m 2
·K)
@ Timber frame with
lightweight clay elements
10
120+1~.
10
o Concrete with bonded
insulation panels
insulation
clay
render
insulation
0.37
W/(m 2·K)
Low energy wall
(Heckmann Ecohouse)
reed
insulation
board
12~?~'
175;24~
10
G) Masonry with bonded
insulation panels
CD Cavity walling
(})
fibre
board
insulation
50-1 OO~
"'l"-
115-36~ W/(m 2.K)
@ Balloon frame with
lightweight clay blocks
•
Profiled laminated timber
log construction
@
Poroton (clay insulating
block) cavity wall
@
@ Variation of .~ 14
Timber unit wall
(Lignotrend)
66

Stretcher bond with 1/4 lap
rising right and left
Two stretchers, one header;
alternating with course of
headers
®
T 1 I I
I I
I I I I
I I I
T I I 1
I I I I
T I I J
1 I 1 J
1 I I J
I I J
T I J
MASONRY BONDS
Stretcher bond with 1/4 lap
rising right
One stretcher, one header;
alternating with course of
headers
(j)
CD
I I I I
I
I I I I
1 1 I
I I T 1
I I I I
I I 1 1
I 1 1
I I I I
I I T T
I I I I
T I I
T I I I
1 I I I
I I I I
T I I I
I 1 I I
1 I I I
r I I I
1 I I I
I I I I
® Quarter-lap stretcher bond
o Variation on English bond
I 1 I
I I 1 I
I I I
I I 1 1
I 1 I
I 1 I
1
I 1 1 I
I 1
1 1 1 I
I I
® Half-lap stretcher bond
G) English bond
1 header; 1 stretcher
alternating coursewise with
1/2 bond rising left
@
1 header; 1 stretcher
alternating coursewise with
1/4 bond rising right and left
1 header; 2 stretchers
alternating coursewise
@
Flemish bond: 1 header, 1
stretcher; alternated each
course
®
Cavity wall of 2x 1/4 brick
leafs bonded by header
bricks on edge
Reinforced brick wall, 1/2
brick thick with 4 brick
panel
@
@ Ornamental brick wall
@ As~3), with 4 1/2 brick panel
Cavity wall with 2x1/4 brick
leafs, tied by a connecting
header course, and alternate
header bricks on edge
@
Brick on edge external leaf
linked by ties to internal
leaf
@
f13 1/4 brick thick (brick on edge) f14 As .13', with 3 brick panel
~ reinforced wall with 8 brick ~
panel
As ;~3) with quarter pieces
(weave pattern)
Heavily loaded floor finish
with bricks on edge (herring-
bone pattern as in parquet)
As 21') with different pattern
(other versions possible)
Floor finish of whole and
half bricks
Brickwork with gaps
(honeycomb) for light or air
admission (holes 1/2 -, 1/2
brick)
@ As ~5' (holes 1/2 ,,3/4 brick) @ As 25 (holes 1/4" 1/2 brick) @ As~5 (holes 1 -, 1/4 brick)
67

(I) Fireplace open on one side
with safety area
FIREPLACES
Every open fire must be connected to its own separate flue
and should be immediately adjacent to the next • (jJ - ~4!.
Flue cross-sections must be matched to the size of the open
fire-) @. The effective height of the flue from the smoke
hood to the chimney mouth should be ~ 4.5 m. The angle of
a connecting flue to the main flue should be 45° ,,@ - QQ).
Open fires must not be sited in rooms with less than 12 m 2
floor area. Only wood with a low resin content, and beech,
oak, birch or fruit tree timber with few knots, should be used
for burning. In the case of the use of gas appliances,
reference should be made to the relevant regulations.
Air for combustion must come from outside and needs
to be able to enter even if the doors and windows are
airtight. Air admission openings can usefully be sited in the
base of the fire, or at the front, and ducts that introduce air
to a position close to the fireplace opening should be
provided --) o»
The fireplace opening must be separated from
combustible materials and built-in furniture by at least
800[t]mm to the front, above and to the sides. ®-c: Open
fires must be constructed from non-combustible materials
that satisfy local regulations and must be of stable
construction. The floor, walls and grate and the smoke hood
should be made from fire clay bricks/slabs, fire resistant
concrete or cast iron (although the grate and hood are often
metal). Any bricks or stones used must be of suitable type
for chimney construction. Smoke hoods can be made from
2 mm steel brass, or copper sheet.
50
Fireplace open on two
sides with safety area
Fireplaces open on one
side in separate rooms
CD
Fireplaces open on one/two
sides in separate rooms
o
@ Fireplace tools
@ Fireplace open on three sides
® Dimensions and sizes of open fires
type open on 1 side open on 2 Sides open on 3 Sides
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
room area small 16- 22- 30- 33- 25- 35- over 35- 45- over
(m 2) rooms 22 30 35 40 35 45 48 45 55 55
room volume small 40- 60- 90- 105- 90- 105- over 35 45 over
(m 3 ) rooms 60 90 105 120 105 150 150 150 150 200
size of fire 2750 3650 4550 5750 7100 5000 6900 9500 7200 9800 13500
opening (crn/)
dimension 60/ 70/ 80/ 90/ 100/
fire opening (em) 46 52 58 64 71
diameter (em) 20 22 25 30 30 25 30 35 25 30 35
of associated flue
all A 22.5 24 25.5 28 30 30 30 30 30 30 30
dimensions B 13.5 15 15 21 21 - - -
(em) C 52 58 64 71 78 50 58 65 50 58 65
0 72 84 94 105 115 77 108 77 90 114
E 50 60 65 76 93 77 90 108 77 90 114
F 19.5 19.5 22.5 26 26 27.5 30 32.5 27.5 30 32.5
G 42 47 51 55 59 64 71 82 64 71 82
H 88 97 104.5 120 129 80 88 95 80 88 95
I 6 6 6 7 7 6.4 64 64 6.4 6.4
weight 165 80 310 385 470 225 300 405 190 255 360
Protection of combustible
floor from the fireplace
opening/air admission
@ Fireplace open on two sides
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
=+'
Separation of fireplace
opening from combustible
materials
Heat radiation surfaces and
directions
®
® Fireplace open on one side
®
68

fireplace
connection
cleaning
openings
. .
section
(1 storey)
I:::::::::::::::::::::::f
o
LlLl
boiler room 0
ventilation
. .
cleaning acces
=
X opening
_. ;--'-'
l::::::::::::::::::::::::::::·:·:::~
...•....•........•.•........•.•.•••• - .
coverplate r - - -
--
~
-
---:::--' ""
~ ~
bearing plate
-
rJr
0 flue ~
lMQJmodule ~
CHIMNEYS AND FLUES
inspection doo
Flues and chimneys are ducts in and on buildings, which are
intended exclusively to convey the gases from fireplaces to the
outside over the roof. The following should be connected to a
flue: fireplaces with a nominal heat output of more than 20 kW;
gas fire places with more than 30 kW; every fireplace in buildings
with more than five full storeys; every open fire and forge fire;
fireplaces with a means of opening and every fireplace with a
burner and fan.
Provision should be made in the foundation plans to support
the weight of the fireplace, flue and chimney. Flues must have
circular or rectangular internal cross-sections. The cross-section
must be ~ 100cm2, with a shortest side of 100mm. Brick flues
must have a shortest internal side of length ~ 135mm, the longer
side must not exceed 1.5 times the length of the shorter. The
shortest effective flue height ~ 4 m; for gaseous fuels ~ 4 m. The
mouth of the chimney should be ~ 400 mm above the apex of the
roof, where the roof slope is greater than 20° and for roof slopes
less than 20° this dimension is ~ 1m @. Where chimneys are
closer to structures on the roof than between 1.5 and 3 times the
height of the structure, it must be ensured that they clear the
structure by at least 1m. Where the mouth of a chimney is above
a roof which has a parapet which is not closed on all four sides,
it must be at least 1 m above the parapet. Every flue must have
a ~ 100mm wide by ~ 180mm high cleaning opening which is at
least 200 mm lower than the lowest fireplace connection.
Chimneys which cannot be cleaned from the mouth opening,
must have an additional cleaning opening in the flue in the roof
space or in the chimney above the roof. The following materials
may be used for single skin flues: light concrete blocks, clay
bricks, lime sandstone -solid bricks, foundry bricks.
Materials for treble-skinned chimneys, with outer casing,
insulation layer and moveable inner lining can be formed
components in light concrete or fireclay for the inner lining; for
the outer casing, formed components in light concrete, masonry
stone, bricks with vertical perforations, lime sandstone, foundry
bricks, or aerated concrete blocks. For the insulating layer, non-
combustible insulating material must be used. Exposed outer
surfaces of the chimney in the roof space should be provided
with a rough cast finish of at least 5-10mm thickness. Flue walls
must not be loadbearing. The chimney can be clad with slates,
shingle slates or cement fibre sheets. Zinc or copper sheet can be
fixed to the chimney on to the sub-structure using dowels (not
wooden dowels). Prefabricated claddings are recommended.
013.5
16
18
20
225
25
30
~ 14/14
16/16
18/18
20/20
22/22
25/25
3D/3D
r~ 5
crawling
board
CD
.c:oIlI~""I#J''-h''-h,L- screws
hII!"~~+7"-4 x 6
A crawling board is
necessary for roof slopes
above 15°
Modular flue (rear ventilated)
with ventilation duct
Modular flue with ventilation
duct
Effect of chimney top and
cross-section on efficiency
45°
.-L._._._._._._
~ 80
1
T
®
@
Comparative values of efficiency
:
.....::..
::..
:...:.:...:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.
o
lE
I ~~1l1
'--
II II 1 , -
I I I I I
I
100 85 110
(2)10/10
12/12
14/14
16/16
18/18
20/20
3D/3D
Access opening with ladder
and platform
t:±':D chimney cleaning
I operunq on roof
steel rods
" T
o -- ~ 80 access
~ opening
Ej=J~ exit
E?c:9 -- platform
wooden
ladder with
inset,
square
treads
~-T
1.00
.............................................................................•.................'
® Chimney heights above the roof and roof structures
Q'J 12112
14/14
16/16
18/18
20/20
25/25
30/30
® Modular flue (rear ventilated)
o Modular flue
G) Wind effect on chimney
efficiency
Length and attachment of
the crawling board
Crawling boards are fixed
more firmly to rafters than
to the tile battens
@ Modular flue installation @ Prefabricated flue
(in storey height lengths)
69

ground floor
2nd floor
opposite facing
duct openings
staggered by 1
brick height
(33.3cm)
1st floor
.....................
! ~M-
~ 50 cellar
~~:~:I
:=JQQQl::::
·····~~···+i::::
Example of system with
one main duct and two
auxiliary ducts
dividing -
floor
dividing -
floor
baffle - ~j
plate ~1
@
:•.•.............•.•.....•....•..., ,.,.".,.,.,.•.•.,',.•.•.....••..•.•...•..........
..............................•....
inspection doors
clear width 400 mm
baffle
plate
=t~ 15
~ 50
I:U bath/WC
~:~
Branching duct ventilation
system with one main and
one auxiliary duct
-::.::.:::.:::.;.;.:.;.; ;.;.;.:.:::,,::.;.;.;..:::..: .
dividing floor
cellar
ground floor
1st floor
2nd floor
cover with Meidinger disk
clear permissible no. of adjacent duct internal dimensions
cross-section connections with average
of the main effective total height main duct auxiliary duct
duct ern? up to 10m 10-15m over 15m (cm) (ern)
340 5 6 7 20'>< 17 9" 17
400 6 7 8 20" 20 12, 20
500 8 9 10 25" 20 12 ' 20
340 5 6 7 20" 17 2,9/17
400 6 7 8 20" 20 2 , 12/20
500 8 9 10 25" 20 2 ,,12· 20
340 5 6 7 2 'x 12/17 9 -, 17
400 6 7 8 2 x 20/20 12 , 20
500 8 9 10 2 " 25/20 12 ,20
VENTILATION DUCTING
® Table of dimensions for branching duct convection systems
Q1x15/10 [tJ=ghx15/10 OOO3x15/1O
[gggg]4X1S/10 !OOOOOSX1S/10 [OOOO!OCJ]6X1S/10
!ooooloool7X15/10 ~DODDLJL~J8x15/10
~ . . . thin walled - lengthwise; web
® Smgle duct ventilation thickness 5cm
air exit on two opposite sides; exit area
per side equal to the sum of all duct
cross-sections
f:~u;~
~I:·'I~~r~·!'r-
.:.: ::-,:
~' ..
Extract fan units should meet the ventilation requirements
of bathrooms and lavatories in residential and non-
residential buildings (such as schools, hotels and guest
houses) and extract air from one or several rooms into an
extract duct ~ CD - (2). Ventilation systems should be sized
for a minimum of 4 complete changes of air in the rooms
which need to be ventilated. A flow of 60 m3/h is adequate
for bathrooms with a toilet and a flow of 30 m3/h is adequate
for one toilet. Every internally sited room to be ventilated
must have a non-closable ventilation opening. The size of
the area through which air flows must be 100 mrn-' for every
m 3 of room volume. Gaps around the door may be taken as
equivalent to 250 rnrn-'. In bathrooms, the temperature must
not fall below 22°C, due to the flow of air.
The velocity of flow in the living area should be 2:: 0.2 rn/s.
The exhausted air must be led outside. Each individual
ventilation system must have its own main duct « @- @.
Central ventilation systems have common main ducting
for a number of living areas ~ @ - @.
The effective functioning of branching duct convection
ventilation systems depends essentially on the available
cross-section area of duct available per connection -~ @.
The cross-section of the ventilation shaft for single-duct
systems without mechanical extract ~ (J) in bathrooms and
WCs without open windows (up to 8 storeys) should be
1500mm2 per room.
ground
floor
• 1st floor
4- air inlet
duct connector 80 mm
dia.' 30mm long
secondary duct
connector 80 mm
dia.» 30mm long
air inlet -.
air inlet
Supply and extract
convection ventilation
system
Extract fan unit for two
rooms: concealed installation
section
bath/WClQQgj''L
DOD:
rrI"I'TrI"'ITTIIMI'Tr ,,....., ••••,.
airflow from
adjoining room
clear cross-section
at least 150cm2
®
CD
ning
cm 2
et
ction
Single duct convection
ventilation system
Single-room extract fan unit
for concealed installation
air outlet on two opposite sides; outlet area per
side equal to the sum of all duct cross-sections
section
~
:~
' bath/WC
O
,~-,1
: ~ ~ ~I
r 1 r:
~~
~: ~Ll
~
thermal insula
attic • the roof space
~
~
~
:
2nd floor:
4
--
::
;:::
:::::
1st floor
-.
- - '
= 10~ :~ ~ air outlet duct ope
:§ ~ dividing min. 150
floor free flow
cross-se
ground
floor .-=-- air inl
.. ~ .. "RoO' F
® Centralised ventilation system
with separate primary ducts
t~ tI r
f3 Centralised extract ventilation
:::) system with exhaust ducted
via roof
CD
70

mains
drainage
in road
1 mechanical ventilation
bath/WC dia. 100
foul water dia. 100
heating flow DN25
heating return DN25
hot water supply
DN20
hot water return
DN15
:;::: 7 cold water supply
DN25
(ON '" nominal bore)
o
L{)
CI
o
~
CI
shower
pressure pipe
with non-return
valve
back-wash level
level of top of manhole
covers of mains drainage
pressure pipe - - ,...----lI~~--<
~
invert level of
.
~ connecting drain
sz invert level of
mains drain
® Pump installation
capacity lift(m) dimensions (mm) DN z
3 7 14 A B Z (mm)
family house m 3/h 47 12 - 1000 1000 450-500 100
multi-family home m 3/h 64 22 - 1800 1300 700-850 125
large complex m 3/h 144 100 18 2600 1950 800-900 150
SERVICES: CONNECTIONS
CD Pump box
In houses for one and two families there is no necessity for
a mains connection room.
Mains connections rooms should be planned in
collaboration with the mains service providers. They must be
in locations which can be accessed easily by all (e.g. off the
staircase or cellar corridor, or reached directly from outside)
and they must not be used for through passage. They have to
be on an outside wall, through which the connections can be
routed ~ CD- (2). Walls should have a fire resistance of at least
F30 (minutes). Doors should be at least 650/1950mm. With
district heating schemes, the door must be lockable. A floor
gully must be provided where there is connection to water or
district heating mains. Mains connections rooms must be
ventilated to the open air. The room temperature must not
exceed 30°C, the temperature of the drinking water should not
exceed 25°C, and the room must not be susceptible to frost.
For up to 30 dwellings, or with district heating for about
ten dwellings, allow the following room size: clear width
> 1.80 m, length 2.00 m, height 2.00 m ~ CD. For up to
approximately 60 dwellings or where there is district heating
for 30 dwellings: 1.80m wide, 3.5m long, 2.0m high.
o Service duct
gas connection
main gas cut-off
valve
3 isolator
4 cut-off valve
5 gas meter
6 earthing
7 heating pipe
8 drainage pipe
9 foundation earth
10 electrical mains
board
11 telephone cable
12 lightning
conductor
13 ventilation
14 water main
connection
8
"
example of
a jointed
connection
Inspection and cleaning manhole
•
~
without inspection chamber
ground surface level
1 inspection chamber
dia.l.0
2 foul water drain
3 mixed water drain
4 rainwater drain
5 mains water
connection
6 mains gas
connection
7 district heating
connection
8 mains electricity
connection
J----+---+--t--+-~--j.....J..:.......:...abou~dar~_9 te~~~~~~t~on
building
/
~I-
-----~------:--.-----.,.-------
section
plan
o Sizes of manholes
o Mains connections
clear width of manholes
section in m for a manhole
through depth of
manhole > 0.4 to ,,:-0.8 > 0.8
(min.) (min.)
0 0.8 1')
D 0.9 x 0.9
I I 0.6 x 0.8 0.8 x 1
no rungs with rungs
') shafts above a working height of 2 m
calculated from the invert level can
be reduced to a diameter of 0.8 m
G) Mains connection room
71

50"
40"
30°
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15m
A
ROOF STRUCTURES
Couple roofs represent the most economical
solution for low building widths.
Collar roofs are never the cheapest for slopes under
45°, but are suitable for large free span roofs.
Simply supported roofs are always more expensive
than couple roofs and are only used in exceptional
cases.
Roofs with two hangers (vertical posts) almost
always are the most economical construction.
Purlin roofs with three hangers are only considered
for very wide buildings.
G) Economic limits, slope v. span: couple/collar roofs
• •
1--- - - - - 1
o Couple roof
Roofs form the upper enclosure of buildings, protecting
them from precipitation and atmospheric effects (wind,
cold, heat). They comprise a supporting structure and a roof
cover. The supporting components depend on the materials
used (wood, steel, reinforced concrete), roof slope, type and
weight of roof covering, loading, etc. Loading assumptions
must comply with current regulations (dead-weight, live
loads, wind and snow loadings). A distinction is made
between roofs with and without purlins, because of their
different structural system, and of the different functions of
the supporting components. However, these two types of
construction may be combined. The different types of load
transfer also have consequences for the internal planning of
the building.
..c
(1)_ e
Q.en --m(1)
o (1) o .... e
Ui~
---J ..... ::J 0
e ..c ..... Q.
-- 0) .~ ~ E
o (1) ro-
2~ ~E
(1);:;0
..cent)
15-40 10-20 h--.L. S
25
30-60 10-20 h-~.S
30
•
1
•1--------
o Collar roof
Strutted purlin roof
o Strutless purlin roof with centre hanger
+
CD Couple roof o Couple roof with hangers
® Collar roof with loft room ® Close couple roof with collar and purlins
72

~
~
9F
ROOF STRUCTURES
In a purlin roof, rafters have a subordinate function (round
section timber spars also possible for small spans). Purlins
are load-bearing beams, conducting loads away from the
rafters to the supports. Regular supports are required for
the purlins (trusses or cross-walls). Early type: ridge purlin
with hanger. Double pitch purlin roofs have at least one
hanger, situated in the centre of the roof. Suitable when the
length of the rafters < 4.5 m; on wider house structures, with
rafter length> 4.5 m, then two or more purlins with suitable
vertical hangers are required. A rafter roof (rigid triangle
principle) is possible in simple form, with short rafters up to
4.5 m. If the rafters' length exceeds 4.5 m, intermediate
support is required in the form of collars. This regular,
strong system of construction provides a support-free
internal roof space. Couple close roofs require a strong
tensile connection between the feet of the rafters and the
ceiling beams. Sprocketed eaves are a common feature,
giving a change of angle in the roof slope. Simple couple
and collar roof construction is unsuitable for large roofs.
Collar roofs are suitable for building widths to approx.
12.0m, rafter lengths up to 7.5m, collar lengths up to 4m.
The collar roof is a three-link frame with a tension member.
Prefabricated roof trusses are a very common form of
structure for pitched roofs. While economical in the use of
timber and light and easy to erect, they have the
disadvantage of totally obstructing the roof space.
CD Restrained couple roof with hangers and jointed rafters
~(
~'LL
~:~:~:~n:~:~:-::'::::::::::::::
o Collar roof with jointed rafters, with three types of stiffening
~
, tf '
ridge purlin
ridge board
Mansard roof
:~: ~ ~cij=
shear tongue joint
A ~
GAg ~
~ U
CD
r--1 ~
12-14 16
webbed beam system
A = single-width
flange
B = double-width
flange
C = box beam
support
24- 1 fI
H
7.5-12.5
Couple close roof in timber framing with lifetime guaranteed
glued joints with 45° inclined struts as twinned supports over
span" 25m
CD
Couple close roof with webbed rafters, glued timber construction;
ratio of profile height to supported span = 1: 15-1 :20
o Butt joint with butt strap
~,~
~ - - - - - - - - - - -- -- - -- - - - - -- _l ~ ~
(d) rising and falling struts with posts
(a) falling struts with posts
-=:d ~
'~I~
L ...J L ,j
double-pitch roof slopes of 6°, 15° and 25°
single-pitch roof slopes 6°, 10° and 15°
gang-nail plate
® Trussed rafter with 'gang nail' system for flat roof, lean-to roof
and ridge roof
(b) rising struts with posts (c) rising and falling struts
® Timber construction forms and reinforcings
73

rafter
Rafter ends fixed with
bolts into downstand beam
ROOF STRUCTURES
CD
rafter
insulation
outer leaf
Eaves detail with cavity
walling
CD
rafter
Eaves detail, purlin roof
CD
rafter
rafter rafter
foot of
rafter
o Curb support, sole plate,
rafter nailing
® Rafter continued to the eaves ® Steel rafter connection
Detail at foot of roof
allowing rafters to overhang
rafter transmits its load directly
rafter end
fixing with nail plate
rafter -~1:::_::~
__
timber beam LJ _
nail plate
anchorage
into concrete
slab
® Anchorage to solid slab
® Rafter end fixing with bolts
elevation
rafter
~III~
rafter
~~=:~=-.=-.:-:~
-_._._._.~
B
c:=::=:::.r.rm=====--
dormer rafter
section C-D
section A-B
Dormer window in a purlin roof
74
Ridge details of purlin roof;
ridge plank to align the
ridge
@ Ridge collar connecting two
rafters
Simple tenon joint
connecting two rafters
Scarf joint connecting two
rafters

10 ridge and hip tile
11 edge tile left
12 eaves edge tile left
13 ridge connecting edge tile,
corner tile left
14 ridge starting tile right
15 ridge edge connecting tile
corner tile right
16 ridge connecting tile
17 edge tile right
18 eaves edge corner tile right
1 mono-pitch: edge tile,
corner tile right
2 eaves tile
3 mono-pitch roof tile
4 wall connecting tile
5 eaves: wall connecting,
corner tile right
6 wall connecting tile right
7 wall connecting tile left
8 lean-to roof: wall connecting,
corner tile left
9 ridge end tile left
ROOF COVERINGS
Thatched roofs are of rye straw or reeds, hand-threshed
1.2-1.4 m long on battens, 300 mm apart with the thatching
material laid butt-end upwards and built up to a thickness of
180-200 mm. The life of such a roof is 60-70 years in a
sunny climate, but barely half that in damp conditions.
Shingle roofs use oak, pine, larch, and, rarely, spruce. Slate
roofs are laid on ~ 25mm thick sheathing of ~ 160mm wide
planks, protected by 200 gauge felt against dust and wind.
Overlap is 80 mm, preferably 100 mm. The most natural
effect is given by 'German slating' ~ @. Rectangular
patterns are more suitable for artificial slates (cement fibre
tiles) ~ @. Tiles: choice of plain tiled, interlocking tiled, or
pantiled roof ~ @, @- @ or concrete roof tiles with ridge
capping ~ @. Special shaped tiles are available to match
standard roof tiles ~ @:
hipped gable ~
.....
roof or partial . ..........•.....•.•..•...•.•....•••..••.••.....•...............•..........
hipped end . ..' ....•.......... •
ridge ..
o Combination roof
o Ridge roof
mansardor ~
kinked hip rool ~
~~~~~~~~~~Ol ®
1
f
f
)..
ROOF FORMS
o Hipped roof
G) Mono-pitch roof
® Pyramid roof
o Roof house ®
Pyramid roof, polygonal
planform
Mansard roof, polygonal
planform ®
5 6 7 8
Shaped tiles
10 11 12 11 13 14 15 16 17 18
~
" "
'," "lfC"
/ 'I' '
.". "
" "
Thatched roof of rye straw
or reed, 0.7 kN/m2
@ Shingle roof, 0.25 kN/m2 @ German slate roof,
0.45-0.6 kN/m2
@ English slate roof with
cement fibre boards,
0.45-0.55 kN/m2
Double roof (plain tiles)
heavy roofing, 0.6 kN/m2 ,
34-44 tiles/m2
@
dry ridge detail
Concrete roof tiles, 0.6-0.8
> slope 180
kN/m2
@ Pantile roof, lighter,
0.5kN/m2
@ Interlocking tile roof,
0.55kN/m2
75

030
0.50
0.45
0.45
0.55
0.50
0.60
0.25
0.15
0.30
0.25
0.30
0.60
080
0.60
0.55
0.55
0.50
0.50
050
0.70
0.90
Standard sizes: drain pipes v.
surface area to be drained
@
roof area to diameter section
be drained: of width
round drain drainpipe of sheet
pipe metal pipes
(m 2) (mm) (mm)
up to 20 50 167(12 parts)
20-50 60 200 (10 parts)
50-90 70 250 (8 parts)
60-100 80 285 (7 parts)
90-120 100 333 (6 parts)
100-180 125 400 (5 parts)
180-250 150 500 (4 parts)
250-375 175
325-500 200
Fixing by means of pipe brackets
(corrosion protected) whose internal
diameter corresponds to that of the
drain pipe; minimum distance of drain
pipe from wall = 20 mm; pipe brackets
separated by 2.0 m
Standard sizes: guttering v.
surface area to be drained
Plain tiles and plain concrete tiles
for split tiled roof including slips
for plain tiled roof or double roof
Continuous interlocking tiles
Interlocking tiles, reformed pantiles, interlocking pantiles, flat roof tiles
Interlocking tiles
Flanged tiles, hollowed tiles
Pantiles
Large format pantiles (up to 10 per m 2)
Roman tiles without mortar jointing
with mortar jointing
Metal roofing aluminium roofing (aluminium 0.7 mm thick)
including roof boards
Copper roof with double folded joints (copper sheet 0.6mm thick)
including roof boards
Double interlocking roofing of galvanised sheets (0.63 mm thick)
including roofing felt and roof boards
Slate roofing - German slate roof on roof boards including roof felting
and roof boards with large panels (360 mm x 280 mm)
with small panels approx. (200 mm 'x, 150 mm)
English slate roof including battens on battens in double planking
on roof boards and roofing felt, including roof boards
Old German slate roof on roof boards and roofing felt
double planking
Steel pantile roof (galvanised steel sheet)
on battens - including battens
on roof boards, including roofing felt and roof boards
Corrugated sheet roof (galvanised steel sheet) including fixing materials
@
Zinc roof with batten boards - in zinc sheet no. 13, including roof boards 0.30
ROOF COVERINGS
roof area to guttering drain
be drained: diameter channel
semicircular section
guttering width
(m 2) (mm) (mm)
up to 25 70 200
25-40 80 200 (10 parts)
40-60 80 250 (8 parts)
60-90 125 285 (7 parts)
90-125 180 333 (6 parts)
125-175 180 400 (5 parts)
175-275 200 500 (4 parts)
General rule: guttering should be
provided with a fall to achieve greater
flow velocities to combat blockages,
corrosion and icing. Guttering supports
are usually of flat galvanised steel in
widths from 20 to 50 mm and 4-6 mm
thick.
Cement fibre sheet roofs have corrugated sheets with
purlins 700-1450mm apart with 1.6m long sheets, or
1150-1175 mm with 2.50 m long sheets. Overlap:
150-200 mm ----t CD - (2). Metal sheet roofs are covered in zinc,
titanium-coated zinc, copper, aluminium, galvanised steel
sheet, etc. ----t @ + @. Many shapes are available for ridge,
eaves, edge, etc. Copper sheet comes in commercially
produced sizes ----t @. Copper has the highest ductility of all
metal roofings, so it is suitable for metal forming
operations, pressing, stretching and rolling. The
characteristic patina of copper is popular. Combinations
involving aluminium, titanium-coated zinc and galvanised
steel should be avoided, combinations with lead and high
grade steel are quite safe. Copper roofs are impervious to
water vapour and are therefore particularly suitable for cold
roofs ----t p. 81.
Roof load: calculation in kN per m 2 of roof surface. Roof
coverings are per 1m 2 of inclined roof surface without
rafters, purlins and ties. Roofing of roof tiles and concrete
roof tiles: the loadings do not include mortar jointings - add
0.1 kN/m2 for the joints.
roofs
b aO
(14% )
Form and dimensions of
rolled copper for strip and
sheet roofing
Fixing arrangements
10°
r:
3°
L..Jl.e============oo
" 10° slope with jointing/filling material
1(}-15° 150mm without sealing of overlap
over 15° 100mm without sealing of overlap
1'/2 corrugations
~
.• ~~
., 61S~:. T
....: .....•. ••.• 8
~.J ••••••••••••••••••••.••• 1
-exposed width .,
r----~- 88 ~_...~----1
=29 ~ ~
...__
I i
8-10° 200mm with sealing of overlap
~1.00~
@
supplied form rolls panels
length (m) 30-40 2.0
max. width (rn) 0.6 (0.66) 1.0
thickness (mm) 0.1-2.0 0.2-2.0
specific wt (kg/dm 3 ) 8.93 8.93
® Min. slope: corrugated
sheet roof. side overlap
roof depth profile ht
eaves/ridge 18-25mm 26-50mm
up to 6m 10° (17.4%) 5° (8.7%)
6-lOm 13° (22.5%) 8° (13.9%)
10-15m 15° (25.9%) 10" (17.4%)
over 15m 17° (29.2%) 12° (20.8%)
f6 Steel pantile roofing
~ 0.15kN/m2
~
'/2 corrugation standard
~
1 corrugation
~
(3) Min. roof slope and sheet
overlap ----t CD
nQQ
':>~
~
105-110
140-145
rectangular
LJ
.:
v
semicircular
Corrugated fibre cement
sheets
double fold
standing seam
~ panel width 100 --------1
~ effective width 915-i
~.
fiXi ng . T
" l""l I
I I I 245
'_ - J' I I _ .1
roof drainage
f- 750 ----1
T?7§T
profile
~90+--~-- effective width 910 ------1
~ r~~~it~g e~~~~d ---1
profile
vertical
® Shape.and position of the
guttering
(}) Large elements for roof
and wall (Canaleta)
® Sheet roofing; welted joint
construction 0.25 kN/m2
~
G) Corrugated cement fibre
board with ridge and eaves
components 0.2 kN/m2
- - - - - - 920 ----------1
~5-....... _
I ~ effective width 873 -------i
~ r~~~i;~9 e~~~~d ---i
76

DORMERS
When gable windows do
not allow sufficient light into
the attic then roof windows
or dormer windows are
required. The size, form and
arrangement of dormers
depend on the type of roof,
its size and the light
requirement.
Dormers should all be of
the same size and shape if
possible. The shape, n:ater-
ials used and the consistent
use of details ensure har-
monious integration into
the roof slope. Normally, to
avoid expensive trimming
of rafters, the width of the
dormers should conform to
the rafter spacing.
(JCS
~
D
DO
DD
o Gabled dormer 45°
CD Trapeze shaped dormer
G) Triangular dormer 45°
DO
DO
CD Flat roofed dormer ® Sloped dormer
® Round roof dormer
o Bay dormer ® Hip roofed bay dormer ® Triangular dormer @ Ox-eye dormer
77

200cm2
required A L
100 - (8 + 8)
200
100 - 16
Example:
equivalent air layer
diffusion thickness
Condition:
a = length of rafters
sci = equivalent air layer diffusion
thickness
a < 10m: Sd :-,2 m
a < 15m: Sci ? 5 m
a>15m:sd?10m
with Sd = urn-s (rnl
~ = water vapour
Coefficient of diffusion resistance
s = material thickness (rn)
Application:
(a) Rigid polyurethane foam (8cm thick)
s = 8cm = 0.08m
~ = 30/100
Sci = 30 x. 0.08 = 2.4m
Sci required = 2 m
(b) Mineral fibre insulating mat with
laminated aluminium foil (by enquiry to
manufacturer)
s = 8cm
Sd = 100 m > s.,required = 2 m
By using a suitable insulation, the
requirement Sd = 2 m can be easily met.
The equivalent thickness Sci of the
insulation system is best obtained by
enquiry to the manufacturer.
2.4cm
The space under the sarking felt must be
taken into account, i.e. with a 2cm
height, the distance from the upper edge
of the thermal insulation to the upper
edge of the rafter must be at least 4.4cm.
Free ventilation cross-section AL
Free heiqht > 2cm
Calculation:
Height of the
ventilation area
t41---42~8+---42-
dimension to be considered IS the ventilation
cross-section between the thermal insulation
and the underside of the roof assembly
@
2 Roof const ruct ion: insulat ion
between the rafters
calculation
~
Example:
remaining
roof surface
Example:
ridge
eaves
Example:
Condition:
2 0.50/00of the associated sloping roof
surface A 1+ A2
Calculation:
AL ridge = 05/1000 x (9.0+9.0) = 0.0009 m 2/m
= 9cm2/m
Measurement:
A L ridge = 9 crnorn
Application:
Ridge elements with ventilation cross-
section and/or vent tiles according to
manufacturer's data.
Condition:
2 20/00 of the associated inclined roof
surface A 1 or A2
However, at least 200cm2/m
A L = ventilation cross-section
A L eaves 2 2/1000 X 9.0 = 0.018m2/m
= 180cm2/m
Since, however, 180cm2/m is less than
the required minimum cross-section of
200cm2/m, the minimum value must be
taken.
Measurement:
A L eaves 2200cm2/m
Application:
Determination of the height of the
ventilation slot of the unrestricted air
space to be ventilated, allowing for the
8cm wide rafters, with A L - 200cm2/m:
Height:
Ventilation slot HL = r~:~~~+~~
HL = 1O~0~ 16
HL 22.4cm
On a double pitch roof with a rafter
length < 10m, the value of 2 200cm2/m
applies, for the eaves (A L eaves)
On double pitch roofs with rafter length
210m
A L eaves 2 2/1000 x A 1 or A2 crnvrn
LOFT SPACE
Unoccupied roof space in old Alpine farmhouses served as
'stores' for the preservation of harvested crops (hay, straw,
etc.). They were open at the eaves, so that cold external air
circulated around the roof area, the temperature being little
different from the outside ~ CD, so that snow would lie
uniformly distributed on the roof. The living rooms below
were protected from the cold by the goods stored in the
roof space. If the roof space was heated, without adequate
thermal insulation, the snow would melt and ice would
build up on the roof ~ (2). The installation of thermal
insulation material under the ventilated roof alleviates the
situation. Openings are arranged on two opposite sides of
the ventilated roof space, each equivalent to at least 20/0 of
the roof area which is to be ventilated. So that dampness
can be removed, this corresponds on average to a slot
height of 20 mm/m ~ @- @.
@ Dimensions of double pitch
roof
calculation
thermal insulation
rafters
sheathing
concrete
tiles
Eave design: double layer
cold roof with counter
battens and air paths
ridge tile
cap
Ice blockage sequence
cold air
thermal
insulation
® Wooden roof construction
®
CD
ridge tile
cap
under structure
thermal insulation
counter battens
Ventilation of the roof
space through joints in the
wood facia
®
(j) Concrete roof
~
o Examples of ventilated roofs - roof sloping at < 100
(schematic)
CD Cross-section through an
alpine farmhouse with a
storage room
~~
~~
® Exa:n::.esotVef1tiroofs: roof sloping at ~ 100
(schematic)
78
® Wooden roof with
suspended ceiling
Double layer cold roof:
exhaust of both air flows
through slots in the facia
board
@ Example: calculation of the ventilation cross-section of a ridge roof

® Insulation values for flat roofs
roof weight required thermal resistance
100kg/m2 0.80m2 • KIW
50kg/m 2 1.10m2 • KIW
20kg/m2 1.40m2 • KIW
ROOF SLOPES AND FLAT ROOFS
Cold roof~ p. 81: constructed with ventilation under roof
covering; critical in respect of through flow of air if the slope
is less than 100/0, therefore, now only used with vapour
barrier. Warm roof in conventional form ..'; @: (construction
including a vapour barrier) from beneath is roof structure -
vapour barrier - insulation - weatherproofing - protective
layer. Warm roof in upside-down format • p. 81:
construction from beneath is roof structure
weatherproofing - insulation using proven material -
protective layer as applied load. Warm roof with concrete
weatherproofing --) p. 81: built from underneath: insulation
- concrete panels as roof structure and waterproofing
(risky). Solid slab structure - must be arranged to provide
room for expansion due to heat; consequently, flexible
joints arrangement over supporting walls ) p. 80 @-@ and
separation of internal walls and roof slab (Styrofoam strips
are first attached by adhesive to the underside of the slab).
Prerequisites for correct functioning: built-in slope ~ 1.5°10,
and preferably 30/0 (or a build-up of surface water can
result).
Vapour barrier: if possible, as a 2 mm roof felt
incorporating aluminium foil on a loosely laid slip layer of
perforated glass fibre mat on top of the concrete roof slab,
treated with an application of bitumen solution as a dust
seal. The vapour barrier is laid as far beneath the roof build-
up as required to exclude condensation ._-~ CV + Q).
Insulation of non-rotting material (foam); see
dimensions in-) @; two-layer arrangement or single layer
with rebated joints: ideally, interlocking rebates all round.
Roof membrane on vapour permeable membrane
(corrugated felting or insulating layer to combat bubble
formation), triple layer using the pouring and rolling
technique with two layers of glass fibre based roofing felt
with a layer of glass fibre mat in between, or two layers of
felt using the welding method with thick bitumen course
(d ~ 5 mrn). A single layer of sheeting is permissible, but due
to risk of mechanical damage caused by the thinness of the
layer and possible faulty seams, two layers offer additional
safety.
Protective layer should consist, if possible, of a 50 mm
ballast layer with 15-30 mm grain size on a doubled hot
brush applied layer on a separating membrane; prevents
bubble formation, temperature shocks, mechanical
stresses, and damage from UV radiation. Additional
protection with 8-mm layer of rubber shred sheeting under
the ballast layer. The joints should be hot sealed (a basic
prerequisite for terraces and roof gardens).
Essential detail points
Outlets-) p. 80 --) G) - @ always thermally insulated, two
draining levels, with connection also at the vapour barrier,
to form an outlet then sealed against the drain pipe. For
thermally insulated discharge pipe with condensation layer
--) p. 80 @ for prevention of damage due to condensation.
The surface slope to the intakes should exceed 3°1o. A
'ventilator' for the expansion layer is not required. The
flexible joint should be continued to the edge of the roof '
p. 80 --) @ - @. The edge details must be flexible, using
aluminium or concrete profiles --'; p. 80 -'; @ - @; zinc
connections are contrary to technical regulations (cracking
of roof covering). Wall connection should be ~ 150 mm
above the drainage level and fixed mechanically, not by
adhesive only. If steel roof decking is used as a load-bearing
surface, the roof skin may crack due to vibration;
precautions are required to increase the stiffness by using a
thicker sheet or a covering of 15 mm woodwool building
board (mechanically fixed), to reduce the vibrations (gravel
ballast layer) and crack resistant roof sheeting! The vapour
barrier on the decking should always be hot fused (due to
thermal conduction).
60% reI. air humidity
humidity content (100%)
+30 temperature
+ 20
+10
5cm washed gravel 7/53 on double hot applied coating
glass mesh, bitumen paper 3 kq/m?
glass wool layer No.5 in 3 kq/rn? filled bitumen (pouring
and rolling process)
500 jute felt, bitumen roof felting in 1.5 kq/rn-' bitumen
85/25 (fold-over process)
~o
10
temperature difference
between inside
r-- and outside +20"/-15"( ---i
~y x-------l
(1)water precipitates out from air if the air is cooled below the dew point;
the temperature difference between the room air and the dew point
(dependent on the water vapour content of the room air)can be expressed
as a percentage 'x' of the temperature difference between inside and
outside 3
(2)the temperature difference between inside and outside depends on the
structural layers and air, in accordance with their contribution to the
thermal insulation
(3) if the fraction by which the layers on the inside of the condensation barrier
contribute to the thermal insulation 'x and y' remains less than the
percentage 'x'. then the temperature of the condensation barrier remains
above the dew point and no condensation can occur.
Maximum contribution 'x' to the thermal insulation of a building
component, which the layers on the inside of the condensation
barrier, including the air boundary layer, can have so as to avoid
condensation _
iC
15
~
c;
10
Q.)
c:
8
::J
0
~
2
~
20
example:
living room 20"/60% reI. humidity
outside temperature -15°(, x = 23%
concrete layer 20cm 'l/C = 0.095 m 2KIW
air boundary layer inside l/u = 0.120 m 2KIW
layers up to the vapour barrier = 0.215m2KIW
0.215 23%; 100% = 0.94m2KIW
outer insulation of- 0.94-0.215 -, 0.725 '> 3cm Styrofoam on the vapour barrier = no con-
densation
1.5 kq/rn? bitumen 82/25 applied to vapour barrier, this in
S!:.:.:.;.:?:.:.:.:.:?:., 3.5 kq/rn? filled bitumen (pouring and rolling process)
1-:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:I
~
glass wool porous layer (loosely laid)
.......................... ~
t::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~ bitu men p ri 0 r app Iicat ion 0.3 kg/m 2
- - - - concrete deck, possibly to falls
o Ideal layout of a warm roof
CD
paved roof for walking on 2 - 4" usually 3' - 4"
wood cement roof 2.5 - 4" usually a- - 4"
roof with roof felting, gravelled 3" -
30' usually 4" - 10"
roof with roof felting, double 4 . - 50' usually 6 ' - 12"
zinc. double upright folded joints
(standing seams) 3" - 90 0
usually 5" - 30-'
felted roof, single 8" - 15" usually 10" - 12°
plain steel sheeted roof 12' - 18" usually 15°
Interlocking tiled roof, 4 segment 18' - 50° usually 22° - 45°
shingle roof (shingle canopy 900') 18" -
21' usually 19u
- 20"
Interlocking tiled roof, standard 20" - 33' usually 22"
zrnc and steel corrugated sheet roof 18' - 35 usually 25"
corrugated fibre cement sheet roof 5" - 90" usually 30'
artificial slate roof 20" - 90' usually 25" - 45°
slate roof, double decked 25' - 90" usually 30" - 50°
slate roof. standard 30" - 90" usually 45°
glass roof 30" - 45" usually 33°
tiled roof, double 30') - 60" usually 45"
tiled roof, plain tiled 35' - 60° usually 45°
tiled roof, pantiled roof 40') - 60° usually 45"
split stone tiled roof 45° - 50° usually 45"
roofs thatched with reed or straw 45') -
80° usually 60° - 70'
CD Roof slopes
living rooms swimming bath
20°(,60% reI. humidity 30°(,70% reI. humidity
outside temperature -12
I
-15
I
-18 -12
I
-15
I
-18
(°0) 25 23 21 15 14 13
CD
79

plaster
concrete
insulation
waterproofing
foam glass
profile
Passavant
roof drain
suspended panel
15cm above waterproof
membrane
r - - - - - - edge upstand
(lightweight concrete)
~,,---- spacer component
at intervals
--~h~t~
- screw with dowel
- flat rail 5/50 rnrn
- surface protection
fillet 6/6cm
roof construction
walkway
freely
supported
/Ifl~r::-r~~.....-y-"7t1T:-11 ~;~~~~tlng
waterproof
AFl»ri;~~~~"""membrane
insulation
Indoor swimming pool with
insulated sandwiched panel
fascia
Wall connection with FD
sealing strip (walkway)
aluminium edge profile
timber
waterproof membrane
masonry
Concrete edge profile
@
@
®
!Ii
J_-0-=--sable pipe
o With insulated down pipe
@ Double skin dome with
ventilation gap ~ p. 159
!III
1.
Wall connection: flanged
connection with anchorage
and Hespen rail
Warm Roof Construction
insulation, non-compressible
flange sealing for vapour barrier
flange sealing
Insulating ring
roof covering
Concealed roof edge
ventilation
T
double skin
dome
FLAT ROOFS
humus 30-35cm
1 layer of straw or glass
fibre filter layer
gravel, mica or small
sized pearl coke 1O-20cm
_ protective layer
_~~__ waterproof membrane
~~~~~~~= insulation
~ sloped concrete
........................
........................
.......................
=:=:=:=:=:=:=:=:::::::::::::::::=:::::::::::::: concrete
.. " ..• ,,~ <I it· ..::... C,)rA ..•;;,j!- plaster
f3 Two-stage outlet with flange
.::!J sealing and foam glass
insulation material, underside
embedded in concrete
('Passavant') scale 1:10
roof edging profile lightweight concrete
(aluminium) prefabricated component
insulation
waterproofi ng
outside
~~~~
~~~~~~~ftf----timber
cold roof
concrete
plaster
sliding bearing
~~~~~plaster
concrete slab
thermal insulation
waterproof membrane
slabs on setting blocks
insulation
plaster
mastic joint
clamp
zinc sheet angle
flashing
waterproof membrane
insulation
downpipe
Wall connection, better
with door threshold at the
level of the upstand
Wall connection zinc sheet
angle and flashing
Flat roof edge with
concealed sliding joint
(slide track)
Flat roof outlet in glass-fibre
reinforced polyester with
prefabricated insulation;
better: two stage ~ @
warm roof
T
ll'l
waterproofing layer
!III
1..
CD
CD
~~il~=~I~i~. insulation
on
fing
plaster
concrete
sliding bearing
masonry
sliding
bearing
masonry
plaster
L4/7 ribbed decking
Wall connection in the
vicinity of a terrace door
Protective layer - double
layer gravel bedding;
better: ballasting
Roof drainage - at least 2
outlets - slope 3%
Installation of the lightning conductor
on concrete blocks without
penetrating the waterproofing layer
waterproofing concrete beam
insulation 1.25 m L.
wiring clamp on sealing strip
lightning conductor
il~:'~::;::~':lc~o~nc~r~et~e
Ib~as~eI15~a5/e~prOOf
~ membrane
l!!~~1
~1~j~1~j}~!J.~l~!}1,~!it~~~!. :~~:~~::n
~:
fM
:?
:ti wall
- connecti
~!{i~~~~i'
,- insulati
waterproo
: slabs on
setting
blocks
~
~.. taluminium -,- T
<, edge profile
~
,~'.£' ->:
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
concrete
@
@
®
® Flat roof edge with open
sliding joint
r::': alli~~~~~~~te~~~~~eierofile
~.=Ml~ ~ha~;~r~~}n~~~abt:~n~- 3 layers
80
@ Raised expansion joint with
additional protection
Movement joint with
supporting construction
and capping
Roof garden on a warm
roof - protective layer
could be replaced by
shredded rubber sheet
@ Chimney connection with
suspended facia panel

81
~SU'face protection with
gravel ballasting
1»»1 1 ! '>1 bitumen/welded sheet
_ j O i n t filler
~surface
protection with
........-..-.--..-.--..-.-
............. chippinqs
~fillinglayer
"lin
J t
I 1:1 (I 1<-' , plastic membrane
l "db l77i It :ft~~~~~lfii~ra~embrane
I>!" rllUnnUnl :ft~e~~~~~?iTmmi~~~rane
_ _ _ _ _ undercoating
Cold Roof Construction
FLAT ROOFS
Roof terrace surfaces are loose laid in a bed of shingle or on
block supports. Advantage: water level is below surface; no
severe freezing. Roof garden has surface drainage through
drainage layers, ballasting of shingle or similar, with a filter
layer on top ~ p. 80 @.
Roofs over swimming pools, etc. are suspended ceilings with
ventilated or heated void; see Table @ -4 p. 79. Usually, the
contribution of all layers up to the vapour barrier, including the air
boundary layer, gives a max. 13.50/0 of the resistance to heat 11k.
On wood ~) @ is a simple solution, and good value for
money. NB: insulation above the vapour barrier should be
thicker than with a concrete roof, not only due to the low
surface weight, but also because the contribution of the layers
up to the vapour barrier (air boundary layer + wood thickness)
would otherwise be too high.
An inverted roof -) (2) is an unusual solution with long-term
durability (up to now, however, only achievable with various
polystyrene foam materials). Shingle alone as the upper roof
layering is insufficient in certain cases; it is better to have a
paved surface. Advantage: quickly waterproof, examination for
defects is easy, no limit to use. Insulation 10-20% thicker than
for a normal warm roof.
With a concrete roof ~ CD, due to the position of the
insulation, condensation occurs in certain conditions, which
always dry out in the summer; unsuitable for humid rooms. The
risk is dependent on the care taken by the manufacturer to avoid
cracks due to the geometry (shrinkage) and solving the problem
of connections to, and penetrations of, the concrete.
A completely flat cold roof -~ ® - @ is only allowable with
vapour barrier: diffusion resistance ~ pp. 111-14 of the inner
skin 2 10m; the air layer here is only for vapour pressure
balance, analogous to the warm roof, as it does not function
properly as a ventilation system unless the slope is at least 100/0.
Layer sequence ~ ® and @. NB: inner skin must be airtight;
tongue and groove panelling is not. Insulation :; p. 79.
Waterproofing as for warm roof ~ p. 80. Slope 2 1.5%,
preferably 30/0 - important for drainage. Inlets should be
insulated in the air cavity region; use insulated inlet pipes. @.
It is necessary for the vapour barrier to be unbroken (tight
overlapping and wall connections, particularly for swimming
pools; unavoidable through-nailing is permissible).
On light constructions, the internal temperature range
should be improved by additional heavy layers (heat storage)
under the insulation. Unfavourable internal temperature range:
temperature fluctuations almost the same as those outside
implies an internal climate similar to that of an unheated army
hut; this cannot be improved by thermal insulation alone. A
quick response heating system and/or additional thermal mass
is required. For the artificial ventilation of rooms under cold
roofs, always maintain a negative pressure; otherwise, room air
will be forced into the roof cavity.
:nr:= III11!II
@ Key to representation of roof covering components
downpipe
squared timber
AI vapour barrier
planking
bitumen
felting
drain cage trap
- 3 layers of
roof felting
tongue and groove
boarding
wood planking
waterproof membrane - 3 layers
gravelling
Ridge ventilation on a
sloping cold roof (indoor
swimming pool)
Cold roof - flat roof outlet.
insulated in void
Cold roof in timber
construction
concrete
plaster
Insulation
Cold roof - heavy
construction
Flat roof with membrane
waterproofing
ventilation
®
aluminium edge profile
-------::: light concrete
~ / / vapour barrier + slip layer
thermal insulation
~h~~;~Feroof membrane
CD
plaster
thermal Insulation
- concrete roof
(waterproof)
vapour
barrier
glued
support
insulation
waterproof membrane 3 layer felting
shingle layer
..
sliding bearing
insulation
plaster
Warm roof with glue-
laminated beams and
sheathing of planed planks
Additional ventilator in a cold
roof for oversized roof areas
and for ventilation at the
connection to taller structural
components
wood planking
waterproof membrane - 3 layers
gravelling
Flat roof construction
Cornice of pre-fabricated
components; if the
ventilation opening is too
large a projection. it may
freeze over
Waterproof concrete roof
(Woermann roof)
CD
®
(})
CD

History
The concept of roof gardens and roof cultivation had
already been exploited by the Babylonians in biblical times
by 600 Be. In Berlin, in 1890, farm house roofs were covered
with a layer of soil as a means of fire protection, in which
vegetation seeded itself. Le Corbusier was the first in our
century to rediscover the almost forgotten green roof.
The characteristics of roof cultivation
1 Insulation by virtue of the layer of air between blades
of grass and through the layer of soil, with its root
mass containing microbial life processes (process
heat).
2 Sound insulation and heat storage potential.
3 Improvement of air quality in densely populated
areas
4 Improvements in microclimate
5 Improves town drainage and the water balance of the
countryside
6 Advantageous effects for building structures: UV
radiation and strong temperature fluctuations are
prevented due to the insulating grass and soil layers
7 Binds dust
8 Part of building design and improves quality of life
9 Reclamation of green areas
Roof garden in the form of
a collection of plant
containers on balconies
and roof terraces
:~.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:~.:.:.:.I~'''''''''-
ROOF GARDENS
CD
Roof garden on rented
housing: 'Pointer towards a
new form of architecture'
JOOOOOO
Psycho-physiological value of
cultivated areas (the feeling
of well being is positively
influenced by the areas of
greenery)
A major proportion of the
lost ground area can be
regained by cultivating the
roof I
-u-
/ 1_"'--
greater.~
evaporation .;;'.7 /"~,.,:,,,.:,.
":;.:'J(~"j//
plant and soil
1111111:::;::::::
@
good ground
water
evaporation replenishment
@ Distribution of
precipitation - natural
surfaces
water seepage
Q iY *"V
ground water
Natural cycle of water and
nutrients
With the construction of
every house, a part of the
countryside is lost ----t(] 4)
D-=-
I water cycle
@
reduced~~
evaporation '/,":,'>"':'/;' .
;':,s: ';;/' greater and
faster surface
drainage
'Lost' areas of greenery are
reclaimed by roof planting
@ Distribution of
precipitation - consolidated
surfaces --t C12"
~~
~ 0, 0, : 0, J: ,~ 2~~
III~i~1I
a 'green' roof
@ Sound absorption due to the
soft planted surface
a 'green' roof
® Improvement of city air due to
filtering out and absorption of
dust and due to oxygen
production by plants
,
a 'green' roof
® Cooler and moister air due
to energy consuming plant
transpiration
The hanging gardens of
Semiramis in Babylon
(600BC)
a 'conventional' roof
® Sound reflection on 'hard
surfaces' --t,10'
o Production of dust and
dust swirling ----t ®
o Overheated, dry town air
V -4@
0)
82

~.~:..••:
..
:.:..
:.:..
:.:
..
:.:.•
:.:
.•
:.:
..
:.:
..
:.:..
:.:..
:.:•.
:.:.:.:
..
:.:
..
:.:..
:.:..
:.:.:.:.:
...
:...
:.:.•
:.:.•
:.:
..
:.:
..
:.:.•
:.:.•
:.:.. ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::.:::::::.:.:.:
.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:::.:.:.::::::::
Proven categories and varieties of plants for roof cultivation
(extensive)
®
botanical name English name height flowering
(colour of the flower) season
Saxifraga aizoon encrusted saxifrage 5cm VI
(white-pink)
Sedum acre biting stonecrop (yellow) 8cm VI·-VII
Sedum album white stonecrop (white) 8cm VI-VII
Sedum album 'Coral Carpet' white variety 5cm VI
Sedum album 'Laconicum' white variety 10cm VI
Sedum album 'Micranthum' white variety 5cm VI-VII
Sedum album 'Murale' white variety 8cm VI VII
Sedum album 'Cloroticurn' (light green) 5cm VI-VII
Sedum hybr. (yellow) 8cm VI-VII
Sedum floriferum (gold) 10cm VIII-IX
Sedum albumreflexum 'Elegant' rock stonecrop (yellow) 12cm VI-VII
Sedum album sexamgulare (yellow) 5cm VI
Sedum album 'Wei~e Tatra' bright yellow variety 5cm VI
Sempervivum arachnoideum cobweb houseleek (pink) 6cm VI VII
Sempervivum hybr. selected seedlings (pink) 6cm VI-VII
Sempervivum tectorum houseleek (pink) 8cm VI-VII
Pelosperma (yellow) 8cm VI-VII
not fully winter hardy
Frestuc glauca blue fescu (blue) 25cm VI
Festuca ovina sheep's fescu (blue) 25cm VI
Koeleria glauca opalescent grass (green/silver) 25cm VI
Melicia ciliatx pearl grass (light green) 30cm V-VI
ROOF GARDENS
Roof slope
The slope of a double pitch roof should not be greater than
25°. Flat roofs should have a minimum slope of 2-30/0.
Types of roof cultivation
Intensive cultivation: the roof is fitted out as a domestic
garden, with equipment such as pergolas and loggias;
continual attention and upkeep are necessary; planting -
grass, shrubs and trees. Extensive cultivation: the
cultivation requires a thin layer of soil and requires a
minimum of attention; planting - moss, grass, herbs,
herbaceous plants and shrubs. Mobile cultivation: plants in
tubs, and other plant containers serve for the cultivation of
roof terraces, balustrades and balconies.
Watering
Natural watering by rain water: water is trapped in the
drainage layer and in the vegetation layer. Accumulated
water: rain water is trapped in the drainage layer and is
mechanically replenished if natural watering is inadequate.
Drip watering: a water drip pipe is placed in the vegetation
or drainage layer to water the plants during dry periods.
Sprinkling system: sprinkling system over the vegetation
layer.
Fertiliser
Fertiliser can be spread on the vegetation layer or mixed
with the water during artificial watering.
/ footway base
thermal insulation
vapour barrier
Zinco Floradrain roof
cultivation system
®
o Plant containers forming the
boundary of a cultivated area
,)~, r ,')
CD Extensive cultivation
vegetation layer
filter layer
insulating mat
two root protection/
waterproof membranes
drainage layer
insulation layer
root protection layer
Zinco Floraterra roof
cultivation system
®
...............................................
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::. ~·~~~·r·~t·i~·~ 'I~~~~- -::::::
o Layer construction of a
::.) cultivated roof
G) Intensive cultivation
growth height> 250cm
build-up height from
35cm
surface loading 3.7 kN/m 2
water supply 170 l/rn?
mulch layer - cm
soil mixture 23cm
drainage layer 12cm
watering, by hand or
automatic
up to 250cm
19-35 em
1.9-3.7 kN/m2
80-170 11m2
-em
7-23 em
12em
by hand or automatic
5-25 em
14em
1.4 kN/m2
60 11m2
-em
5em
gem
by hand or automatic
5-20 em
12em
1.1 kN/m2
45Vm2
1 em
4em
7em
by hand
5-20 em
12em
1.15kN/m2
40 11m2
-em
7em
5cm
by hand
5-10 em
10cm
0.9 kN/m 2
30 11m2
1 em
4em
5cm
by hand
1 mulch layer
2 soil mixture
3 filter mat
4 drainage layer
5 root protection membrane
6 separation and protection layers
7 roof sealing
8 supporting construction
o Various types of roof cultivation
83

roof
sealing
....
iiill!
roof edge profile
solution welded seam
strip turf (expanded clay/soil
mixture underneath) Jr
extruded
filter material polystyrene
foam c,/
~~
~~
lr
ROOF GARDENS
Roof Construction
For the vegetation layer, expanded clay and expanded slate
are used, these materials offering structural stability, soil
aeration, water storage potential and lending themselves to
landscaping. Problems to be solved: storage of nutrients, soil
reaction (pH value), through-ventilation, water storage. The
filter layer, comprising filter material, prevents clogging of
the drainage layer. The drainage layer prevents excessive
watering of the plants and consists of: mesh fibre mats, foam
drainage courses, plastic panels and protective structural
materials. The protective layer provides protection during the
construction phase and against point loading. The root
protection layer of plants, etc., are retained by PVC/ECB and
EPDM sheeting. The separating layer separates supporting
structure from the roof cultivation. Examples-> G) - .§~
illustrate a range of customary flat roof structures and
variations incorporating roof cultivation. Before roof
cultivation is applied, the integrity of the roof and of the
individual layers must be established. The technical
condition of the roof surface must be carefully checked.
Attention should be paid to: construction of the layers
(condition); correct roof slope; no unevenness; no roof
sagging; no waterproofing membrane faults (bubbles,
cracking); expansion joints; edge attachments; penetrating
elements (light shafts, roof lights, ventilating pipes); and
drainage. Double pitch roofs can also be cultivated, but much
preparatory construction work is needed when inclined roofs
are cultivated (danger of slippage, soil drying out) -> ® - Q?).
~..
-. r ' . ' ..
' ' I
J I
. . rI' I
veqetation - -
vegetation layer--
filter layer~
drainage layer--
protective layer--
thermal insulation -
root protection layer l -
L wate~~~oa~fa~:~~~~~~ =J
- - roof structure - -
vegetation - -
veget.ation layer I
filter layer =1
drainage layer ~I
protective layer =.JC
root protection layer ~
separation layer ~
~waterproofrnembrane..r-
L..- timber planking ---.r-
-supporting structure--f
air gap
o Cold roof with cultivation
o Warm roof with cultivation
- thermal insulation -
vegetation - -
veget.ati.on layer :3
filter layer _
dr ainaqe layer II
protective layer ~[
root protection laver ~
-r wSa~~~~:~;o;e~~r:~e~
~ separation layer ~
- thermal insulation-
- _ vapour barrier - -
Lcompensating layer.s-
rshingle
~
~NlNlIlFNtJ~
o Cold roof -) ®
G) Warm roof • c:v
® Inverted roof .. -) ® ® Inverted roof with cultivation @ Detail of the eaves on a
sloping 'green' roof
@ Eaves detail--> 11
burld-up of
mte nsrve tree
~~,~~~ cultivation
---- 50 ----------1
Transition from footpath to
intensive or extensive
cultivation
build-up of
extensive
cultivation
@
@ Wall connection with shingle
edging strip
Transition from road
surface to intensive roof
cultivation
flag stones on sand bed
filter material
drainage element
root protecting film
~32----"1
sealing r- 25 ---i
@
@ Drainage inspection shaft
Roof cultivation on a steep
roof
Retrospective roof cultivation
(if constructionally and
structurally possible)
soil layer
(grass base)
grass roof
(meadow grass)
®
Roof cultivation on sloping
roof
CD
o Retrospective roof
cultivation at low expense
84

85
ROOF CULTIVATION
Fire prevention
(1) All fire precaution recommendations should be
observed.
(2) The requirements are fulfilled if the flammability of the
structure is classed as flame resistant (material
classification B1).
Characteristics of a satisfactory roof cultivation
An extensive planted area has planting out, sowing, setting
of cuttings, pre-cultivated plants (plant containers, mats and
panels). The vegetation layer provides stability for the plants,
contains water and nutrients and allows material and gas
exchange and water retention. The vegetation layer must
have a large pore volume for gas exchange and water
retention. The filter layer prevents the flushing out of
nutrients and small components of the vegetation layer and
silting up of the drainage layer. It also ensures that water
drains away gradually. The drainage layer provides safe
removal of overflow water, aeration of the vegetation layer,
the storage and, if necessary, a water supply. Root protection
protects the roof waterproofing membrane from chemical
and mechanical contact with the roots of the plants which, in
searching for water and nutrients, can be destructive. Roof
construction must be durably waterproof, both on the
surface and in all connections with other components. The
formation of condensation water in the roof structure must
be effectively and permanently prevented.
Extract from Guidelines of the Roof
Garden Association
(3) It should be possible to separate the waterproofing
layers from the cultivation layers, i.e. it must be possible
to inspect the waterproof membrane of the roof.
(4) The root protection layer must provide durable
protection to the roof waterproofing layers.
(5) High polymer waterproofing membranes should,
because of their physical and chemical makeup, be able
to satisfy the demands of the root protection layer.
(6) If a bituminous roof waterproofing system is applied,
then bitumen-compatible root protection layers should
be employed.
(7) The root protection layer should be protected from
mechanical damage by a covering; non-rotting fibre
mats should be used since these can store nutrients and
additional water.
(8) The vegetation layer must have a high structural
stability and must exhibit good cushioning capability
and resistance to rotting.
(9) The pH value should not exceed 6.0 in the acidic range.
(10) The construction of the layers must be capable of
accepting a daily precipitation level of at least 301m 2,
(11)There should be a volume of air of at least 20% in the
layer structure in the water saturated condition.
Maintenance at the plant level
(1) Wild herbaceous plants and grasses from the dry
grassland, steppe and rock crevice species should be
used in the planted areas. All plants used should be
perennial.
(2) The plants used should be young plants, sown as seed
or propagated by cuttings.
(3) Maintenance: at least one routine per year, when the
roof inlets, security strips, roof connections and
terminations are inspected and cleaned as necessary.
(4) Plants, mosses and lichen which settle are not
considered as weeds.
(5) All undesirable weeds should be removed.
(6) Woody plants, in particular willow, birch, poplar, maple
and the like, are considered to be weeds.
(7) Regular mowing and fertilising should be carried out.
(8) Changes at the plant level may occur through
environmental effects.
inner region
min 40 kglm2 ~
Inner region
b
S
f--50~
I safety strips
edge region
I------ min 80 kglm2
b
8
mner region
edge region
~---b---
.........
(7)
up to 8 at least 80 40
8-20 at least 130 65
over 20 at least 160 60
(5) The type of construction employed in the roof and the
degree of surface loading are dependent on the wind
loading, the height of the building and the surface area
of the roof.
(6) High suction loads can occur around the edges and
corners of the roof over a width b/8 ~ 1m < 2 m.
(8)
(4)
Height of the eaves Load on the
above ground level edge region
(m) (kq/rn-') (kg/m2 )
(9) Cultivated roofs should be designed to be easily
maintained, i.e. areas which need regular attention
(such as roof drainage inlets, structures which protrude
from the cultivated area, expansion joints and wall
junctions) should be easily accessible.
(10) In these areas, the protective layer should comprise of
inorganic materials such as shingle or loose stones.
(11) These areas should be linked with the roof drainage
inlets, so that any overflow from the planted areas can
drain away.
(12) Large surface areas should be subdivided into separate
drainage zones.
Requirements, functions, constructive precautions
(1) The waterproofing membrane should be designed in
accordance with the recommended specifications for
flat roofs.
(2) The development of the cultivated area should not
impair the function of the roof waterproofing membrane.
Principles of constructive planning and execution
(1) In extensive roof cultivation, the cultivated area acts as
a protective covering - see the recommendations for
flat roofs.
(2) Roof construction and structure: the relevant structural
and constructional principles of the building and its roof
must be carefully interrelated with the technical
requirements imposed by the vegetation and its
supporting elements.
(3) The surface loading required to secure the waterproof
membrane is the minimum weight per unit area of the
operative layers in accordance with the table below,
taken from the Roof Garden Association
recommendations for planting on the flat roofs.
Scope
These guidelines apply to areas of vegetation without
natural connection to the ground, particularly on building
roofs, and roofs of underground garages, shelters, or
similar structures.
Definitions
(1) Extensive roof cultivation implies a protective covering
that needs upkeep, replacing the customary gravel
covering.
(2) To a large extent, the planted level is self-replenishing
and the upkeep, i.e., maintenance, is reduced to a
minimum.

max. 40m ._-~
®
@-®
TENSILE AND INFLATABLE
STRUCTURES
Temporary buildings with
supporting structures of wood,
steel or aluminium; maximum
span 40 m; prefabrication for
rapid assembly and low cost
Air supported structures ~ @
The structural membrane is supported by compressed air at
low pressure, and air locks prevent the rapid release of the
supporting air. The system can be combined with heating,
and additional insulation can be provided by an inner shell
(air mattress). Maximum width is 45 m, with length
unlimited. Application: exhibition, storage, industrial and
sport halls; also as roofing over swimming pools and
construction sites in winter.
Tensioned structures ~~ @
The membrane is supported at selected points by means of
cables and masts, and tensioned around the edges. To
improve thermal insulation, the structure may be provided
with additional membranes. Span can be up to more than
100 m. Application: exhibition, industrial and sports halls,
meeting and sports areas, phantom roofs.
The construction of awnings and tensile roofs is becoming
more widespread. These constructions vary from simple
awnings and roofs, to technically very complicated tensile
structures of the most diverse types.
Materials: artificial fibre material (polyester) is used as
the base fabric, with corrosion resistant and weather proof
protective layers of PVC on both sides.
Characteristics: high strength (can resist snow and wind
loads); non-rotting; resistant to aggressive substances;
water and dirt repellent, and fire resistant.
Weight: 800-1200 g/m2.
Permeability to light: from 'impermeable' up to 500/0
permeability.
Life: 15-20 years; all popular colour shades; good colour
fastness
Workability: manufactured in rolls; widths 1-3 m, usually
1.5 m; length up to 2000 running metres; cut to shape to suit
structure; can be joined by stitching, welding, with
adhesives, combinations of these, or by clamp connectors.
Add-on standard systems CD
Standard units allow the structure to be extended
indefinitely, often on all sides. They embrace most
planforms: square, rectangular, triangular, circular,
polyhedra. Application: connecting passageways, rest area
pavilions, shade awnings, etc.
Framed structures
A supporting frame is made from wood, steel or aluminium.
over which the membrane is stretched as a protective
covering. Application: exhibition halls, storage and
industrial areas.
o Canopies
f----- - ----11.50 - - ---------1
I
4.80
1
T
1.25
t
2.70
1~~~~~~~~
~ ~
1
//
Pf.
~....
<0
1
~
f------12.00---- ------i
G) Standard add-on systems
t---- 6.50-----1
o Domed construction
T .' ventilation
~..~:: ~ .
® Tensioned structures, special textile constructions
"------:~5m'·"'>,>
~ ~":~':"'''':''/;';'''':'':-':':':'''!;::'~'''''
m8J(.45m~
o Air supported structures, pneumatic roofing
86

Architects: R. Gutbrod, F. Otto
CABLE NET STRUCTURES
Cable net structures offer the possibility of covering large
unsupported spans with considerable ease. The German
pavilion at the World Exhibition in Montreal in 1976 was
constructed in this fashion ~ CD + (2), the Olympic Stadium
in Munich, 1972 ~ @-@ and the ice rink in the Olympic Park
in Munich ~ @-@. An interesting example is also provided
by the design for the students club for the University and
College of Technology in Dortmund ~ @.
As a rule, the constructional elements are steel pylons,
steel cable networks, steel or wooden grids, and roof
coverings of acrylic glass or translucent, plastic-reinforced
sheeting.
Cables are fastened into the edges of the steel network,
the eaves, etc., and are laid over pin-jointed and usually
obliquely positioned steel supports, and then anchored.
'Aerial supports', cable supporting elements which are
stayed from beneath, divide up the load of the main
supporting cable to reduce the cable cross-sections.
The transfer of load of the tension cables usually takes
place via cast components - bolt fixings, housings, cable
fixings, etc. The cable fixings can be secured by self-locking
nuts or by the use of pressure clamps.
stadium
~
~
-
---- ===:
sports hall
<~
sports hall
CD Olympic park, Munich 1972
o Montreal 1967
G) German Pavilion, Expo Montreal 1967
S. Caragiannidis, G. Bill
Cable network; edge cable
clamp
Support cable attachment
point to the edge cables
(j)
., '0 8
10
6 plastic spacer
h = 25mm
7 flat steel plate 300/60 ... 8
8 pressure clamp
9 wire netting (l l.Srnrn)
10 bolt
~-----30.20
o
Transfer of loads from the
cables to the cross-beams
on a mast head
1 roof skin PVC
coated polyester
fabric
2 SST disks
3 batten: 40 .. 60mm
4 connecting beam
5 batten: 60 ...60mm
® Student design
@ Cable cla~p, showing roof f13
construction ~
,0
;0,
, I
II
Cable attachment saddle at
a high suspension point
Cable network
attachment
cross-section
longitudinal section
~
....................................................•.......•..................................
..~:
@ Canopies ~ @
®
®
~-~
and Partner, 1983
@ Ice rink, Olympic park,
Munich
J.
{
Architects: Behnisch & Partner
o Olympic stadium, Munich
1972
~
~ ~
-.
87

Concert hall, exhibition
park, Dortmund
Competitive design: Portmann; Echterhoff;
Hugo; Panzer
Departure hall,
Paderbornllippstadt
Airport
Architects: Gerber & Partners, Dortmund
SUSPENDED AND TENSIONED
STRUCTURES
The suspension or support of load-bearing structures
provides a means of reducing the cross-sections of the
structural members, thus enabling delicate and filigree
designs to be developed. As a rule, this is only possible in
steel and timber skeletal structures. The tensioning cables
are of steel and can usually be tensioned on completion of
the structure. The cables support tensile forces only.
Suspended structures have the purpose of reducing the
span of supporting beams or eliminating cantilevered
structures. Tensioned structures, likewise, reduce the span
of beams and, hence, also the section modulus which has
to be considered in determining their cross-section. @. In
similar fashion to cable network structures, aerial supports
are required on trussed structures. They have to accept
buckling (compressive) stresses.
Significant contributions to the architecture of
suspended structures have been made by Gunter Behnisch
~ @, Norman Foster ~ CD - @, Richard Rogers -~ ® _. (])and
Michael Hopkins ~ @-@. The Renault building in Swindon,
by Norman Foster, consists of arched steel supports, which
are suspended from round, pre-stressed hollow steel masts
from a point in the upper quarter of the gable ~ CD - @. The
design enabled the ground area to be extended by
approximately 670/0. The suspended construction offers
connection points which make it possible to execute the
construction work without interfering with other work.
The new Fleetguard factory in Quimper, for an automobile
concern in the USA, had to be designed for changing
requirements and operations. For this, Richard Rogers chose
a suspended construction so to keep the inside free of any
supporting structure ~ ® - c: The same design ideas form
the basis of the sports halls of Gunter Behnisch ~ @ and the
Schlumberger Research Centre in Cambridge, by Michael
Hopkins ~ @ - @. An airport administration building
(proposed design for Paderborn/Lippstadt) ~ @and a concert
hall (proposed design for the Dortmund Fair) ~ @ may also
be built in this fashion.
Internal view of the
showroom
Section of fa~ade
Architects: Behnisch & Partners; Stuttgart
® Sports hall on the
SC~i~~
f~iff=~--=-=
o
o
Architects: Norman Foster
Associates, London
Renault sales centre,
Swindon
Detail of the 'planar'
glazing system
Architects: Michael Hopkins & Partners;
London
Architects: Richard Rogers & Partners, London
CD External view showing the gallery
® Fleetguard factory,
Quimper, France
88
® Schlumberger Research
Centre, Cambridge/GB ® Winter garden:
internal perspective
@ Underground station, Stadtgarten, Dortmund

icosahedron (20 faces)
dodecahedron (12 faces)
SPACE FRAMES: PRINCIPLES
Ideally, space frames should be constructed from equal
sided and/or isosceles right-angled triangles, so that regular
polyhedrons are formed. In plane infinite networks, there
are exactly three geometric structures; in spherical finite
structures, there are exactly five regular polyhedron
networks, which are comprised of only one type of joint,
member, and hence also, surface. Regular plane networks
are triangular, square and hexagonal.
Of the five platonic bodies used, the space frame formula
decrees that only those three-dimensional joint-member
space frames whose members form a closed triangular
network are kinematically stable, i.e. the tetrahedron, the
octahedron and the icosahedron. The cube requires an
additional 6, and the dodecahedron, an additional 24
members, to become stable. If a spherical .. triangular
network is not closed over the whole surface, the basic
polygon must be prevented from moving by an appropriate
alternative method.
The lengths of the members of a body for a space frame
form a geometric series with the factor 2. One joint with a
maximum of 18 connections at angles of 45°,60° and 90° is
sufficient for the construction of a regular framework. As
with plane structures, it must be accepted that the members
are connected with flexible joints.
(8 faces)
(4 faces)
(6 faces)
each joint in the three-dimensional
space must be fixed by three members
to make the three-dimensional frame
rigid so, to achieve kinematic stability:
no. of members =
3 x number of joints - (1 + 2 + 3)
~ spherical network
octahedron
cube
tetrahedron
G) Five platonic bodies
o Foppl framework formula
h=:~aV2
f6 Space structure grid of
~ semi-octahedrons and
tetrahedrons in a rotated
position (45°)
ra-l
~!/IS1/~~av2
f5 Space structure grid of semi-
~ octahedrons and tetrahedrons
parallel to the edges
r8-i
Space structure grid of
octahedrons and
tetrahedrons in
compressed format
==~a"V6
l__Y __¥ __W:ia V6
f3 Space structure grid of
.::.} octahedrons and tetrahedrons
with regular cut-outs in the
lower section
Space building blocks:
semi-octahedron and
tetrahedron
'-..,./'"'-/"'-..v ./ r"-../
V-....... '../"'- '../~AV' V'...l?"'-
~V
~ ), 1'..,,/ 1'..,,/
/r"-. Vi'-- Vi'..
-......./ "'-../ "'-../ / "'-../ "'-V "'-/"'-/
"'-/ 1/ <, V"--.V r-: [.,/1"-
~/
[> -......./ ~K ~K
VI'.." V
'/"J~/,,-/'Vi'.. "'-../ '/ V
i-r-, /'..V'/ <, -,
/ ' '"'-V I', ./
/ ...... V'.. V V
I'-. "-/1"- / / /
-, / -, "",,-1/"- V /'--..
/ 1',/ '"'-/ 1',/ /
VI'.." V"'-.. V' vi'..
"-./"'J I',V "'-../' ["'/ ["'-...,v "J "-./
,,-v v .......V"- .......1/ V""/'.. -,
@ Space frame structure
@
Space building blocks: semi-
octahedron and tetrahedron
®
A ~ A- )
./
~ ) X )t /~
~
/ <.
~ ~~
i/'
Dr lX ~
V
""
~ I~ l> ~)( "-. ~/:"- I'..
"" V
.~ ~
<. :/1', 1"-/ -,
r-, ./ v .7
' ',. >-
./~
;~~ r:'
r-,
' "'~/ ~ ",*,/ '1
JVSZVVVZZZJ_
@ Space frame structure
(large cube corners) in
compressed format
@ Spherical dome featuring an
icosahedron structure
®
The geometric series for the
length of members with the
factor '"2 and the natural
pattern for the geometric
series: shells of Ammonites
8.0 '--.-O..- ~
89

SPACE FRAMES: APPLICATION
The MERO space frame developed by Mengeringhausen
consists of joints and members --) CD - @. The underlying
principle is that joints and members are selected from the
frame systems as are appropriate for the loads which are to
be carried. In the MERO structural elements, the
joint/member links do not act as 'ideal pin-joints', but are
able to transmit flexural moments in addition to the normal
forces in the members .~ @ - (f). This three-dimensional
format permits a free selection of a basic grid unit, then,
with the factors ~2 and ~3 to size the lengths of the
members, to develop a structure to provide the required
load-bearing surfaces --) @ - @ The unlimited flexibility is
expressed in the fact that curved space frames are also
possible. The Globe Arena in Stockholm ~ @ is, at present,
the largest hemispherical building in the world. The
assembly methods involve elements of prefabrication,
sectional installation or the slab-lift method. All the
components are hot galvanised for corrosion protection. As
a consequence of the high level of static redundancy of
space frames, the failure of a single member as a result of
fire will not lead to the collapse of the structure. Starting
from spherical joints, that allow 18 different points of
attachment for tubular members, a large variety of other
joint systems between nodes and members have been
developed so as to optimise the solution to load-bearing
and spanning requirements ---) ® - GJ).
10
o
weld seam
drainage hole
bolt insertion hole
o
Arrangement of members
at a joint
I
----~--I
L3 = finished dimension of member
L4 = net length of tube
CD
3 threaded bolts
4 keyed sleeve
5 slotted pin
I~r~
r-------L4- - - - - - -I
~-------L3-------____l
~--------L2----------1
~----------L1-------
1 hollow section
profile (tube)
cone
L, = system axial dimension
L2 = nominal dimension of member
o Construction of a MERO frame member
MERO joint connections
on the other hand, the
special jointing fittings can
be freely arranged as
required, both in respect of
the size of connection and
the angle between two
threaded holes
the standard 18-surface
~
... jOint.perm.its c.onnection
• angles of 45°, 60°, 90° and
• multiples of these to be
, t1 achieved; only one
standard jointinq device is
in mass production
®
the regular, usually 10
• , surface, joint contains only
• sufficient holes as are
• , required for closed, regular
continuous surface
framework structures
o Frame support ® Purlin support
coping
timber support
thermal insulation
separating layer
roof membrane
shingle
® Structural connections to
wall and roof
Structural connections -
central channel
direct support of the roof skin on upper
beam members, two layer supporting
structure, screwed connections not
resistant to bending, interlocked
transition from frame member to joint
in the upper beam, lower beam in the
KK system
® NK System (cup joint)
direct support of the roof skin, single-
layered structure in triangular grid,
screwed connections not resistant to
bending, interlocked transition from
structure member to joint
® TK System (plate joint)
direct support of the roof skin, single
layered structure, also in trapezoidal
surface geometry, multi-screwed
connections resistant to bending,
interlocked transition from structure
member to joint
@ ZK System
(cylindrical joint)
direct support of the roof skin, single
and multi-layered structures, single and
multi-screwed connections; member-
integrated nodal optical points
90
Architect: Strizewski
@ Partial section through the city hall in Hilden @
ca. 110m ----1
Architect: Berg
Section through the Globe
Arena in Stockholm
Detail of the roof ridge; roof
plan of the plant exhibition
hall, Gruga, Essen (NK
System)

SPACE FRAMES: APPLICATION
The Krupp-Montal" space frame was developed by E. Ruter,
Dortmund-Horde. The members are bolted to the forged
steel sphere with bolts inside the tubes. The bolts have
hexagonal recesses in their heads and are inserted into a
guide tube through a hole in the tubing of the structural
member. In general, all members are hot galvanised. A
coloured coating may also be applied to them. On the
Krupp-Montal" System, the bolts can be examined without
being removed from the frame members; if required, it is
possible to replace framework members without destroying
the framework. The Krupp-Morna!" System is illustrated in
---7 CD - @, with points of detail in ----) ® - @.
The KEBA tube and joint connection has been designed
for the transmission of tensile and compressive forces. It
does not require bolts and can be dismantled without
problems ---7 ® - @. The KEBA joint consists of the jaw
fitting, the interlocking flange, the tapered wedge and the
caging ring with locking pin.
The Scane space frame has been developed by Kaj
Thomsen. Bolts provide the means of connection, which are
inserted in the ends of the members using a special method
and are then screwed into the threaded bores of the
spherical joint fittings ----) @ - @.
In the case of all space frames, an unsupported span of
at least 80-100 m is possible.
/- ''
~
static number
~ 12' sphere diameter
. 00·'3;2 tube dimension
~~~ 1 connecting bolt
CD Diagonal members
o Space frame system
~
-
"
~
; / sphere diameter
~~J
<, <_ ~ - -- connecting bolt
o Upper beam members
~]
(2) Joint
Purlin fixings
@ Joint (nodal point)
@ Common centre joint
®
supporting
head
OQ
w
Supporting head fitting,
restrained support
restrained support
@ Space frame system
@ Standard upper joint
1>-4>J.--
/
assembly .> /j
deVice-SB-
-, r:
I I /
I 1 I /
+ T' /
I I
1- I
4 horizontal members and 8
diagonal members
Common centre joint
linking 12 members
® Universal bearing
I
1 roof membrane 4 vertical distance 7 tapered wedge 11 jaw fitting
2 insulation piece 8 purlin, tie beam 12 horizontal tube
3 steel corrugated 5 centre piece 9 caging ring 13 diagonal tube
sheet 6 interlocking flange 10 locking pin
@ Example of a possible roof form with joint details @ - ©
machined
interlocking
flange
'IT locking i
G)-
~i~~ng ~f~,et weld
~ .. jaw fitting
® KEBA joints
® Lower beam members

:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:
G) Continuous verticals, ties
on concealed brackets
:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:
o Sectional verticals, individual
vertical supports with ties
® Sectional verticals, ties on
brackets
:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:
(]) U-~haped linked frame
Units
o Continuous verticals, ties
on brackets
............:.:.: : :.: : : :':':':':'.':':':':':':':':':':':':':':
8) Sectional verticals, ties on
brackets
® H-shaped rigid frame units
:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:..
® T- and L-shaped vertical
supports
MULTISTOREV STRUCTURES
The main choice is of in situ or prefabricated manufacture in the
form of slab or frame construction. The selection of the materials
is according to type of construction and local conditions.
As in all areas of building construction, the number of storeys
is limited by the load-bearing capacity and weight of the building
materials. Construction consists of a vertical, space enclosing
supporting structure made from structural materials with or
without tensile strength. Vertical and lateral stiffening is necessary
through connected transverse walls and ceiling structures. Frame
construction, as a non-space enclosing supporting structure,
permits an open planform and choice of outer wall formation
(cantilevered or suspended construction). A large number of floor
levels is possible with various types of prefabrication.
Structural frame materials: reinforced concrete - which
provides a choice of in situ and prefabricated, steel, aluminium
and timber.
Types of structure: frames with main beams on hinged joints,
or rigid frame units in longitudinal and/or transverse directions.
Construction systems: columns and main beams (uprights and
ties) determine the frame structure with rigid or articulated joints
(connecting points of columns and beams). Fully stiffened
frames: columns and beams with rigid joints are connected to
rigid frame units. Articulated frame units one above the other:
columns and beams are rigidly connected into rigid frame units
and arranged one above the other with articulated joints. Pure
articulated frames: nodal points are designed to articulate, with
diagonal bracing structures (struts and trusses) and solid
diaphragms (intermediate walls, gable walls, stairwell walls);
mixed systems are possible. Rigid joints are easily achieved with
in situ and prefabricated reinforced concrete; however,
prefabricated components are usually designed with articulated
joints and braced by rigid building cores.
Construction
Framed structures with continuous vertical supports -) CD - (2);
ties beams rest on visible brackets or conceal bearings. Skeleton
structures with sectional vertical supports --) Q) - @; the height
of the verticals can possibly extend over more than two storeys;
the supporting brackets can be staggered from frame to frame;
hinged supports with stiffened building cores. Framed structures
with frame units --) ® - @: H-shaped frame units, if required,
with suspended ties at the centre connection (articulated storey
height frames); U-shaped frame units, with separate ties in the
centre, or with ties rigidly connected to frames (articulated
storey height frames). Flat head mushroom unit frame
construction --) @: columns with four-sided cantilevered slabs
(slabs and columns rigidly connected together, articulated
connection of the cantilevered slab edges). Floor support
structures directly accept the vertical loads and transmits them
horizontally onto the points of support; concrete floor slabs of
solid, hollow, ribbed or coffered construction are very heavy if
the span is large, and prove difficult in service installation; use of
the lift-slab method is possible, suitable principally for
rectangular planforms --) @ - @.
:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:
Floor support structure
with three layers (for very
large supported spans)
loads on the beams are taken to the
main supports
@
loads on the decking are transmitted via
the beams to the points of vertical
support
@ Floor support structure
with two layers
layer directly
supported on
verticals
Floor support structure
with a single load-bearing
layer
Square headed mushroom
frame unit
TTT
TTT
TTT
®
92

I
tamped concrete with axis spacing <- 150cm
brick with axis spacing S 130cm
cambered (prussian cap): axis spacing depending on structural calculations 3 m
steel supported floor with infills ,.14,
...-- <; 1.50 --+-- <; 1.30 --+- dependent on arch height ~
~ tamped concrete -+--- brick --+- brick ------i
SUSPENDED FLOORS
Wooden beam floors with solid timber joist or laminated
beam supports ~ CD - (2) in open or closed construction.
Sound insulation is increased by laying additional 60 mm
thick concrete paving slabs ) (2). Part or full assembled
floors are laid dry, for immediate use ) @ - @. Ribbed
floors: space the axes of the beams as follows:
250-375-500-625-750-1000-1250mm. Heavy floors use in
situ concrete on shuttering -~ @. They can support only
when cured and add moisture to the construction.
Reinforced concrete slab floors span both ways; the span
ratio 1:1.5 shou Id not be exceeded. Th ickness ~ 70 m m -
economic to approx. 150 mm. Pre-cast concrete reinforcing
shuttering, of large format finished concrete slabs of a least
40 mm thickness which have integrated exposed steel
reinforcing mesh, are completed with in situ concrete to
form the structural slab ~ @. The floor thickness is from
100-260mm. This method combines the special features of
pre-finished with those of conventional construction.
Maximum slab width is 2.20 m. When the joints have been
smoothed, the ceiling is ready for painting; finishing plaster
is unnecessary. Hollow pot floors ~ @ also as prefabricated
floor panels. Floor thickness is 190-215 mm max., with
supported spans of 6.48 m. Prefabricated floor panels are
1.00 m wide; concrete covering layer is not required. Pre-
stressed concrete - hollow slab floor ~ @, consists of self-
supporting pre-stressed units with longitudinal cavities, so
they have a low unit weight. They are joined together using
jointing mastic. Slab width: 150 and 180mm, 1.20m wide.
The elements can be max. 7.35 m long. Composite steel
floors ~ @. Trapezoidal and composite floor profiles, made
of galvanised steel strip sheet, form the basic element for
shuttering and ceilings.
1111fllllzn1UlD'l tllll'lIIr.tInr
tongue and
groove
boarding
concrete slabs
Hollow core, pre-cast
concrete flooring units
with twisted, pre-stressed
steel wires
Floor assembled from
reinforced concrete ribs
with cellular clay infill
components
limber joist/laminated beam
floor construction with
exposed floor underside
-:
CD
CD
In situ reinforced hollow
pot concrete floor
Prefabricated reinforced
concrete component floor
with non-load-carrying
filling blocks
L:7~C
CD
G) limber joist/laminated beam
floor construction with
ceiling
CD
Steel supported floor with
pre-cast reinforced pumice
concrete infill units
U-section reinforced
concrete beams bolted to
provide lateral stiffness
sub-construction
profiled sheeting
Composite steel/concrete
floor
In situ reinforced concrete
ribbed floor, rib separation
< 70 em, rib width ~ 5 cm
@
®
Pre-cast concrete
reinforcing shuttering for
in situ floor
concrete hollow beam floor
@
®
Reinforced concrete slab
floor, reinforced in one or
two directions
concrete I-beam floor
(j)
93

FLOORING
Flooring has a decisive effect on the overall impression
created by rooms, the quality of accommodation and
maintenance costs.
Natural stone floors: Limestone, slate or sandstone slabs
can be laid rough hewn, in natural state, or with some or all
edges cut smooth or polished ~ CD-(2). The surfaces of sawn
tiles, limestone (marble), sandstone and all igneous rocks
can be finished in any manner desired. They can be laid in a
bed of mortar or glued with adhesive to the floor sub-layer.
Mosaic floors: Various coloured stones: (glass, ceramics
or natural stone) are laid in cement mortar or applied with
adhesives ~ @ - @.
Ceramic floor tiles: Stoneware, floor, mosaic and
sintered tiles are shapes of coloured clay which are sintered
in the burning process, so that they absorb hardly any
water. They are, therefore, resistant to frost, have some
resistance to acids and high resistance to mechanical wear,
though they are not always oil resistant.
Parquet flooring is made from wood in the form of
parquet strips, tiles, blocks or boards ~ @ - @. The upper
layer of the finished parquet elements consists of oak or
other parquet wood, in three different styles ~ @ - @.
Pine or spruce are used for floor boarding. Tongue and
groove planks are made from Scandinavian pine/spruce,
American red pine, pitch pine.
Wood block paving (end grained wood) is rectangular or
round, and laid on concrete ~ @ - @.
Small mosaic in Essen
pattern: 57/80 mm
Small mosaic: intersecting
circle pattern 35/35;
48/48mm
Small mosaic: hexagonal
25/39; 50/60 mm
Natural stone floor in Roman
style
®
CD
CD
Small mosaic: five-sided
45/32mm
Square mosaic: 50/50; 69/69;
75/75mm
Small mosaic squares 20/20;
33/33mm
Natural, irregularly laid stone
floor
: :
::
®
o
CD
CD
@ Square basket
@ Open basket
Square, with inlay 100/100;
50/50mm
Square, with an inlay of
smaller tiles
®
I L-. wooden floor blocks
L- adhesive layer
felt
- - adhesive layer
undercoating
Finished parquet elements
on timber battens
damp proof layer
mineral fibre board 20mm
'------ timber bearers
'------- bitumen felt stnps
@ Herring bone pattern
wooden floor blocks
special adhesive
levelling or
floating screed
intermediate layer
old floor covering, e.g. PVC
floating screed
insulating layer
Finished parquet elements
on old floor covering
@ Open basket
_L insulating layer
timber bearers
'------- sound insulation strips
'--------- floor slab
Finished parquet elements on
timber battens
insulating layer
old floor boards
timber joist floor
Square, incorporating
doubled chessboard pattern
: ::::: :::: : :: : : :
: :
::
: : : :: : : ::: :
:
::
: :: ::::
::
:
:::: ::: : :::: :::::::
:: : :::: :::
@
intermediate layer
screed
warm water underfloor heating pipes
- - polyethylene film
insulatinq layer
Finished parquet elements on
floor screed
Square, with displaced inlay
of smaller tiles
@
94
Finished parquet flooring
elements on underfloor
heating
Finished parquet flooring
elements on old wooden
floor
Wooden floor blocks, glued
down, with surface
treatment (living area)
Wooden floor blocks, glued
down on even, smoothed
concrete underlayer
(specialised finish)

HEATING
Heating systems are distinguished by the type of energy
source and type of heating surface.
Oil firing: nowadays, light. Advantages: low fuel costs
(relative to gas, approx. 10-250/0); not dependent on public
supply networks fuel oil is the most widespread source of
heating energy; easy to regulate. Disadvantages: high costs
of storage and tank facilities; in rented housing, space
required for oil storage reduces rent revenue; where water
protection measures apply or there is a danger of flooding,
this form of heating is only possible if strict regulations are
observed; fuel paid for prior to use; high environmental cost.
Gas firing: natural gas is increasingly being used for heating
purposes. Advantages: no storage costs; minimal
maintenance costs; payment made after usage; can be used
in areas where water protection regulations apply; easy to
regulate; high annual efficiency; may be used for individual
flats or rooms; minimal environmental effects.
Disadvantages: dependent on su pply networks; higher
energy costs; concern about gas explosions; when
converting from oil to gas; chimney modifications are
required.
Solid fuels such as coal (anthracite), lignite or wood, are
rarely used to heat buildings. District heating stations are
the exception, since this type of heating is only economical
above a certain level of power output. Also, depending on
the type of fuel used, large quantities of environmentally
damaging substances are emitted, so that stringent
requirements are laid down for the use of these fuels
(protection of the environment). Advantages: not
dependent on energy imports; low fuel costs.
Disadvantages: high operating costs; large storage space
necessary; high emission of environmentally unfriendly
substances; poor controllability.
Regenerative forms of energy include solar radiation, wind
power, water power, biomass (plants) and refuse (biogas).
Since amortisation of the installation costs is not achieved
within the lifetime of the plant required, the demand for this
type of energy is correspondingly low.
Remote heating systems are indirect forms of energy supply,
as opposed to the primary forms of energy discussed above.
Heat is generated in district heating stations or power
stations by a combined heat/power system. Advantages:
boiler room and chimney not required; no storage costs;
energy is paid for after
consumption; can be used
where water protection
regulations apply; environ-
mentally friendly association
of power/energy coupling.
Disadvantages: hig h energy
costs; dependency on supply
network; if the heating
source is changed, a
chimney must be fitted.
...............
...............
...............
...................
••••.•••.•.•••••...•.•............•.•
2 boiler room
doors (escape
door or window)
chimney
boiler room :-> 22 m 3
air admission
outward
opening boiler
room door
0-
Eq ~
Central heating boilers with a heat output > than 50 kW require
individual boiler rooms
ground
plan
section
cellar door as escape path
o Boiler room with 2 doors (min. 22 m 3) needed for heat output> 350 kW
o Boiler room (min. 8 m 3 ) needed for heat output 2> 50 kW
CD
130W/m2 385 m2 2700 m2
90 W/m 2 550 m2 3900 m2
50 W/m2 1000 m2 7000 m2
0 100 200 300 400 500kW
50kW 350kW
nominal
t
heat
boiler room
output
t
boiler room
V
with 2 doors
V
Twin-pipe system with
horizontal distribution
(standard construction for
office buildings)
---=I~-
suspended ceiling
Single-pipe system with
special valves and
horizontal distribution
®
Ii ;'ii' •• "
return
feed
distribution from above
and vertical branches
®
distribution from below
and vertical rising branches
95

HEATING
Electrical heating: Apart from night storage heating, the
continuous heating of rooms by electrical current is only
possible in special cases, due to the high costs of electricity.
Electrical heating of rooms in temporary use may be
advantageous, e.g. garages, gate keepers' lodges and
churches. Main advantages: short heating-up period; clean
operation; no fuel storage; constant availability; low initial
costs.
Night storage heating is used for electrical floor heating,
electrical storage heaters or for electrically heated boilers.
Off-peak electricity is used to run the heaters. For electrical
floor heating, the floor screed is heated overnight to
provide heat during the day to the room air.
Correspondingly, for electrical storage heaters and
electrically heated boilers, the energy storage elements are
heated during the off-peak period. However, by contrast to
the floor heating system, the latter two devices can be
regulated. Advantages: neither a boiler room nor chimney
is required; no gases are generated; minimal space
requirement; low servicing costs; no need to store fuel.
Convectors: Heat is not transferred by radiation, but by
direct transmission to the air molecules. For this reason,
convectors can be covered or built in, without reducing the
heat output. Disadvantages: strong movement of air and
the dust swirling effect; performance of convector depends
on the height of the duct above the heated body; cross-
sections of air flowing into and away from the convector
must be of sufficient size. ~ CD For under-floor convectors -4
CDf - CD h, the same prerequisites apply as for above-floor
convectors. The disposition of the under-floor convectors
depends on the proportion of heating requirement for the
windows as a fraction of the total heating requirement of
the room. Arrangement ~ CD f should be adopted if this
proportion is greater than 700/0; arrangement ~ CD h for
20-700/0; if the proportion is less than 200/0, then
arrangement ~ CDg is favoured. Convectors without
fans are not suitable for low-temperature heating, since
their output depends on the throughput of air and, hence,
on the temperature difference between the heated body
and the room. The performance of convectors with too low
a duct height (e.g. floor convectors) can be increased by the
incorporation of a blower. Blower convectors are of limited
use in living-room areas, due to the build-up of noise.
Heaters can be covered in various ways. Losses in efficiency
can be considerable, and attention should be paid to
adequate cleaning. For metal cladding, the radiative heat
contribution is almost entirely given to the room air. For
material coverings with a lower thermal conductivity, the
radiative heat is damped considerably. ~ CD p.98 A
representation is shown of the movement of air within a
heated room. The air is heated by the heater, flows to the
window and then to the ceiling and is cooled on the external
and internal walls. The cooled air flows over the floor and
back to the heater. ~ @ p.98 A different situation arises if
the heater is on a wall which is away from the window: air
cools on the window, then flows cold over the floor to the
heater, where it is heated up.
(e) built into
wall
(i) convector
behind bench
seat
height distance depth surface
h' between c area per
connections element
(mm) h2 (mm) (mm) (m 2 )
280 200 250 0.18 5
430 350 70 0.09
110 0.128
160 0.18 5
220 0.25 5
580 500 70 0.12
110 0.18
160 0.25 2
220 0.34 5
680 600 160 0.30 6
980 900 70 0.20 5
160 0.41
220 0.58
height distance depth surface
h ' between c area per
connections element
(mm) h2 (mm) (mm) (m 2)
300 200 250 0.16
450 350 160 0.15 5
220 0.21
600 500 110 0.14
160 0.20 5
220 0.28 5
1000 900 110 0.24
160 0.34 5
220 0.48
(h) under floor
convector
with intake
on both sides
recessing
(recommended
if the heating
unit is deep)
(g) under floor
convector
with cold air
intake
(b) in front of (c) free standing (d) built into
smooth (for heating wall
wall of 2 rooms)
recessing
40 ~) min (recommended
c:: / c-t-l ~ if the heating
~ ~I ~ unitii
~ ~
unit length
(f) under floor
convector
with room air
intake
(a) under
window
unit length
o Dimensions of steel radiators
G) Various installation options for convectors
o Dimensions of cast radiators
o Tube radiator (3 tubes)
100mm
~
length of
t- each unit ~
46mm
•
~
~ ~
T
[
T []J T
E E E
~ ----- E E E
-8- -H-
14
~ 8 ~
-~
{; -- 0)
I I I
c I.. ,() ,() II)
(l) I N N N
~~ :: I
N N
[I] N
.1 .1. 1-
~I -§,15 '~ 35H 82~ 66t--1
II (a l ho rizontal ibihofl/(Jrltal2 It:lhurllcHl[all row wrth
~g§ II 1 row row outer members
II [I] T
]1 ]]!
~ 8 E
-I-
I
:§ II E
-~
~
II
~
II
II I
14
{~
II)
[I]
N
N
-t- I
---- 1..
I ~~_400 82~ -i 100t---i
I
28 Idihorllontal2row lei vertical (flvertll',ll
with outer 1 row 2 r ow
members
® Various rib shapes for the
® Section through a flat
CD Summary of different panel
down tubes in tube radiators panel radiator radiators
96

offset of the
junctions
Connections to the
exhaust gas stack
HEATING
Gas heating systems
Regulations and legislation (UK): the provisron of gas
supply into a building in England, Wales and Scotland is
controlled by the Gas Safety (Installation and Use)
Regulations, 1998, which revoke and replace the 1994 and
1996 (amendment) regulations. They make provision for the
installation and use of gas fittings for the purpose of
protecting the public from the dangers arising from the
distribution, supply or use of gas.
One of the major tasks of the architect is to make sure
that the design provisions, such as locations of meters and
pipe routes, do as much as possible to make it easy for the
installer to comply with the regulations.
Gas fired appliances must be of an approved type and
can only be installed in those spaces where no danger can
arise from position, size, or construction quality of the
surrounding building. Distances between components
made of combustible materials and external heated parts of
a gas appliance, or from any radiation protection fitted in
between, must be sufficient to exclude any possibility of fire
(i.e. ~5cm). In addition, spaces between components made
of combustible materials and other external heated parts,
as well as between radiation protection and gas appliances
or radiation protection, must not be enclosed in such a way
that a dangerous build-up of heat can occur. Heaters with an
enclosed combustion chamber fitted against external walls
and housed in a box-like enclosure must be vented to the
room, with bottom and top vents each having ~600cm2 free
cross-section. Air vents must be arranged in accordance
with details and drawings of the appliance manufacturer.
The casing must have a clear space of ~ 10cm in front and
at the side of the heater cladding. Heaters not mounted on
external walls must be fitted as close as possible to the
chimney stack.
The minimum size and ventilation of rooms containing
heating appliances is determined by the output or sum of
outputs of the heating appliances. For ventilated enclosed
internal areas, the volume must be calculated from the
internal finished measurements (i.e. measured to finished
surfaces and apertures).
All gas appliances, apart from portable units and small
water heaters, must be fitted with a flue. Flues promote air
circulation and help remove
the bulk of gas in case the
appliance is left with the gas
unlit. Cookers should be
fitted with cowls and vents
which should considerably
help to remove fumes and
reduce condensation on
walls. Bathrooms equipped
with gas heaters must be
fitted with adequate ventila-
tion and a flue for the
heater. Flues for water
heaters must include a
baffle or draught diverter to
prevent down-draughts.
Innl
vent to shaft under gas
exhaust pipe, but above the
flow safety device
vent to air shaft under entry of
exhaust gas pipe;
upper vent dropped
Innl
continuous flow gas water
heater in kitchen with window;
vent to air shaft under intake of
exhaust gas pipe above the
flow safety device of the gas
water heater
exhaust air opening under
intake of exhaust gas pipe
above the flow safety device;
top vent to neighbouring room
cannot be closed;
same for air shaft near the floor
kitchen with window
kitchen with window
kitchen with window
exhaust gas stacks
can be run from the
respective storey
n5OI100mm
O.75/1.00~@ II
® Exhaust gas stack
bathroom
bathroom
~1.
~1.80
Examples of burner air feed
and take-off of exhaust gas
to above roof height
Gas space heater in internal bathroom with 'Cologne' ventilation:
only permissible if 1 m 3 of space per kW installed is available
®
o Gas space heater in internal bathroom: air intake from next room
0)
G) Gas water heater in internal bathroom with 'Cologne' ventilation
(3) Gas space heater in internal bathroom with 'Cologne' ventilation
97

16° 20° 24°
16° 20° 24° 16° 20° 24° 16° 20° 24° 16° 20° 24° 16° 20° 24°
1 2 4 6
I~
" ~
I'
~~
~1IIl"
[
=
~
~
~
1 ~l
IJ 5
r
[~
~
~
I
-
~ .~
~
OJ I
OJ
.~
co
c
c
~ ~
co L
co co
~ .~
~
Q.J OJ
Q.J Q.J
~
L W
L L co
~
L E
Q.J
~ 0
ij ~
L
. ~
~~
~
0
'co
I
Q.J
~~
l.
;;:: o
HEATING
For uniform heating of the room air, convector heaters can
be replaced by a floor heating system. Problems arise only
where large window areas are involved, but this can be
overcome by the installation of additional heating - such as
floor convectors.
In general, surface heating includes large areas of surface
surrounding a room and involves relatively low
temperatures. Types of surface heating include floor
heating, ceiling heating and wall heating. With floor heating,
the heat from the floor surface is not only imparted to the
room air, but also to the walls and ceiling. Heat transfer to
the air occurs by convection, i. e. by air movement over the
floor surface. The heat given to the walls and ceiling takes
place due to radiation. The heat output can vary between 70
and 110W/m2, depending on the floor finish and system
employed. Almost any usual type of floor finish can be used
- ceramics, wood or textiles. However, the diathermic
resistance should not exceed 0.15 m 2 k;W.
House dust allergies can be a problem in heated rooms.
Previously, precautions against house dust or dust mite
allergy paid no attention to the effects of heating units.
Heaters cause swirling of house dust containing allergens,
which can then rapidly come into contact with the mucous
membranes. In addition to this, there are insoluble difficulties
in cleaning heaters which have convection fins. It is therefore
advantageous if heaters are designed to embody the
smallest possible number of convection elements and to
have straightforward cleaning procedures. These
requirements are fulfilled by single-layer panels without
convection fins and by radiators of unit construction.
Storage of heating oil: The quantity of heating oil stored
should be sufficient for a minimum of 3 months and a
maximum of one heating period. A rough estimate of the
annual requirement for heating fuel is 6-101/m3 of room
volume to be heated. A maximum volume of 5m3 may be
stored in a boiler house. The container must be within a
storage tank capable of accepting the total quantity. Storage
containers in the ground must be protected from leakage, e.g.
through the use of double-walled tanks, or plastic inner shells.
Maximum capacities and additional safety measures are
prescribed for areas where water protection regulations are in
force. Within buildings, either plastic battery tanks with a
capacity per tank of 500-2000 litres may be installed, or steel
tanks which are welded together in situ, whose capacities
may be freely chosen. The tank room must be accessible.
The tanks must be inspected for oil-tightness at regular
intervals. In the event of an emergency, the tank room must
be able to retain the full amount of oil. Tank facilities must
have filling and ventilation pipe lines. Additionally,
overfilling prevention must be incorporated and, depending
on the type of storage, a leak warning system may be
prescribed (e.g. in the case of underground tanks).
,.r/ T7 '777)
@ Conical
distributor
r
D
o
Fan heater
l/
l/
(
)
1
r
.
o
~~~:~~' .~~
® Floor heating (laid dry)
floor construction details (from top down):
glued tiles 10mm or carpeting
flooring panels 19mm
polyethylene film 0.2 mm
. aluminium conducting fins
polystyrene layer with grooves for heating
tubes 40mm
mineral fibre matting 13/10 for footfall
insulation, if required
(j) Ceiling heating pipes concen-
trated towards external walls
~
wall
cladding
A duct width C, 2K E distance between connections
B distance frorn floor H min. overall height
nun 70rnrn (120rnrn better I K separ anon frorn wall of
C heater depth covermq (min 50mml
Ceiling heating using
aluminium panels
Variation of heat output for various heater/covering combinations
~
.t. ----..
( )
0 .. / 77
_ closed radiator covering
E:3 open or interrupted radiator
covering
®
"''''''''1''
" " ',' " " ".","i "',
~)~)~~~I;~.) l::l .
® Floor heating (heat module)
floor construction details (from top down)
floor finish with supporting layer (depth variable)
polyethylene film
heat module with Insulating shell
floor construction details from the top
downwards
glued tiles l Ornrn
screed, min. 45mm
supporting reinforcinq matting (dia. 3.5 rnm)
polyethylene film 0.2 rnrn
insulation
CD Floor heating
floor construction details (from top down):
glued tiles 15m
In
mortar bed 30 rnrn
slip membrane 0.3 rnrn
floor covering 45 min
supporting mat for heating tubes
polyethylene film 0.2 rnrn
insulation
A
o Air movement A d~e to radiator heating and B due to ceiling heating
CD
® Sunstrip @ Air distribution
fins
Room temperature curves for physiological evaluation of a
heating system
98

HEATING
The floor screed for floor heating systems must satisfy local
regulations. The thickness of the screed depends on the
type of covering used, its preparation and the anticipated
loading. A minimum covering over the heating pipes of
45 mm is prescribed when using cement floor screed and
heating pipes which are directly above the thermal
insulation. If there is no finish over the basic floor, then a
minimum total depth of 75 mm is required. The floor screed
expands during use, and a temperature difference arises
between the top and bottom surfaces of the screed.
Due to the differential expansion, tensile stresses occur
in the upper region of the layer. In the case of ceramic floor
coverings, this can only be countered by top reinforcement.
On carpeted floors or parquet floors, the reinforcement can
be avoided, since the temperature drop between the upper
and lower surfaces of the floor covering is less than in the
case of a ceramic finish. Special requirements are contained
in the thermal insulation regulations with respect to the
limitation of heat transfer from surface heating, irrespective
of the choice of type of insulation method: 'In surface
heating, the heat transfer coefficient of the component layer
between the hot surface and the external air, the ground, or
building section having an essentially lower internal
temperature, must not exceed a value of 0.45 W/m2' .
The maximum permissible floor surface temperature for
a permanently occupied area is 29°C. For the boundary zone
it is 35°C, where the boundary zone is not to be wider than
1 m. For bathrooms, the maximum permissible floor
temperature is 9°C above normal room temperature.
Under normal conditions, floor heating is possible, since
the heating requirement seldom lies above 90W/m2. In only
a few exceptions (e.g. when there are large window areas,
or when the room has more than two external walls) is
there a greater heating requirement, and then additional
static heating surfaces or air heating must be installed in
addition to the floor heating.
nom. contents V max. dimensions (rnrn) weight
in litres incl. accessories
(dm 3 ) length depth (kg)
1000 (1100) 1100 (1100) 720 30-50 kg
1500 (1600) 1650 (1720) 720 40~60kg
250mm 250mm
H H
.......................••.............'•••..••....•••...•.•..•..•.•'............••...•....
...........'::-730-::-.730; '730~ .
mm mrn mm
f4 Nylon unit containers ~ Q)
~ (max. 5 containers)
Nylon unit containers
(polyamide) - side view
~-1670mm ----1
OJ
:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.t .:.:.:.:.:.:
250mm 250mm
H E H
•••~E••••
......0:••
::..• .. .: '.. .' ::::.:: '::.
:~t:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:~.:.:.:.:.:.:.:~~~~:
~L-------1
CD Underground installation of heating oil storage tanks
G) Alternative installations of standard heating oil storage tanks
1·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:
I
:.:.:.:.:.:.~.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:
............................
e~3
I
f------- _L --t
® Storage tank for heating oil
(side view)
(}) Inset tank
®
®
c
E
s
.:.:.:.:-::.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:
Storage tank for heating oil
(front view)
Prefabricated protective
concrete hull for oil tank
CD Dimensions of plastic battery tanks (battery containers)
min
min. dimensions (mm) weight (kg)
contents external length sheet thickness filler 1,1 1,2
V (ms) diameter cap 1 wall Ale 8
d, I 1 wall 2 walls diameter
1 1000 1510 5 3 ~
265
3 1250 2740 5 3 - 325 f----
5 1600 2820 5 3 --~-- 700 -
7 1600 374~_ 5 3 500 ~~~-f------l!}-Q 980
10 1600 5350 5 -~ ~_QQ- 1~50 13Q9
16 1600 8570 5
r----
3
--
500 1800 1850 19QQ
20 2000 6969 -~r-- 3 - - - -.§QQ-- 2300 ---~~.Q 2450
25 2000 8540 6 3 -§~- 2750 ___~?.O
___ 2900
30 2000 10120 6 r----~- --~QQ_--- _})OQ ~QQ 3450
-- 40 2500 8800 ---~ I---~- 600 4200 4400 4450
50 2500 10800 7 4 - f---- -§gQ..-- §'lQQ _ __ ?300 53~0
60 2500 12800 7 4 600 6100 6300 6350
weight (kg)
1,3 2,1 2,28
A 8
.7 1250 1590 5 --~-- 390
.8 1600 f---_167O 5 - - - - f------~Q --f--.
390
1---- '-'-=-----
1600 2130 5 500 ..... -
600
1600 2820 5 --- -~- 709_ 745 740
2000 2220 _.5_ _. ~
. - . _~.L 930
~
1600 3740 5 '?Q()- - - - -
885 930 935
1 1600 5350 -~() 11_5Q. .12.?0 1250
1 1600 8570 5j)() _ -
l,[QO 1~50 1850
~~-- 2000 6960 1--__ 600__ 2,30_0 ]350 2350
f----___.1_
5 _ 2000 8540 J?QQ__ _??50 2800 2800
39_ 2000 10120 f---
§go 3300 }}50
-~f---- 6665 _6.QQ f-
3350
40 2500 8800 4 §OO _.4~5_0 4250
___~CL_ _ ~O
__ 10800 4 _ 6JlQ_ 5150
f----------
2900 8_400 f---. §QQ 6150
f--
60 _..2§Q.Q_ 1--1280Q 1----- - - 4 60.Q 6100 6150
2900 9585 600 6900
@ Dimensions of cylindrical oil tanks (containers)
99

HEATING: OIL STORAGE TANKS
• pp. 98-9
The fuel containment enclosures must be designed so that, if
fluid escapes from a storage device, it is prevented from
spreading beyond the enclosure area. The enclosures must be
able to safely contain at least one-tenth of the volume of all the
tanks it contains, and at least the full volume of the largest tank.
Tanks in rooms: containment enclosures are required if the
storage volume is ~ 4501, unless the storage tanks are of steel with
a double wall. Tanks can have a capacity of up to 100000 I, with
leakage indicator devices, or manufactured from glass fibre
reinforced plastics of an approved type of construction, or they
can be metal tanks with plastic inner linings of an approved form
of construction. Containment enclosures must be constructed
from non-flammable fire-resistant materials of adequate strength,
leakproof and stability, and must not contain any outlets. The
tanks must have access on at least two sides with a minimum
clearance of 400mm from the wall, or 250mm in other cases, and
at least 100mm from the floor and 600mm from the ceiling • CD.
Classifications:
A Flash point < 100°C
AI Flash point < 21°C
All Flash point 21-55°C
Alii Flash point 55-100°C
B Flash point < 21°C with water solubility at 15°C
Outside tanks, above ground: containment enclosures are
required for capacity ~ 1000 I. Otherwise, conditions are as for
tanks in rooms. Storage areas can be ramparts. For tanks
> 100 m3 capacity, clearance to the ramparts, walls or ringed
enclosures must be at least 1.5 m. For vertical cylindrical tanks
of capacity < 2000 m 3 in square or rectangular catchment areas,
clearance may be reduced to 1m. Arrangements must be made
for the removal of water and these must be capable of closure.
If water can discharge by itself, then separators must be built in.
Above ground facilities require protected access. A distance of
at least 3 m from neighbouring facilities is required if there is a
storage capacity> 500 m 3 and correspondingly more as capacity
increases, to a clearance of 8 m for a storage capacity of
2000 m 3. Access routes are required for fire-fighting appliances
and equipment -) @ - @.
Underground tanks: >0.4 m clearance of tanks from boundaries;
> 1m from buildings. Underground anchorage of the tanks is
required to prevent movement of empty tanks in the presence
of ground water or flooding. Backfilling is required to a depth of
0.3-1 m above the tanks. Also, 600 mm diameter access
openings into the tanks are needed, serviced by a watertight
shaft with a clear width of at least 1m, and 0.2 m wider than the
tank access opening lid. The shaft cover must be able to
withstand a test proof loading of 100kN where vehicular access
is to take place. Filling points are subject to approval for
combustible fluids in hazard classes AI, All or B. They must be
immediately accessible, with protected access. The ground
surface must be impermeable and constructed of bitumen,
concrete or paving with sealed joints. Drainage outlets with
separators, overfilling protection, and emptying and washing
facilities for tanker vehicles are required.
Tankage facilities for the fuelling of all vehicles with
combustible fluids in hazard classes AlII (e.g. heating oil and
diesel fuel) must not be stored together with those in hazard
classes AI, Allor B. Neither must the effective regions of
separators and operating surfaces of such storage areas
overlap -) @.
Requirements for all tanks: Ventilation and venting facilities
must be sited at least 500 mm above the access cap, or above
ground level in the case of underground tanks, and be protected
from the ingress of rain water. Devices must be provided to
determine the filling levels in the tanks. Access openings must
have a clearance diameter of at least 600 mm and visual
inspection openings, 120 mm diameter. Protection must be
provided against lightning and electrostatic discharge.
Additional provisions cover flame spread resistance, internal
and external corrosion, and fire extinguishers of the appropriate
type. Tanks for diesel fuel or heating oil EL with a capacity over
10001, must have fill meters and overfill protection.
separation
8.00---m
separation
3.00m
10
10
10
o 2 4 6 81pm
o 10 20 m
l..--l--..J
10 20m
I ,
entrance
site boundary
drain without
separator
~_',:,._,,: protected areas
c=J clear areas
:::::::~~:::::::::::::::::::::::.:::.:::~~::::.:.:.:.:
.
II Gil
;::::):':j:·:·:;:·:;:·:;:::::;:::::::lL::::::::::;
drain with
separator
if area is not
roofed over
-=-::=::::----r:---
access path
area restricted
by wall
there should be no
drains in the area of
the AI dispensing
pumps
drain
without
separator
..
0
..
separation
8~OO~m------l~-------l
,--'-'----'-- ---'-
: I!IiIIjII~ltliii~i!~I~~
I :::::••: _---4---1.......,;=-...A--+----........
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
AI tank
separation
8.00m
underground
separatio
3.00m
CD Tank facility
o Large tank store
o Small tank store
G) Heating oil storage tanks in rooms
100

b = a . cos xl
The dependency of the
level of incident radiation
on a surface on the angle
of incidence
To keep the reduction in
radiation as small as
possible, each individual
influencing factor should
be carefully considered
Components
SOLAR ARCHITECTURE
CD
Essentially, economic considerations led architects and
building developers to seek alternatives to the conventional
fossil fuel sources of energy. Today, equal emphasis is
placed on the ecological necessity for change. By means of
energy conscious construction, the energy requirements of
living accommodation can be reduced by around 50% in
comparison to older buildings.
Energy balance of buildings
Solar energy is available free of charge to every building.
Unfortunately, in many climatic areas, solar radiation is
very low, so that other forms of energy must be used for
room heating, hot water, lighting and for the operation of
electrical appliances.
The greatest energy losses from a building arise due to the
conduction of heat through windows, walls, ceilings and roofs.
Considerations of energy conscious construction
There are three fundamental points which lead to a
considerable reduction in the energy requirement of a
domestic building:
(1) Reduction of heat losses
(2) Increase in energy saving through the use of solar
radiation
(3) Conscious efforts by users to improve the energy
balance
The choice of building location itself can reduce the heat
losses from a building. Within a small area in a region,
conditions will vary; e.g. wind and temperature conditions
vary with the altitude of a building site.
Relatively favourable microclimatic conditions result on
south-facing slopes when the area of ground is situated on
the upper third of the slope but away from the crest of the hill.
The shape of the building plays an important role in
terms of energy conscious construction. The outer surface
of the building is in direct contact with the external climate
and gives up valuable energy to the outside air. The design
of the building should ensure that the smallest possible
external surface is presented to the outside air in relation to
the volume of the building. The shape to be aimed for is a
cube, although a hemisphere in the ideal case. However,
this ideal assumption applies only to a detached house.
June
I~
U
.~
March
September
<6.0 t.
<t.
~
LJ
19.0
6.0~
.~ 6.0
8.0 .~
Average daily totals of solar radiation (MJ/m2 )
12. )() J.-+-±+-k
*,
~~v~~~
~
~~:;/........
~OO
........
........r":
~~
~
,.-; .OO-15.dit ..... ........
/.~ / /v/
,.-;rtJoo~.)0.......
........
~~r-...~~
~/ ......
~~~,/V ....... VV
v~~77.K>~....... ................ ",~~~~
~/ V
~E::~v~V/vv vV'
v~iO"""'r--.., ................ ~~r"'-.~' .......F:::::::::~
V ........ r--.......~
~i--'
~v
vV vV vV 111
~i'.. r-....r---,
r-,
r--..r--.,"'~I'-
v V
'"
Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
CD Incident radiation angle I) (height of sun at the geographical
latitude 500N
at various times, over the course of a year)
® Both effects act simultaneously in two dimensions - height and
azimuth angle variation 101

o
Indirect use of solar energy
through a Trornbe wall
................................
Winter night: thoroughly
warmed wall acts as a radiant
heat surface in the room; with
the upper and lower flaps
closed, the stationary layer of
air between the external
glazing and the Trombe wall
helps to reduce the heat loss
........................................
@
Winter day: incident solar
radiation heats the air
between the pane and the
Trombe wall; room air is
circulated through the
lower and upper flaps and
thus heated
Direct usage of solar
energy through glazed
surfaces
SOLAR ARCHITECTURE
®
Use of solar energy
In the use of solar energy, a distinction is drawn between
the active and passive use of solar energy.
The active use of solar energy necessitates the
application of equipment such as solar collectors, pipework,
collector vessels circulation pumps for the transfer of the
solar energy. This system entails large investment and
maintenance costs which must be recovered solely by
saving in the cost of energy. As a result, such systems
cannot be operated economically in single family houses.
The passive use of solar energy necessitates the use of
specific structural components as heat stores, such as
walls, ceilings and glazed units. The efficiency of this
system depends on specific factors:
(1) Climatic conditions - mean monthly temperature, solar
geometry and incident solar radiation, hours of sunshine
and level of incident energy radiation
(2) Method of using the solar energy - indirect usage, direct
usage
(3) Choice of materials - absorption capability of the surface
and heat storage capability of the materials
Organisation of the ground plan
In the passive utilisation of solar energy, the heat is utilised
through direct incident radiation and heat storage in
specific structural components such as walls and floors.
Because of the conditions under which solar energy is
used passively, the arrangement of the ground plan
necessarily follows a particular logical layout. The
continuously used living and sleeping accommodation
should be south-facing and provided with large window
areas. It is useful to provide glazed structures in these living
and sleeping areas. There are three important reasons for this:
(1) Extension of the living area
(2) Gain in solar energy
(3) Provision of a thermal buffer zone
The little-used low-temperature unheated rooms, with low
natural light requirements should be north-facing. They act
as a buffer zone between the warm living area and the cold
outside climate.
stacked
units
,"111'/1 / 111
;' -} "',111/
& '",~
.
.
.
:.::.:::.•.•::•..•:.:;..:
.•.••.•:
.•
::•.•:
.•:.:•.:
.•:.:•.::.•
:.:•.•:.::•.:
.•
::••.•.•:
.•.:
..
:•.••.•:
.•.:
.•
::•.•:
.•.••.•:
.•.::.•..:
.•.•..•.:
.•
:•.••••••.•: 70% ~
: 60 ~
<8@
pyramid cube
South-facing surfaces inclined at 0-30°
are typical for summer use (e.g. for
solar panels for domestic water
heating), this being the optimum range
for the collection of diffuse radiation
South-facing surfaces inclined at 30-60°
are suited to good solar energy usage
during the transition periods (these
periods of the year are decisive for solar
house optimisation)
South-facing surfaces inclined at an
angle of 55-65° provide optimum
utilisation of solar energy during the
cold winter months
t-
a=>!f"40::")
o Vertical windows receive
only up to 50% of the
diffuse radiation when the
sky is clouded
c=J~®f/;J~
/7'- 1/ '-------J
1"''- .. /
~~~.1 ~ ~k/
cylinder
hemisphere
half cube with
4 compact
units
® Surface optimisation - the heat loss reduces in proportion to
the reduction in surface area
CD Cross-section of a house ® Cross-section of a house
planned only for the gain planned only for the
of direct radiation receipt of diffuse radiation
(cloudless sky) (c
.:
:::.:I:..
OUdY sky) ~
.....•.•.••.:
..•.•....•..•....•.
• 110%1f8j 1
...~.~.~.~~.:.Q::~:~::::. ~ ~~:::::::::::::::.
..........................................
o Heat losses and temperature differences as a function of position
on the terrain
GJ@
:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.f'5:"~5
:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.2:'L
~
:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:: 0 - 30"
CD Flat horizontal and inclined
surfaces are well suited for the
collection of diffuse radiation
t;;;4~
~( )~
:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.{.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:4~i• .:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:
CD
G) Solar energy usage as a function of the inclination
102

: :
I I
'J...
13 guest room
14 children's room
15 balcony
plan
1 corridor
2 domestic systems
3 storage room
4 cellar
5 wet storage cellar
6 double garage
7 wind trap
8 vestibule
9 living room
10 dining room
11 kitchen
12 hot water system
room
13 children's room
14 energy
greenhouse
15 storage surface
16 bedroom
17 balcony
The function of
hypocaustic gable wall
heating
glass house:
subtropical plants, average
relative humidity 40~65%; high
oxygen content; habitable
approx. 300 days/year
®
9 bedroom
10 dressing room
11 bathroom
12 store room
5 guest room
6 domestic room
7 kitchen
8 fireplace
Architect: Planning team LOG
[JO[)
Architect" LOG
Solar town house with winter gardens for two storeys
~'-'.~,
:~!:l!
II·---··_·R~_
..._.. ..t
.. ~•• ~ •••••••••••
... .. . . .. ... :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::.:.;~~~~~~t~::}~~~~~~ff~~~~~~~~~ft~
.........•.............•...•........................•.............•..................•....•..................................................•.........................................................:
1 living room
2 dining room
3 glazed extension
4 entrance
east
®
Architect: Bela Bambek, Aichwald
f7 Single family house with
.!....J glazed extension
@-@
@ Section ---" @ - @
r-==--t"'~~,.. r;:;=====1Ii==~~==i===;t
External sun shades are
effective in preventing solar
radiation from entering the
structure, but weather quickly
~~ ~}
@ Plan view - upper floor
CD
Alternative ways of adding glass structures to existing buildings
Large ventilation openings
are important for climate
regulation of glass
structures during summer
SOLAR ARCHITECTURE
Building extensions: maximum f4 In summer, a degree of shading
sun required in winter; shade ~ is desirable: trees, bushes, etc.,
from neighbouring buildings is can give an effective balance
~~
~ ~
4~
---- - -- ---,
I
I
o
Architect: Berndt
® Plan view - ground floor
®
CD
@ Basement ~ (jJ) @ Ground floor @ Upper floor
103

SOLAR ENERGY
About 1.5 m 2 of collector
area and about 1001 volume
of water in the storage tank
is needed per person in the
household. ~ CD A 30-pipe
solar collector with an
absorption surface of 3 m2
is needed to produce hot
water for a 4-person
household. The collector
will produce about
8.5-14.0 kWh solar heat per
day, depending on the
amount of sunshine, i.e.
enough to heat 200-280 I of
water. @ Within the
foreseeable future, the sun
cannot provide enough
power for heating, so solar
heating installations still
require a conventional
heating system.
There are two different
technologies. Solar heat:
thermal collection of solar
energy using collectors
(equipment which catches
and accumulates solar
thermal energy). Thermal
energy is used to heat
water. Solar electricity:
photovoltaics is the direct
conversion of the sun's rays
into electrical energy (direct
cu rrent) with the hel p of
solar cells.
electricity
generation
slope
low temperature for
room heating
low temperature
hot water supply
swim. pool, rm heating
high-temperature steam
for process energy and
electricity generation
® Swimming pool absorber
heat exchanger pipe
0/0
100 ,-----------------.
80 ~-+----_+_---------l
60 ~-r--__r__r_____.--L.-r___......____.__r_~
o 20 40 60 80 90
® Angle of slope of collector
--:=-:::'::r---1
... I i control
~ I i equipment
~ I b-----;
.2I :
control pipe' ;
f :
I i
I swimming:
pool i
70 .....-+------+-----~
90
o Heating and fuel requirements
V of houses in relation to
insulation levels
30
~
25
20
a
::l 15
%
0
~---------6000
.../ 5(XX) g
3500 ~
<>:.. =1
...
,., / " 2000 8
~ 1~ /'01'01'01'
.£: 8 01'
~ 7 ,,01'
E 6 " ro
g 5 1000 ~
10 00 00 100 150 200
_ building with min. thermal insulation (l50Wim 2)
........ improved thermal insulation (l30W/m2 )
__ good level of thermal Insulation (100W/m2 )
___ very good level of thermal insulation (70W/m 2)
3
3
3
2
o collector
I
I 1300-1380
!
I
sun's radius lin summer
Hot water production
I
house
insul. regs. insul. regs. low energy
1982 1995 house
Heating and hot water
requirements of a single
family house
thermal sun
o~ass~en~
D~ concentrated solar collector
photovoltaic ~ara~irro~
sun energy use
1 ventilation
2 transmission
3 heating
4 hot water
(1) c:
.0 0
2B
.~%
...... Ul
ro 0
(1) ...
.£:u
o~olar.~
@ Solar techniques (diagrammatic representation)
@ Vacuum tube collector
~and[jjrt~
® Sun's radius in winter
®
(3)
co 1601-----------
1140t-------------
~ 12Ot-----.--r----------
C 100
!00
~
toilets 201
drinking, cooking 41
car washing,
garden 41
total 281
cold water
281
hot water
881
body ca re 531
washing, laundry 181
dish washing 10 I
other cleaning 71
total 881
house
Hot water supply solar
installation
(j) Use of sun's radiation
QDC~
OJ
1 COllec~r ,,~
2 flow and "" b
return "" ~
3 solar safety ~
gear 1
4 adjustment
5 solar store
6 co IIector ~_iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiil
sensor
o Use of water in a household
G) Energy use in a household
104

Cll
U co
::J Cll
"O..c
living room
outside temperature tA •
Cll
Q.o.
2 co
"0';:;
extraction
ventilator
extraction duct for combustion
products and fresh air
+
.:: E
co 0
..... 0
o ...
- Cll
CO..c
> ......
E§ Cll
~~
24
t
23
"
~ I
V
~
I ~
J~ ~
~
.-"""
I ~
l/
i->
II ./
[/7'
!~
/
/
I
~
W!
.JI
11
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 2829 JODC 3
fan
. /
->
~
.-------
.--
~
--
Cll
co
Cll Cll
..c Cll..c
Cll Cll 0 (/)
Q. 8 ~
Scheme for an air conditioning system
the curve applies to
activity grade 1
moderate clothing
air temperature apor oornaterv el1udl to
the surface temperature of the encloslf19
surfaces
In addition, the following ISaSSLHl1ed
air throughput with turbulent mixing
anthrnet.c mean value of the air velocity
atapornl,liullngameasullngpellodof
a minimum of 200s
velocrtv rneasunnq sensor with a t.rne
constant of Zs maxuno cos.ne
cnaractensnc In both InCident flow
directions
perrrussrb!e
shorttermvelocltypeakswhldlcan be
a mulnple ot the anrhrnenc mean value
thepermlsslblealfvelocltlesmdybe
exceededbyuptolOo'catamaxlmUrl1
of 10°'0of the measunnq stat.ons
not permissible
durations of longer than 1 rmnute
dunnq which the permissible velocity IS
25 26 DC 27 continuously exceeded. caused for
, example by unsteady control Inputs
room air temperature tR ~
Curve of upper limit for comfortable room air velocities
o
22
28
DC
$ 26
Cll
::J
co 25
Cll
i 24
'co 23
E
0 22
2
21
20
fresh air admission
0.3
0,4
rn/s
E
o 0.1
2
c
'u
o 0.2
a;
>
Humidity of room air
For comfort, the upper limit for the moisture content of the air
is 11.5 kg of water per kg of dry air. A relative humidity of 65%
should not be exceeded. The minimum flow of fresh air per
person for cinemas, banqueting halls, reading rooms,
exhibition halls, sale rooms, museums and sports halls is
20 m 3/h. The value for individual offices, canteens, conference
rooms, rest rooms, lecture halls and hotel rooms is 30 m 3/h; it is
40 m 3/h for restaurants, and 50 m 3/h for open plan offices.
CD
o Comfortable room air temperature range
o Scheme for an installation incorporating a 'twin-flow gas system'
VENTILATION AND AIR CONDITIONING
E
"OCll
~ (/)
c >
::J (/)
o c
E 0
o~
0'';::;
... ~
>
c
o
~
'~
>
1
"0
Room ventilation systems are used to guarantee a specific
room climate. In fulfilling this objective, the following
requirements must be satisfied, depending on the application:
(a) Removal from rooms of impurities in the air including
smoke and other harmful substances, and suspended
particles
(b) Removal of perceptible heat from rooms: unwanted
quantities of both hot and cold air
(c) Removal of latent heat from rooms: enthalpy flows of
humidifying air and dehumidifying air
(d) Protective pressure maintenance: pressure maintenance in
buildings for protection against unwanted air exchange.
Most of the requirements under (a) are solved through
continuous replacement of air (ventilation) and/or suitable air
treatment (filtering). Requirements of type (b) and (c) are
usually met by appropriate thermodynamic treatment of the air,
and, to a limited degree, by air replacement. Requirements of
type (d) are solved by various types of mechanical control of
supply and extraction air.
Natural ventilation
Uncontrolled air is admitted through joints and gaps in window
frames, doors and shutters (as a result of the effects of wind)
rather than through the walls. However, the increased use of
thermal insulation measures in buildings means that the natural
sources of ventilation through gaps in windows and doors may
no longer be adequate. It may therefore be necessary to provide
controlled ventilation in living accommodation, using mechanical
ventilation systems and, if necessary, to replace the heat lost as a
consequence.
Window ventilation --? @-@ p.179 is generally adequate for
living rooms. Sash windows are favourable, where the outside
air is admitted at the bottom and internal air flows out above.
Intensive ventilation is brought about by mechanical
ventilation systems. In accordance with the building
regulations, this is a requirement for windowless bathrooms
and wes, with the removal of air to the outside via ducting.
Allowance should be made for the requirement of a flow of
replenishment air through ventilator grills, windows and/or
gaps in the fabric of the building. Furthermore, as far as is
possible, draught-free admission of the outside air must be
provided.
The installation of simple ventilator grills in outside walls for
inflow and outflow of air leads to the danger of draughts in the
winter. Mechanical ventilation systems are better.
Air movement is caused by pressure differences, i.e., disturbances
to the state of equilibrium, resulting from:
(1) temperature differences } 'natural ventilation' - windows,
(2) natural wind doors, ventilation shafts
(3) ventilators. 'mechanical ventilation'
admission and discharge of air
brought about by heating and
ventilation systems
G) Arrangement of ventilation and air conditioning systems
105

106
Several handling stages are usually involved in ventilation and
air conditioning. Filtering; air heating; air cooling; and washing,
humidifying and evaporative cooling are discussed on this
page. For ventilation and damping -~ p. 107.
Filtering
Air cleaning to eliminate coarse dust particles:
(a) Oiled metal filter plates in air filter chambers or
automatic circulation filters; used particularly for the
ventilation of industrial premises. Disadvantage:
entrainment of oil mist.
(b) Dry layer filter mats made of textile or glass fibre in metal
frames; not recoverable; also as roll tape filter with
automatic cleaning.
Fine cleaning and separation of fine soot
(c) Electrostatic air filter; the dust is ionised and deposited
on negatively charged metal plates. Very low air
resistance. Disadvantages: large filter chambers;
cleaning with warm water.
(d) Fine filtering through filter media of paper, or glass fibre.
Advantages: cheap to manufacture; no corrosion from air
containing harmful substances; high operating safety.
Disadvantage: greater air resistance than electro filters,
which increases as the filter is soiled, leading to
disruption of the air flow.
(e) Air washing: removes dust or aerosols and acid fumes,
but not soot, and therefore should not be used in areas
with many oil-fired heating installations.
filter class mean level of particle mean efficiency Em
separation Am relative relative to atmospheric
to synthetic dust (%) dust (%)
EU 1 Am < 65
EU 2 65" Am < 80
EU 3 80" Am < 90
EU 4 90" Am <
EU 5 40 <, Em < 60
EU 6 60 S Em < 80
EU 7 80 <- Em < 90
EU 8 90 <. Em < 95
EU 911
95 < Em
11 air filters having a high mean efficiency may already satisfy the classification
requirements for suspended material filter class
CD Air filter classes
Air heating
(a) Controllability is limited with simple gravity-circulation
solid-fuel heating installations.
(b) Controllability is good with natural gas and heating oil,
and with electrically heated equipment.
(c) Heating with low-pressure steam, warm and hot water,
using finned tube radiators made from galvanised steel
or copper tube with copper or aluminium fins. Good,
simple controllability. No need for local chimneys and
flues.
Air cooling
Used principally for industry when constant temperature and
humidity must be maintained over the whole year, also for
commercial buildings and office blocks, theatres and cinemas in
summer.
(a) Cooling of the air with mains water or spring water. At a
temperature of 13°C, spring water should be allowed to
drain back again as much as possible on account of the
ground water table level. In most towns, the use of mains
water for cooling is not permitted and is uneconomical
anyway, due to the high price of water. Spring water
systems require the approval of the water authorities.
(b) Compression cooling systems for room air conditioning
must accord with strict regulations and must use non-
poisonous refrigerants such as Freon 12 or Freon 22 (F12,
F22), etc. If the cooling plant is in the direct vicinity of the
central air conditioning area, direct evaporation of the
refrigerant should take place in the cooling radiators of
the air conditioning plant. Since 1995, substances
containing CFCs are prohibited.
(c) In large installations, cooling of the water takes place
within a closed circuit, with distribution by pumps.
Advantages: the central cooling plant can be in an area
where noise and vibration are not troublesome; very safe
in operation. Today, compact cold water systems and
prefabricated air conditioning/cooling units are available.
For large cooling installations
(d) Compression of the refrigerant in a sealed unit turbo
compressor (complete machine installation with
compressor, water-cooler and condenser), low vibration
and very low noise levels.
(e) Absorption cooling facility with lithium bromide and
water. Due to the vaporisation of the water, heat is
extracted from the water to be cooled; water vapour is
absorbed by the lithium bromide and continuously
evaporated in the cyclic process, then condensed again
and passed to the first vaporisation process. Very low
noise levels; vibration-free system requiring little space.
(f) Steam jet cooling: A high velocity steam jet induces a
negative pressure in a vessel. Circulating cooling water
becomes atomised and vaporised, with simultaneous
cooling. The cold water is transferred to the air coolers of
the air conditioning plant. This method of cooling is
employed in industrial applications.
The condenser heat must be disposed of in all mechanical
cooling systems. Various means are employed for this purpose,
e.g. water cooled condensers, which are cooled by spring water
or circulating water, and air cooled condensers. On water-
cooled condensers, the spring water installation requires
approval by the local water authorities. Also, careful checks
should be made as to whether the spring water contains any
aggressive substances which would damage the condensers in
the cooling installation. If appropriate, sea water resistant
condensers must be used (cost factors).
A return cooling system is necessary on circulating water
installations (cooling tower). In the cooling tower, circulating
water is sprayed by jets. The water then flows over layers of
granular material and is blown through with air (evaporative
cooling). The cooling towers should be sited away from
buildings or, better still, be sited on the roofs of buildings, due
to the level of noise generated. The same applies to air cooled
condensers.
Washing, humidifying, evaporative cooling
Air washers provide humidification for dry air (when correctly
set) and, to a certain degree, they can also provide air cleaning.
By means of saturation, i.e. increasing the absolute water
content of the air in the washer, 'evaporative cooling' can take
place at the same time; this provides the possibility of cheap
cooling for industrial air conditioning facilities in areas where
the outside air is of low humidity. The water is very finely
atomised in the air washer, through the use of pumps and jet
sprays. The sprays are housed in galvanised steel sheeting or
watertight masonry or concrete. An air rectifier or water-control
sheeting prevents the escape of water into the conditioning
chamber.
Other humidifying devices
(a) Evaporation vessels on heating elements or atomisers.
(b) Centralised device with steam or electrically heated
evaporation vessels (disadvantage is scaling).
(c) Rotating atomisers (aerosol apparatus) - only usable
where low volumes of air are involved

107
height (m)
3.0 }
3.5 room centre
4.0
warm water (feed)
warm water (return)
load bearing column
fascia
An additional 1.5-2 m should be allowed for assembly and
maintenance access. In the case of large installations, for
heating and air conditioning distribution systems, allowance
should be made for common maintenance access and space for
the control panel.
Air conditioning systems for large offices
It is useful to use several conditioning systems for large and
open planned rooms. An isolated conditioning zone can be
installed in the facade area (high-velocity systems) and a
separate area for the internal zone, with low pressure or high
velocity systems ~ @.
Construction management: Dyckerhoff Zernent AG
Plant rooms
Air conditioning and ventilation systems should be considered
during preliminary planning, as they have a major influence on
building design and construction. Plant rooms should be as
near as possible to the rooms to be air-conditioned, provided
this is acoustically acceptable, and have good accessibility. The
walls should be of masonry, plastered, with a washable coating,
preferably tiled.
Floor drainage should be provided in all compartments, and
have traps and airtight removable covers. Where plant rooms
are above other rooms, watertight floors should be provided.
External walls need insulation and vapour barriers, to avoid
damage by condensation. The extra floor loading for machinery
in a plant room can be 750-1500 kq/rn-', plus the weight of the
walling of the air ducting. In situations where there are
extremely high requirements for noise and vibration reduction,
consideration should be given to flexible mounting and
isolating a plant room as a 'room within a room'.
Space requirements for air conditioning equipment are very
much dependent on the demand for air filtering and sound
damping. In narrow, long floor shapes, the compartments can
be arranged in sequence, one after the other.
• Simple industrial conditioning systems: approx. 12 m long
• For full air conditioning systems: approx. 16-22 m long
• For air extract systems: approx. 4-6 m long.
Width and height (clear space) for industrial and full air
conditioning system plant rooms:
air supply m 3/h width (m)
< 20000 3.0
20-40000 4.0
40-70000 4.75
CD Example of a high pressure air conditioning system (System LTG).
traffic resistant floor
inlet and accessible
grille with dust trap
Ventilation openings: a = self opening; b.c.d.e = non-moving; d =
for dark rooms; f = manually operated
Air admission grilles showing flow directions
::::::::::::::::J I II IIII I I II I(::::::::::::::::::::1",IIlmJ::::::::::::::::::::)/Olll I1:::::::::::::::::::::
111 11 11
Sound damping
Sound dampers are provided in air ducts to reduce noise from
installed machinery into the air-conditioned rooms. The length
of these in the direction of air flow is 1.5-3 m, depending on the
damping to be achieved. The design may embody baffles made
from non-combustible material, e.g. moulded fibre boards or
from sheeting with a rockwool filling. The requirements for
sound insulation in building construction should be observed.
Ducts and air outlets and inlets are in galvanised steel sheet,
high-grade steel or fire-resistant fibre board or similar. Ideally,
the cross-section should be square or round, or rectangular
with an aspect ratio of 1:3. Regular servicing is necessary, and
the requirements for fire protection of ventilation systems must
be observed.
Masonry or concrete built ducts are more economical than
sheet construction for large floor or rising ducts. Masonry ducts
dampen noise better than concrete. The insides should be
smoothly plastered and have a washable surface coating. Air
entry ducts should be provided with lightweight insulation only,
so that heat retention is avoided. The duct cross-sections
should be large enough for cleaning (soiling impairs the
condition of the air). So, the floor air-exhaust ducts should be
equipped with drainage pipes or channels with sealed screwed
connections and the air ducting should have adequate access
openings for cleaning purposes.
Cement fibre ducts (asbestos-free) are suitable for moist,
non-acid containing air and plastic ducts for aggressive,
gaseous media. Inlet and outlet gratings should not be sited in
accessible floor areas (except in industrial construction and
electronic data processing rooms). Air outlets are crucial for the
distribution of air in rooms; the flow should be directed
horizontally and vertically. Grilles for air inlets and outlets
should be designed from an air conditioning standpoint, but
should also be easy to clean - ideally made from stove
enamelled sheet. ) CD - Q)
The introduction of air into offices should, when possible, be
at a window (point of most pronounced passage of cold and
heat). Air removal should be on the corridor side. For theatres,
cinemas and lecture rooms, admit air under the seats, and
remove through the ceilir.q. This method depends on the shape
and usage of the room.
The efficiency of a good ventilation design can be 80-900/0,
depending on the application. Both radial and axial fans
produce the same noise levels up to a total delivery pressure of
approx. 40 mm head of water. Above this level, axial fans are
louder and they are used particularly in industrial construction.
Special foundations are provided with damping elements to
isolate vibration levels.
...............................................................................................
;:;:;:;:;:.~=:=~.~.~.~ .
:::::::::: 0 _
:::::::::: ~h provision
for illumination
CD
o Air inlet and outlet grilles
CD

High-pressure air conditioning systems
To meet the demand for heat in winter and cooling in
summer, large cross-sections of low-pressure air
conditioning systems are needed - it is not for ventilation.
High-pressure air conditioning systems require only
approx. 1/3 of the usual air quantities; they use external air
for ventilation while transporting heat and cold through
water pipes (1 m 3 of water can transport approx. 3450 times
more heat than 1m 3 of air). An air conditioning convector
unit (with special air outlet jets and a heat exchanger)
installed under every window is supplied with conditioned
air and cooled or heated water. Regulation takes place only
at the heat exchanger. Smaller quantities of air enable
smaller control rooms to be used and with acceptable air
conditioning. The external air is cleaned using a pre-filter
and a fine filter. The whole building is at a slight positive
pressure with respect to the outside, so that any air gaps in
the building fabric have virtually no effect.
Air conditioning convectors
General requirements: noise intensity ~ 30-33 phon; air filter
for cleaning the secondary air; heat exchanger must be able
to ensure full heating to room temperature in any weather,
even without the ventilation air system; cold water
temperature in summer must be 15-16°C, or the cooling
operation will be uneconomical and condensation will form
on window systems (soiling of cooling surfaces). For ideal
flow conditions without vibration, high-pressure air
ductwork should be of round section where possible. With
a vertical arrangement of supply lines and window spacings
of 1.5-2 m, alternate the structural columns with vertical
service ducts containing the air ductwork and water pipes.
Rising air ductwork for buildings with 7 storeys are
175-255 mm diameter. For taller buildings, separate
supplies lines are needed for each 7-10 storeys and a storey
devoted to the installation of heating and ventilation plant.
A more expensive arrangement involves a main air shaft,
with horizontal distribution along the corridors and
branching ductwork directed outwards into the ceiling voids
above rooms, to terminate directly behind the facade above
the windows, or, at floor leve1, in the rooms above through
holes in the floor structure. Max. office depth for high-
pressure installations: 6 m, beyond which air cooling
requires an additional central conditioning system. Max.
building depth without a central system: (2 x 6 =) 12 m plus
the corridor. Air can be removed through ducts over
corridor wall storage cupboards or in ducting above the
corridors and through WCs. In high-pressure systems, air is
not recirculated (the air mass has already been reduced to
that required for acceptable ventilation). For limited
operation, the primary air flow can be reduced in the plant
room.
Ventilation systems for kitchens
For large kitchens (height 3-5 m). render the upper sections
(walls and ceilings) in porous plaster (no oil painting);
provide 15-30 air changes, pressure below atmospheric,
creating air flow from adjacent rooms into the kitchen; use
larger radiators as appropriate; group boilers, cookers and
fryers together; provide air extraction with a fat filter; clean
ducting annually; filter and heat the air inlet flow in winter.
No air circulation system is needed; local heating and
insulating glazing are needed.
injection
equipment
heating
--------------------.--~
cold water
system
Q) E
Q.~
o
...... >
"OUl
CD
...c
Ul
~
CD
o
8
CD
C
;.,::
c
o
:~
.~~~
G) High-pressure air conditioning system (System LTG)
108

o Storage temperature and duration of storage
G) Limitation of heat transfer on initial construction, replacement
and on renewal of structural components
11 heat transfer coefficients can be determined taking account of existing structural
components
21 thickness data relates to a thermal conductivity (-0.04 W/(mK); where the insulating
material has to be built in, or in the case of materials with other thermal
conductivity values, the insulation material thicknesses must be balanced
accordingly; existing mineral fibre or foam plastic materials can be assumed to
have a thermal conductivity of 0.04 W/(mK).
109
COLD STORAGE ROOMS
To determine the cooling requirements for cold rooms,
attention must be paid to the requirements of the commodities
stored; humidity content, air changes, cooling or freezing
duration, type of storage, etc. Also, consider the specific heat of
the goods, internal environment, method of manufacture,
position, heat from lighting and movements within the cold
store. Calculation of the cooling requirement takes the
following form (~pp. 111-16):
(1) Cooling/refrigeration of the goods (cooling to the freezing
point - freezing - supercooling) (Q = m x cp x At): if goods are
to be frozen solid, the necessary heat must be removed at the
freezing point, and, subsequently, the specific heat of the
frozen goods is lower; the humidity extraction is
approximately 50/0
(2) Cooling and drying of the extracted air
(3) Heating effects through walls, ceiling, floor
(4) Losses: movements in and out of storage (door opening),
natural and electric lighting, pump and ventilator operation
(5) Condensation of water vapour on walls
The cold storage of freshly slaughtered meat is cooled from
303.15 K to a temperature of 288.15 K. This is achieved by placing
it in a temperature of 280.15-281.15 K at a relative humidity of
85-900/0 in the pre-cooling room for 8-10 hours, and then storing
it at 275.15K-281.15K at a relative humidity of 75% for up to 28-30
hours in the cool room. Cooling and storage takes place
separately. Weight loss over 7 days is 4-50/0. Today, rapid cooling
is used increasingly, no pre-cooling stage, meat is cooled from a
slaughter temp. of 303.15 K to a storage temp. of 274.15 K, with
60-80 circulations of the air per hour and at a relative humidity of
90-950/0.
Meat cooling and refrigeration
The freezing process changes the condition and distribution of
the water in meat, while the meat composition remains
unchanged.
Beef is frozen to 261.15 K and pork to 258.15 K, at a relative
humidity of 900/0. Duration of freezing: mutton, veal, pork, 2-4
days; beef, hindquarters 4 days, forequarters, 3 days. Correct
thawing period: 3-5 days to 278.15-281.15 K, restores the meat
to a fresh condition.
Recently, mainly in the USA, rapid freezing methods have
been employed, at temperatures of 248.15-243.15 K, involving
120-150 air circulations per hour. The advantages are: lower
weight loss, increase in tenderness, replacement of the curing
process, lower liquid loss, good consistency and preservability
after thawing.
Storage duration is dependent on the storage temperature;
for example, for beef the storage duration is 15 months at
255.15 K, 4 months at 261.15 K and 3 months at 263.65 K.
Cold room volume: 1 m 3 is suitable for the storage of
400-500 kg of mutton, 350-500 kg of pork, 400-500 kg of beef,
with a standard stacking height of 2.5 m.
Refrigeration of fish
Fresh fish can be maintained in this condition on ice at 272.15 K
and at a relative humidity of 90-100% for a period of 7 days.
Longer storage times can be achieved through the use of
bactericidal ice (calcium hypochlorite or caporite). For even
longer storage, rapid freezing to 248.15 -233.15 K is required, if
necessary use glazing with fresh water to keep air out and
prevent drying up. Fish crates are 90 x 50 x 34, giving a weight
of approx. 150 kg.
Refrigeration of butter
Butter refrigerated to 265.15 K has a storage duration of 3-4
months and a duration of 6-8 months at a temperature of
258.15-252.15 K. Lower temperatures can provide a period of up
to 12 months. The relative humidity should be 85-90%. Butter
drums are 600 mm high with a diameter of 350-450 mm,
resulting in a weight of 50-60 kg.
Refrigeration of fruit and vegetables
Immediate cooling is required, since a reduction of temperature
to 281.15 K delays ripening by 50%. Storage duration depends
on air quality (temperature, relative humidity, movement),
variety, maturity, soil quality, fertilising, climate, transportation,
pre-cooling, etc.
24
days
20
16
12
time
-,
-, <,
'-
,
",,- r---r----
~
o-c -
z-c r-,~
4°e
-, ----------:---
<,
Maximum storage duration at various temperatures and degrees
of humidity (0 K = -273.15°C)
100
~ 90
>-
~
§
..c 80
co 70
~
type of meat storage storage duration
temperature (months)
beef - 18 15
- 12 4
- 9.5 3
pork - 18 12
- 12 2 up to 4
- 9.5 1
loin of pork - 18 5 1
/2
- 10 4
chicken - 22 up to 18
-18 up to 10
- 12 4
- 9.5 2
turkey - 35 over 12
- 23 12
- 18 6
- 12 3
component maximum heat required minimum
exchange thickness of
coefficient insulating material
W/(m 2K)11 without
certificate?'
external walls 0.60 50mm
windows double windows or double glazing
ceilings under uninsulated roof space, and 0.45 80mm
ceilings (including sloping roofs) and floors
that form a boundary between rooms and
the outside air above or below
cellar floors and other floors which separate 0.70 40mm
the building from the surrounding ground;
walls/floors which form boundaries to an
unheated room
CD

110
Cooling of eggs
Cold storage eggs are those stored in rooms whose
temperature has been artificially controlled to a value lower
than 8°C. Such eggs must be identified as 'cold storage
eggs'. To avoid sweating, if the temperature outside the
cold storage room is more than 5°C greater than inside, the
eggs must be warmed in a defrosting room with controlled
air conditioning on removal from cold storage. The area of
the defrosting room is approxl Z? of that of the cold
storage room. The warming-up time for quarter crates is
approx. 10 hours; 18-24 hours for complete and half crates.
Stacking of the quarter crates in the defrosting room:
around 5000-6000 eggs (approx. 400 kg gross) per m 2.
Crates of 500 eggs are 920 mm long, 480 mm wide and
180mm high; for 122 dozen (= 1440) eggs, 1750 x 530 x
250mm. A basis for calculation is 10-13 crates for 30 dozen,
occupying 1m3 in the storage room; since one egg weighs
50-60 grams, there is a weight of between 180-220kg of
eggs in the 1rn-', A net volume of 2.8 m 3 cold room capacity
is required for 10,000 eggs. Two million eggs fill 15 freight
wagons. For export, the eggs are packed in crates of 1440
items; wood shavings are used as packing between the
eggs, giving a gross weight of 80-105 kg. For Egyptian eggs,
this weight is 70-87 kg, tare, i.e. the empty crate and
shavings weigh 16-18kg. One wagon contains 100 half
export crates holding 144,000 eggs or 400 'lost' crates with
360 items each. Standard crates for 360 eggs are 660 mm
long, 316mm wide and 361 mm high (the so-called 'lost'
crates). They can be divided into two by a central partition.
Cardboard inserts are used. The crates are made from dry
spruce; pine is unsuitable. Stacked 7 crates high,
10,000-11,000 eggs can be stored on a net area of 1m 2. Dry
air, at 75% humidity and air-tight packaging is used, with
cube-shaped crates with 360 eggs in each, in protective
cardboard pockets. If the eggs are exposed to the ingress of
air, the air humidity can be 83-850/0. The air humidity in the
store is controlled by first supercooling then heating it
within the ventilation system. The weight loss during the
first months in cold storage is severer than later months; a
weight loss of 3-4.50/0 occurs after 7 months. Eggs can also
be conserved in a gaseous atmosphere of 880/0 CO2 and 120/0
N, after l.escarde-Everaert. in gas-filled autoclaves at
around O°C. This preserves the eggs in their natural state.
Uniformity of temperature and air humidity are important
factors. Ozone is frequently introduced into egg cold
storage rooms. The cooling requirement during storage is
3300-5000 kJ/day per m2 of floor surface - higher during the
period when eggs are introduced. The storage periods run
from Apr/May to Oct/Nov.
Cooling and refrigeration of poultry and game
Large game (red deer, roe deer, wild boar) must be drawn
before freezing, but this is not necessary for small game
(hare, rabbit, game birds). Freezing takes place before
plucking, with the game free-hanging; storage being in
stacks on gridded floor panels. There should be plenty of air
movement during freezing, but little during storage. These
numbers of game can be stored per square metre of floor
area (3[t]m high): approx. 100 hares, or 20 roe deer, or 7-10
red deer. The air humidity should be approx. 850/0 at -12°C.
Domestic poultry should not be frozen and stored with
game, as the fat content of the former requires a lower
temp. and is sensitive to the smell of game. The cooling of
poultry takes place at O°C and at 80-850/0 relative humidity,
with the birds suspended on frames, or alternatively, in iced
water; storage at O°C and 850/0 relative humidity, with a
storage duration of approx. 7 days. Freezing at approx.
-30- -35°C, storage at around -25°C and 85-900/0 relative
humidity. The freezing time for a chicken is approx. 4 hours
at an air velocity of 2-3 m/sec. Deep freezing, using the
cryovac method, takes place in vacuum latex bags. Young
chickens will freeze through in 2-3 hours. Storage duration
is approx. 8 months at -18°C. To prevent rancidity, the
poultry is protected by wrapping in water vapour tight
polyethylene film.
COLD STORAGE ROOMS
Brewery products
Malt floors: 8-0°C
Cooling requirement per m2 of floor area: 5000-6300 kJ/day
Fermentation cellars: duration is 8-10 days at 3.5-6°C
Cooling requirement: 4200-5000 kJ/day per m 2 of floor area
Cooling requirement for the fermentation vat cooling:
500-630 kJ per hI fermented wort per day
Storage cellar: -1.0°C to +1.5°C; cooling requirement
approx. 20-25 Wm 3, related to the empty room, or
2.5-3 kcal/h per hi of storage capacity
Installed cooling power: approx. 2.1-2.3Whl yearly output
Room cooling, general
From the viewpoint of reserves and safety, the cooling
system is designed to have a higher performance than the
calculated cooling requirement. It is assumed that the
cooling system will operate for 16-20 hours per day in
cooling and freezing rooms; in individual cases, e.g. for
efficient utilisation of electrical tariffs, the period may be
even shorter. In meat cold storage rooms, the cooling
power should not be too high, so that during periods of
reduced cooling requirements, adequate operating
durations and the required throughput of air in the room
will still be guaranteed.
In small commercial cold storage rooms with a
temperature of approx. 2-4°C and a product throughput of
50 kq/m? per day, the following table serves as a reference
to determine the cooling requirement and the requisite
power of the cooling system.
cold storage room cooling cooling
floor area power system
requirement
m 2 (kJ/day) (W)
5 50000 870
10 82000 1400
15 111 300 1900
20 138600 2400
25 163800 2850
30 187000 3250
The following figures can be used for further calculations:
Cold storage rooms with multi-storey construction:
5000-8400 kJ/day/m2
Cold stores of single-storey construction:
1050-1700 kJ/day/m2
Storage capacity per m2 of floor area - hanging storage - after
reduction of approx. 15-200/0 for gangways: mutton 15D-200 kg
(5-6 items), pork 25D-300kg (3-3.5 whole, 6-7 sides),
beef 350 kg (4-5 quarters of beef)
Per running metre - low hanging rail: 5 halves of pork or 3
quarters of beef or 2-3 calves
Distance from centre to centre of rails (low rail): approx.
0.65 m, height to centre of rail: 2.3-2.5 m
Distance from rail to rail (high rail): 1.20-1.50 m with free
passage way; height with tubular track: 3.3-3.5 m
Per running metre of high rail: 1-1 5 m (2-3 sides of beef),
depending on size
Estimate of cooling requirements for meat: rapid cold
storage room, 21000-31 500 kJ/m2/day; most rapid cold
storage room, 4200 kJ/m2/hour
Storage room for frozen meat - storage capacity per m3
of room volume: frozen mutton, 400-500 kg; frozen pork,
350-500 kg; frozen beef, 400-500 kg
Standard stacking height: 2.5 m
Fats become rancid with the passage of time under the
effects of light and oxygen, so that the storage duration is
limited.
Meat curing room: temperature 6-8°C
Cooling requirement per m 2 of floor area:
4200-5000 kJ/day
Brine in curing vats absorbs moisture from the air.
One railway goods wagon of 15000 kg loaded weight can
accept approx. 170 hanging sides of pork over a floor area
of 21.8m2.

THERMAL INSULATION
Terminology and Mechanisms
Thermal insulation should minimise heat loss (or gain) allowing
energy savings to be made, provide a comfortable environment for
occupants, and protect a building from damage that might be
caused by sharp temperature fluctuations (in particular,
condensation). Heat exchange - by thermal convection, conduction,
radiation and water vapour diffusion - cannot be prevented, but its
rate can be reduced by efficient thermal insulation .
Terms used in calculating thermal insulation values
Although temperature is often given in degrees Celsius (OC), kelvin
(K) is also used (0 K = -273.15°C).
Quantity of heat is expressed in watt hours (Wh). (1 Wh = 3.6kJ.)
Thermal capacity, the heat necessary to raise the temperature of
1kg of material by 1K, is a measure of the readiness to respond to
internal heat or to changing external conditions. 1kcal (= 1.16Wh) is
the heat required to increase the temperature of 1kg of water by 1K.
Thermal conductance (C-value), in W/m2K, measures the rate at
which a given thickness of material allows heat conduction, based
on temperature differences between hot and cold faces; no account
is taken of surface resistance. Thermal conductivity (k-value or A
specific to a given material), in W/mK (or kcal/mhK), measures the
rate at which homogenous material conducts heat: the smaller the
value, the lower the thermal conductivity. Thermal resistance (R-
value = thickness/k), the reciprocal of thermal conductance (t/Cl.
measures the resistance of material or structure with a particular
thickness to heat transfer by conduction. Thermal resistivity (r-
value), is the reciprocal of conductivity ('l/k).
UK thermal insulation standards have risen since 1990, under the
new Building Regulations, in which the thermal insulation value is
used to evaluate temperature variation in, and possibility of damage
to, a structural component due to condensation.
The thermal boundary layer resistance, l/a, is the thermal
resistance of the air 'boundary' layer on a structural component: l/aa
on the outside and l/uj on the inside of the component. The lower
the velocity of the air, the higher is the value of I/o; Total resistance
to heat flow LR is the sum of the resistances of a component against
heat conductance: LR = l/ai + l/C + l/ua.
The coefficient of thermal transmittance (U-value) - like thermal
conductance - measures the rate at which material of a particular
thickness allows heat conduction, i.e. the heat loss, and thus provides
a basis for heating calculations, but the calculation is based on
temperature difference between ambient temperatures on either side;
account is taken of surface resistances of the structure. As the most
important coefficient in calculating the level of thermal insulation, its
value is specified in the Building Regulations, and is used by the
heating systems manufacturer as a basis of measurement.
The mean U-value of window (w) and wall (W) is calculated as
Um(w + W) = (Uw x Fw + Uw x Fw) -7- (Fw + Fw ), F being the surface area.
Similarly, Um' the coefficient of a building cell is calculated from the
F and U values of the components making up the cell - window (w).
wall (W), ceiling (c), floor surface (f) and roof area in contact with air
(r) - taking account of minimum factors for roof and ground areas:
Um = Uw x Fw + Uw x Fw + U, x Fr + 0.8U ex Fe + 0.5U f X Ff
Fw+FW+Fr+Fe+Ff
Heat transfer through a component: a quantity of heat is conducted
through the internal air boundary layer and then the inner surface of
the component; some of this heat overcomes the thermal insulation
value of the component to reach the outer surface, overcomes the
outer air boundary layer and reaches the outside air --j CD. Changes
in temperature through the individual layers are in proportion to the
percentage each contributes to the resistance to heat flow LR .. ~ @.
Example: If l/uj + 'l/C +l/Cl.a = 0.13 + 0.83 + 0.04 = 1.00, then
l/Cl.j: 'l/C: l/ua = 13%:830/0:40/0. For a temperature difference of 40K
between inside and outside, then: temperature difference across
inner boundary layer = 130/0 of 40 K = 5.2 K; temperature across
material = 830/0 of 40 K = 33.2 K; and temperature across outer
boundary layer = 4% of 40 K = 1.6 K.
The lower the thermal insulation of the component, the lower is
the temperature of the inner surface of the component ~ (f), and the
easier it is for condensation to occur. Since the temperature varies
linearly through each individual layer, this appears as a straight line if
the component is represented to scale in proportion to the thermal
insulation of the individual layers --j @ - @; the interrelationships are
then more easily seen. The variation of temperature is particularly
important in considering the expansion of the component due to heat,
in addition to the question of condensation ...~ p. 112.
H,
1.41
0.12
0.04
1.57
0.64
(W/m 2K)
k R
(W/mK) (=I/k)
0.7 0.02
0.22 = 1.36
0.87 = 0.03
U = 4.6 U = 2.6
glass double-glazing
6mm 2"-6mm
r insulation board
t
+10·
Q)
+00
::l
Ctl
Q) t 10·
0.
§
.20·
H,
2 .10·
Q)
::l
to·
Ctl
Q)
0.
§ -100
(-)a
= 0.056 + 0.83 =089 (W/m 2K)
U, rafter area = 0.45
U, rafter field = 0.95
layers shown in proportion to their
individual thermal insulation values
f6 As @, but with distorted
::..J representation to show
temperature variation as a
straight line
U=l
~R
vc
l/u,
l/ua
~R
thickness
I
(rn)
internal plaster 0.015
wall 0.30
outside 0.025
rendering
temperature drop corresponds to ~R
o Temperature variation in a
single-layer component
Urn = *.0.45 + ~g .0.95
H,
rafter
outside
rendering
U = 1.08 U = 0.48
36cm brick 24cm brick
+ 50 mm styrofoam
A = 80
II
insulation board
.CJ .
.'1 r
.CJc:J
I I.
CJc:J·.
'.. i:
U = 1.42
24cm brick
Calculation of the mean thermal insulation value for combined
components
Principle of heat transfer
through a component
A, = 10 A2 = 70
I I
example: section through an attic area
internal
plaster
U
+20·
Q) +10·
::l
Ctl
to
Q)
0.
~ -10·
Temperature variation across variously insulated components for an
internal temperature OJ = 280
and outside air temperature 0a =-120
temperature of the inner surface of the wall HW I
increases as the thermal insulation is improved
:"'L_t
c:::Jc:::J
1 I
:.c:::Jc:::J'.
" f'
q
® Temperature variation in a
multilayer component
wall
15 25
~ 3 0 ~
example: wall made from aerated
concrete, 500 kq/rn '. 300 mm thick,
plastered and rendered
o Calculation of the U value of a multilayer component
Urn = ~1 • U, + ~2 • U2 + ... + ~n . Un
111

THERMAL INSULATION
Terminology and Mechanisms
Thermal insulation should minimise heat loss (or gain) allowing
energy savings to be made, provide a comfortable environment for
occupants, and protect a building from damage that might be
caused by sharp temperature fluctuations (in particular,
condensation). Heat exchange - by thermal convection, conduction,
radiation and water vapour diffusion - cannot be prevented, but its
rate can be reduced by efficient thermal insulation.
Terms used in calculating thermal insulation values
Although temperature is often given in degrees Celsius (OC), kelvin
(K) is also used (0 K = -273.15°C).
Quantity of heat is expressed in watt hours (Wh). (1 Wh = 3.6kJ.)
Thermal capacity, the heat necessary to raise the temperature of
, kg of material by 1K, is a measure of the readiness to respond to
internal heat or to changing external conditions. 1kcal (= 1.16Wh) is
the heat required to increase the temperature of 1kg of water by 1K.
Thermal conductance (Cvvalue). in W/m2K, measures the rate at
which a given thickness of material allows heat conduction, based
on temperature differences between hot and cold faces; no account
is taken of surface resistance. Thermal conductivity (k-value or A
specific to a given material), in W/mK (or kcal/rnhk). measures the
rate at which homogenous material conducts heat: the smaller the
value, the lower the thermal conductivity. Thermal resistance (R-
value = thickness/k), the reciprocal of thermal conductance (l/C),
measures the resistance of material or structure with a particular
thickness to heat transfer by conduction. Thermal resistivity (r-
value), is the reciprocal of conductivity (11k).
UK thermal insulation standards have risen since 1990, under the
new Building Regulations, in which the thermal insulation value is
used to evaluate temperature variation in, and possibility of damage
to, a structural component due to condensation.
The thermal boundary layer resistance, l/n, is the thermal
lIJ 6 ~1J6lw91 ponuqsix 19A6l l62!2~9UC6' J<x' !2 ~1J6 ~1J6lw91
"r--"_." ----- ~- __ •• __ 11'-'''-4''''-'11.
The thermal boundary layer resistance, 1In, is the thermal
resistance of the air 'boundary' layer on a structural component: l/na
on the outside and l/nj on the inside of the component. The lower
the velocity of the air, the higher is the value of lice Total resistance
to heat flow IR is the sum of the resistances of a component against
heat conductance: IR = l/<Xi + l/C + l/na .
The coefficient of thermal transmittance (If-value) - like thermal
conductance - measures the rate at which material of a particular
thickness allows heat conduction, i.e. the heat loss, and thus provides
a basis for heating calculations, but the calculation is based on
temperature difference between ambient temperatures on either side;
account is taken of surface resistances of the structure. As the most
important coefficient in calculating the level of thermal insulation, its
value is specified in the Building Regulations, and is used by the
heating systems manufacturer as a basis of measurement.
The mean U-value of window (w) and wall (W) is calculated as
Um(w+ W) = (Uw x Fw + Uw x Fw) 7 (Fw + FW ), F being the surface area.
Similarly, Unv the coefficient of a building cell is calculated from the
F and U values of the components making up the cell - window (w).
wall (W), ceiling (c), floor surface (f) and roof area in contact with air
(r) - taking account of minimum factors for roof and ground areas:
Um = UwxFw + UwxFw + UrxFr + 0.8U cxFc + 0.5U fxF f
Fw + Fw + Fr + Fc + Ff
Heat transfer through a component: a quantity of heat is conducted
through the internal air boundary layer and then the inner surface of
the component; some of this heat overcomes the thermal insulation
value of the component to reach the outer surface, overcomes the
outer air boundary layer and reaches the outside air-) CD. Changes
in temperature through the individual layers are in proportion to the
percentage each contributes to the resistance to heat flow ~R • Qj.
Example: If I/o; + I/C + l/na = 0.13 + 0.83 + 0.04 = 1.00, then
l/nj: I/C: l/na = 13%:830/0:4%. For a temperature difference of 40K
between inside and outside, then: temperature difference across
inner boundary layer = 130/0 of 40 K = 5.2 K; temperature across
material = 83% of 40 K = 33.2 K; and temperature across outer
boundary layer = 4% of 40 K = 1.6 K.
The lower the thermal insulation of the component, the lower is
the temperature of the inner surface of the component -) o» and the
easier it is for condensation to occur. Since the temperature varies
linearly through each individual layer, this appears as a straight line if
the component is represented to scale in proportion to the thermal
insulation of the individual layers ~ @ - @; the interrelationships are
then more easily seen. The variation of temperature is particularly
important in considering the expansion of the component due to heat,
in addition to the question of condensation • p. 112.
H,
1.41
0.12
0.04
1.57
0.64
(W/m 2K)
k R
(W/mK) (='/k)
0.7 0.02
0.22 = 1.36
0.87 = 0.03
U = 4.6 U = 2.6
glass double-glazing
6mm 2,-6mm
r insulation board
~
+10·
<ll
+0-
:::l
co
<ll t10·
a.
§
+20·
U +10·
-
<ll
:::l
to·
co
<ll
a.
§ -100
l-la
= 0.056 + 0.83 = 089 (W/m 2K)
U, rafter area = 0.45
U, rafter field = 0.95
layers shown in proportion to their
individual thermal insulation values
f6 As @, but with distorted
~ representation to show
temperature variation as a
straight line
lie
l/u,
l/ud
~R
U =~
~R
CD Temperature variation in a
single-layer component
thickness
I
(rn)
internal plaster 0.015
wall 0.30
outside 0.025
rendering
Urn =~. 0.45 + ~g .0.95
rafter
outside
rendering
U = 1.08 U = 0.48
36cm brick 24cm brick
+ 50 rnrn styrofoam
It
U = 1.42
24cm brick
Temperature variation across variously insulated components for an
internal temperature OJ =28° and outside air temperature 0a =-120
Calculation of the mean thermal insulation value for combined
components
Principle of heat transfer
through a component
~1 = 1p A2 = 70
t-----~ = ~----;
II
II1SU a Ion oar
-.
0,
20·
~.
~
10·
0
10·
0"
example: section through an attic area
Internal
plaster
® Temperature variation in a
multilayer component
CD
temperature of the inner surface of the wall OWl increases as the thermal insulation is improved
(j)
wall
15 25
H-----30~
example: wall made from aerated
concrete, 500 kg/m 3, 300 mrn thick,
plastered and rendered
o Calculation of the U value of a multilayer component
Urn =~- . U1 + ~2 . U2 + ., + ~n U
UJ _)L_·nJ+L·ns+.··+~. n'
n - 'Vi 'V
S 'V
Urn =~- . U1 + ~2 . U2 + ... + ~n . U11
111

THERMAL INSULATION
Types of Construction
Construction without vapour barrier~ CD
Conventional construction contains no vapour retarding layers.
Layers should be provided so that no condensation occurs: for
sufficient thermal insulation, the layer factor Ashould fall from
inside to outside. In the case of very damp rooms (e.g.
swimming pools), the vapour pressure variation should be
checked either graphically or by calculation.
Note: on the outside of thermal insulation layers with normal
plastering, there is a danger of cracking due to the build up of
heat and low shear strength of the base material; therefore,
glass fibre reinforced finishing plaster should be applied (but
not in the case of swimming pools - see pp. 242-3).
Construction with vapour barrier ; ~
In more recent building construction ('warm roof', 'warm
facade'). there is a vapour impermeable outside layer, resulting
in the necessity for an internal vapour barrier ( ;; p. 112). On
vertical components, this is difficult to accomplish; a better
form of construction is to provide a rear-ventilated outer skin
(except for prefabricated walls). Note: the thermal insulation,
including the air boundary layer on the layers up to the
condensation barrier, must not exceed a specific level of
contribution to the resistance to heat (p. 112). In solid
constructions, protection of the vapour barrier against
mechanical damage can be achieved by means of a protective
layer. Since no high pressure - in the sense of a steam boiler -
occurs on the inside of the vapour barrier, only vapour
pressure (---) p. 112), the frequently recommended 'pressure
compensation' provided by this layer, is not in fact required.
Construction with rear ventilated outer skin-c; @
Rear ventilation avoids the vapour barrier effect of relatively
vapour tight outer layers. It works by exploiting height
difference (min. fall 100/0 between air inlet and air outlet). If there
is only a small difference, then a vapour-retarding layer or
vapour barrier is required (arrangement ---) construction with a
vapour barrier), otherwise there will be excessive vapour
transmission and condensation at the outer skin. The layering
on the inner skin should be as for construction without a vapour
barrier. However, the inner skin must always be airtight.
Cold bridges are places in the structure with low thermal
insulation relative to their surroundings. At these places, the
contribution of the air boundary layer to the resistance flow to
heat increases, such that the surface temperature of the inner
surface of the cold bridge reduces and condensation can occur
there. The increase in heating costs due to the cold bridge, on
the other hand, is insignificant, so long as the cold bridge is
relatively small; this is not the case, however, for single-glazed
windows which, in reality, are also cold bridges ---) (f) p. 111.
To avoid condensation on the surface of the component and
its unwelcome consequences (mould growth, etc.). the
temperature of the inner surface of the cold bridge must be
increased. This can be achieved by either reducing the heat
extraction through the cold bridge by means of an insulating
layer against the 'outer cold' (increasing the thermal insulation
reduces the percentage contribution of the air boundary layer to
the resistance to heat flow IR), or increasing the heat input to
the cold bridge by increasing the inner surface of the cold
bridge, e.g. good conducting surroundings to the cold bridge,
and/or blowing with warm air. This will result in an actual
reduction in the inner surface resistance 1/<Xj in relation to the
cold bridge and hence also the contribution of the air boundary
layer to the resistance to heat flow IR. Typical examples are
shown in @. However, a normal outer corner in a building ..@,
forms a cold bridge, since, at such a point, the opposite to that
shown in ® occurs; a large heat transmitting outer surface is in
combination with a small heat inputting inner surface, so that
the insulation of the air boundary layer in the corners is
appreciably higher than that on the surface.
For this reason, condensation and mould are often seen in
the corners of walls with minimal thermal insulation.
inside
[ plaster
roof sealing
insulation
vapour barrier
cement asbestos panels
air space
insulation
No water due to
condensation occurs on the
inside corner
layer thermal diffusion
thickness insulation resistance
value
dtcm) 1p • d : 0 p' d (em)
0.05
inside
Solid wall with rear-
ventilated outer skin
Lplaster
outer skin
internal concrete wall
® The heat extraction per
unit area is significantly
less on the large inside
surface of the cold bridge
inside
outside
inside
outer skin
o
(3) Solid roof with vapour-
proof outer skin
100 200 300 1000
diffusion resistance LP . d (ern)
part of figure II part of figure III
layer sequence
from outside
to inside
air layer, outside
Lplaster -
r
- plaster (synthetic plaster)
plaster base (glassfibre mesh)
, - insulation
concrete (2200kg/m 3 ) 10 0.057 600
styrofoam Type 4 4 1.144 200
plaster 1.5 0.020 15 r---
air layer, inside - 0.140 - f-
~t total 1/y=1.411 815 f-
.-- diffusion resistance of f-
• • ..-
the component Lop. d
outsideV inside
r--
/ / / r-
(1) ...... f-
-00
IL /
--100%
'~.£ '-
./ r-- .- -0
/
~ 80% ~ 'E ......
~ ~
-1
Jr-- ~~
/
/
/ I 60% (1) (1)
l
vapour' c--
... >
/
pres-
I
40% ~~
sure ° ~
I-
0. ...
»: outside
/rl co °
> ...... -
J I I ITill
Water from condensation
occurs on large outer surface
of the cold bridge (high heat
extraction per unit area)
Investigation of the production of water through condensation
in a roof
100
outside
external concrete wall
(1)
-0
~
o
Water from condensation
occurs on inside surface of
the outside corner
®
outside
inside
outside
outer skin
inside
o Solid wall with vapour-
proof outer skin
CD
thermal resistivity
4 •
of component 11k
50
part of figure I
G) Solid wall without
insulation
(1)
~
~ 150
Q.
~ 250
CL
~ 200
outside inside
U + 80'
; + 60'
2 + 40°
~ + 20'
E+ 0'
~ 20'
113

outside
inside
vapour barrier
=:~~~!r plaster
® Insulation of a radiator
recess
o Wall with internal vapour
barrier
internal
plaster
bitumen
emulsion
300kg/m2
wire mesh
20,- 1 mm
inside
.:.:.:.:.~ :.:.:.:.
:.:.:.:.: g.:.:.:.:
:::::::::~::::::::
••••••••• <:3 ,
••••••••
::::::::;] ;::::::::
':':':':'~ .:.:.:.:.
~·24·crr;~
Multilayered wall without
vapour barrier
Multilayered wall with
internal insulation
foamglass glued
with mastic
bitumen
~~ukl~~~n2A~/ ..~~~~
outer
wall
®
CD
outside
Exterior Walls and Roofs
THERMAL INSULATION
Mineral plaster should not be used with outer insulation; instead, a
rear-ventilated type should be used , @ or synthetic plaster
(reinforced glassfibre), if necessary, with a mineral finishing plaster.
Critical detail points: Movement joint at flat roof junction • pp.
80-1 et seq.; radiator alcove ~ @. Thermal insulation is essential to
reduce costs (thin wall, higher temperature) for the window
junctions ~ @.
Special case of damp rooms (e.g. swimming baths): Greater
insulation; max. contribution X of the inner layers (air boundary
layer, layers up to the vapour barrier, ---> p. 113 is smaller. Synthetic
plaster is used here, so a rear-ventilated cladding is a better barrier
to condensation ~ @; or use a construction incorporating a vapour
barrier ~ @.
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.09
0.10
0.11
0.12
0.13
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.09
0.10
0.11
0.12
0.13
0.09
0.10
0.11
0.12
0.13
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.13
0.16
0.19
0.22
0.25
0.28
0.31
0.34
0.15
0.18
0.21
0.24
0.27
0.30
0.33
0.36
0.24
0.26
0.28
0.30
0.32
0.15
0.16
0.18
thermal
resistance
1/.m2KIW
in the
in the worst
centre position
115
140
165
190
225
240
265
290
115
140
165
190
225
240
265
290
190
225
240
265
290
115
140
165
thickness
S
OC
Ol
hollow clay blocks for partly grouted butt joints
3. reinforced concrete floors with hollow clay blocks
hollow clay blocks as intermediate components
without cross webs (without plaster)
hollow clay blocks as intermediate components
with cross webs (without plaster)
2. reinforced concrete ribbed/beamed floors with hollow clay blocks
description and illustration
JUDD~~oot~OD~~DDl~DD~~D(
300 300 300 300 300
1. reinforced concrete
reinforced concrete ribbed floor (without plaster) 120 0.20 0.06
140 0.21 0.07
51
160 0.22 0.08
c::
180 0.23 0.09
200 0.24 0.10
220 0.25 0.11
250 0.26 0.12
reinforced concrete beamed floor (without plaster) 120 0.16 0.06
140 0.18 0.07
160 0.20 0.08
) ( 51 180 0.22 0.09
200 0.24 0.10
220 0.26 0.11
500 500 500 240 0.28 0.12
(625.750) (625.750) (625.750)
type of concrete raw weight thickness (cm)
of concrete
(kq/rn-'] 12.5 18.75 25.0 31.25 37.5
aerated concrete, foam 400 0.89 31 1.343) 1.7921 2.23 21 2.68 2)
concrete, lightweight 500 0.78 3) 1.17 21 1.562) 1.95 11 2.34 11
concrete, autoclaved 600 0.66 31 0.99 21 1.32 11 1.64 1) 1.97
concrete, autoclaved 800 0.54 21 0.82 1) 1.09 1.36 1.63
aerated concrete
lightweight reinforced 800 0.41 21 0.63 1) 0.831) 1.04 1.29
concrete in closed 1000 0.33 21 0.49 11 0.66 0.82 0.99
structure, using 1200 0.25 0.38 0.50 0.63 0.79
expanded clay, 1400 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60
expanded slate, etc., 1600 0.17 0.26 0.34 0.43 0.51
without quartz sand
lightweight concrete 600 0.57 31 0.85 2) 1.14 11 1.42 1) 1.70
with porous additions, 1000 0.35 0.52 0.69 0.87 1.04
without quartz sand 1400 0.22 0.33 0.44 0.55 0.66
1800 0.14 0.20 0.27 0.34 0.41
reinforced concrete (2400) 0.06 0.09 0.12 0.15 0.18
11 weight per unit surface area, ncluding plaster 2200kg/m2
2) weight per unit surface area, ncluding plaster ? 150kg/m2
31 weight per unit surface area, ncluding plaster ? 100kg/m2
G) Thermal resistance (thermal insulation values) 1// m 2KJW)
insulation cross-
of the ceiling section
edge
@ Pitched roof with timber
beam ceiling
retaining angle on
structural member for
intermediate panels
® Hall roof in steel construction
with aluminium covering
(cold roof)
inside
Thermal insulation details: Roof
Pitched roof with solid
ceiling
Hall roof in timber
construction (cold roof)
cement fibre
roof tiles
CD
(j)
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.13
0.14
0.15
65
80
100
Thermal resistance 1// (thermal insulation value; m 2KJW) large
format concrete components: the use of light reinforced
concrete (e.g. for balconies) provides an improvement in
thermal insulation of up to 68.3%
4. reinforced concrete hollow beams
(without plaster)
:JOOO('OOOO(OO {
CD
114
JJV '1J6LW91 !u 2nI9,!OU 04 nb '0 eS·3oO
COUCL6'6 (6·a· 40L P9ICOU!62) bLol!q62 9U !wbLoI6w6U, IU
40 LW9' COUCL6'6 cowbou6u'2: '1J6 n26 04 l!alJ~ L6!UlOLC~q
*""'...............""'n..... A.A .... nrnnnnAn.c· .hA ileA nf linht rAinforced
®
C6!1!Ua
b!,cIJ6q Lo04 M!~IJ 20I!q
tl II
p69W C6!1!Ua
b!~CIJ6q Lool M!'IJ ~!WP6L
sqde
edge

Item material gross calculated standard
density value value of
or gross of thermal water
density conductivity vapour
classification ~~R2I diffusion
1121 resistance
coefficient
kg/m 3 W/(m"K) p41
1 render, screed and other mortar layers
1.1 lime mortar, lime cement mortar,
mortar from hydraulic lime (1800) 0.87 15/35
1.2 cement mortar (2000) 1.4 15/35
1.3 lime plaster, plaster, anhydrous
mortar, anhydrous lime mortar (1400) 0.70 10
1.4 stucco without additives (1200) 0.35 10
1.5 anhydrous screed (2100) 1.2
1.6 cement screed (2000) 1.4 15/35
1.7 magnesia screed
1.7.1 sub-floors and underlayers of
two layer floors (1400) 0.47
1.7.2 industrial floors and walkways (2300) 0.70
1.8 poured asphalt floor covering,
thickness v t Srnm (2300) 0.90 51
2 large format components
2.1 standard concrete
(gravel or broken concrete with closed
structure; also reinforced) (2400) 2.1 70/150
2.2 light concrete and reinforced concrete 800 0.39
with closed structure manufactured 900 0.44
with the use of additions with porous 1000 0.49
surface with no quartz sand additions 1100 0.55
1200 0.62
1300 0.70 70/150
1400 0.79
1500 0.89
1600 1.0
1800 1.3
2000 1.6
2.3 steam hardened aerated concrete 400 0.14
500 0.16
600 0.19 5/10
700 0.21
800 0.23
2.4 lightweight concrete with porous
structure
2.4.1 with non-porous additions e.g. gravel 1600 0.81 3/10
1800 1.1
2000 1.4 5/10
2.4.2 with porous additions with no quartz 600 0.22
sand additions 700 0.26
800 0.28
1000 0.36
1200 0.46 5/15
1400 0.57
1600 0.75
1800 0.92
2000 1.2
2.4.2.1 using exclusively natural pumice 500 0.15
600 0.18
700 0.20
800 0.24 5/15
900 0.27
1000 0.32
1200 0.44
2.4.2.2 using exclusively expanded clay 500 0.18
600 0.20
700 0.23
800 0.26 5/15
900 0.30
1000 0.35
1200 0.46
3 construction panels
3.1 asbestos cement panels (2000) 0.58 20/50
3.2 aerated concrete building panels,
unreinforced
3.2.1 with standard joint thickness and 500 0.22
wall mortar 600 0.24
700 0.27
800 0.29
3.2.2 with thin joints 500 0.19
600 0.22
700 0.24 5/10
800 0.27
3.3 wall construction panels in 800 0.29
lightweight concrete 900 0.32
1000 0.37 5/10
1200 0.47
1400 0.58
3.4 wall construction panels from 600 0.29
gypsum, also with pores, cavities, 750 0.35
filling materials or additions 900 0.41 5/10
1000 0.47
1200 0.58
3.5 gypsum board panels (900) 0.21 8
THERMAL INSULATION
4 masonry work, including mortar joints
4.1 masonry work in wall bricks
411 solid facing brick, vertically perforated 1800 0.81
facing brick, ceramic facing brick 2000 0.96 50,100
2200 1.2
4.1.2 solid brick, vertically perforated brick 1200 0.50
1400 058
1600 0.68 5.10
1800 0.81
2000 0.96
4.1.3 hollow clay blocks 700 036
800 0.39
900 0.42 5/10
1000 0.45
4.1.4 light hollow clay blocks 700 0.30
800 0.33
900 0.36 5/10
1000 0.39
4.2 masonry work in limy sandstone 1000 0.50
1200 0.56 5/10
1400 0.70
1600 0.79
1800 0.99
2000 1.1 15/25
2200 1.3
4.3 masonry work in foundry stone 1000 0.47
1200 0.52
1400 0.58
1600 0.64 70/100
1800 0.70
2000 0.76
4.4 masonry work in aerated concrete 500 0.22
blocks 600 0.24
700 0.27 5/10
800 0.29
4.5 masonry work in concrete blocks
4.5.1 hollow blocks of lightweight concrete,
with porous additions without quartz
sand addition
4.5.1.1 2-K block, width < 240 mm 500 0.29
3-K block, width <:; 300 mm 600 0.32
4-K block, width <:; 365 mm 700 0.35
800 0.39
900 0.44 5/10
1000 0.49
1200 0.60
1400 0.73
4.5.1.2 2-K block, width = 300 mm 500 0.29
3-K block, width = 365 mm 600 0.34
700 0.39
800 0.46
900 0.55 5/10
1000 0.64
1200 0.76
1400 0.90
4.5.2 solid blocks in lightweight concrete
4.5.2.1 solid blocks 500 0.32
600 0.34
700 0.37
800 0.40
900 0.43 5/10
1000 0.46
1200 0.54
1400 0.63
1600 0.74
1800 0.87 10/15
2000 0.99
4.5.2.2 solid blocks 500 0.29
(apart from solid blocks S-W of 600 0.32
natural pumice as for item 4.5.2.3 and 700 0.35
of expanded clay, as for item 4.5.2.4) 800 0.39
900 0.43 5/10
1000 0.46
1200 0.54
1400 0.63
1600 0.74
1800 0.87 10/15
2000 0.99
4.5.2.3 solid blocks S-W of natural pumice 500 0.20
600 0.22
700 0.25 5/10
800 0.28
4.5.2.4 solid blocks S-W of expanded clay 500 0.22
600 0.24
700 0.27 5/10
800 0.31
Characteristic values for use in heat and humidity protection
estimates
115

7.1.4 plastic coverings, e.g. including PVC (1500) 0.23
7.2 sealing materials, sealing rolls
7.2.1 asphalt mastic, thickness 2> 7 mm (2000) 0.70 51
7.2.2 bitumen (1100) 0.17
7.2.3 roofing strip, roof sealing rolls
7.2.3.1 bitumen roof rolls (1200) 0.17 10000/
80000
7.2.3.2 bare bitumen roof rolls (1200) 0.17 2000/
20000
7.2.3.3 glass fibre - bitumen roof rolls 20000/
60000
7.2.4 plastic roof rolls
7.2.4.1 PVC soh 10000/
25000
7.2.4.2 PIS 400000/
1750000
7.2.4.3 ECS 2.0K 50000/
75000
7.2.4.4 ECS 2.0
7.2.5 sheets
7.2.5.1 PVC sheets, thickness > 0.1 mm 20000/
50000
7.2.5.2 polyethylene sheets, thickness 2>0.1 mm 100000
7.2.5.3 aluminium sheets, thickness :>0.05mm 51
7.2.5.4 other metal sheets, thickness :>0.1 mm 51
8 other useful materials
8.1 loose ballasting, covered
8.1.1 of porous materials:
expanded perlite (<;100) 0.060
expanded mica (S100) 0.070
cork scrap, expanded (s200) 0.050
blast furnace slag (<;600) 0.13
expanded clay, expanded slate (<;400) 0.16
pumice grit (<;1000) 0.19
lava crust <;1200 0.22
<;1500 0.27
8.1.2 of polystyrene plastic foam particles (15) 0.045
8.1.3 of sand, gravel, chippings (dry) (1800) 0.70
8.2 flagstones (2000) 1.0
8.3 glass (2500) 0.80
8.4 natural stone
8.4.1 crystalline metamorphous rock
(granite, basalt, marble) (2800) 3.5
8.4.2 sedimentary rock (sandstone,
metamorphic, conglomerate) (2600) 2.3
8.4.3 natural porous ignous rock (1600) 0.55
8.5 soil (naturally damp)
8.5.1 sand, sand and gravel 1.4
8.5.2 cohesive soil 2.1
8.6 ceramic and glass mosaic (2000) 1.2 100/300
8.7 thermal insulating plaster (600) 0.20 5/20
8.8 synthetic resin plaster (1100) 0.70 50/200
8.9 metals
8.9.1 steel 60
8.9.2 copper 380
8.9.3 aluminium 200
8.10 rubber (solid) (1000) 0.20
1) the gross density values given in brackets are only used to determine the surface area
related quantities, e.g. to demonstrate heat protection in summer
2) the gross density values relating to stone are descriptions of class corresponding to the
related material standards
3) the given calculated values of thermal conductivity AR of masonry work may be reduced
by around 0.06W/(mK) when factory standard light masonry mortar from additions with
a porous structure, without quartz sand additions are used - with a solid mortar gross
density S 1000kg/m3, however, the reduced values for aerated concrete blocks - item 4.4
and the solid blocks S-W of natural pumice and expanded clay - items 4.5.2.3 and
4.5.2.4 - must not be less than the corresponding items 2.3 and 2.4.2.1 and 2.4.2.2
4)
the respective, least favourable values, should be used for building construction
51 in practice, vapour tight sl ? 1500m
61 in the case of quartz sand additions, the calculated values of thermal conductivitv
increase by 20%
71 the calculated values of thermal conductivity should be increased in the case of hollow
blocks with quartz sand additions, by 20% for 2-K blocks and by 15% for 3K blocks and
4-K blocks
81 panels of thickness <. 15mm must not be taken account of in thermal insulation
considerations
9) in the case of footstep sound insulation panels in plastic foam materials or fibrous
insulation materials, the thermal resistivity 1/. is stated on the packaging in all cases
10) the given calculated values of thermal conductivity AR apply to cross grain application in
wood and at right angles to the plane of the panel in the case of timber materials. In the
case of wood in the direction of the grain and for timber materials in the plane of the
panel, approx. 2.2 times the values should be taken, if more accurate information is
unavailable
111 these materials have not been standardised in terms of their thermal insulation values;
the given values of thermal conductivity represent upper limiting values
12) the densities are given as bulk densities in the case of loose ballasting
116
item material gross calculated standard
density value value of
or gross of thermal water
density conductivity vapour
classification AR
21 diffusion
1121 resistance
coefficient
kg/m 3 W/(m"K) 114)
4.5.3 hollow blocks and T hollow bricks
of standard concrete with a closed
structure
4.5.3.1 2-K block, width s 240 mm
3-K block, width <;300 mm
4-K block, width s 365 mm (S1800) 0.92
4.5.3.2 2-K block, width = 300 mm
3-K block, width = 365 mm (S1800) 1.3
5 thermal insulation materials
5.1 light wood fibre board panels
panel thickness < 25 mm (360-480) 0.093
= 15mm (570) 0.15 2/5
5.2 multilayer light building panels of
plastic foam sheets with coverings
of mineral bound wood fibre
plastic foam panels (2)15) 0.040
wood fibre layers (individual layers) 20nO
10mm <. thickness < 25mm (460-650) 0.15
> 25mm (360-460) 0.093
wood fibre layers (individual layers) (800)
with thickness < 10 mm must not be
considered when calculating the
thermal resistance 1/.
5.3 foam plastic manufactured on the
construction site
5.3.1 polyurethane (PUR) foam (:>37) 0.030 30/100
5.3.2 urea formaldehyde resin (UF) - foam (:>10) 0.041 1/3
5.4 cork insulation material
cork sheets
thermal conductivity group 045 0.045
050 (80-500) 0.050 5/10
055 0.055
5.5 foam plastic
5.5.1 polystyrene (PS) rigid foam
thermal conductivity group
025 0.025
030 0.030
035 0.035
040 0.040
polystyrene particle foam (:>15) 20/50
(::,,20) 30nO
(2)30) 40/100
polystyrene extruded foam (:>25) 80/300
5.5.2 polyurethane (PUR) rigid foam
020 0.020
025 0.025
030 (2)30) 0.30 30/100
035 0.035
5.5.3 phenolic resin (PF) - rigid foam
030 0.030
035 0.035
040 (:>30) 0.040 30/50
045 0.045
5.6 mineral and vegetable fibre insulation
materials
035 0.035
040 0.040
045 (8-500) 0.045 1
050 0.050
5.7 foam glass
045 0.045
050 0.050
055 (100 to 105) 0.055 5)
060 0.060
6 wood and wood materials
6.1 wood
6.1.1 pine, spruce, fir (600) 0.13 40
6.1.2 beech, oak (800) 0.20
6.2 timber materials
6.2.1 plywood (800) 0.15 50/400
6.2.2 chip board
6.2.2.1 flat compressed panels (700) 0.13 50/100
6.2.2.2 extruded panels
(full panels not planking) (700) 0.17 20
6.2.3 particleboard
6.2.3.1 dense particleboard (1000) 0.17 70
6.2.3.2 porous particleboard and bitumen 200 0.045
wood particleboard 300 0.056 5
7 coverings. sealing materials and sealing rolls
7.1 floor coverings
7.1.1 linoleum (1000) 0.17
7.1.2 cork linoleum (700) 0.081
7.1.3 linoleum composite coverings (100) 0.12
CD
THERMAL INSULATION
Characteristic values for use in heat and humidity protection
estimates

117
i
standard
I-
//
~
V r
I
/.1 I
I
r ~~' I
r / /
, .
.. "
db
70
60
30
20
100 200 400 800 1600 3200 Hz
frequency, f
.~ 50
co
:l
C
Q)
co 40
l:J
C
:l
o
fJ Airborne sound insulation
..!J of the wall -~ CD from
measurements by Prof.
Gasele: sound insulation
without covering -7 dB;
with covering +2 dB
plaster
light building
panels, wood
wool board
insulation
- pumice
concrete
masonry work
191
facing panel of plastered wood fibre
board; light construction panels 15 mm
plaster; 115 mm pumice concrete
masonry; 16mm expanded styrofoam;
25 mrn light wood wool building panels -
nailed, with large separation between
nails; 20 mm gypsum-sand-plaster
plaster
® Light sou~d-damping
construction
SOUND INSULATION
Even if propagation of sound is avoided, complete elimination of a
noise is impossible. If the sound source and the hearer are located
in the same room, then some reduction takes place through sound
absorptivity -~ p. 120. If they are in separate rooms, then sound
insulation is the main remedy.
A distinction is made between sound insulation of airborne
sound and sound insulation of structure-borne sound: airborne
sound sources initially disturb the surrounding air, e.g. radio,
shouting or loud music; with structure-borne sound, the sound
source is propagated directly through a structure, e.g. movement of
people on foot, noise from plant and machinery. Sound from a piano
is an example of both airborne sound and structure-borne sound.
Sound is propagated by mechanical vibration and pressure waves
- very small increases and decreases in pressure relative to
atmospheric pressure of the order of a few microbars (ub). (The
pressure fluctuation generated by speaking in a loud voice is about one
millionth of atmospheric pressure.) Sounds and vibrations audible to
humans lie in the frequency range 20Hz-20000Hz (1 Hz = 1 cycle per
second). However, as far as construction is concerned, the significant
range is 100-3200 Hz, to which the human ear is particularly sensitive.
In the human audible range, sound pressures extend from the hearing
threshold to the pain threshold -~ CD. This hearing range is divided into
12 parts, called bels (after A. G. Bell, inventor of the telephone). Since
0.1 bel (or 1 decibel = 1dB) is the smallest difference in sound pressure
perceptible to the human ear at the normal frequency of 1000Hz,
decibels are a physical measure of the intensity of sound, related to
unit surface area ~ CD. Usually, noise levels of up to 60dB are
expressed in dB(A); those of more than 60dB in dB(B), a unit which is
approximately equivalent to the former unit, the phon.
For airborne sound, the sound level difference (between the
original sound level and the insulated sound level) serves to indicate
the degree of sound insulation. For body-propagated sound, a
maximum level is given, which must remain from a standard noise
level. Sound insulation, principally due to mass, is provided by the
use of heavy, thick components in which the airborne sound energy
is initially dissipated through transfer of the airborne sound into the
component, then through excitation of the mass of the component
itself and then, finally, by transfer back into the air. If the component
is directly excited (body sound), then its insulation is naturally lower.
Light sound-damping construction ~ ® makes use of multiple
transfer (air to component to air to component to air) in providing
sound insulation; better insulation, relative to that expected due to
component mass, only occurs above the resonant frequency,
however, which consequently should be below 100 Hz. (This is
comparable to the resonant frequency of the oscillation of a
swinging door which is already swinging due to light impacts. It is
simple to slow the motion of the door by braking; to make it move
more quickly is more difficult and requires force.) The intermediate
space in double-shell construction is filled with sound-absorbing
material, to avoid reflection of the sound backwards and forwards.
The sound propagates in the air as a longitudinal wave ~ Q), but as
a transverse wave in solid materials. The speed of propagation of
longitudinal waves is 340 m/sec but, within materials, this depends
on the type of material, layer thickness and frequency. The
frequency at which the velocity of propagation of a transverse wave
in a structural component is 340 m/sec, is called the boundary
frequency. At this frequency, the transfer of sound from the air into
the component and vice versa, is very good; therefore, the sound
insulation of the component is particularly poor, poorer than would
be expected from the weight of the wall. For heavy, quite inflexible
building components, the boundary frequency is close to the
frequency range of interest and therefore exhibits reduced sound
insulation properties; for thin, flexible components, the boundary
frequency is below this frequency range ~ @.
pW/cm 2
1000
100
10
1
20 30 40 50
Sensitivity to sound
intensity
in general, humans hear a sound as
having increased in intensity only
twofold when, in fact, it has increased
tenfold
2 4 6 10
component thickness (em)
mean hearing range
--median frequency - -
05
hearing sensitivity commences
soft rustle of leaves
lower limit of noises of everyday activities
mean level of noises of everyday activities, low level of conversation;
quiet residential road
normal level of conversation, radio music at normal room level in closed
rooms
noise of a quiet vacuum cleaner; normal road noise in commercial areas
a single typewriter; or a telephone ringing at a distance of 1m
road with very busy traffic; room full of typewriters
noisy factory
motor horns at a distance of 7 m; motor cycle
very noisy work (boilermakers' workshop, etc.l
b
- /
pain thresho~t=- 1-120
- r---.._ L-
....
i"-.. ~ l.-/
110
10-. -r-- ~I"""""~ V"/
100
- ~ -r-- _~V r>
90
~, 802r---.... -~ V
--
- ~~ ::---r--_ 70E-
r---..... -I""""" V
r"~ ~
i""'- __
:
60
1--I-"
/ t.>
- ..... ~
............
........~I
..........
-~ ./ ./
""""- 50 ~
~r-,........r---."i- -......~
)" t.>
~~ "'~~~
40~
-I-~
./
- ~
30~
/
9t~~r--.~
--~~ -/
-f--
----~~ :;;20(f)
~ ,."
- o/ry'
~ 10 ....
.......... 1-1.--' /
r- --, /
..,...,
0_ I-~ --
- <, t-~
V
inflexible, thick
----- t--- -------
inflexible, thin
~ - - - - ~ ~ - - -
Boundary frequency of panels in various building materials
Representation of
transverse waves on a wall
at normal frequencies
50
0-10
20
30
40
500
400
300 ....-----t-----t-----------t-
200
1000
5000 ...-..::o~~-~~._~-t'~---i---t-
4000 ~------'~~r-+.~-"""
3000 ....------'~~~~-:lI~~·-----"'I~lid_---__+_-__+_-r___-+____+__+_+_t_+__ttH+++tttt__t
01
0.01 f
0001 :c
10 4 .~
10 5 ~
10
6
"§
10 7 ~
10 8
10 9
10 10
10 11
20 30 40 50 70 100 200 300 500 700 1000 2000 3000 4000 7000 10000Hz
frequency, f -
Relationship between loudness intensity (phon), acoustic
pressure (IJb), sound level (dB) and acoustic intensity (IJW/cm2 )
Hz
10000 ~~r--
....._--~-----r--r-----r----r----'-"'-T"""'T-r-~rrrT''M
60
70
80
90
100
100-130
(a) incorrect (b) correct
the wall (a) does not oscillate as a whole,
but rather (b) in parts which vibrate in
opposition to one another
CD
o Scale of sound intensities
120
110 100
100
10
90
80
(f) 70
~
Q)
--060 ::J
U
~ 01
~ 50
40 u
30
;001
~
20
0001
10
0
00001

Minimum thicknesses of single-layer walls for airborne sound
insulation ~ 0 dB
o
SOUND INSULATION
item description gross density wall weight wall weight
(kg/dm3) >400kg/m2 >350 kg/m 2
<400kg/m2
mm kp/rn-' mm kp/rn-'
masonry work in solid, perforated and hollow blocks,
plastered on both sides to a thickness of 15 mm
1 1 365 450 300 380
2 perforated brick, solid brick 1.2 300 445 240 360
3 1.4 240 405 - -
4 solid engineering brick 1.8 240 485 - -
5 1.9 240 505 - -
6 - - 300 380
7 hollow sand lime bricks 1.2 300 440 240 360
8 1.2 300 445 240 360
9 sand lime perforated bricks 1.4 240 405 - -
10 1.6 240 440 - -
11 1.6 240 440 - -
12 solid sand lime bricks 1.8 240 485 - -
13 2 240 530 - -
14 foundry stone 1.8 240 485 - -
15 hard foundry stone 1.9 240 505 -
16 2- or reversed laid, 1 300 420 - -
17 3-chambered with cavities 1.2 300 460 - -
18 hollow filled with 1.4 240 410 - -
19 concrete sand 1.6 240 440 - -
20 blocks 1 365 400 - -
21 without 1.2 - - - -
22 sand filling 1.4 - - 300 355
23 1.6 300 430 240 380
24 0.8 365 405 - -
25 lightweight concrete 1 365 450 300 380
26 solid blocks 1.2 300 445 240 360
27 1.4 240 405 - -
28 1.6 240 440 -
29 aerated/foamed concrete 0.6 - - 490 390
30 blocks 0.8 490 485 365 380
lightweight concrete and concrete in unjointed walls
and storey-depth panels, 15 mm plaster on both sides
31 aerated/foamed concrete blocks 0.6 - - 500 350
32 0.8 437.5 400 375 350
33 pumice/bituminous coal slag, 0.8 437.5 400 375 350
34 concrete with brick debris, 1 375 425 312.5 360
35 or similar 1.2 312.5 425 250 -
36 1.4 250 400 - 350
37 1.6 250 450 187.5 350
38 1.7 250 475 187.5 370
39 concrete with porous debris, 1.5 250 425 - -
40 with non-porous additions, 1.7 250 475 187.5 370
41 e.g. gravel 1.9 187.5 405 - -
42 gravel or broken concrete 2.2 187.5 460 150 380
with closed structure
With airborne sound, the aerial sound wave excites the component
---) CD; hence, the effect of the boundary frequency on the sound
insulation increases ---) @.
The standard curve shows how large the sound level difference
must be at the individual frequencies, as a minimum, so as to
achieve a level of sound insulation of ±OdB. Prescribed values -> (2);
required wall thicknesses ---) (f).
However, the effect of sound transmitted by 'secondary paths'
(e.g. sound from foot steps) can be more disruptive than that from
impact, so these must be taken into account in the sound insulation
calculations. (For this reason, test results should always be drawn
up for sound insulating walls with due consideration of the usual
secondary paths.) Components which are stiff in bending, with
weights per unit surface area of 10-160kg/m2, are particularly likely
to provide secondary paths. Therefore, living room dividing walls -
which are contacted by such components in the form of lateral walls
- should have a weight of at least 400 kg/m 2. (Where the contacting
walls have a surface weight of over 250 kg/m2, this value can be
350 kg/m2.)
Doors and windows, with their low sound insulation properties
---) @, have a particularly adverse effect on insulation against
airborne sound; the small proportion of the surface occupied by the
openings is usually subject to a sound insulation value which is less
than the arithmetic mean of the sound damping of wall and opening.
Therefore, the sound insulation of the door or window should
always be improved where possible. Walls which have insufficient
sound insulation can be improved through the addition of a non-
rigid facing panel ---) @ p. 117. Double walls can be particularly well
soundproofed if they contain soft, springy insulating material and
are relatively flexible ---) @ p. 117, or if the two wall panels are
completely separately supported. Flexible panels are relatively
insensitive to small sound bridges (by contrast to rigid panels). Type
testing methods of construction should always be employed on
sound insulating double walls. Covering layers of plaster on
insulation materials of standard hardness (e.g. on standard
styrofoam) considerably reduces the sound insulation.
o
o
~
o
o
co
o
o
co
frequency (Hz)
o
o
N
",,-- -
~
"V
V
Standard curve for airborne
sound
co dB
~ 70
o Diagonal transmission
o
small
..............
...............
...............
...............
4 5 10 20 30 40 50 70 100 200 300 400 500
mass per unit area of the component (kq/rn-']
Airborne sound insulation. weight/unit surface area and
component thickness (Giisele)
//
Secondary path via
bordering single layer
component
/
V
r-~ >---- rigid thin walls
V
/
V
V
t>
V ~ I'--"
.....-'i.o"""
vV
/
V
~ 20
S;
aJ
C
(;
.D
~ 30
en
~
aJ
::J
~ 10
c
S?
ro
~
1 simple door with threshold, without special sealing up to 20db
2 heavy door with threshold and good sealing up to 30db
3 double doors with threshold, without special sealing,
opening individually up to 30db
4 heavy double doors, with threshold and sealing up to 40db
5 simple window, without additional sealing up to 15db
6 simple window, with good sealing up to 25db
7 double window, without special sealing up to 25db
8 double window, with good sealing up to 30db
+ 0
® Sound insulation of doors and windows
®
Thickness (cm) at given
weight/unit surface area heavy concrete* (2200 kg/m 3) I625 1125 125
solid brick". limysandstone* (1800kg/m3) 1525 1115 124
hollow clay blocks* (1400 kg/m3) I525 1115 I 124 136.5
lightweight concrete* (800 kg/m 3) 1625 112[C 125 137~
:~:~~~~:~~~r~1~;n~~~~) brick (1900 kg/m3) 1525 1115 I 124
1031 05 I 1 111111111512 I glass (2600kg/m3)
10.31 05 I I I 11111111 5 I2 ~'~ f~0~g~~~~3~ asbestos cement
gypsum (1000kg/m3) 11 11.512 13 14151 111110 1151201251
o31 p~ I 111 11t II [1 5![[]ill plywood (600kg/m3)
CD
G) Airborne sound
118

30 II'
1 II'
I 1/
I V
25
v
V
I If'
T 1/
I ~
20
1/ ~
I 1/
T v ~ ~
I II' V" ~ ~ v
r [7
15
~ 1/
/I II' V
1 V i.J I~ v
1 II' 17 l.JI I.JI II'
I II l.i LJ
10
V !.' V
v
1 /I 1/
I ~ I..-- [.,-
I 1/ !.'
5
l..; I".il'
l..; I;ii' L-'" 1,;0 L-oi
1 ~L; L; 10""" l,..-
T 1.00' I" I" L..o ~
I L",.o~.............. 10-' I-
calculation procedure:
1 establish the difference of the individual insulation values D, = 0, - O2
(where 0, > O2)
determine aspect ratio of the insulating wall components
reduction in insulation R is given by the point of intersection of aspect ratio with
the vertical ordinate Oz
Impact sound insulation
In the case of impact sound (e.g. noise due to footsteps), the
ceiling is directly excited into vibration ~ @. The standard
curve ~ ® gives a standardised impact sound level, i.e., the
maximum that should be heard in the room below when a
standard 'tramper' is in action above. To allow for ageing,
the values achieved immediately after construction must be
3dB better than the values shown.
The usual form of impact sound insulation is provided by
'floatinq' screed, i.e. a jointless, soft, springy insulating
layer, covered with a protective layer and, then, a screed of
cement concrete, anhydrous gypsum or poured asphalt.
This simultaneously provides protection against airborne
sound and is therefore suitable for all types of floors (floor
groups I and II). The edge should be free to move, and
mastic joint filler with enduring elasticity should always be
used, particularly with tiled floors ~ 0, since the screed is
thin and stiff, and is therefore extremely sensitive to sound
bridges. With floors whose airborne sound insulation is
already adequate (floor group II), impact insulation can also
be provided by using a soft, springy floor finish ~ @. Floors
in floor group I can be upgraded to group II by the provision
of a soft, springy suspended floor ~ @. The degree to which
this floor finish improves the impact sound insulation is
judged from the improvement in dB attenuation.
10 15 20 25 30 35 dB
difference of the individual insulation values D, = 0, - O2
@ Determination of reduction in insulation
SOUND INSULATION
House dividing walls
House dividing walls constructed from wall leafs with leaf
weights per unit surface area < 350 kq/rn? must be separated
by a cavity over the entire depth of the house; their mass
should be ~ 150 kg/m2 (200 kg/m2 in multi-storey residences).
If the dividing wall commences at the foundations, no
additional precautions are necessary; if it commences at the
ground level (as for dividing walls between separate
residential accommodation), the floor above the cellar must
have a suspended floor or a soft springy covering. The
cavity should be provided with filling material (foam panels,
etc.) preferably with staggered joints; small jointing areas
can reduce the sound insulation, because the structure is
resistant to bending.
Composite walls
In this case (including any walls with areas of different
sound insulation properties, e.g. with a door), the total
insulation value 0 9
is obtained after deducting the insulation
reduction R from the overall insulation value ~ @.
8
(J
C')
inside
wall tiles
- plaster, reinforced
insulation
floor screed
protective screed
floor tiles
or panels
styrofoam elastic > 10mm
wooden floor
sand, clay, clinker
8
(J
unfavourable
~:::
~
..-.-.-
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::F::::::::::::::::::::::~::::::::::::::::
structural floor
Possible solution for
impact sound insulation on
a timber joist ceiling
frequency (Hz)
Standard curve for impact
sound
outside
iii
~ 80
Q)
~ 70
~
5l 60
o
co
a.
.S 50
® Floor construction with
ceiling for bathrooms with
shower
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
[ structural floor
® Plaster applied after floor
screed, on solid walls
o Plan view ~ CD
plastered
masonry
sound
radiation
. .
..............
. .
durable elastic filling
floating floor tiling
screed (to falls)
Soft, pliable suspended
ceiling
Floating tiled floor (baths)
®
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::y:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
structural floor
f5 Plaster applied down to floor
~ level before floor screed;
prescribed for porous walls
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::i::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
[ structural floor
insulation
Double skin dividing wall
with continuous cavity
................
••••••.••.•...•...•...•.•......
...............
................
...............
:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:
...........
insulation
floor screed
floor finish
(j)
o Sound conduction through
solid structure
e.g. cavity
through
masonry
..•.••....••••.........••..•••
...............
119

2.00m2
3.00m2
24.00m2
29.00m2
Example: Swimming bath
40 m 2 water x 0.05
100m2 walls and floor x 0.03
60 m 2 acoustic ceiling x 0.4
29
A = 150 ::= 0.2V; reverberation time is thus 0.75 seconds.
Protection against external noise
Precautions can be taken against external noise (traffic, etc.):
• Appropriate planning of the building, e.g. living/recreation
rooms away from sources of noise
• Sound insulation of outer walls, particularly window and
outer door insulation; fixed glazed installations with
ventilation systems
• Installation of sound insulation shields in facades
• Sound protection through landscaping, e.g. embankments,
walls or planted areas
In the case of embankments, walls and other screens, the sizing of
the protective device can be obtained ~ (J) for the various
wavelengths (wavelength is approx. 340 m/frequency). It can be seen
how important dimension h is, as given by angle a.
SOUND INSULATION
Noise from services
Noise from services can occur as plumbing fixture noise, pipework
noise and/or filling/emptying noises:
• For plumbing fixture noise, the remedy is provided by sound-
insulated valves with inspection symbols (test group I with at
most 20dB(A) overall noise level, test group II with at most
30 dB(A) only permissible for internal house walls and
adjoining service rooms). All installations are improved,
among other measures, by sound dampers.
• For pipework noise due to the formation of vortices in the
pipework, the remedy is to use radiused fittings instead of
sharp angles, adequate dimensioning, and sound damping
suspensions ~ CD.
• For filling noise caused by water on the walls of baths, etc.
the remedy is to muffle the objects, fit aerator spouts on the
taps, and to sit baths on sound damping feet (and use elastic
joints around the edges).
• For emptying noise (gurgling noises), the remedy is correct
dimensioning and ventilation of drain pipes.
The maximum permissible sound level due to services in adjoining
accommodation is 35dB(A). Sound generating components of
domestic services and machinery (e.g. water pipes, drain pipes, gas
supply pipes, waste discharge pipes, lifts) must not be installed in
rooms intended for quiet everyday activities (e.g. living rooms,
bedrooms).
Sound insulation for boilers can be effected by sound-damped
installation (isolated foundation ~ @, sound-absorbing sub-
construction), sound-damping hood for the burner, connection to
chimney with sound-damping entry, and connection to hot pipework
by means of rubber compensators.
In ventilation ducts of air conditioning systems, noise from
sound transmission is reduced by means of so-called telephonic
sound dampers; these comprise sound-absorbing packings,
between which the air flows. The thicker the packing, the lower the
frequencies which are covered. The ventilation ducts themselves
should also be sound insulated.
Sound absorption
In contrast to sound insulation, sound absorption does not usually
reduce the passage of sound through a component. It has no effect
on the sound which reaches the ear directly from the source; it
merely reduces the reflected sound.
Although the direct sound diminishes with distance from the
source, the reflected sound is just as loud, or louder than the direct
sound, at a distance greater than the 'sound' radius about the sound
source ~ @. If the reflection of sound is reduced, then the level of
the reflected sound is reduced outside the original 'sound' radius,
while the sound radius itself increases. Nothing changes within the
original sound radius.
The sound absorption capability of a room is expressed in rn-'
equivalent sound absorption, i.e. the ideal sound absorbing surface
that has the same absorption capability as the room itself. For a
reverberation time of 1.5 sec. - ideal for private swimming baths,
etc. - the equivalent sound absorption surface A must be 0.1 m 2 for
every m 3 of room volume v (the sound radius would then be only
1.1 m in a room 6 x 10 x 2.5 m) and twice as large to achieve half the
reverberation time.
~
:./
.~
'"
J
/:
1(.
B
Sound radius and sound
absorbing capability of a
room
construction:
concrete 825 12 cm
bitumen felt 500g/m2
cork sheet 5cm
bitumen felt 500g/m2
concrete B25 12 cm
~12~90-----4
II
~erial
Duct packed with sound
absorbing material
(transmitted sound damper)
B
o
o 200 400 600 800
equivalent sound absorbing surface
(m2)
Q
Q = sound source
B = hearer
:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:
® Diagram ~ (J)
®
II
o Sound insulated boiler
foundation 90 cm wide
distance from source of sound
(m)
The level of reflected
sound can be reduced by
sound absorption
measures; the sound radius
increases but, at the same
time, the noise level
reduces outside the
previous sound radius
"room sound level; level
reduced by at least 4
times sound output
- _1~
I"

1.25 x previous
sound radius
level of direct
su bseq uent'.Y,I I
1'1""1
2.5 x sound radius
70
100
60
0.2 0.4 0.8 1.6 3.2 6.412.5 25 50
bd
I I
DO
I I
DO
I ---~
DO
I I
DO
I I
r-,r---,
Sound insulation of
pipework
~,.,
:..,:
..:..:..:." ... ",
-B
. , '--·-A
B
B~
read off the shielding ordinate as a
function of angle u • @, and height
(m)/sound wavelength
example: u = 30°, h = 2.50 m: at 500 Hz
(med. freq. range) 340/500 = 0.68;
wavelength is h/A = 2.5/0.68 = 3.68,
hence shielding effect = 17dB
A = sound insulating material, e.g. rubber
8 = air space - if necessary, filled with
sound insulating material
(j) Sound proofing due to
outside barriers
®
o Metal/rubber element
dB
30 90°
30'
20 10"
5°
1°
10
~.:
0"
0
0.2 0.5 10 20 = h/:
120

VIBRATION DAMPING
Sound Conduction Through Structures
Vibrations in solid bodies, 'structure-borne sounds', are
created either by sound in air, or directly, by mechanical
excitation ~ CD + @.
Since the alternating mechanical forces are usually
higher than any produced by fluctuating air pressure, the
audible radiation is usually greater in the case of direct
excitation. Frequently, resonance phenomena occur, which
lead to higher audible radiation in narrow frequency ranges.
If the radiated sound remains monotonic, the cause is
usually the result of direct excitation of the structure. Anti
'structure-borne sound' measures must therefore seek to
reduce this direct excitation and its further propagation.
Precautions to combat structure-borne sound transmission
In the case of water installations, only valves carrying
inspection symbols in accordance with group I or II should
be used. The water pressure should be as low as possible.
The water velocity plays a subordinate role.
Pipework should be attached to walls in accordance with
good practice, with surface loading mil ~ 250 kg/m2.
Baths and tanks should be installed on floating screed
and separated from walls. Walled enclosures should be
flexibly jointed to the primary walls. Wall-suspended WC
fittings cause direct excitation of the structure; however,
rigid fixing is unavoidable, so if necessary, elastic layers
should be introduced.
Water and drainage pipes must be fixed using elastic
materials and should not be in direct contact with the
structural wall.
Lifts should be installed in separate shafts ~ @ and joints
filled with at least 30 mm mineral fibre, or the top of the
shaft provided with Neoprene bearing strips -~ @.
Pumps and equipment must be installed on structure-
borne sound insulated foundations and elastically
connected.
Compensators are subject to tensile stresses, since the
internal pressure also acts on the longitudinal axis of the
assembly ~ @.
Rubber granulate panels are particularly suitable as
insulating material for foundations, due to their high
compressive strength. If required, impact sound insulating
materials of mineral fibre and plastic foam can be built in.
Cork and solid rubber are unsuitable, since these materials
are too stiff. The more the insulating materials are
compressed together under load, without being
overloaded, the better is the insulating effect.
With flat insulating materials, the loading must usually
be greater than 0.5 N/mm2. If this cannot be guaranteed,
then individual elements are required, effectively to add to
the weight of the equipment.
The insulating effect is also greatest here if the elements
are loaded to a maximum, without becoming overloaded.
The individual elements can be of Neoprene or steel >. @.
Steel springs provide the best structural sound
insulation, due to their low stiffness. In special cases, air
springs can be used. In the case of individual springs,
attention must be paid to the centre of gravity, to ensure the
elements are uniformly loaded -~ (1).
In the case of periodic excitation (e.g. due to oscillating
or rotating masses), the frequency of excitation must not
coincide with the natural frequency of the elastically
suspended system. Large motions result from the
reverberation which, in the case of elements with low
damping, can lead to structural failure --~ @. Particularly
high insulating properties may be obtained by using
doubled elastic suspensions) @. Unfavourable interaction
between foundations on floating layers can lead to a
reduction in insulation.
o
2 1.41
machine foot
angle anchorage
gypsum board panels
~~ b= o~1
~
0
'"
-- f- I
amplification r damping
.1 0.3 10L20 :0 10
+30
turning ratio
~ 10
+40
o
nickel-steel spring
Example of individual
spring element
-20
Top of shaft with Neoprene
bearing layer
a~
~ airborne
f sound
Example of vibration
mounting ceiling element
ceiling suspension
m
~
is +10
.~
~ +20
vibration
mounting
® Effect of elastic bearing
o
o Causes of structure-borne
sound
:::::::::::::::::::::::::=::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
~ pipeline fixing
point
Alignment of spring with
centre of gravity
Separate lift shaft with
>30 mm mineral fibre lining
light wall - high excitation
Heavy wall - less excitation
:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:
® Double elastic suspension
for ventilator
(])
® Equipment installation with
elastic insert in foundation
o
121

ROOM ACOUSTICS
Requirements for rooms
(1) Reverberation time
The optimum value for reverberation time is dependent
on the particular use and room volume ~ @. In general,
reverberation time is frequency-dependent (longer at
low frequencies, shorter at high frequencies.) For f =
500 Hz, surveys have shown that approximations may
provide optimum values ~ @.
(2) Speech intelligibility
This is used to judge the degree of audibility of the
spoken word ~ @. It is not standardised, so various
terms - sentence intelligibility, syllable intelligibility,
evaluation with logatomes - are usual. In determining
the intelligibility of speech, a number of collectively
heard individual syllables of no significance (Iogatomes
such as lin and ter) are noted; the correctness is used to
make an assessment - a score of more than 70% implies
excellent speech intelligibility. Newer, objective,
methods make use of modulated noise signals (RASTI
method) and lead to reproducible results at low expense.
(3) Impression of space
This is determined by the reception of reflections with
respect to time and direction. For music, diffuse
reflections are favourable for sound volume, while early
reflections with delays of up to 80 ms (corresponding to
27 m path difference) with respect to the direct sound
promote clarity ~ @. Speech requires shorter delays (up
to 50 rns) so as not to degrade the intelligibility.
Room acoustic planning should ensure that optimum
audible conditions are created for listeners in rooms where
speech and music are to be carried out. Various factors
should be considered, of which the two most important are
reverberation time, and reflections (as a consequence of the
primary and secondary structure of the room).
(1) Reverberation time
This is the time taken for the decay of a noise level of
60dS after the sound source has been switched off. CD·
Evaluation is carried out over the range -5 to -35dB.
(2) Absorption surface
The absorption surface is determined by the amount of
absorbing material, expressed as an area having
complete absorption (open window):
A = as x S
where as is the degree of sound absorption from echo
chamber measurements, and S is the area of surface
portion.
The reverberation time is calculated from the absorption
surface from:
t = 0.163 x V + as x S (after Sabine)
(3) Echoes
When individual, subjectively recognisable peaks are
superimposed on a smoothly falling reverberation time
curve ~ CD, these are described as echoes ~ ~. Various
values of time and intensity apply as the echo criterion
for speech and music. Rooms devoted to music should
have a longer reverberation time, but are usually
regarded as less critical from the point of view of echoes.
300
unfavourable
reflection (or echo)
Reverberation times:
optimum range
® Table of specific volumes
purpose characteristic max.
volume volume
(m 3 per seat) (m 3 )
spoken 3... 5 5000
theatrical
work
multipurpose: 4...7 8000
speech and
music
musical 5... 8 15000
theatre
(opera, operetta)
chamber music 6... 10 10000
concert hall
symphony music 8... 12 25000
concert hall
rooms for 10... 14 30000
oratorios and
organ music
CD
room reverberation
function time (s)
speech cabaret 0.8
drama 1.0
lecture
music chamber 1.0 ..1.5
music
opera 1.3... 1.6
concert 1.7... 2.1
organ music 2.5 ... 3.0
- echo
20 40 60 80%100
syllable intelligibility, Vs
] IliI1 I ~1
Speech intelligibility
wV V /
". /
/
/
~'
,/
....... ",,'/
".
( o~?J. C ~~ 0~c ,/ ....
~~?J. 0( ~ ~ '"
,.- ,.- ....
o ~~'( ~~ "./-' v"'"
<:>'1 oc'(?J. ,..-
V 00 ?J.(l~~o<:>~ I ...... ,.----
.....
./'
".'" / V >- ~ I -
". ".". ~ ,..-'"
1,,/
/ ,/
V V vV ~eec;;
,/
""
,..-/ ;;>
.......
'" V V
V
,,- '" / ... ~
,,- / ........V
/
~/
.....
......, ~- _... OdS
" .."
5dS
r I{
~l
I
resonance ,
I '
~ "T
• , I
,
- reverberation
, time curve
, ,
,

3SdS
T .
~--l
..~ interference acoustic _
,
• oil
1--- ,I?!essure leve~---
, .... VI"" -y ' •AlNJIIr"
....
time--
1.0
0.9
0.8
102
2 3 5 103
2 3 5 10· 2 3 5 105
2 3 5 106
o Reverberation times: tolerance :t20% volume, V
100
%
S 3.0
2.5
t- 2.0
.~ 1.8
c 1.6
o
.~ 1.4
~
~ 1.2
o Echo criterion
G) Measurement of reverberation time
early, favourable reflections
(]) Reflection sequence in the room
122

ROOM ACOUSTICS
Primary structure of rooms
Volume is application dependent --1 @ p. 122: 4 m3/person
for speech, 18m3/person for concerts; too small a volume
results in insufficient reverberation time. Narrow, high
rooms with walls with multiple angles (early sideways
reflections) are particularly suitable for music. For early
initial reflections and balance of the orchestra, reflection
surfaces are needed in the vicinity of the podium. The rear
wall of the room should not cause any reflections in the
direction of the podium, since these can have the effect of
echoes. Parallel, planar surfaces should be avoided, to
prevent directionally oscillating echoes due to multiple
reflections --1 CD. Providing projections in the walls, at angles
greater than 5°, avoids parallel surfaces and allows diffuse
reflection to occur. The ceiling serves to conduct the sound
into the back part of the room and must be shaped
accordingly --1 @. If the ceiling shape is unfavourable, large
differences in sound intensity occur due to sound
concentrations. Rooms where the walls are further apart at
the back than at the front of the room produce unfavourable
effects, since the reflections from the sides can be too weak
--1 @; this disadvantage can be compensated by the using
additional reflection surfaces (Weinberg steps) - as in the
Berlin and Cologne Philharmonics --1 @ - or the walls may
be provided with pronounced folding to guide the sound.
Wherever possible, the podium should be on the narrow
side of the room; in the case of the spoken word or in small
rooms (chamber music), it may even be arranged on a long
wall (Beethoven Archive --1 @). Multipurpose rooms with
variably arranged podia and plain parquet floors are
frequently problematic for music. The podium must be
raised in relation to the parquet, so as to support the direct
propagation of the sound; otherwise, the level of the sound
propagation would fall too quickly --1 @. Providing an
upward inclination of the seating levels, to obtain a uniform
level of direct sound at all seats gives better visibility and
acoustics --1 ([); the slope of the seating levels should follow
a logarithmic curve.
Secondary structure
Reflection surfaces can compensate for an unfavourable
primary structure: projections on the surface of walls which
diverge, ceiling shapes produced by hanging sails or the
use of individual elements ~ p. 124.
For the music listener, early sideways reflections are better
than ceiling reflections, even at very low delay times
(asymmetry of the acoustic impression), since each ear
receives a different signal. Narrow, high rooms with
geometrically reflecting walls with multiple angles and
diffusely reflecting ceilings are the simplest from the point
of view of room acoustics.
..
foyer
poor
sound
area
,-,
-,
/
/
/
" chamber
,/ music hall
8) Less favourable platform
o Unfavourable ceiling shape
+2.40
In one plane for music;
inclined downward towards
the back for speech
,
I
,
,
I
I
oscillating echo
® Berlin Philharmonic - staggering the auditorium
CD
G) Prevention of oscillating
echoes
emergency exit
® Podium with small chamber music hall - Beethoven Archive, Bonn
sound absorbing - -
® boq!nw M!'" 8wvII c"vwpeL Wn8!C "vII - B66,,,oAeu VLC,,!Ae' BOUU
GWGlaGucA GXII
emergency exit
:.:.:.:...
:...
:::..:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:...
:.:.:.::.:.:.:.:::..:::::::::::..:r::..:.:..-

ROOM ACOUSTICS
Primary structure of rooms
Volume is application dependent '® p. 122: 4 m3/person
for speech, 18 rn-/pcrson for concerts; too small a volume
results in insufficient reverberation time. Narrow, high
rooms with walls with multiple angles (early sideways
reflections) are particularly suitable for music. For early
initial reflections and balance of the orchestra, reflection
surfaces are needed in the vicinity of the podium. The rear
wall of the room should not cause any reflections in the
direction of the podium, since these can have the effect of
echoes. Parallel, planar surfaces should be avoided, to
prevent directionally oscillating echoes due to multiple
reflections ...~ CD. Providing projections in the walls, at angles
greater than 5°, avoids parallel surfaces and allows diffuse
reflection to occur. The ceiling serves to conduct the sound
into the back part of the room and must be shaped
accordingly ~ C~. If the ceiling shape is unfavourable, large
differences in sound intensity occur due to sound
concentrations. Rooms where the walls are further apart at
the back than at the front of the room produce unfavourable
effects, since the reflections from the sides can be too weak
-1 @; this disadvantage can be compensated by the using
additional reflection surfaces (Weinberg steps) - as in the
Berlin and Cologne Phitharmorucs c. @ - or the walls may
be provided with pronounced folding to guide the sound.
Wherever possible, the podium should be on the narrow
side of the room; in the case of the spoken word or in small
rooms (chamber music), it may even be arranged on a long
wall (Beethoven Archive --4 @). Multipurpose rooms with
variably arranged podia and plain parquet floors are
frequently problematic for music. The podium must be
raised in relation to the parquet, so as to support the direct
propagation of the sound; otherwise, the level of the sound
propagation would fall too quickly -~ @. Providing an
upward inclination of the seating levels, to obtain a uniform
level of direct sound at all seats gives better visibility and
acoustics ~ (j); the slope of the seating levels should follow
a logarithmic curve.
Secondary structure
Reflection surfaces can compensate for an unfavourable
primary structure: projections on the surface of walls which
diverge, ceiling shapes produced by hanging sails or the
use of individual elements ~ p. 124.
For the music listener, early sideways reflections are better
than ceiling reflections, even at very low delay times
(asymmetry of the acoustic impression), since each ear
receives a different signal. Narrow, high rooms with
geometrically reflecting walls with multiple angles and
diffusely reflecting ceilings are the simplest from the point
of view of room acoustics.
..
foyer
poor
sound
area
/
/
/
" chamber
" music hall
8) Less favourable platform
CD Unfavourable ceiling shape
+2.40
In one plane for music;
inclined downward towards
the back for speech
oscillating echo
,
,
,
,
,
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::-.::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
® Berlin Philharmonic - staggering the auditorium
CD
G) Prevention of oscillating
echoes
emergency exit
sound absorbing -_
o Seats on ascending
logarithmic curve
® Folding wall surface
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::;:;:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::;:;:;:;:;:;:::;:;:;:;:;:;:;:;:;:;:;:::;:::;:;:;:;:::::;:;:;:::;:;:::::;:::::::;:;:;:;:::::::;:::::::::;:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
® Drop in sound level over absorbing surface
123

Building regulations require that due consideration must be
given in buildings to:
- the flammability of building materials
- the duration of fire resistance of the components
expressed in terms of fire resistance classifications
- the integrity of the sealing of openings
- the arrangement of escape routes.
The aim is to prevent the start and spread of a fire, stem the
spread of smoke and facilitate the escape or rescue of
persons and animals. In addition consideration must be
given to effective extinguishing of a fire. Active and passive
precautions must be taken to satisfy these requirements.
Active precautions are those systems that are automatically
deployed in the event of fire; passive precautions are the
construction solutions in the building and its components.
Active precautions include smoke and fire alarm systems,
sprinkler systems, water spray extinguisher plant, CO2
extinguishing installations, powder and foam extinguisher
plant, and automatic smoke and heat venting systems.
Passive precautions relate mainly to minimum structural
sections, casings and coatings. In addition to these, other
important measures are the layout of rising mains,
installation of fire doors and fire windows, construction of
supporting floors, water cooling of hollow steel profiles and
the dimensioning of casings and coatings for steel profiles.
Fire detectors
A fire detector is a part of the fire alarm system and can
trigger a transmitting device that raises the alarm in a
remote control centre. There are automatic and non-
automatic fire detectors. The latter are those which can be
activated manually. Automatic fire detectors are parts of the
overall fire alarm system that sense changes in specific
physical and/or chemical parameters (either continuously
or sequentially in set time intervals) to detect a fire within
the monitored area. They must be:
- installed in sufficient numbers and be suited to the
general arrangement of the area to be monitored
- selected according to the fire risk
- mounted in such a way that whatever parameter change
triggers the alarm can be easily sensed by the detector.
Typical applications for different types of fire detectors
(1) Smoke detectors
These are used in rooms containing materials that would
give off large volumes of smoke in the event of a fire.
- Optical smoke detectors: triggered by visible smoke.
- Ionisation smoke detectors: triggered by small
amounts of smoke which have not been detected by
optical means. These detectors provide earlier
warning than optical smoke detectors and are
suitable for houses, offices, storage and sales rooms.
(2) Flame detectors
These are activated by radiation emanating from flames
and are used in rooms containing materials that burn
without smoke, or produce very little.
(3) Heat detectors
These are useful for rooms in which smoke that could
wrongly set off other early warning systems is generated
under normal working conditions (e.g. in workshops where
welding work is carried out).
- Maximum detectors: triggered when a maximum
temperature is exceeded (e.g. 70°C).
- Differential detectors: triggered by a specified rise in
temperature within a fixed period of time (e.g. a rise
of 5°C in 1 minute).
The planning and installation of fire detection systems must
be designed to suit the area to be monitored, room height
and the type of ceiling and roofing.
FIRE DETECTION
Typical extracts from building regulations and
guidelines produced by fire and insurance specialists
Fire development If the initial phase of a fire is likely to be
of a type characterised by smouldering (i.e. considerable
smoke generation, very little heat and little or no flame
propagation), then smoke detectors should be used. If
rapid development of fire is anticipated in the initial phase
(severe heat generation, strong flame propagation and
smoke development), then smoke, heat and flame
detectors can be used, or combinations of the various
types.
Fire detection areas The total area to be monitored must be
divided into detection areas. The establishment of these
detection areas should be carried out in such a way that
rapid and decisive pinpointing of the source of the fire is
possible. A detection area must only extend over one floor
level (the exceptions to this being stairwells, ventilation and
elevator shafts and tower type structures, which must have
their own detection areas). A detection area must not
overlap into another fire compartment and typically should
not be larger than 1600 m 2.
Fire detection systems for data processing facilities The
monitoring of electronic data processing facilities places
special additional requirements on the planning and
execution of fire alarm systems.
Factors influencing detector positions and numbers
(1) Room height
The greater the distance between the fire source and the
ceiling, the greater the zone of evenly distributed smoke
concentration will be. The ceiling height effects the
suitability of the various types of smoke and fire detectors.
Generally, higher ceiling sections whose area is less than
100/0 of the total ceiling area are not considered, so long as
these sections of ceiling are not greater in area than the
maximum monitoring area of a detector.
(2) Monitoring areas and distribution of the detectors
The number of fire detectors should be selected such that
the recommended maximum monitoring areas for each
detector are not exceeded. Some standards specify the
maximum distance between detectors and the maximum
distance allowed between any point on the ceiling and the
nearest detector. Within certain limits there may be a
de parture fro m the ideaI sq uare g rid pattern 0 f the
detectors.
(3) Arrangement of detectors on ceilings with downstanding
beams
Depending on the room size, beams above a specified
depth must be taken into account in the arrangement of the
fire detectors. Typically, if the area of ceiling between the
downstanding beams is equal to or greater than 0.6 of the
permissible monitoring area of the detector, then each of
these soffit areas must be fitted with detectors. If the
portions of soffit area are larger than the permissible
monitoring area, then the individual portions of soffit must
be considered as individual rooms. If the depth of the
downstanding beam is greater than 800 mm, then a fire
detector must be provided for each soffit area.
(4) For spaces with multi-bay type roofs
Generally in this case, each bay must be provided with a
row of detectors. Heat detectors are always to be fitted
directly to the ceiling. In the case of smoke detectors, the
distances required between the detector and the ceiling, or
the roof, depend on the structure of the ceiling or roof and
on the height of the rooms to be monitored. In the case of
flame detectors, the distances should be determined for
each individual case.
125

126
Internal fire spread (surface)
The linings of walls and ceilings can be an important factor
in the spread of a fire and its gaining hold. This can be
particularly dangerous in circulation areas, where it might
prevent people escaping. Two factors relating to the
property of materials need to be taken into account: the
resistance to flame spread over the surface and the rate of
heat release once ignited. Various testing methods are used
to establish these qualities. In the UK, a numbered system
categorises the levels of surface flame spread and
combustibility: 0, with the highest performance (non-
combustible throughout), followed by classes 1, 2, 3 and 4.
There are a series of standards that must be complied
with relating to allowable class of linings in various
locations. For example, for small rooms in residential
buildings (4 m2) and non-residential buildings (30 m 2), class
3 materials are acceptable; for other rooms and circulation
spaces within dwellings, use class 1 materials; and for busy
public circulation spaces, class 0 materials should be used.
Rooflights and lighting diffusers that form an integral part
of the ceiling should be considered a part of the linings.
There are limitations on the use of class 3 plastic roof-lights
and diffusers.
Internal fire spread (structure)
There are three factors to be considered under this heading:
(1) Fire resistance and structural stability
It is necessary to protect the structure of a building from the
effects of fire in order to allow people to escape, to make it
safe for firefighters to enter the building to rescue victims
and tackle the fire, and also to protect nearby people and
adjacent buildings from the effects of a collapse. The level
of fire resistance required depends on a range of factors: an
estimation of the potential fire severity (depending on the
use and content of the building); the height of the building;
type of building occupancy; the number of floors and the
presence of basements. Fire resistance has three aspects:
resistance to collapse, resistance to fire penetration and
resistance to heat penetration. Building regulations provide
tables that set out specific provisions and minimum
requirements of these aspects for different structural
elements in different classes of buildings.
(2) Compartmentation within buildings
It is often necessary to divide a large complicated building
into separate fire-resisting compartments in order to
prevent the rapid spread of fire throughout the building.
The factors to be considered are the same as those for fire
resistance. Regulations stipulate maximum sizes of
compartments for different building types. In general, floors
in multistorey buildings form a compartment division, as do
walls that divide different parts of multi-use buildings. The
use of sprinklers can allow an increase in the compartment
size in non-residential buildings.
Careful attention should be paid to construction details
of compartment walls and floors, particularly the junction
details between walls, floors and roofs, such that the
integrity of fire resistance is maintained. Strict rules apply
to openings permitted in compartment walls and floors,
these being restricted to automatic self-closing doors with
the appropriate fire resistance, shafts and chutes with the
requisite non-combustible properties and openings for
pipes and services, carefully sealed to prevent fire spread.
There is a wide range of constructions, each of which
offers a specific duration of resistance. For example, a floor
of 21 mm of tongue and groove timber boards (or sheets)
on 37 mm wide joists with a ceiling of 12.5mm plasterboard
with joints taped and filled, will provide 30 minutes of fire
resistance. For 60 minutes' resistance the joists need to be
50 mm wide and the ceiling plasterboard 30 mm with joints
FIRE SPREAD
staggered. This period is also achieved with a 95 mm thick
reinforced concrete floor, as long as the lowest
reinforcement has at least 20 mm cover.
An internal load-bearing wall fire resistance of 30
minutes can be achieved by a timber stud wall with 44 mm
wide studs at 600 mm centres, boarded both sides with
12.5mm plasterboard with joints taped and filled. The same
will be achieved by a 100mm reinforced concrete wall with
24 mm cover to the reinforcement. A resistance of 60
minutes is achieved by doubling the thickness of
plasterboard on the stud wall to 25 mm, and increasing the
thickness of the concrete wall to 120 mm. A 90 mm thick
masonry wall will achieve the same 60 minutes resistance
(only 75 mm is required for non-loadbearing partitions).
(3) Fire and smoke in concealed spaces
With modern construction methods there can be many
hidden voids and cavities within the walls, floors and roofs.
These can provide a route along which fire can spread
rapidly, sometimes even bypassing compartment walls and
floors. This unseen spread of fire and smoke is a particularly
dangerous hazard. Steps must therefore be taken to break
down large or extensive cavities into smaller ones and to
provide 'cavity barriers', fire-resistant barriers across
cavities at compartment divisions.
Regulations stipulate the maximum permitted dimensions
for cavities depending on the location of the cavity and the
class of exposed surface within it. Further stipulations dictate
where cavity barriers must be installed (e.g. within roof
spaces, above corridors and within walls). Generally the
minimum standard of fire resistance of cavity barriers should
be 30 minutes with regard to integrity and 15 minutes with
regard to insulation. Fire stops must also be considered.
These are seals that prevent fire spreading through cracks at
junctions between materials that are required to act as a
barrier to fire, and seals around perforations made for the
passage of pipes, conduits, cables etc.
External fire spread
The spread of fire from one building to another is prevented
by the fire resistant qualities of external walls and roofs.
They must provide a barrier to fire and resist the surface
spread of flame. The distance between buildings (or
between the building and the boundary) is obviously an
important factor, as is the likely severity of the fire, which is
determined by the fire load of a building (i.e. the amount of
combustible material contained within). Regulations
therefore stipulate the required fire resistant qualities of
external walls and the proportion and size of allowable
unprotected areas (e.g. windows, doors, combustible
cladding, etc.) depending on the type of building and the
distance of the facade from the boundary.
For example, the facade of a residential, office, assembly
or recreation building at a distance of 1 m from the
boundary is allowed only 80/0 of unprotected area; at 5 m,
400/0; and at 12.5m, 1000/0. In contrast, the figures for shops,
commercial, industrial and storage buildings are: at 1m,
4%; at 5m, 200/0; and at 12.5m 50%; and only at 25m, 1000/0.
More complex calculations are required when the facade is
not parallel with the boundary, or is not flat.
Generally, roofs do not need to be resistant to fire from
inside the building, but should be resistant to fire from
outside, and also resist surface flame spread. Again, the type
of roof construction permitted depends on the type of
building, its size and its distance from the boundary.
Different roof coverings are rated as to their resistance to
fire: on pitched roofs; slates, tiles, profiled metal sheet are in
the highest category, bitumen strip slates in the lowest.
Sheet metal flat roof coverings perform the best, whilst the
performance of various bitumen felt roof coverings depend
on the types of layers, underlayers and supporting structure.

Smoke and heat venting systems
Smoke and heat venting systems comprise one or more of
the following elements, together with the associated
activation and control devices, power supplies and
accessories:
- smoke vents
- heat vents
- mechanical smoke extractors.
Given that they have the task of removing smoke and heat
in the event of fire, these systems contribute to:
- preserving escape and access routes
- facilitating the work of the firefighters
- the prevention of flash-over, hence retarding or
avoiding a full fire
- the protection of equipment
- the reduction of fire damage caused by burning gases
and hot ash
- reducing the risk of fire encroaching on structural
elements.
The main function of smoke venting is to create and
maintain smoke-free zones in which people and animals
can escape from a fire. These zones also ensure firefighters
are unimpeded by smoke when tackling the fire and give
the contents better protection from damage. In addition,
smoke vents contribute to heat venting.
The task of heat vents is to conduct away hot burning
gases during the development of a fire. There are two main
intentions:
- to delay or retard the flash-over
- to reduce the risk of the fire encroaching on structural
elements.
In the same way as smoke vents contribute to heat venting,
heat vents contribute to smoke venting.
The working principle of smoke and heat venting
systems lies in the property of hot gases to rise. The
effectiveness of the system depends on:
- the aerodynamic efficiency of the air venting
- the effect of wind
- the size of the air vents
- the activation of air vents
- the location of the installation relative to the general
arrangement and size of the building.
Mechanical smoke extractors
Mechanical smoke extractors perform the same task as
smoke vents but use forced ventilation (e.g. fans) to achieve
the extraction of smoke. These smoke extractors are
particularly useful where smoke vents are neither
appropriate nor feasible for technical reasons.
Appropriately sized smoke vents or mechanical smoke
extractors can, in principle, be used in the place of heat
vents.
In view of their function and how they work, mechanical
smoke extractors should be provided:
- for single storey buildings with very large areas and
volumes
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smoke extractors should be provided:
- for single storey buildings with very large areas and
volumes
- for buildings with long escape routes which cannot
be kept smoke-free for a sufficient period by other
means
- for buildings subject to particular regulations, in
which special protection is necessary
- for buildings housing particularly valuable articles or
equipment, or materials that are susceptible to smoke
damage and therefore require extra protection.
SMOKE AND HEAT EXTRACTION
SYSTEMS
Arrangement and sizing of smoke and heat vents
Smoke and heat vents should be arranged as uniformly as
possible within the roof sections. Special attention should
be given to ensuring that, in the event of fire, the smoke and
heat vents do not increase the danger of the fire spreading
from building to building, or jumping between fire
compartments within the building. In this respect, the
boundary wall should be considered as a fire wall, for which
there are increased requirements.
To conduct the smoke and combustion gases directly to
the outside, it is more effective to have a large number of
smoke and heat vents with small openings than to provide
a smaller number with larger openings. Typically, the
spacing between smoke and heat vents and the distance
from the lower edge of the structure (eaves) should not be
greater than 20 m and not less than the minimum distance
from the walls, which is 5 m. The distance of smoke and
heat vent openings from structures on the surface of the
roof must be large enough to ensure that their operation is
not impaired by wind effects.
A possible increase in wind loading should be noted
when smoke and heat vents are located at the perimeter of
flat roofs.
As a general guideline, in roofs having a slope of from
12° to 30°, the smoke and heat vents should be arranged as
high as possible and there must be a minimum of one
smoke and heat vent per 400 m 2 of plan surface area
(projected roof area). For roof slopes >30°, the required
efficiency of the smoke and heat venting should be
considered on an individual project basis. In roof areas with
a slope of < 12°, one smoke and heat vent should serve not
more than 200 m 2. Where, due to the building structure,
there are further subdivisions of the roof, there must be a
minimum of one smoke and heat vent per subdivision.
Smoke and heat venting system efficiency
To ensure the smoke and heat venting system operates at
full aerodynamic efficiency, care must be taken to ensure
that there is an adequate volume of air in the lower region
of the building. The cross-sectional area of the intake vents
should therefore be at least twice as large as the cross-
sectional area of the smoke and heat vents in the roof.

G) General arrangement of a sprinkler system
EXTINGUISHER SYSTEMS
Extinguisher water pipelines
Extinguisher water pipelines are fixed pipes in structures.
They make available the water supply for fire extinguisher
hoses, which are connected by valve couplings that can be
closed. There are two main types: (1) wet risers, which are
extinguisher water pipelines that are continually under
pressure, and (2) dry risers, which are pipelines to which
extinguisher water is supplied by the fire service when it is
required. Wet/dry risers are extinguisher water pipelines
which, on the remote activation of valves, are supplied with
mains water when required. (~ p. 130.)
The following are typical nominal pipe bore sizes for
extinguisher pipes and wall hydrants:
where there are two interconnected access points:
50mm minimum
- where there are three interconnected access points:
65 mm minimum
- where there are four or more interconnected access
points: 80mm minimum.
With wet risers, wall hydrants can be accommodated in
built-in recesses or in wall cavities. The lower edge of the
wall hydrant should be between 800 and 1000 mm above
floor level.
Dry risers have a nominal diameter of 80 mm and have a
drainage facility. The couplings of the supply valve should
be 800 mm above the surface level of the surroundings and
the hose connector valve should be 1200 mm above floor
level.
Spacing of sprinklers relative to supporting beams or
other structural components
If supporting beams, joists or other obstructions (e.g. air
conditioning ducts) run below the ceiling, then the
minimum spacings must be maintained between these
components and the sprinklers. The exceptions here are
side wall sprinklers, installation of which is only permitted
for flat ceilings.
Open nozzle systems
Systems with open nozzles are water distribution systems
with fixed pipelines, to which open nozzles are attached at
regular intervals. When on standby, the pipe network is not
filled with water. When the system is activated, the peak
flow pressure passes immediately from the water supply
into the network of pipes and nozzles.
The water pressure is directed according to the size and
shape of the room which is to be protected and the type
and quantity of the contents. Depending on the height and
type of storage facility, and any wind effects, the system
must deliver between 5 and 60 litres per minute per square
metre ~ @. For room protection systems which are
subdivided into groups, the area protected by a group
should generally lie between 100m2 (high fire risk) and
400 m 2 (low fire risk).
Water spray extinguisher systems are used, for
example, in aircraft hangars, refuse bunkers and
incinerator facilities, arenas, facilities for containers and
combustible fluids, cable ducting, chipwood silos and
factories, power stations, and factories making fireworks or
munitions.
The permissible spacing between sprinklers and flat
ceilings/roofs varies according to the type of sprinkler and
the flammability of the inside of the ceiling or roof. It also
depends on the insulating layer of profiled cladding roofs.
For trapezoidal section cladding roofs, the minimum
spacing of the sprinkler from the ceiling is measured from
the lowest point of the corrugation and the maximum
spacing is measured from the mean point between the
lowest and highest points of the corrugations.
concealed pipework
up to 3.75m
4.45m
Spray characteristics of a
normal sprinkler
dry
sprinkler
valve
electric motor control
cabinet: sprinkler pump
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CD
for areas subject
to frost or severe
heat
for areas with no
frost or severe
heat
standing sprinkler,
directly mounted
up to 4.6m
6.5m
Spray characteristics of an
umbrella sprinkler
wet alarm valve
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Sprinkler distribution
A choice can be made between a normal or staggered
distribution of sprinklers but where a staggered distribution
is proposed the sprinklers should be arranged in as uniform
a way as possible.
Spacing between sprinklers; distance from walls and
ceilings
The spacing between sprinklers must be at least 1.5 m. The
maximum spacing is determined as a function of the area
the sprinkler is protecting, the distribution of the sprinklers
and the fire hazard. This rule does not apply to sprinklers in
stacking systems.
Sprinkler systems
Wet sprinkler systems are systems in which the pipeline
network behind the wet alarm valve station is permanently
filled with water. When a sprinkler responds, water emerges
from it immediately.
In dry sprinkler systems, on the other hand, the pipeline
network behind the dry sprinkler valve station is filled with
compressed air, which prevents water from flowing into the
sprinkler network. When the sprinkler system is triggered,
the retaining air pressure is released and water flows to the
sprinkler heads. Dry sprinkler systems are used where there
is a risk of frost damage to the pipework.
Normal sprinklers deliver a spherical water distribution
towards the ceiling and the floor whereas the water from
umbrella sprinklers falls in a parabolic pattern towards the
floor. Both kinds can take the form of self-supporting or
hanging devices. ~ ~ + @
Automatic fire extinguisher systems commonly employ
fixed pipelines to which closed nozzles (sprinklers) are
connected at regular intervals. When the system is activated,
water is released only from those sprinklers where the
sealing devices have reached the set response temperatures
required to open them. These types of arrangements are
also known as selectively operated extinguishing systems.
CD
128

protected area minimum extngshng group
water flow time, min. area number
1/(min.m2) (min) (m 2)
stageslarenas
up to 350m2, height s 10m 5 10 - 1
up to 350m2, height> 10m 7 10 - 1
over 350m2, height "0 10m 5 10 - 3
over 350 rn-'. height> 10m 7 10 - 3
woodchip silos
height of layer s 3 m 7.5 30 - 1
height of layer> 3 m s 5 m 10 30 - 1
height of layer> 5 m 12.5 30 - 1
refuse bunkers
height of layer s 2 m 5 30 -
height of layer >2m <3m 7.5 30 -
height of layer >3m s5m 12.5 30 100-400 -
height of layer> 5 m 20 30 -
foam stores
storage height s 2 m 10 30 150 min.
storage height >2m <::3m 15 45 150 min.
storage height >3m <::4m 22.5 60 200 min.
storage height> 4 m <:: 5 m 30 60 200 min.
o Protected area and water flow rates
CO2 FIRE EXTINGUISHER SYSTEMS
Carbon dioxide works as an extinguishant by reducing the
oxygen content in the air to a value at which the burning
process can no longer be sustained. Being gaseous, it can
flood the threatened area rapidly and uniformly to provide
very effective protection.
CO2 is suitable for extinguishing systems in buildings
containing the following substances and installations:
- flammable fluids and other substances that react as
flammable fluids when burning
- flammable gases, provided that precautions are taken
to ensure that following successful extinguishing, no
combustible gas/air mixture forms
- electrical and electronic equipment
- flammable solids susceptible to water damage, such
as paper and textiles, although fires involving these
materials require high concentrations of CO2 and
prolonged exposure to put them out.
Fixed CO2 systems are frequently used in areas given over to:
- machines that contain flammable fluids, or in which
such fluids are used
- paint manufacture, spray painting, printing, rolling
mills, electrical switch rooms and data processing
rooms.
Typically, where these systems are to be used for the
protection of rooms, one nozzle must not safeguard an area
greater than 30 rn-'. Where rooms are over 5 m high, the
nozzles used for general spraying of CO2 must not only be
installed in the upper portion of the room, under the ceiling,
but also at a level approximately equal to one third of the
room height.
The function of CO2 systems is to extinguish fires during
the initial phase and to maintain a high CO2 concentration
until the danger of re-ignition has abated. These systems
consist essentially of CO2 containers, back-up supplies of
extinguishant, the necessary valves and a fixed pipe network
with a suitable distribution of open nozzles and devices for
fire detection, activation, alarm and extinguisher operation.
Powder extinguisher systems
Extinguishing powders are homogeneous mixtures of
chemicals that act as fire suppressants. Their base
constituents are, for example, as follows:
- sodium/potassium bicarbonate
- potassium sulphate
- potassium/sodium chloride
- ammonium phosphate/sulphate.
Since the powder is ready for use under normal conditions
at temperatures of -20°C to +60°C, it is used for buildings,
in closed rooms and also for outdoor industrial
applications. Powder extinguishants are suitable, for
example, where the following substances and installations
are involved:
EXTINGUISHER SYSTEMS
- solid flammable substances such as wood, paper and
textiles, where a suitable powder is required in all
cases
- flammable fluids and other substances which, when
burning, react as flammable fluids
- flammable gases
flammable metals, such as aluminium, magnesium
and their alloys, for which only special extinguishant
powders are employed.
Examples of industrial areas where fixed powder systems
are frequently used include chemical plant and associated
process plant, underground oil storage facilities, filling
stations, compressor and pumping stations, and transfer
stations for oil and gas. There are also some installations in
which powder extinguishants should not be used. These
include areas housing, for example:
- dust sensitive equipment and low-voltage electrical
installations (e.g. telephone systems, information
processing facilities, measurement and control
facilities, distribution boxes with fuses and relays,
etc.)
- materials which are chemically incompatible with the
extinguishant (i.e. there is the danger of chemical
reaction).
Halon room protection systems
Halon is a halogenated hydrocarbon, usually bromotri-
fluoromethane. Its extinguishing effect is based on the
principle that it supresses the reaction between the burning
material and oxygen. Halon systems can only be used in
extinguishing areas where the room temperature will
remain between -20°C and +450°C and neither should there
be any equipment with an operating temperature above
450°C in the extinguishing area.
Halon 1301, for example, is suitable for fires in areas
containing:
- fluids and other substances that react as flammable
fluids when burning
- gases, provided that no combustible gas/air mixture
can form after the fire has been extinguished
- electrical and electronic equipment and plant.
Examples of activities and areas for which halon systems
are suitable include:
- paint manufacture, spray paint shops, powder
coating plant
- electrical equipment rooms
- electronic data processing and archiving rooms.
The possibility of environmental damage cannot be
excluded and should be considered where halon systems
are proposed.
Foam extinguishing systems
Foam systems are used for extinguishing fires in buildings,
rooms and outdoors, and they can also be used to form a
protective layer over flammable liquids. The foam
extinguishant is generated th rough the action of a
water/foaming agent mixture with air. The foaming agents
are liquid additives that consist of water-soluble products of
protein synthesis and, if required, may contain additional
fluorinated active ingredients.
The key characteristics of foam extinguisher systems to
be considered are the water application rate, the requisite
amount of foaming agent and the minimum operating time
(e.g. between 60 and 120 minutes, depending on the type of
foam). The system should be sized so that, in the event of a
fire, sufficient foam enters the protected area to provide an
effective cover. Precautions must be taken to prevent the
escape of flammable fluids from the protected area (e.g.
upstands). Account must also be taken of flow and spraying
distances, possible obstructions, and the spacing and type
of objects to be protected.
129

Smoke protection doors
Smoke protection doors are suitable for the limitation of
smoke propagation in buildings but they are not fire
protection enclosures in accordance with fire regulations.
These doors are self-closing doors that are intended, when
closed, to stop smoke passing from one part of the building
into another.
Fire protection glazing
Fire protection glazing is a component consisting of a frame
with one or more light transparent elements (e.g. panes of
fire protective glazing), mountings, seals and means of
fixing. It will resist fire, in accordance with the classification,
for 30, 60, 90, or even 120 minutes.
Closures in walls of lift shafts
Closures in lift shaft walls, particularly the doors, must be
constructed to prevent fire and smoke being transmitted to
other floor levels. The effectiveness of the closure is then
only assured, if suitable lift shaft ventilation is available and
the lift cage consists predominantly of fire resistant
construction materials. The size of the ventilation openings
will be given in the local building regulations. In general, a
cross-section of at least 2.50/0 of the plan area of the lift shaft
is required, but this must be at least 0.1 m 2.
FIRE PROTECTION: CLOSURES AND
GLAZING
Heat radiation resisting glazing These are light
transparent components that can be arranged vertically,
horizontally or be inclined. They are suitable as fire
protection glazing to impede the propagation of fire and
smoke and the passage of heat radiation, according to their
fire resistance period. Their stability will have been
demonstrated in a strength test.
Heat radiation resistant glazing loses its transparency in
the event of fire and provides wall-like fire protection. This
implies that thermal insulation must be preserved during
the whole of the fire resistance period.
This type of glazing is predominantly used internally,
although recent developments have rendered it suitable for
external use.
Fire protection closures
Fire protection closures are units comprising:
- a door, or doors, with associated frames and fixings
for the frame
- a self-closing device (either a flat spring or door
closer with hydraulic damping)
- a closing sequence regulator (on double doors)
- relevant mechanisms required if sliding, roller or
vertical lift doors are fitted
- a door lock
- a locking system with release devices for closures,
which, during normal usage, must be held open and
closed only in the event of fire.
If a fire takes hold, considerable distortion can occur
between the wall and the door. Fire protection doors should
therefore be considered in conjunction with the method of
construction of the wall (i.e. solid walls or stud
construction) to ensure that the combination is effective
and permissible.
The level of fire resistance is dependent to a large degree
on:
- the size of the door and opening
- the precision of manufacture
- the standard of workmanship during installation.
extinguishing non-return valve
water in-flow with drain
two-pipe
ventilator
and vent
dry riser
fire extinguisher
hose coupling
spring catch
left hung U ~ I rig~
~I~
o Dry riser
safety cut-off device with fixed coupling and activation
of the automatic filling and emptying valve in combination
with the fire extinguisher hose coupling (wall hydrant)
two-pipe ventilator
and vent
wet/dry riser
two-pipe
ventilator
and vent
continual-use
extraction point
wet riser
supply
pipe water meter
non-return valves
standard opening dimension
standard construction dimension
35 clear opening dimension 3
electrical
switch box
identification plate
door closer in accordance with regulations
fire extinguisher
hose coupling
(wall hydrant)
~
:.:;:~: - dp"m'~~~
::::.::,: .. ~'~II,".::'::::::
::,:.::::" ' ..:::.:~:::
II
- -- spring catch
filling and
emptying station,
remote operation
o Wet/dry risers
CD Example of a 30 minute double door
G) Wet riser
130

Heat radiation resistant glass consists of two pre-
stressed panes 6 mm apart which are prefabricated as a
type of double glazing unit. During manufacture, the air
between the panes is replaced by an organic, water-
containing substance (gel). In the event of fire, the
individual pane exposed to the fire cracks and the gel
then compensates for the heating by evaporation. Due to
the scalding on the surface of the fire protective layer, the
glass becomes discoloured and is then non-transparent
to light.
Alternatively, this type of glazing may also consist of
three or four silicate glass panes, laminated with fire
protection layers of gel containing an inorganic
compound. These layers provide the fire retarding effect.
The gel itself is formed from a polymer, in which the
inorganic salt solution is embedded, which is highly
water-retentive.
In the event of fire, a thermal insulation layer forms and
considerable amounts of energy are absorbed through the
vaporisation of the water. This process repeats itself, layer
by layer, until the gel in the intermediate layers between all
of the panes has been dissipated. In this way, fire
resistance times of 30, 60, 90 minutes and longer are
achieved.
The gel layers in this heat radiation resisting glazing can
only tolerate temperatures between -15°C and +60°C. With
regard to temperatures above the permitted upper limit of
+60°C, application in individual cases must be decided on
the basis of the orientation of the facade to the sun and
whether the absorption of radiation by the gel might result
in the temperature limit being exceeded. If necessary, the
intensity of radiation from the sun must be reduced
through the use of protective glass or by other shading
precautions. However, as a rule, such precautions are not
necessary.
These glazing systems usually have special steel
glazing bars, which are thermally isolated, and the
surfaces of the frames can be faced with aluminium, if
required.
15 415
FIRE PROTECTION: GLAZING
The typical maximum height is 3.50 m, with a maximum
individual pane size of 1.20 x 2.00 m. There is also the
possibility of replacing individual panes of glass with non-
load bearing panels.
Fire resistant glazing without heat radiation
resistance These are light transparent components that
can be arranged vertically, horizontally or be inclined. They
are suitable as fire protection glazing to impede the
propagation of fire and smoke according to their fire
resistance period. They do not, however, prevent the
passage of radiated heat. This type of glazing remains
transparent in the event of fire and is as effective as glass
for fire protection.
Glazing without heat radiation resistance reduces the
temperature of the radiating heat by about one half as it
passes through the pane.
This grade of fire resistance can be achieved by three
different types of glass:
(1) Wire reinforced glass with spot welded mesh such
that in the event of breakage the glass pane is
retained by the wire mesh. Maximum resistance up to
90 minutes.
(2) Specially manufactured double glazing units.
Maximum resistance up to 60 minutes.
(3) Pre-stressed borosilicate glass (for example, Pyran).
Maximum resistance up to 120 minutes resistance as
a single pane.
The installation of this type of glazing in the facades of high
buildings can prevent the spread of fire from one level to
another. This applies especially to high-rise buildings which
are subdivided into horizontal fire compartments. On
buildings with inside corners, an unimpeded spread of fire
can occur in the region of windows but this can also be
avoided by using this type of glazing.
Generally, glazing without resistance to heat radiation
should only be installed in places which do not serve as
an escape route (for example, as light openings in
partition panels). If used adjacent to escape routes, the
lower edge of the glass should be at least 1.80 m above
floor level. The permitted use of this glazing must be
decided on an individual basis by the relevant local
building authority.
two composite glass panes
(Pyrostop 30 minutes)
G) 60 minute fire resistance, heat radiation resistant
Door glazing
The frames for fire protection glazing, together with the
light transparent elements (glass), ensure integrity
according to grade of fire resistance in the event of fire.
The following materials (and material combinations)
have proved to be suitable for the construction of
frames:
- steel tube sections with an intumescent protective
coating
- plasterboard and wood with, for example, light metal
(LM) faci ngs
- light metal sections with fire resistant concrete
cores
- heat radiation protected LM laminated sections
- combined sections: concrete outside (paintable),
inside of LM, sections of pre-cast concrete (paintable),
hardwood sections, heat insulated profiles with
steam relieved interstitial air gaps and light metal
with fire resistant and penetration resistant concrete
cores.
seal
steel/concrete frame
mortar
masonry or concrete
gel layer
stainless steel spacer
sealant
Promatect strip
seals
pressed steel angle
mineral fibre insulation
plasterboard
sheets
two pre-stressed. single pane safety
glass panels on the outside, one float
glass between the gel layers
o 90 minute fire resistance, heat radiation resistant
131

?
/
00
supply reservoir
la Ib
1 reservoir
2 overflow
3 feed
4 dry riser
5 pipe cir cuit. lower
~ 6 pipe circuit, upper
7 [}hollow columns
Side view of circulation
system with supply
reservoir (not to scale)
system la
system Ib
system system
lib Iia
system
la Ib
7 stand pipe
8 oil layer
9 overflow
10 overflow alarm
11 normal operation
12 water low level
alarm, level
monitoring with
moveable
contacts
13 contact pressure
gauge
Iia lib
I 6.87m I
supply reservoir
00
E
~
M
N
An important influencing parameter for the heating up
process is therefore the section factor Hp/A (i.e the ratio of
the heated perimeter to nominal cross-sectional area. The
characteristics of the coating material are also decisive to
this heating up process, as is the adhesion of the coating to
the steel surface. The heating up period can be calculated or
obtained from fire tests in accordance with relevant
standards.
Steel components can fail if the 'critical steel
temperature' is reached on critical cross-sections. The fire
resistance period is therefore dictated by the time taken for
the component to be heated up to this critical steel
temperature.
The relationship between section factor, depth of coating
and the duration of fire resistance of steel columns and
steel girders has been investigated for various types of
covering. The results are widely available and should be
considered in the light of the possible fire risks associated
with the proposed building.
FIRE PROTECTION: WATER COOLING
reservoir
feed pipe from
water distributor
dry riser
float valve with
water-free test
device
5 shut-off valve
with sealing
control (open)
6 flow regulator
pipe
o Water cooling scheme
G) Water cooled structure
A closed circuit cooling system is created by connecting the
upper column ends to header pipes from an overhead
reservoir. The cooling medium flows to the lower column
ends, which are connected to distributor pipes that lead to
a riser pipe back to the overhead reservoir. Two circuit
systems must be provided following the general structural
arrangement of the building. In some cases, building
regulations demand that, in the event of the destruction of
a structural member, for example, as a consequence of an
explosion, the overall structure must remain stable @. For
this kind of catastrophic loading case (i.e. for the failure of
every second support), a design stress of 900/0 of the yield
point value is used as a basis for structural calculations.
Typically, four 3 m3 overhead tanks (i.e. 12 m3 of water),
are sufficient to counteract a normal fire of 90 minutes
duration, involving a spread of fire to two floor levels. On
the basis of expert opinion, this also gives a safety margin
of almost a third in respect of the available water.
Where the structural columns are outside the building,
freezing of the cooling water is prevented by the addition of
potassium carbonate in a 330/0 solution, lowering the
freezing point to -25°C. Internal corrosion of the columns of
the circulation pipework and of the tanks is prevented by
the addition of sodium nitrite to the cooling liquid.
A good example of the use of water cooling is the ten-
storey building in Karlsruhe for the Landesanstalt fur
Umweltschutz (Federal Institute for Environmental
Protection). It has (12 + 12) x 2 = 48 steel columns, which are
supplied with cooling water circulation such that the 12 + 12
columns are alternately connected to separate water
circuits. The two circulatory systems of the front and rear
elevations are separate.
Very high temperatures have also been measured on the
steel structural elements due to normal warming by the sun
in summer. In one instance, following an increase of 30°C,
the approximately 33 m long outer columns of the building
expanded vertically by about 12 mm, resulting in
displacements of the supports for the continuous, multi-
span structural frame. This factor had to be taken into
account in the design. Since differences in density of the
cooling medium occur due to warming, not only by fire but
also through solar radiation, a natural circulation of the
coolant takes place and the columns which are heated by
the sun are cooled. A favourable effect here is that each of
the four cooling systems has columns on both the north
and south side of the building, so that a temperature
equalisation can take place. Column temperatures of -15°C
and +50°C were therefore taken as the basis for calculation.
Without the equalisation through the cooling medium,
values of around -25°C and +80°C would have had to be
assumed in demonstrating structural integrity.
Fire resistance of steel structural elements
The fire resistance duration of structural steel elements for
a prescribed level of fire intensity is dependent on the rate
of heat increase and the respective critical temperature of
the element. The temperature of a steel member increases
more rapidly as the ratio of the surface exposed to the fire
increases in relation to the steel cross-section. Large steel
cross-sections heat up at a slower rate given the same
depth of coating, the same material and equal fire surface
coverage, and therefore have a greater resistance to fire
than smaller cross-sections.
Water cooled structures in steel-framed
buildings
132

Building regulations stipulate what measures must be
taken to ensure that occupants of buildings can escape if
there is a fire. If there are spaces in the building which
have no direct access to the outside, then a route
protected from fire that leads to safety must be provided.
Different standards apply to different building types as
follows:
(1) dwellings, including flats
(2) residential (institutional) buildings, namely those that
have people sleeping in them overnight (e.g. hotels,
hospitals, old people's homes)
(3) offices, shops and commercial premises
(4) places of assembly and recreation, such as cinemas,
theatres, stadiums, law courts, museums and the like
(5) industrial buildings (e.g. factories and workshops)
(6) storage buildings, such as warehouses and car-parks.
Special provisions must be made for escape from very tall
buildings.
Factors to be taken into account when designing means
of escape from buildings are:
• the activities of the users
• the form of the building
• the degree to which it is likely that a fire will occur
• the potential fire sources
• the potential for fire spread throughout the building.
There are some assumptions made in order to achieve a
safe and economic design:
(1) Occupants should be able to escape safely without
outside help. In certain cases this is not possible (e.g.
hospitals) so special provisions need to be made.
(2) Fire normally breaks out in one part of the building.
(3) Fires are most likely to break out in the furnishings and
fittings rather than in the parts of the building covered
by the building regulations.
(4) Fires are least likely to break out in the structure of the
building and in the circulation areas due to the
restriction on the use of combustible materials.
(5) Fires are initially a local occurrence, with a restricted
area exposed to the hazard. The fire hazard can then
spread with time, usually along circulation spaces.
(6) Smoke and noxious gases are the greatest danger
during early stages of the fire, obscuring escape
routes. Smoke and fume control is therefore an
important design consideration.
(7) Management has an important role in maintaining the
safety of public, institutional and commercial
buildings.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
The general principle applied in relation to means of escape
is that it should be possible for building occupants to turn
away from the fire and escape to a place of safety. This
usually implies that alternative escape routes should be
supplied. The first part of the route will usually be
unprotected (e.g. within a room or office). Consequently,
this must be of limited length, to minimise the time that
occupants are exposed to the fire hazard. Even protected
horizontal routes should be of limited length due to the risk
of premature failure. The second part of the escape route is
generally in a protected stairway designed to be non-
combustible, and resistant to the ingress of flames and
smoke. Once inside, the occupants can proceed without
rushing directly, or via a protected corridor, to a place of
MEANS OF ESCAPE FROM FIRE
safety. This is generally in the open, away from the effects
of the fire.
In certain cases, escape in only one direction (a dead
end) is permissible, depending on the use of the building,
the risk of fire, the size and height of the building, the length
of the dead end and the number of people using it.
Mechan icalinst aIIat ions suchas lifts and esc aIat 0 rs
cannot be included as means of escape from fire. Nor
are temporary devices and fold-down ladders
acceptable. Stairs within accommodation are normally
ignored.
Due regard must be given to security arrangements so
that conflicts with access and egress in an emergency are
resolved.
RULES FOR MEASUREMENT
The rules for measurement relate to three factors:
occupant capacity, travel distance and width of escape
route.
Occupant capacity is calculated according to the
design capacities of rooms, storeys and hence that of the
total building. If the actual number of people is not
known, then they can be calculated according to standard
floor space factors, giving the allotted metre area per
person depending on the type of accommodation.
Travel distance is calculated according to the shortest
route, taking a central line between obstructions (such as
along gangways between seating) and down stairs.
Width is calculated according to the narrowest section
of the escape route, usually the doorways but could be
other fixed obstructions.
MEANS OF ESCAPE FROM DWELLINGS
The complexity of escape provisions increases with the
height of the building and the number of storeys above
and below the ground. However, there are
recommendations that refer to all dwellings:
Smoke alarms These should be of approved design
and manufacture and installed in circulation areas near
allu IlldllUldLlUIt: dllU III;:)ldIICU III l ..IllJUldllUII cr r er o o Ilcal
to potential sources of fire (e.g. kitchens and living
rooms) and close to bedroom doors. Installation should
be in accordance with the details of the manufacturer
and the building regulations. The number of alarms
depends on the size and complexity of the building, but
at least one alarm should be installed in each storey of
the dwelling, and several interlinked alarms may be
needed in long corridors> 15 rn). Consideration must be
given to ensure the easy maintenance and cleaning of
the alarms.
Inner rooms Escape from these might be particularly
hazardous if the fire is in the room used for access. Inner
rooms shou Id therefore be restricted for use as kitchens
or utility rooms, dressing rooms, showers or bathrooms,
unless there is a suitable escape window at basement,
ground or first floor levels.
Basements Gases and smoke at the top of internal
stairs makes escape from basements hazardous.
Therefore basement bedrooms and inner rooms should
have an alternate means of escape via a suitable external
door or window. Regulations stipulate detailed
dimensions for windows and doors used for escape
purposes.
133

Generally, single dwellings of three or more storeys (or,
according to the UK Building Regulations, with one or
more floors over 4.5 m above the ground) require
protected stairways of 30 minutes fire-resistant
construction, furnished with self-closing fire doors.
Dwellings divided into flats or maisonettes should
have fire protected access corridors leading to protected
common escape stairs. The provision of two stairs giving
alternative escape routes is necessary in all but the
smallest buildings. It is essential to provide for
ventilation of escape corridors and stairs in order to
dissipate smoke.
Each flat or maisonette is regarded as a separate fire
compartment so only the unit on fire needs to be initially
evacuated. Hence, entrance doors to flats and
maisonettes must be self-closing fire doors (30 minutes)
and open into a protected internal lobby with self closing
fire doors which give access to the rooms. (~ CD + @)
MEANS OF ESCAPE FROM BUILDINGS OTHER
THAN DWELLINGS
General guidelines cover the following features.
Construction and protection of escape routes These
cover the fire resistance of the enclosures including any
glazed panels and doors (varying according to situation),
headroom (2 m minimum), safety of floor finish (non-
slip), and ramps (not steeper than 1:12).
Provision of doors These should open at least 90
degrees in the direction of travel and be easily opened
(use simple or no fastenings if possible). They should not
obstruct the passageway or landing when open (use a
recess if necessary) and be of the required fire/smoke
resistance depending on the particular situation. Vision
panels are required when the door may be approached
from both sides or swings two ways.
Construction of escape stairs Escape stairs should
be constructed of materials of limited combustibility in
high-risk situations (e.g. when it is the only stair, a stair
from a basement, one serving a storey more than 20 m
above ground level, an external stair or one for use by
the fire services. Single steps should be avoided on
escape routes, though they are permitted in a doorway.
Special provisions apply to spiral and helical stairs. Fixed
ladders are not suitable as means of escape for the
public.
Final exits These should be very obvious to users
and positioned so as to allow the rapid dispersion of
escaping people in a place of safety, away from fire
hazards such as openings to boiler rooms, basements,
refuse stores etc.
Lighting and signing Escape routes should be well
lit with artificial lighting, and generally equipped with
emergency escape lighting in the event of a power
failure. Stairs should be on an independent circuit. In
crucial areas, the wiring should be fire resistant. The
exits must be well signposted with illuminated signs.
Lift installations and mechanical services, etc. Lifts
cannot be used as a means of escape. Because they
connect storeys and compartments, the shafts must be of
fire resisting construction. The lift doors should be
approached through protected lobbies unless they are in
a protected stairway enclosure. The lift machine room
should be situated over the lift shaft if possible. Special
recommendations cover the installation of wall-climber
and feature lifts. Mechanical services should either close
down in the event of a fire, or draw air away from the
protected escape routes. Refuse chutes and refuse
storage must be sited away from escape routes and
separated from the rest of the building by fire resistant
construction and lobbies.
single stair access in small
buildings shown in (c) and (d)
permitted if:
• maximum five storeys
• top floor not greater than
11 m above ground level
• escape route does not
connect to covered car-
park at ground level
(unless open sided)
FD30s self-closing fire door
(30 minutes integrity
and restricted smoke
leakage)
fire-resisting
construction
F/M flat or maisonette
key
openable vent
(by fire service)
if totally internal staircase.
then top should be vented
maximum travel distance may
be increased to 7.5m if automatic
opening vent is provided in the
lobby
openable vent
(by fire service)
automatic opening
vent
note: automatic opening vents to
have min. free area of 1.5 m 2
openable
vent
(by fire
service)
door free from security fastenings
(lobby may be omitted if flats/
maisonettes have protected
entrance halls
maximum
two dwellings
per floor
F/M
F/M
F/M
F/M
F/M
F/M
7.5m max.
travel
FD30s
F/M
F/M
FD30s
FD30s
automatic opening vent at
each end of the corridor
F/M
F/M
Typical arrangements for flats or maisonettes with single
common stairs according to the Building Regulations for England
and Wales: (a) corridor access, (b) lobby access, (c) and (d) single
stair access in small buildings
F/M
(c)
(d)
(b)
(a)
CD
134

800mm
900mm
1100mm
extra 5 mm per person
Horizontal escape routes
The number of escape routes and exits required depends
on the maximum travel distance that is permitted to the
nearest exit and the number of occupants in the room, area
or storey under consideration.
Generally, alternative escape routes should be provided
from every part of the building, particularly in multistorey
and mixed-use buildings. Areas of different use classes (e.g.
residential, assembly and recreation, commercial, etc.)
should have completely separate escape routes.
Below are examples of typical maximum permitted travel
distances in various types of premises. If, at the design stage,
the layout of the room or storey in not known (for instance,
in a speculative office building) then the direct distance
measured in a straight line should be taken. Maximum direct
distances are two thirds of the maximum travel distance.
- institutional buildings: 9 m in one direction, 18 m in
more than one
- office and commercial buildings, shops, storage and
other non-residential buildings: 18 m in one direction,
45 m in more than one
- industrial buildings: 25 m in one direction, 45 m in
more than one.
There are more stringent and detailed requirements for
places of special fire risk and plant rooms.
Note how the travel distances are much reduced where
escape is possible in only one direction. However, this is
only suitable where the storey or room contains few people
(e.g. less than 50). Rooms at the beginning of an escape
route may only have one exit into the corridor; in this case
the single directional travel distance should apply within
the room and the two directional travel distance should
apply to the distance between the furthest point in the room
and the storey exit.
The layout of the exits from a room or storey may be
such that from certain parts of the room they do not offer
alternative escape routes. Figure @ shows regulations as
applied to two types of room configuration. If the angle of
45 degrees cannot be achieved, then alternative escape
routes separated by a fire-resisting construction should be
provided, or the maximum travel distance will be that
allowed for one direction of travel.
The number of exits and escape routes required depends
also on the maximum number of people in the area under
consideration. Below are typical requirements:
500 people 2 exits
1000 3
2000 4
4000 5
7000 6
1100 7
1600 8
1600+ 8 plus 1 per extra 500 persons
The minimum width of horizontal escape routes is also
determined by the number of people using them. Typical
values are:
50 people
110
220
220+
openable vent
(by fire service)
automatic
opening vent
j<6A
key
FD30s self-closing fire door
FD20s (30/20 minutes
integrity and
restricted smoke
leakage)
fire-resisting
construction
F/M flat or maisonette
key
7.5m max.
travel
openable vent
(by fire service)
FD30s
FD30s
F/M . - FD20s
[(It
~III
.- l:D~02
F/M . - FD20s
FD30s F/M
FD30s
F/M F/M
FD30s
F/M
F/M
30m maximum
travel (no limit if there
fl9161 (UO I!W!f !~ HJ6l6
~OW W9XIwnw
30m maximum
travel (no limit if there
is alternative escape
from each dwelling)
openable vent
(by fire service)
F/M
F/M
FD30s
FD30s
F/M
F/M
Typical arrangements for flats or maisonettes with more than
one common stair according to the Building Regulations for
England and Wales: (a) corridor access, (b) corridor access with
dead ends
o
FD30s
F/M
FD30s
F/M
FD20s
(continuation
layout repeated)
(a)
note: automatic
opening vents to
have min. free
area of 1.5 m 2
F/M F/M
FD30s
FD30s
30m
max.
travel F/M F/M
FD30s
FD30s
F/M F/M
FD30s
FD30s
FD20s (may be
F/M omitted if travel
distance is less
FD30s F/M
than 15m)
(continuation
layout repeated)
(b)
135

storey/room
exit B
all points in the unshaded area
may conform to travel distances
given in the regulations for escape
in more than one direction
------
storey/room
exit A
point
y
less than
45°
all points in the shaded area
should conform to travel distances
given in the regulations for escape
in one direction
45° or
greater
(a)
OR: if 45° angle cannot be achieved, separate
alternative escape routes from each other
with fire-resisting construction
45° or greater
storey/room
exit C
. "".
"'~._- -+
n
EC and ED may
conform to travel
distances given in the
regulations for escape
in more than one
direction if angle CEO
is greater than or
equal to 45°
storey/room
exit 0
CD Alternative escape routes
in buildings other than
dwellings according to the
Building Regulations for
England and Wales
(b)
~oint I
I
I
I
~
point
Z
distance EZ should conform
to the travel distances given
in the regulations for escape
in one direction
The design of escape routes must take into account
planning considerations such as:
Inner rooms More stringent rules apply to these than in
dwellings, such as reduced travel distances, restrictions on
use and occupancy as well as construction and the
provision of fire detection equipment.
Relationships between horizontal escape routes and
stairways It is important to avoid: the need to pass
through one stairway to reach another; the inclusion of a
stairway enclosure as the normal route to various parts of
the same floor; linking separate escape routes in a common
hall or lobby at ground floor.
Common escape routes by different occupancies These
should be fire protected or fitted with fire detection and
alarm systems. Escape from one occupancy should not be
via another.
Escape routes, design factors Fire protection to escape
corridors should be provided for in all residential
accommodation, dead ends and common escape routes.
Other escape corridors should provide defence against the
spread of smoke in the early stages of the fire. To prevent
blockage by smoke, long corridors (> 12 m) connecting two
or more storey exits should be divided by self-closing fire
doors. Fire doors should also be used to divide dead-end
corridors from corridors giving two directions of escape.
See @ for typical arrangements.
Vertical escape routes
These are provided by protected escape stairs of sufficient
number and adequate size. Generally, the rules requiring
alternative means of escape mean that more than one
stairway is required. The width of the stairs should allow
the total number of people in the storey or building
subjected to fire to escape safely. Wide stairways must be
divided by a central handrail. The width should be at least
that of the exits serving it, and it should not reduce in width
as it approaches the final exit. Typical minimum escape
stair widths, depending on the type of building and the
number of people they serve, are as follows: 1000 mm for
institutional buildings serving up to 150 people; 1100 mm
for assembly buildings serving up to 220 people; between
1100mm and 1800mm for any other building serving more
than 220 people, depending on the number of people and
number of floors.
Each internal escape stair should be contained in its own
fire-resisting enclosure and should discharge either directly,
or by means of a protected passageway, to a final exit. As
protected stairways must be maintained as a place of
relative safety, they should not contain potentially
hazardous equipment or materials. These restrictions do
however allow the inclusion of sanitary facilities, a lift well,
a small enquiry office or reception desk, fire protected
cupboards and gas meters.
136

subdivide corridor if exceeding
12 m in length and giving access
to alternative escape routes
horizontal
escape
route
protected
from smoke
(a)
Reductions in the level of fire resistance are allowed on the
outside wall of a staircase, depending on the proximity to
other openings in the facade.
Basement stairs need special attention. The danger of
hot gases and smoke entering the stair and endangering
upper storeys means that at least one stair from the upper
storeys should not continue down to the basement. In
continuous stairs, a ventilated lobby should separate the
basement section from the section serving the upper floors.
External escape stairs are usually permissible as an
alternative means of escape, but should be adequately
protected from the weather and fire from the building. They
are not suitable for use by members of the public in
assembly and recreation buildings.
ACCESS FOR FIREFIGHTERS
FD30s
key
FD30s
provide fire door
across corridor
if dead end
exceeds 4.5 m
FD30s
protected corridor with fire-
resisting construction
self-closing fire door (30 minutes integrity
and restricted smoke leakage)
(b)
(c)
provide fire doors
across corridor if
dead end exceeds
4.5m
Provision should be made in design to allow firefighters
good access to the building in the event of a fire, and to
provide facilities to assist them in protecting life and
property.
Sufficient access to the site for vehicles must be
provided to allow fire appliances to approach the building.
Principal appliances are ladders, hydraulic platforms and
pumping appliances. Access roads for fire appliances
should be at least 3.7 m wide with gates no less than 3.1 m.
Headroom of 3.7 m for pumps and 4.0 m for high-reach
appliances is required. The respective turning circles of
these appliances are 17 m and 26 m between curbs. Allow
5.5 m wide hardstanding adjacent to the building, as level as
possible (not more than 1:12), with a clearance zone of 2.2 m
to allow for the swing of the hydraulic platform.
Firefighters must be able to gain access to the building.
The normal escape routes are sufficient in small and low
buildings, but in high buildings and those with deep
basements additional facilities such as firefighting lifts,
stairs and lobbies, contained within protected shafts, will be
required.
Fire mains in multistorey buildings must be provided.
These may be wet or dry risers (fallers in basements).
~ p. 128.
A means of venting basements to disperse heat and
smoke must be provided. In basements, flames, gases and
smoke tend to escape via stairways, making it difficult for
firefighters to gain access to the fire. Smoke vents (or
outlets) are needed to provide an alternative escape route
for these emissions directly to the outside air and allow the
ingress of cooler air. Regulations stipulate the positions and
sizes of vents. Either natural venting or mechanical venting
in association with a sprinkler system may be used.
Typical arrangements of escape corridors in buildings other than
dwellings according to the Building Regulations for England and
Wales
137

G) Single pitch roof
o Double pitch roof
® Pyramid roof
o Flat roof
o Hipped roof
® Sawtooth roof
PROTECTION FROM LIGHTNING
Around a latitude of 50°, lightning strikes the ground
approximately 60 times (and cloud 200-250 times) per hour
of storms. Within a radius of 30 m from the point of strike
(trees, masonry work, etc.), persons in the open air are in
danger from stepped voltages and, consequently, should
stand still with their feet together.
The damage liable to be inflicted on building
constructions is due to the development of heat. Ground
strikes heat and vaporise the water content to such a degree
that walls, posts, trees, etc., can explode due to the
overpressure generated wherever dampness has collected.
Roof structures, dormer windows, chimneys and ventilators
should receive particular attention in lightning protection
systems and should be connected into the system.
A lightning protection system consists of lightning rods,
down conductors and earthing devices. In essence, a
lightning protection system represents a 'Faraday cage',
except that the mesh width is enlarged. Also, initial contact
points (or lightning rods) are fitted, so that the point of
impact of the strike can be fixed. Thus, the lightning
protection system has the function of fixing the point of
lightning strike by means of the air terminals and ensuring
that the structure lies within a protected lone.
The air terminals or lightning conductors are metal rods,
roof wires, surfaces, roof components or other bodies. No
point on the roof surface should be further than 15 m from
an air terminal device.
On thatched roofs, due to the danger of ignition resulting
from the corona effect, metal bands (600 mm wide) should
be laid over the ridge on wooden supports ~ @. When
flowing, a lightning current can reach 100000A and, due to
the earthing resistance, a voltage drop of 500000V occurs.
In the instant of the strike, the entire lightning protection
system, and all components which are connected to it by
metal parts, are subjected to this high potential.
Equipotential bonding is the very effective precaution of
connecting all large metal components and cables to the
lightning protection system.
(j) Typical modern lightning protection system
ridge wire on wooden props 600 mm
above the ridge
perspective
r--
I
I
L
plan view
,I
I I
I
I
I
I
I
I :
__ -J I
138
® Thatched building conductor is 400 mm from roof surface and
connected to collective earthing

PROTECTION FROM LIGHTNING
The earthing system is required to conduct the lightning
current rapidly and uniformly to earth; this is achieved by
using uninsulated metal bands, tubes and plates, pushed so
deep into the ground that a low resistance to ground
dissipation is attained ~ @ - @. The level of earthing
resistance depends on the type of ground and the
dampness ~ @. A distinction is made between deep
earthing electrodes and surface earthing electrodes.
Surface earthing electrodes are designed either in a ring
shape or in a straight line; preferably, they are embedded in
the concrete of the foundations ~ @ - @. Rod earthing
electrodes (round rods or rods with an open profile) are
contained in a tube driven into the ground. Earthing
electrodes inserted to a depth of more than 6 m are called
'buried earth electrodes'. A star type earth electrode is one
consisting of individual strips which radiate out from a
point or from an earthing strip. On roofs, walls, etc., clad in
aluminium, zinc or galvanised steel ~ CD - @, bare or
galvanised copper conductors are not permissible; instead
bare aluminium conductors or galvanised steel conductors
should be used.
conductor
to earth
aluminium roof
min. O.5mm thick
Sheeted roof with wooden
walls: roof connected to
ridge conductor and the
conductor to earth
connection
___
~--A-"""""'''''''''''''''''''''''''''~~~~ to earth
conductor
CD
lightning
conductor
device
conductor
to earth
Steel frame construction:
frame connected to the
roof conductor and to the
earthing conductor
10
15
30
400
100
200
300
200
600
600
"0
>c
c :::l
o 0
(;)0,
1200
33
67
70
400
100
200
133
200
17
34
50
33
67
100
100
200
Q.a>
E >
ro ~
"0 0>
~~
economic no longer economic
40
14
40
13
20
27
80
13
10
40
20
20
12
Earthing electrode in a
foundation of unreinforced
concrete
earth strip
length (rn)
earth pipe
depth (rn)
earth pipe
depth (m)
earth strip
length (rn)
earth strip
length (m)
earth strip
length (m)
earth pipe
depth (m)
earth pipe
depth (m)
earthing
type
@ Ground resistance of strip and pipe earthing electrodes
.:
@
isolation
point
Aluminium roof and wall
Aluminium roof decking used
as a lightning conductor
Chimneys with lightning
conductor connected to the
ridge conductor
roof cladding
roof/wall
--+-+-+-i""---+--+--~-++-'~~ connection:
as far as
possible, no
significant
metal contact
®
CD
connection
to wall
cladding
aluminium
wall: min.
0.5mm thick
Chimney on ridge with
angled steel strips as
lightning conductor
Aluminium wall cladding
used as a conductor to
earth
The main components of a
lightning protection system
lightning
conductor device
®
(j)
CD
139
Steel components for
electrical sign equipment
incorporate a voltage surge
protection device
The high voltage cable is
not directly connected to
the roof, and is therefore
on a support; a spark gap
of 30 mm is provided
Lightning conductors on
chimneys close to the eaves
connected to the roof
guttering
Metal roof structures and
ventilation pipes connected
to the lightning protection
system
®

if a lightning protection system is
available, this connection should
be added
Cu dia. 8 mm or conductor
cross-section 10 rnrn-'
earthing rail for the external
conductors of all HF aerial
cables
~-........- - amplifier
earthing rail for
the external
conductors of
the main wiring
A"~:n======:t:=============~,}
min. contact surface
area: 1000 mrn?
AERIALS
Aerials affect the appearance of cities, and, when close together
and in the same line of sight to the transmitter, they are subject
to mutual interference. Communal aerials can solve these
problems, but planning of these is needed at the initial stage of
construction. Provision should be made in the basic construction
of buildings for the space requirement and installation of
facilities for amplifiers to oppose the current drop in the cabling
and to provide adequate earthing ---t @ - ® plus the additional
equipment needed to earth the lightning protection system-.
p.138. For connections to water pipes, care is needed to avoid
short circuiting water meters ---t @. Aerial performance is
strongly influenced by the surroundings ---t CD e.g. trees
extending above the aerial height -- evergreens, in particular -
and overhead high voltage power lines. Good reception requires
alignment (polarisation) with the nearest transmitter - the best
position being when the aerial is in line of sight with the
transmitter. Short waves do not follow the curvature of the Earth
and ultra short waves only partially - a portion reaching the
troposphere is reflected, so that TV reception may be possible
even when the transmitter would not normally be of sufficient
strength to reach the receiver. Various aerial shapes are
available. Basic fundamentals should be observed ---t @. Aerials
under the roof, intended for the UHF range, provide low-quality
reception. In the VHF range, the drop in reception relative to
outside aerials is only about half as great. Room aerials
(auxiliary aerials) are many times weaker. One aerial should
serve for the reception of long, medium, short, ultrashort waves
and for a number of TV channels - with corrosion protection for
long life. For aerial mast systems, reference should be made to
the appropriate regulations ---t @. Normally, the aerial mast is
inserted into the roof framework, on a support member with a
span of at least 0.75 m. On flat roofs, attachment to an outer wall
is a practical proposition. Attachment to a chimney which is in
use is disadvantageous due to the danger of corrosion. Aerials
must not be mounted on roofs made from easily combustible
roofing materials, e.g. straw or reeds; instead, mast or window-
mounted aerials should be provided. Aerials are not required for
wide band cable systems. In addition to the point of connection
(to household), space should be provided in the cellar for the
amplifier with mains connection.
41.4 57.0
38.4 53.0
33.7 46.4
29.4 40.5
25.3 34.8
21.6 28.7
18.1 24.9
15.1 20.6
12.1 16.7
9.6 13.4
wind
moment
MR80 MRll0
(kprn)
4.15
4.0
3.75
3.5
3.25
3.0
2.75
2.5
2.25
2.0
free
length
Lf
(rn)
excess range
due to
refraction
1 AM/FM aerial and for
preferred direction of
reception
VHF aerial
VHF aerial
UHF aerial
UHF aerial
aerial support for two UHF
aerials
vertical mast extension
aerial connection wiring -
60U co-axial cable
amplifier for AM/FM and TV
channels
10 earthing rail
11 cable connector with test
socket
12 main wiring: 60U co-axial
cable
13 distributor sockets for main
wiring branches
14 aerial sockets for radio and TV
15 cable connection for radio
16 cable connection for TV
17 earthing
Choose location to avoid zones
of maximum interference
t-
~.
1
:
:1
.J
I
:1
f
I
- =
0)
Wind moment MR on a vertical
tube with 50 mm diameter
1
E
o
lci
II
X
E
L....:r
direct no reception
reception due to
interruption
reception
of a
reflection
17
The propagation of electromagnetic waves obeys the principles
of wave optics
prescribed polarisation
direction
o Propagation of radio waves
CD
® Scheme for communal aerial facility
house earth
® Scheme for lightning protection earthing
earthing electrode for
lightning protection
system
140

CD Quantities relating to radiation physics and lighting technology
radiation physics quantity lighting technology lighting technology
quantity and symbol unit and abbreviation
radiation flux luminous flux <t> lumen (1m)
radiant intensity light intensity I candela (cd)
irradiance illuminance E lux (Ix)
radiance lighting density L (cd/m-)
radiant energy quantity of light 0 (lrn > h)
irradiation light exposure H (lx > h)
LIGHTING: LAMPS AND FITTINGS
Significant lighting parameters
The radiated power of light, as perceived by the eyes, is measured
in terms of the luminous flux <1>. The luminous flux radiated per solid
angle in a defined direction is referred to as the light intensity I. The
intensity of a light source in all directions of radiation is given by the
light intensity distribution, generally represented as a light intensity
distribution curve (see following page). The light intensity
distribution curve characterises the radiation of a light source as
being narrow, medium or wide, and as symmetrical or
asymmetrical.
The luminous flux per unit area is the lighting intensity or
illuminance E. Typical values:
global radiation (clear sky) max. 100000 Ix
global radiation (cloudy sky) max. 20000 Ix
optimum sight 2000 Ix
minimum in the workplace 200 Ix
lighting orientation 20 Ix
street lighting 10 Ix
moonlight 0.2 Ix
The lighting density L is a measure of the perceived brightness. For
lamps it is relatively high and results in glare, which necessitates
shielding for lights in indoor areas. The lighting density of room
surfaces is calculated using the lighting intensity E and the degree of
reflection.
Lamps
Lamps convert electrical power (W) into luminous power (lumen, 1m).
The light yield (ImlW) is a measure of efficiency.
For internal room lighting, filament and discharge lamps are
used ~ @.
Filament lamps typically provide warm white light that is flicker-
free, can be dimmed without restriction and give very good colour
rendering. They offer high lighting intensity, particularly in the case
of halogen bulbs, and their compact size allows small lighting
outlines and very good focusing characteristics (e.g. spotlights).
However, filament lamps also have a low lighting efficiency (ImlW)
and a relatively short bulb life of between 1000 and 3000 hours.
Discharge lamps usually operate with a ballast device, and
sometimes an ignition system, and offer high lighting efficiency with
relatively long life (between 5000 and 15000 hours). The colour of the
light depends on the type of lamp: warm white, neutral white or
daylight white. Colour rendering is moderate to very good, but it is only
possible to dim the lamps to a limited extent. Flicker-free operation can
only be achieved by the use of an electronic ballast device.
compact
fluorescent lamps
X light fitting, general
X ~v~~~::tting, number of bulbs,
X' light with switch
X safety light in battery circuit
)( safety light in standby circuit
~ spotlight
fluorescent lamps/general
socket in strip arrangement,
power
socket, number of lamps, power
light fitting for discharge
lamp/general
discharge lamps
~
36W
t:::::::t:::::i
2 x SSW
GO
halogen filament lamps
high-pressure discharge lamps fluorescent lamp
OT
~ ~ P(W): 75-250 HME
UP(W): 50-400 P(W): 18
T =U IJ=
36
mercury vapour
lamp 58
OT-DE~ P(W): 200-500 compact fluorescent lamps
~
P(W): 80-125
HMR mercury vapour P(W): 7
~
P(W): 300 reflector lamp T cSl 9
500 11
OT 750
1000
~
P(W): 250
HIR halogen metal
vapour reflector
~
P(W): 10 26
lamp 13
PAR 38
6
P(W): 75-250 18
(OR 122) parabolic P(W): 70-250
TC-D
reflector lamp HIT-DE~ halogen metal
vapour lamp
ill
P(W): 18
24
low-voltage halogen lamps 36
00
P(W): 35-150
TC-L
~
HIT halogen metal
OT P(W): 20-100 vapour lamp II P(W): 7 40
c:»:
ill
11 55
U
TC-SB 15
L P(W): 20
P(W): 75-400 20
GR-48 HIE halogen metal
reflector lamp vapour lamp with built-in ballast
6
P(W): 20-75
~
OR-CB cold light P(W): 35-100 comparison: up to 80% saving in
reflector HST halogen metal electricity, life expectancy ten times
vapour lamp greater
OR-lll
~
P(W): 35-100
U
25WQ- 5W~
reflector lamp HSE
P(W): 50-250 40W ~ 7W
sodium vapour 60W ~11W
lamp
75WQ-,5W
i
100W ~20W
120 W --23 W
141
o Standard lighting symbols
for architectural plans
halogen metal
vapour lamps
P(W): 25-100
krypton lamp
P(W): 60-150
reflector lamp
~
P(W): 35-120
strip light
P(W): 25-100
soft-tone lamp
P(W): 15-60
candle lamp
P(W): 300
reflector lamp
P(W): 60-120
reflector lamp
P(W): 60-200
general purpose
lamp (bulb)
installation/assembly: pendant
light fitting, rectangular
light fitting, round/cylindrical
wall floodlight, directed beam
round/cylindrical
power supply rail with lamps
supply/tube track system
supply track with light fitting
light fitting, square
tL:J
u
u
o
(j
6
D
General lighting symbols
for architectural plans
000 0
filament lamps
•
(j ~
filament lamps
+
; ~ Q
halogen filament lamps
A
A
A
A
PAR 56
A
PAR 38
® Table of lamp types
CD Diagrams of lamp types
filament lamps
CD

LIGHTING: LAMPS AND FITTINGS
I' 1 grid lighting
A
0
~ r------l
lighting type
~~
'tl',
~
~
~ g ~
flood lighting spotlights uplights downlights square grids rectangular grids
0
A general purpose
0 0
lamp 60-200W
PAR, R parabolic reflector
0
~
lamp
0
reflector lamp
60-300W
0
OT halogen filament
0 0 0 0
lamp 75-250W
OT-DE halogen filament
0 0
~ lamp, sockets both
sides 100-500W
~
OT-LV low-voltage halogen
0 0
lamp 20-100W
b
OR-LV low-voltage halogen
0 0
reflector lamp
20-100W
T fluorescent lamp
0 0 0 0
~
18-58W
~
TC compact fluorescent
0 0 0 0 0 0
TC-D lamp 7-55W
TC-L
HME mercury vapour
0
0 lamp 50-400W
0
HSE/ sodium vapour lamp
0
HST 5Q-250W
HIT halogen metal
0 0 0 0
~ HIT-DE vapour lamp
35-250W
G) Allocation of lamp types and lighting types
air extraction
downlight
160 m3/h at 35 dB (A)
200 m 3/h at 40 dB (A)
~60
~
f~ownlight with air
~ s; extraction/admission
160 m 3/h at 35 dB (A)
iI I 200 m 3/h at 40 dB (A)
=~ i ~--
decorative downlight,
open surround with:
~
m eta l insert
- smoked glass
- fresnel insert
- acrylic ring
ffi
, square downlight
o reflector 300 " 300 mm
= =
~t~
~~60
direct/indirect light
specular louvre pendant
light, direct/indirect
secondary lighting
I
~~
I
specular louvre wall
floodlight
surface-mounted
specular louvre light
built-in specular
louvre light, 2 lamps
built-in specular
louvre light, 1 lamp
indirect light
~
I
downward
directional spotlight
pendant light
~. L::~>~j-
direct/indirect light floor floodlight 500 cd/kim
:::::::?::~ ,_I. /" ~~
rIr! 0 ~ r-:""~"
::::::::::::: 30 500 cd/kim
=A~600~
downlight I " -~ 30
e
wall floodlight' L...-----L::::-..._.-:::::.-'------..J
o Light fittings and light distribution
142

LIGHTING: PROVISION
room nominal area
height illuminance ~ ~
~ ~
::i ~ ~ ~ ~
~ ~ I 0 0
VI 1 ~ ~
g s ~ LU
~ ~
CD 00 00 LU LU 0
~
~ ~ 0 u ~ 0 .....J VI 1 0 0 ,.....
a: a: VI I 1 I I I I I
~ ~ LU ~
I I VI 1
VI 1
~ ~
~ ~ ~ ~ a: a: u u u en en ~ ~ ..... ..... LU
4: <{ a: o o o o o o ~ ~ ~ ..... I I I I I I I I I
garage car parks, packing rooms
• • •-
service rooms
•••• •-
up to
workshops
•
200 Lux
restaurants
• - •.~
foyers
••• •• .-
standard offices, classrooms/lecture rooms, counters and cash desks
•
_.
sitting rooms
-- •• ._-•
workshops
• ~.
up to libraries
• •
500 Lux
up to sale rooms
-- --
3m
exhibition rooms
• - •••• • •
museums, galleries, banqueting rooms
-•-- •
entrance halls
_. • - •••
data processing, standard offices with higher visibility requirements
• •
workshops
• - --
shops
• ••
up to supermarkets
•
750 Lux
shop windows
•
hotel kitchens
• •
concert stages
---
drawing offices, large offices e
storage rooms
• ~
-••
workshops
• ~
industrial workshops
• ~ ~
••• •
up to
-- e ••
200 Lux foyers
restaurants
• •----
churches
-• • -
concert halls, theatres
- •
workshops
• • • -
• • -~
lecture halls, meeting rooms
• • • •
up to sale rooms
• •• • -
500 Lux
3m exhibition rooms, museums, art galleries
• •
up to
entrance halls
••e
- •• • -•
5m
resta urants
•
sports halls, multipurpose halls and gymnasiums
• • - • ••
workshops
• -~ • ••
art rooms
• •
laboratories
•
libraries, reading rooms
• • •
up to exhibition rooms
• • • • e_
750 Lux
exhibition halls
• •
shops
• • •
__
supermarkets
-
large kitchens
•
concert stages
-• ••
industrial workshops, machine rooms, switchgear installations
• ••• •
up to rooms for racked storage systems
• •
200 Lux
churches
-• •
concert halls, theatres
• • •
• • ---
museums, art galleries
• - • •
over up to
• • ••• • --
5m 500 Lux airports, railway stations, circulation zones
banqueting halls
• •
sports and multipurpose halls
• • •
_.
.-- •
auditoriums, lecture halls
• • •
up to
exhibition rooms
• • • -••
750 Lux
exhibition halls
- -••
supermarkets
• • • ••
A == general purpose lamps OT - LV low-voltage halogen lamps TC - D = compact fluorescent lamps,
PAR == parabolic reflector lamps OR - LV low-voltage reflector lamps 4 tubes
R == reflector lamps OR-CB-LV = low-voltage reflector lamps, TC - L = compact fluorescent lamps,
OT == halogen filament lamps cold light long
OT DE .= halogen filament lamps, T fluorescent lamps HME = mercury vapour lamps
2 sockets TC compact fluorescent lamps HSE == sodium vapour lamps
G) Provision of lighting for internal areas
HST = sodium vapour lamps,
tubular
HIT = halogen metal vapour lamps
HIE = halogen metal vapour
lamps, elliptical
143

":':':':':':':':':f:':':':':':':':':':':':':':':':':':.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.,.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:
7~ ••~s:
~ 70"···90'
~'"
ffillR)
:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:~J:.:~:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:
f1' Direct symmetrical
~ illumination
o Wall flood on a power supply
rail; partial room illumination
® Directional spotlights
................................................
........••••....••••...••.•..•.•..........•.•.•...•.•.........•....•.•••••........•...•.•....••
(j) Direct/indirect lighting
f2 Wall flood; direct
.V illumination
:.:.::.: :.:.:.:.:.::.:.:.::.:.:.:.::.:.:::.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:
:.:.:.: :.:.::..:.:::.:.:.:.:.::.::.:.::.::::::.::::::::.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.
8) Wall floodlight
® Indirect lighting
:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:-:.
:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:
® Ceiling floodlighting
LIGHTING: ARRANGEMENT
Forms of Lighting for Internal Areas
Direct, symmetrical lighting ~ CD is preferred for all general
illumination of work rooms, meeting rooms, rooms in
public use and circulation zones. The required level of
illumination can be achieved with relatively little electrical
power: standard values for specific loadings are given on p.
147. When designing a lighting system, an angle of
illumination between 70° and 90° should be tried first.
Downlights (wall floods, louvre lighting) ~ (2) can
provide uniform wall illumination while the effect on the
rest of the room is that of direct lighting. Wall floods on a
power supply rail ~ ® can also give uniform wall
illumination over the required area, depending on the
separation between the lamp and the wall; up to 500 Ix can
be achieved. Fluorescent lamps and halogen filament lamps
can also be used.
Wall floods for ceiling installation ~ @ can be sited so as
to provide low room light or illumination of one wall. These
can also make use of halogen filament lamps and
fluorescent lamps.
Downlighting with directed spotlights ~ @ using a
regular arrangement of lamps on the ceiling and swivelling
reflectors can give different lighting levels in the room.
Halogen filament lamps are most suitable, in particular
those with low-voltage bulbs.
Indirect lighting ~ ® can give an impression of a bright
room free of glare even at low lighting levels, although the
room must be sufficiently high and careful ceiling design is
needed to give the required luminance. Energy
consumption in this form of lighting is up to three times
higher than for direct lighting so combinations are often
used (e.g. 700/0 direct, 300/0 indirect) providing the room
height is adequate (h ~3 m) ~ (I). Fluorescent lamps are
usually used in direct/indirect lighting, but they may also be
combined with filament lamps.
Ceiling and floor floods ~ ® - ® are employed to
illuminate ceiling and floor surfaces. They usually use
halogen filament or fluorescent lamps, although high-
pressure discharge lamps are also a possibility.
Wall lights ~ ® are principally used for decorative wall
lighting and can also incorporate special effects (e.g. using
colour filters or prisms). To a limited extent, they can also
be used for the illumination of ceilings or floors.
Wall floodlights and spotlights on power supply rails
~ @ - @ are particularly useful in sale rooms, exhibitions,
museums and galleries. With wall floodlights, typical
requirements are for vertical illumination levels of 50 lx, 150Ix
or 3001x; filament and fluorescent lamps are usually preferred.
For spotlights, the basic light emission angles are 10° ('spot').
30° rhighlight') and 900rflood').
The angle of the light cone
can be varied by passing the light through lenses (sculptured
lenses, Fresnel lenses), and the spectrum of the light can be
varied using UV and IR filters and colour filters. Shading can
be arranged by means of louvres and anti-glare flaps.
144
::::':':~:~:':~:':~:'
:.:.:.:~:~:':':.':.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:
!,~,.:.:.::.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.
® Floor floodlighting
:.:.::.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:
:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:
f.jQ Wall light; direct/indirect
~ lighting
@ Wall flood on power supply
rail
@
2 S Pot lig ht o n po w e r SUPPIY
rail

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CD Downlight/wall floodlight,
distance from wall: a '" 1/3h
::::::::::::: : ~::::..::::::::::::::: .
...............................................
................................................
"" """"""""',""""""',:
o Downlight, distance from
~ wall: a '" 1/3h
Geometry of Lighting Arrangements
The spacing between light fittings and between the light
fittings and the walls depends on the height of the room
~ G)-@.
The preferred incidence at which light strikes objects and
wall areas is between 30° (optimum) and 40° ...~ @ - @.
The shading angle of downward lighting lies between
30° (wide-angle lighting, adequate glare control) and 50°
(narrow-angle lighting, high glare control) ~ @, and
between 30° and 40° in the case of louvred lighting.
~a
T
b
1
o
f
b
1
o
to- a
o
20 Ix necessary for the recognition of critical features. 20 Ix is the
minimum value of horizontal illuminance for internal areas, except
work areas
200 Ix work areas appear dull with illuminance E < 200 lx, therefore 200 Ix is
the minimum value of illuminance for continually occupied work
areas
2000 Ix 2000 Ix is recommended as the optimum illuminance for work areas
the lowest perceptible change in illuminance is by factor of 1.5;
therefore, the gradation of nominal illuminance levels for internal
areas is:
20, 30, 50, 75, 100, 150, 200, 300, 500, 750, 1000, 1500, 2000 etc.
@ Range of illuminance values for internal areas
(I) Illumination of objects
Recommended illuminance values in accordance with CIE
(Commission International de l'Eclairage)
@ Types of protection required for lighting
stage index Ra typical areas of application
1A > 90 paint sampling, art galleries
18 90 > RA > 80 living accommodation, hotels, restaurants. offices, schools,
hospitals, printing and textile industry
2A 80> RA > 70 Industry
28 70 > RA > 60
3 60> RA > 40 industrial and other areas with low dernanos for colour
rendering
4 40> RA > 20 ditto
identifying letters: IP example IP 44
first identifying digit 0 - 6 degree of protection against contact and foreign bodies
second identifying digit 0 - 8 degree of protection against ingress of water
first area of protection first area of protection
digit digit
0 no protection 0 no protection
1 protection against large foreign 1 protection against vertical drops
bodies (>50 m) of water
against medium-sized foreign
2 against drops of water at an
2 incidence of up to 15
bodies (>12 mm)
3 against water splashing
3 against small foreign bodies
4 against water spraying
«2.5 mm)
5 against water Jets
4 against granular foreign bodies
«1 mm) 6 against ingress of water due to
flooding
5 against dust deposits 7 against dipping in water
6 against entry of dust 8 against Immersion In water
@
recommended area/activity
illuminance
20 30 50 paths and work areas in the open air
50 100 150 for orientation in rooms for short-stay periods
100 150 200 for work areas not in constant use
200 300 500 for visual tasks of little difficulty
300 500 750 for visual tasks of moderate difficulty
500 750 1000 for visual tasks with higher demands, e.g. office work
750 1000 1500 for visual tasks of great difficulty, e.g. fine assembly work
1000 1500 2000 for visual tasks of considerable difficulty, e.g. inspection
over 2000 additional lighting for difficult and special visual tasks
Downlight, separation
between lights: b ::= 2a
~

.A
}A :.:.~
.. .... ...
••••••••••••• •••• • e •••••••••••••••••••
................................................
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I CI.~
lo- 30°-40°
(;; Angle of inclination of
~ spotlights illuminating
objects and walls: u =
30°-40° (optimum)
....
::::::::::::::::::~'i...
::!.::::
..::..::..:..:..:..:.'::
1
® Wall illumination, spotlight
""""""""""""",:"::"""",.,J.""""",,,',',',',',',',':,',',':,',',','

~
Downlight/wall floodlight,
separation between lights:
b = 1-1.5a
...............................................
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I
I
I 0.
lo- 30°-400
® Angle of inclination of
directional spotlights and
floodlights: u = 30°-40°
(optimum)
::::":.~'':-...
.!:::::::..::::::::::::....
::::::..::::::.
CD
® Wall illumination, floodlight @ Colour reproduction of lamps
145

Lighting Quality Characteristics
Any good lighting design must meet functional and
ergonomic requirements while taking cost-effectiveness
into account. In addition to the following quantitative
qua Iity criteria, there are qua Iitative, in pa rticu la r
architectural, criteria which must be observed.
Level of illumination
A mean level of between 300 Ix (individual offices with
daylight) and 750 Ix (large rooms) is required in work areas.
Higher illumination levels can be achieved in uniform
general lighting through the addition of lighting at
workplace positions.
Light direction - j CD
Ideally, light should fallon a working position from the side.
The prerequisite for this is a wing-shaped light distribution
curve (p. 142).
Limitation of glare ~ ~ - @
Direct glare, reflected glare and reflections from monitor
screens should all be limited. Limiting direct glare is
achieved by using lights with shading angles ~ 30°.
Limiting reflected glare is achieved by directing light
from the side onto the working position, in conjunction with
the use of matt surfaces on the surrounding areas...-}~.
Limiting reflections from monitor screens requires the
correct positioning of the screen. Lighting which
nevertheless still reflects on a screen must have a
luminance of :::; 200 cd/rn? in these areas.
Distribution of luminance
The harmonic distribution of luminance is the result of a
careful balance of all the degrees of reflection in the room
~ (f). Luminance due to indirect lighting must not exceed
400 cd/rn-'.
Colour of light and colour rendering
The colour of the light is determined by the choice of lamp.
A distinction is made between three types: warm white light
(colour temperature under 3300 K), neutral white light
(3300-5000 K) and white daylight (over 5000 K). In offices,
most light sources are chosen in the warm white or neutral
white ranges. For colour rendering, which depends on the
spectral composition of the light, stage 1 (very good colour
rendering) should generally be sought.
Calculation of point illuminance levels ~ ®
The illuminance levels (horizontal Eh , vertical E), which are
generated by individual light sources, can be determined
from the luminous intensity and the spatial geometry
(height h, distance d and light incidence angle a) using the
photometric distance principle.
reflection reflection
factor (%) factor (°0)
lighting materials
aluminium, pure, highly polished 80 to 87 plaster, light 40 to 45
aluminium, anodised, matt 80 to 85 plaster, dark 15 to 25
aluminium, polished 65 to 75 sandstone 20 to 40
aluminium, matt 55 to 76 plywood, rough 25 to 40
aluminium coatings, matt 55 to 56 cement, concrete, rough 20 to 30
chrome, polished 60 to 70 brick, red, new 10 to 15
vitreous enamel, white 65 to 75 paints
lacquer, pure white 80 to 85 white 75 to 85
copper, highly polished 60 to 70 light grey 40 to 60
brass, highly polished 70 to 75 medium grey 25 to 35
nickel, highly polished 50 to 60 dark grey 10 to 15
paper, white 70 to 80 light blue 40 to 50
silvered mirror, behind glass 80 to 88 dark blue 15 to 20
silver, highly polished 90 to 92 light green 45 to 55
other materials dark green 15 to 20
oak, light polished 25 to 35 light yellow 60 to 70
oak, dark, polished 10 to 15 brown 20 to 30
granite 20 to 25 light red 45 to 55
limestone 35 to 55 dark red 15 to 20
marble, polished 30 to 70
(j) Reflection factors for various materials
...........................
•• tee ••••••••••
...........................
...........................
,e, en
L < 400 cd/rn?
for ceilings and walls
I
.~::::::.:.:.:.:.:.:.::..:.:.........:.:.......:.:.:.....:.:.:...:.:.:.:.:::.:.:.:.:.:.:
f4 Luminance of indirect
'J lighting
I
.., - .
'::':::::::::::: L< 200 cdlm :::::::::
...... .-.
lights which can generate
reflections should have low
luminance levels in the
critical incidence range
Working surfaces, monitor screens, keyboards and paper should·
have matt surfaces
..................... ...................................
7:~ ~
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I
.-
~~
T If ~o
• • ttl • • • • •
......................................................................
Correct arrangement of lights in relation to work position: light
from the side
..................
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.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:i.:.:~.~
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................................................
................................................
® Illuminance at a point
® Photometric distance principle
CD
CD
146

specific connected load p' W/m2 for
100lx for height 3 rn. area> 100m2
and reflection 0.7/0.5/0.2
C> A --4j: 12W/m2
~ QT~ ~ 10W/m2
C>HME ~ 5W/m2
~TC -E- 5W/m2
~
~
4W/m2
TC-L '8E1
C:====::::a
~ 3W/m2
T26
CD
CD
Specific connected load p.
for various lamp types
o
@
83 oEEo EE 0
O® o©
OEEOEEOEEO
o
EB 0830 EE
o
10
Calculation of illuminance
for internal areas
correction factor k
height area reflection factor
H A(m 2 ) 070502 050201 000
bright medium dark
up to 20 0.75 0.65 0.60
3m 50 0.90 0.80 0.75
:;> 100 1.00 0.90 0.85
3-5m 20 0.55 0.45 0.40
50 0.75 0.65 0.60
:;> 100 0.90 0.80 0.75
5-7m 50 0.55 0.45 0.40
:;> 100 0.75 0.65 0.60
o Table of correction factors
example
room area A = 100m2
room height H = 3 m
reflection factor 0.5/0.2/0.1
(medium reflection)
type of light
p' = 4W/m2 • (compact fluorescent lamp)
p' = 9 . 45 W = 405 W
type of light
p' = 12W/m2 • (general purpose lamp)
p' =8· 100W = 800W
type of light
P" = 10W/m2 • (halogen filament lamp)
p' = 16 . 20 W = 320 W
formula
En = (1~g~~~5 + ogb~fg + 1~g~~fg).0.9
En = 180lx
LIGHTING: REQUIREMENTS
Calculation of mean illuminance
In practice, it is often necessary to obtain an estimate of the
mean intensity of illuminance (En) for a given level of
electrical power supplied, or the electrical power P required
for a given level of illumination. En and P can be estimated
from the formula in ~ @. The specific power P* required for
this calculation depends on the type of lamps used ~ CD,
and relates to direct illumination. The correction factor k
depends on the size of the room and the reflection levels of
the walls, ceiling and floor ~ (2).
If the calculation is to be made for rooms with different
types of lighting, the components are calculated
individually and then added together ~ @.
Calculation of the illumination using the specific power
is also applicable to offices. In the example, a rectangular
room with an area of 24 m2 is equipped with 4 lights. From
~ @, with 2 x 36W lamps (connected value, including 90W
ballast), an illuminance of ca. 3751x is achieved.
In offices, in addition to conventional louvred mirror
lighting, square louvred lighting with compact fluorescent
lamps ~ ([), or structured lighting ~ @, are frequently
installed. Lighting structures use a combination of power
supply rails to carry spotlights.
Floodlighting buildings
The luminous flux required for lamps used to floodlight a
building can be calculated from the formula in -4 @. The
luminance should be between 3cd/m2 (free-standing
objects) and 16cd/m2 (objects in very bright surroundings).
6.00m -
- - r - -- -
~
<,
2.50m
E
~
8
..
~- -- -
~
o Calculation for offices
® Built-in louvred lighting
A = 24m2
K = 0.75
(bright reflection)
= 4 . 90 W = 360 W
En = 1020;.~' 90 .0.75
En =3751x
l_--
T26 2 X 36W
= En' p. p'. 1
100 k
Inn
100
En nominal illuminance (Ix)
p connected load (W)
p' specific connected load (W/m2) ~ CD
A room floor area
k correction factor ~ (2)
® Formula for mean illuminance En and connected load P
® Structured lighting
6.00m ~
6.00m ~
- -EB-
--.[ <;
I 250m I~
E
~
8
..
~.
-$-.- -ifJ
T26 58W
TC-L 2 X 24W
calculation formula
for luminous flux
It· L· A
<1>=~~-
118· Q
luminance for a floodlit
object (cdrn-) L
free standing 3 - 6.5
dark surroundings 6.5 -10
moderately bright 10 -13
surroundings
very bright surroundings 13 -16
lighting efficiency factor
object 118
large area 0.4
small area
large distance 0.3
towers 0.2
<1> = luminous flux required
L = mean luminance (cd/mz)
A = surface to be floodlit
118 = lighting efficiency factor
Q = reflection factor for the material
level of reflection from
illuminated materials Q
brick, white vitrified 0.85
white marble 0.6
plaster, light 0.3-0.5
plaster, dark 0.2-0.3
light sandstone 0.3-0.4
dark sandstone 0.1-0.2
light brick 0.3-0.4
dark brick 0.1-0.2
light wood 0.3-0.5
granite 0.1-0.2
(]) Built-in louvred lighting ® Luminous flux required for floodlighting
147

warm white neutral white daylight white
light colours (Philips) 76 29 827 927 830 930 25 33 840 940 950 865 965 54
colour rendering level 3 18 1A 18 1A 2A 28 18 1A 1A 18 1A 2A
sales areas
foodstuffs
• >< ><
meat
>< ><
textiles, leather goods
>< • >< • ><
furniture, carpets
><><><><
sports, games, paper goods
>< ><
photography, watches, jewellery
>< • >< •
cosmetics, hairdressing
• >< • >< • ><
flowers
• >< >< ><
bakery goods
><
refrigerated counters, chests
><
cheese, fruit, vegetables
><
fish
><
department stores, supermarkets
><><>< ><><
trade and industry
workshops
• ><
machinery, electrical manufacture
• >< ><
textile manufacture
>< ><
printing, graphic trades
• ><>< • ><
paint shops
>< ><
varnishing shops
>< • >< •
warehousing, dispatch
• ><
plant growing
><
woodworking
>< ><><
forging, rolling
• •
laboratories
>< >< ><
colour testing
>< ><
offices and administration
offices, corridors
>< ><
meeting rooms
>< ><
schools. places of education
lecture theatres, c1assrms, play schools
>< ><
libraries, reading rooms
>< ><
social spaces
restaurants, pubs, hotels
><><
theatres, concert halls, foyers
><
event spaces
exhibition halls
>< ><
sports and multipurpose halls
>< ><
galleries, museums
>< ><
clinics. medical practices
diagnosis and treatment
• •
wards, waiting rooms
• >< • ><
domestic
living room
>< ><
kitchen, bathroom, workroom, cellar
>< >< ><><
external lighting
roads, paths, pedestrian areas
>< ><
illumination of signs
><
148
CD The correct use of fluorescent lamps
>< = recommended • = possible

recommended lighting levels for working areas
table of nominal levels of illuminance: standard values for working areas
type of area (lx) type of area (Ixl type of area (Ix)
type of activity type of activity type of activity
general rooms: metal processing/working: paper manufacture and processing,
circulation zones in storage buildings 50 forging of small components 200 printing:
storerooms 50 welding 300
pulp factory 200
storerooms with access requirements 100 large/medium machining operations 300
paper- and boardmaking machinery 300
storerooms with reading requirements 200 fine machining work 500
book-binding, wallpaper printing 300
gangways in storage racking systems 20 control stations 750 cutting, gilding, embossing, plate etching,
operating platforms 200 cold rolling mills 200 work on blocks and plates, printing machines,
dispatch areas 200 wire drawing 300 stencil manufacture 500
canteens 200 heavy sheet working 200 hand printing, paper sorting 750
break rooms 100 light sheet working 300 retouching, lithographics, hand and machine
gymnasiums 300 tool manufacture 500 composition, finishing 1000
changing rooms 100 large assembly work 200 colour proofing in multicolour
washrooms 100 medium assembly work 300 printing 1500
toilet areas 100 fine assembly work 500 steel- and copper-plate engraving 2000
first-aid areas 500 drop forging 200
machinery rooms 100 foundries, cellars, etc. 50
power supply installations 100 scaffolding, trestling 100 leather industry:
postrooms 500 sanding 200
vat operations 200
telephone exchanges 300 cleaning castings 200
skin preparation 300
work positions at mixers 200
saddle making 500
casting houses 200
leather dyeing 750
emptying positions 200 quality control, moderate demands 750
circulation zones in buildings: machine forming operations 200 quality control, high demands 1000
for persons 50 manual forming operations 300 quality control, extreme demands 1500
for vehicles 100 core making 300 colour inspection 1000
stairs 100 model construction 500
loading ramps 100 galvanising 300
painting 300
textile manufacture and processing:
control stations 750
tool assembly, fine mechanics 1000 work in dyeing vats 200
offices, administration rooms: motor body operations 500 spinning 300
lacquering 750 dyeing 300
offices with workstations near windows 300 spinning, knitting, weaving 500
night-shift lacquering 1000
offices 500 sewing, material printing 750
upholstery 500
open-plan offices
inspection 750
millinery 750
- high reflection 750 trimming 1000
- moderate reflection 1000 quality control, colour check 1000
technical drawing 750
conference rooms 300 power stations:
reception rooms 100
foodstuffs industry:
rooms for public use 200 charging equipment 50
data processing 500 boiler house 100 general work positions 200
pressure equalising chambers 200 mixing, unpacking 300
machine rooms 100 butchery, dairy work, milling 300
adjoining rooms 50 cutting and sorting 300
chemical industry: switchgear in buildings 100 delicatessen, cigarette manufacture 500
external switchgear 20 quality control, decoration, sorting 500
facilities with remote controls 50
laboratories 1000
facilities with manual operations 100
control rooms 300
continuously occupied technical processing
inspection work 500
facilities 200
wholesale and retail trades:
maintenance facilities 300
laboratories 300 electrical industry: salerooms, continuously occupied
work requiring a high degree of visual work positions 300
acuity 500 manufacture of wire and cable, assembly cashier's positions 500
colour testing 1000 work, winding thick wire 300
assembly of telephone equipment, winding
medium-thick wire 500
trades (general examples):
assembly of fine components, adjustment
cement industry, ceramics, glass and testing 1000 paint shops 200
works: assembly of fine electronic pre-assembly of heating and ventilation
components 1500 equipment 200
working positions or areas at furnaces, repair work 1500 locksmiths 300
mixers, pulverising plant 200 garages 300
rollers, presses, forming operations 300 joinery 300
glass blowing, grinding, etching, repair workshops 500
glass polishing, glass instrumentation
jewellery and watchmaking: radio and television workshops 500
manufacture 500 manufacture of jewellery 1000
decorative work 500 preparation of precious stones 1500
hand grinding and engraving 750 optical and watchmaking workshops 1500 service operations:
fine work 1000
hotel and restaurant receptions 200
kitchens 500
wood preparation and woodworking:
dining rooms 200
iron and steel works, rolling mills, buffet 300
steam treatment 100
lounges 300
large foundries:
saw mills 200
self-service restaurants 300
laundries, washrooms 300
automated production facilities 50 assembly 200
ironing machines 300
production facilities, manual work 100 selection of veneers, lacquers, model
hand ironing 300
continuously occupied work positions woodworking 500 sorting 300
in production facilities 200 woodworking machinery 500 inspection 1000
maintenance 300 wood finishing 500 hairdressers 500
control stations 500 defect control 750 beauty salons 750
149

Transparent and Translucent Materials
Fluorescent Tubes for Advertising Displays
Every type of text and arbitrary line styles can be
reproduced using fluorescent tubes, including ornamental
and figured representations. Control is simple using
rheostats or regulating transformers. Fluorescent tubes are
commonly used for cinemas, theatres, sales advertising and
publicity. In offices and businesses, louvred or gridded
ceilings may be installed under fluorescent tubes to provide
predominantly downward lighting ~ CD - @.
Strip-lights and elongated lighting panels allow soft
uniform lighting to be achieved, which approximates
daylight and has shadow effects.
High-pressure mercury vapour lamps with fluorescent
gas are used for the illumination of factories and workshops
as well as for external lighting.
Mixed-light lamps with fluorescent gas produce light
similar to daylight, with good colour reproduction. These
lamps have standard fittings, without a ballast device (e.g.
general-purpose lamps).
+-h+
Lattice diffuser designs:
CD Parallel lattice
CV Parallel slanting lattice
@ Diagonal lattice
® Diagonal slanting lattice
@ Arrangement of lamps a ~ 2/3d
CD
+-b-
-+
-+
a
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
······0·······0·······0·····
M-d-1-d---l
Oilt III 1111II 111111'"" """ I i Ii i i !I iii
®
o
® Relevant characteristics of materials permeable to light
material scatter thick- reflec- permea- absorp-
ness tion bility tion
(mm) (%) (%) (%)
clear glass none 2-4 6-8 90 - 92 2-4
ornamental glass minimal 3.2 - 5.9 7 - 24 57 - 90 3 - 21
clear glass. frosted outside minimal 1.75 - 3.1 7 - 20 63 - 87 4 - 17
clear glass, frosted inside minimal 1.75 - 3.1 6 - 16 77 - 89 3 -11
frosted glass: group 1 good 1.7 - 3.6 40 - 66 12 - 38 20 - 31
group 2 good 1.7 - 2.5 43 - 54 37 - 51 6 - 11
group 3 good 1.4 - 3.5 65 -78 13 - 35 4 - 11
plated frosted glass: group 1 good 1.9 - 2.9 31 - 45 47 - 66 3 - 10
group 2 good 2.8 - 3.3 54 - 67 27 - 35 8 - 11
frosted glass. colour-plated
red 2-3 64 - 69 2-4 29 - 34
orange 2-3 63 - 68 6 - 10 22 - 31
green 2-3 60 - 66 3-9 30 - 31
opaline glass minimal 2.2 - 2.5 13 - 28 58 - 84 2 - 14
porcelain good 3.0 72 -77 2-8 2 - 21
marble, polished good 7.3 - 10 30 -71 3-8 24 - 65
marble, impregnated good 3-5 27 - 54 12 - 40 11 - 49
alabaster good 11.2 - 13.4 49 - 67 17 - 30 14 - 21
cardboard, impregnated good 69 8 23
parchment uncoloured good 48 42 10
parchment light yellow good 37 41 22
parchment, dark yellow good 36 14 50
silk, white moderate 28 - 38 61 -71 1
silk, coloured moderate 5 - 24 13 - 54 27 - 80
cotton lining good rd.68 rd.28 rd.4
Formica, tinted good 1.1 - 2.8 32 - 39 20 - 36 26 - 48
Pollopas, light colour good 1.2 - 1.6 46 - 48 25 - 33 21 - 28
Perspex, white (frosted) good 1.0 55 17 28
Perspex, yellow (frosted) good 1.0 36 9 55
Perspex, blue (frosted) good 1.0 12 4 84
Perspex, green (frosted) good 1.0 12 4 84
mirror glass (plate) 6-8 8 88 4
wire-reinforced glass 6-8 9 74 17
crude glass 4-6 8 88 4
insulating glass (green) 2 6 38 56
In determining the size, colour, window dimensions and
lighting of a room, a knowledge of the translucence, scatter
and reflected radiation of the materials to be used in the
room is required. This is particularly important for effective
artistic and economic design.
A distinction is made between materials which reflect
light -) @ with direct, totally scattered or partially scattered
return radiation, and translucent materials with direct ~ CD
- @, scattered ~ ([) or mixed translucence ~ @.
Note: Frosted glass with inside surface frosting (preferred
owing to fewer soiling problems) absorbs less light than the
same glass with external surface frosting ~ @.
Coloured silk lampshades with white linings which
minimally reduce translucence absorb around 200/0 less
light than those without linings and with greater
translucence.
Daylight glass which filters electric light to simulate
sunlight absorbs approximately 350/0 of the total light. Glass
which comes close to copying the scattered light of the sky
must absorb 60-800/0.
Clear window glass is translucent to between 65 and
950/0 of light. If poor-quality clear glass is used, particularly
in the case of double or triple glazing, so much light is
absorbed that it is necessary to increase the window size.
This increase is not compensated for by the improved
thermal insulation of the multi-paned window assembly.
Sheet glass is made mechanically, and is ready for use
without further processing. It is a clear, transparent glass
which is colourless and uniformly thick. Both sides have
even plane surfaces, and its transparency to light is 91-93%.
Classification: Type 1: Best commercial quality product
for rooms (living accommodation,
offices).
Type 2: Structural glass for factories,
storerooms, cellars and glass floors.
Glass of one type only should be used for glazed items
which are sited next to each other. Such applications
include window glazing, shop windows, doors, dividing
walls, furniture construction, laminated safety glass and
double-glazing units. Further processing might entail
polishing, etching, frosting, stoving, silvering, painting,
bending or arching. Special-purpose glass, such as silvered
glass, dry plate glass, glass for automobiles and safety
glass, is made in all thicknesses (~ pp. 166-173).
Mixed
permeability of
ornamental
glass. silk. light
frosted glass.
etc.
o
Scattered
permeability of
frosted glass.
alabaster. etc.
+
o
plate with
parallel faces
+
Directional
permeability of
clear glass.
showing
displacement of
slanting
radiation
+
®
150

o Seasons of the year, northern hemisphere
DAYLIGHT
General requirements for daylight illumination of internal
areas
All rooms which are to be used for permanent occupation
must be provided with adequate natural light. In addition,
appropriate visual links with the outside world must be
safeguarded.
Light, wavelength, light colour
Within the electromagnetic spectrum ~ CD, visible light
occupies a relatively small band, namely 380-780 nm. Light
(daylight and artificial light) is the visible band of
electromagnetic radiation between ultra-violet and infra-
red. The spectral colours which occur in this range each
have corresponding wavelengths, e.g. violet is short wave
and red is long wave. Sunlight contains relatively more
short-wave radiation than a filament lamp, which has more
long-wave radiation, i.e. a greater red light component.
However, daylight is perceived by the human eye as being
white, apart from at sunrise and sunset, when it appears
red.
The unit of measurement for illuminance (particularly
artificial light) is the lux (lx). The level of daylight in rooms
is given as a percentage (see later).
Astronomical fundamentals: position of the sun
The radiation and light sources which give rise to daylight
are not constant. The sun is the 'primary light source' of
daylight ~ @ whatever the condition of the sky. The axis of
inclination of the Earth (23.5°), the daily rotation of the Earth
around its own axis and the rotation of the Earth around the
sun over a period of 1 year determine the position of the
sun as a function of the time of year and the day for each
point on the surface of the Earth ~ (2).
The position of the Earth is defined by two angles: the
azimuth, as' and the angle of elevation, Ys. On a plan view~
@, the azimuth is the horizontal deviation of the position of
the sun from 0°, where 0° = north, 90° = east, 180° = south
and 270° = west as seen by the observer. On a vertical
projection ~ @, the angle of elevation is the position of the
sun over the horizon as seen by the observer.
A number of measuring methods are used to determine
the position of the sun at a given location, for example
determination of the degree of latitude and the angle of
elevation.
The declination of the sun during the annual cycle results
in four main seasons in the year. The equinoxes are on 21
March and 23 September; this is when the declination of the
sun is 0°. The winter solstice occurs on 21 December (the
shortest day), when the declination of the sun is -23.5°; the
summer solstice occurs on 21 June (the longest day), when
the declination of the sun is +23.5° (see next page, ---) @).
The position of the sun is given by the degree of latitude.
On 21 March and 23 September, at 12.00 (as = 180°), the
zenith angle of the sun at any latitude is of the same
magnitude as the angle of latitude. For example, at 51°
north (Brighton), the zenith angle at 12.00 (as = 180°) is 51°
(see next page, ~ @). The angle of elevation of the sun
above the horizontal is 90° - 51° = 39°.
On 21 June, at midday, 12.00 (as = 180°), the sun is 23.5°
higher than on 21 March and 23 September: 39° + 23.5° =
62.5°. On the other hand, on 21 December the sun is
23.5° lower than at the equinox: 39° - 23.5° = 15.5°. These
deviations are the same for all degrees of latitude.
Thus, the angle of elevation of the sun, corresponding to
the time of year, can be determined for all degrees of
latitude.
start of
summer
21 June
horizontal
0° deviation ~
N
a, fl £
c
C'(/ sun Q.l
~
Earth
/ O() sun
W E
270" 90°
SW SE
S
180° horizon
CD Azimuth (us)
CD Angle of elevation (Ys)
(1 nanometre = 1 " 10 9 metres)
G) Spectrum of electromagnetic radiation
21 March equinox
23.5°
• - ';' ~~f')o sun "
, d~ --
-..;~:e=:r~x'
wavelength frequency
in metres in hertz
(rn) (Hz)
100000 (105)
104
10000 (104)
105 . long waves
1000 (103)
106 medium
waves
100 (102)
107 short waves
10 (101)
108
ultra-short
waves
1 (100)
109 television
0.1 (10 1)
1010
0.01 (10 2)
radar
1011
0.001 (10 3) waves
1012 red
0.0001 (10- 4)
1013 infra-red
0.00001 (10 5) radiation
orange
1014 yellow
0.000001 (10-6)
1015 -
0.0000001 (10 7 )
1016 ultra-violet green
0.00000001 (10 8) radiation
0.000000001 (10 9) 1017
blue
0.0000000001 (1010) 1018 X-rays
violet
0.000000 000 01 (10 11) 1019
0.000000000001 (10 12) 1020 gamma
radiation
0.0000000000001 (10 13) 1021
0.000000 000 000 01 (10 14) 1022
0.000000000000001 (10 15) 1023
1024
1025
151

DAYLIGHT
Solar position diagrams
An example is shown of a solar position diagram for 51°N
~ ([). The diagram shows the plan projection of the position
of the sun, in terms of azimuth and elevation, at true local
time, e.g. for Brighton on 23 September, sunrise is at 6.00 at
<xs 00° (ooot); on tho 00.,,0 doto ot 12.00, ~s - 1000
(':H:::Juth)
and the elevation angle is 39°; sunset is at 18.00, as = 270°,
on the same day.
To determine the local course of the sun, a coloured
solar position chart is used ~ @. The chart contains the
plan projection of the azimuth as and the angle of elevation
Ys of the sun as a function of time of year and time of day
for the appropriate angle of latitude and reference
meridian.
In order to determine the position of the sun, loop-
shaped curves are given for each hour of the day. In these,
violet is used for the first half of the year and green for the
second. The looped shape of the hourly curves is
attributable to the elliptical path of the Earth and the
inclination of the ecliptic. The times shown relate to the
given time reference meridian, i.e. to the time zone of the
location in question.
The intersection points of the daily curves with hourly
curves of the same colour mark the position of the sun at
any hour of the day. On the orange coloured polar diagram,
the position of the sun can be read off as an angle of
direction of the sun (azimuth) and angle of elevation of the
sun (height) ~ @.
Projection of the solar path
By using a stereographic projection ~ @, the path of the sun
can be determined for each degree of latitude (for the 21st
day of each month) as a function of time of year and time of
day.
Solar position, clock time and determination of time
The position of the sun determines the daylight conditions
according to the time of day and time of year. The true
local time (TLT) is the usual reference for time of day (e.g.
in the solar position charts) in determining daylight. Each
location is allocated to a time zone, within which the same
time (zone time) applies. If the time zone input is of
interest, then the TLT must be converted to the
appropriate time zone.
winter
solstice
equinox
summer
solstice
equinox
~r-,
V 'r.
-- / --~ ---- - - - - -f--f-
/
--- r--~
- V
- - -
ve-f - - - ---- - ~ - - - -
i.
-j i --
-,
7-
/ '-----1 - ~
""'~",-
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
equator
Annual variation of the declination of the sun
Degree of latitude and angle of elevation Ys
__~I-------'_---Io_---Io.~--..._
........ __~600
__
""""'---+ ........._..0...-_
Solar azimuth as and solar elevation Ys at 51 ° latitude (English
south coast: Southampton, Brighton) as a function of time of
year and time of day
(l)
(5
0....
s:
o
Z
~--"""'~--+----+-+-~=-=..-t----'I_-+------t 19 S°
12 .....-+-If---+--t----l~--+--+~t_+_-_+_-+-_+_____1l_+_
__._+__t___+_-_+__t____; 1BO°
__.....Iw-1f-----1=~-----'.-+----:=_B!=--e:::t"!'-=-_=+___+_+__+f~t___+_:f___+___I
165°
10 t------1~---=I~____40~~-..c-~=--==F_--""'--~r_=:___¥___t_A__==--~____=±_==_=i 1 50°
F=-~~-7"4~-----A"---~..-::::.a,---+--+-~e---T"~---po.c- ......o---c;r--~---I 225°
14 1r-==--=-iHL-~~~~-=±-~==---t-'='--_+_---""'"'~-~___t~-~~--"'T--""'-=i 210
0
TLT
20 __~...------.-----r----r~~-----r---~
h r--~f---~------+ ~~--+-
18 ......-~----;~--+
®
®
N
s
® Solar position chart for latitude 49°52'N, longitude 8°39',
time reference meridian: longitude 15°00' ® Stereographic projection of the path of the sun, e.g. for latitude
51 ° on 21 March and on 23 September: sunrise at 6.00, sunset
at 18.00, Ys =39° at 12.00
152

1 artificial sun with parabolic
reflector or similar
2 model: e.g. for city buildings,
architecture
3 simulator to represent
variations in time of day, time
of year and latitude
DAYLIGHT
:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.~.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:. :.:.:.:.:
@ Artificial sun model
Position of the sun: shadows, methods employed
The following methods are employed to determine and
verify the actual solar radiation and shadow, both inside
and outside buildings, as a function of geographical
location, time of year and time of day, structural features
and surrounding conditions.
Graphical construction of shadows. Determination of the
shadows cast by a building can be accomplished using the
projected (apparent) course of the sun, represented in ~ ®
(see previous page), by means of a plan and an elevation.
As an example, the shadows in a courtyard in Brighton,
latitude 51°N, will be constructed for 21 March, at 16.00. The
sun appears at this time at an azimuth angle (as1) of 245°
and an elevation (Ys1) of 20° ~ ® + @. The positional plan is
orientated with the north. The directions of the shadows are
determined by the horizontal edges of the building, that is,
a parallel shift of the direction of the sunshine (as 1 = 245°)
due to the corners of the building. The length of the shadow
is determined by the vertical edges of the building, that is,
a rotation of the true height of the building (h) and
application of the elevation angle of 20°. The point of
intersection with the direction of the shadow gives the
length of the shadow.
Panorama mask. In many countries, a representation of the
path of the sun is available for various geographical areas.
These representations are printed on clear film, and include
data on azimuth and elevation angles, as well as time of
year and time of day. In use, a copy of the relevant sheet is
bent in a curve and positioned in the direction of the sun
~ @. By looking through the panorama mask, any
encroachment of shadows from the surroundings and from
overhead shadows is transferred to the printed path of the
sun, on a scale of 1:1 ~ @. The film can then be used to
analyse the occurrence of shadows and sunshine on
facades and on sections of buildings to the correct scale.
Horizontoscope. The horizontoscope is an aid to
determining the true conditions of sunshine and shadow on
building sites and on and in buildings. The horizontoscope
consists of a transparent dome, a compass, the base and
exchangeable curved sheets which are placed on the base,
according to the task in hand, to investigate light, radiation
or heat, etc.
The purpose of the horizontoscope is to construct the
light and shade conditions which exist in a room, e.g. ~ @.
At a particular point in the room, the opening for incident
light can be assessed by means of a window cut-out
projected on the dome and at the same time on the curved
sheet underneath. It is therefore possible to determine both
the radiation conditions and light effects in the room for
each point in the room, and for any time of day and time of
year, depending on the alignment of the building ~ @.
Model simulation. In order to simulate and establish
accurate annual shadow and solar radiation effects in and on
a building, it is possible to construct a true-to-scale model
and to test it under an artificial sun (parallel light) ~ 0].
window
projection
schematic
section
t
west
t
south-west
"t
south
panorama mask
shift of central axis from 0° 45°
t
south-east
t
compass
inner
court
n=
14cm diameter base
with compass
Possible course of shadows on the film
dome, height 3cm
(transparent)
exchangeable
curved sheets for
sun, heat, light,
radiation etc.
positional
plan
:il~~ation 10 ~, D
:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.':"':':.:.~:.:.~:.:.~:.:.~:.:.~:.:~.:.:~.:.:~.:.:~.:.:~.:.:~.:.:~.:.:~.:.:"".:••
""
••
:."":.:."":.:."":.:."":.:."":.:."!"!:.:
@
@ Graphical shadow construction
153

® Mean daily solar radiation and hours of sunshine in the UK
1
E
~
1.5
DAYLIGHT
Meteorological features
The radiation of heat and the intensity of the sunlight on the
surface of the Earth over the course of the year are
determined by the geographical latitude, the weather and
the varying conditions of the sky (clear, clouded, dull, partly
clouded, etc.l,
The facts given below are important with regard to our
typical patterns of daylight and sunshine duration.
There are 8760 h in a year. The duration of 'bright
daylight' during the course of a year amounts to around
4300 h on average.
The number of hours of sunshine per year varies from
one country to another. Even within the same country it
may vary from one location to another. The majority of
these hours of sunshine usually occur during summer.
Over most of the year, that is, during 2/3 of the daylight
hours, the sunlight that reaches the Earth is scattered to a
greater or lesser degree owing to the local weather
conditions.
The direct and indirect solar radiation (global radiation)
which reaches the surface of the Earth produces a locally
varying climate on the surface and in its near vicinity (see ---)
@). The periods of sunshine are considered in units of
tenths of hours. The data represent only the macro-climate;
local variations in the micro-climate are not accounted for.
Climatic data relating to a specific location (temperature,
sunshine duration, sky conditions etc.) can be obtained, for
example, from the Meteorological Office in Bracknell, UK.
During 'bright daylight hours', varying intensities of
solar radiation are received on the surface, depending on
the geographical latitude and the weather conditions, as are
varying qualities of daylight ~ @.
Physical basis of radiation
Solar radiation is a very inconstant source of heat. Only a
small proportion of the solar energy radiated toward the
Earth is transferred to the surface of the Earth as heat
energy. This is because the Earth's atmosphere diminishes
the solar radiation and does not permit a uniform intensity
to penetrate to the surface.
This reduction essentially occurs because of various
turbidity factors, such as scatter, reflection and absorption
of the radiation by dust and haze (the cause of diffuse
daylight), and also because of the water vapour, carbon
dioxide and ozone in the air.
The total energy of solar radiation reaching the Earth is
transmitted in the wavelength range 0.2-3.0Ilm.
Distribution of the total energy on the Earth's surface is as
follows: approximately 30/0 ultra-violet radiation in the
wavelength range 0.2-0.38fJm; approximately 440/0 visible
radiation in the wavelength range 0.38-0.78Ilm (the
maximum lies at 0.5 urn in the visible light range);
approximately 530/0 infra-red radiation in the wavelength
range 0.78-3.0Ilm.
The chart shown in ~ @ represents the solar radiation
which reaches the Earth. This is the solar constant, and has
a value in our region of approximately 1000W/m2 on an
illuminated vertical surface.
The radiation power is reduced by very thick cloud to
approximately 200W/m2, and in the case of only diffuse
radiation (a cloudy sky with the sun completely obscured)
to approx. 50-200W/m2 (see ~ @).
,I
•
':0
.-JI
.11
111~
III
•
(2) I'~
JI ....
l..t ,;(3" I•
......
1.0
0.5
o
o 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 Y(llm)
(1 intensity J of solar radiation at the limit
of the Earth's atmosphere as a function
of the wavelength (Ys = 90°)
the shaded region shows the losses
from reflection, scatter and absorption
of radiation due to the water vapour,
carbon dioxide and ozone in the air, as
well as dust particles
(2' intensity J of the solar radiation that
reaches the Earth
.3 range of visible light
condition
n '-""""
of sky, e.g.
q~<ln ~d
latitude
51°N
.r: ·r
weather clear, misty, cloud-
cloudless cloudy; covered
blue sky sun sky, dull
visible day
as white
disk
horizontal
irradiance 600-800 200-400 50-150
(W/m l )
horizontal
60000- 19000- 5000-
illuminance
(Ix)
100000 40000 20000
diffusion
80-
component, 10-20% 20-30%
100%
sky
@ Different intensities of
radiation and varying
quality of daylight in
various weather conditions
@
154

Global Radiation
DAYLIGHT
The effective solar radiation on a building (on the surfaces
which are aligned with the direction of radiation at the time)
is referred to as the global radiation Eeg. This is the sum of
the 'direct' and 'diffuse' solar radiation (conditioned by the
Earth's atmosphere and due to the scattered radiation
caused by the varying conditions of the sky), given in W/m2
or in Wh/m2 per month or per day or per year. In the case of
diffuse and direct radiation, the component of the radiation
which is reflected from neighbouring buildings, roads and
bordering surfaces, for example, must be taken into
account (particularly when such reflections are strong).
Global radiation can be employed as a source of heat,
directly for 'passive use' through structural measures (e.g.
glass surfaces to utilise the greenhouse effect or internal
heat storage walls) ~ @, or indirectly by 'active use' (e.g.
using collectors, solar cells) ~ @ for the energy
requirements of a building. Also, the proportion of global
radiation received directly determines the effective heating
influence of the sun on the cooling load, which has to be
calculated in the layout of heating and ventilation systems
for each type of building.
The necessary global radiation on buildings and
collector surfaces for the utilisation of solar energy must be
determined. This is related to the location of the building,
and can be obtained as an energy parameter.
~ @ shows the horizontal irradiance in W/m2 due to the
sun EeS and the sky EeH as a function of the elevation of the
sun for clear skies. The horizontal global irradiance Eeg is
the sum of the components generated by the sun Eesand
the sky EeH.
Application: In order to be able to determine the actual
amount of solar energy to be used, the contributions must
be presented as functions of the inclination and, if
necessary, the orientation of the surfaces of the building,
corresponding to ~ @. The horizontal irradiance can be
obtained from ~ @.
~ @ shows the reduction of the incident level of solar
radiation as a consequence of the different inclinations
(0-90°) and orientations.
In the case of a vertical surface, only about 500/0 of the
annual horizontal global irradiance can be utilised.
The quantity of radiation incident on a vertical, but
differently orientated, surface under a cloudless sky can be
read off the graphs in ~ @, at least for the highest and
lowest positions of the sun.
Passive and active solar systems
The energy requirement for a building in northern Europe
during the 8-month period of heating in winter is relatively
high in comparison to that required during the months from
May to August. During the months of September and April,
although the global radiation component is not very
intensive (see ~ @), part of the energy requirement of a
building (heating, domestic water, ventilation etc.) can be
covered by the use of the thermal energy of the
surroundings, which again places emphasis on the problem
of long-term storage.
In the application of solar energy, a distinction is made
between two main systems according to their principle of
operation: active or passive.
EeH for
TL =
7
6
5
4
3
2
I I
I I
I I
summer
f I"t-: --- -'~nte>
~D~
~:~
~ / / <,
11/ -,
iJ
/ I mornings an~ •
/ / _ _ evenlniJ~ _ -~~
--~ - ~ ~
/ yx CS ~
/ - - --"i
/ yx
400
200
o
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 h
north window true sun time
~ 1000 ....-~~r-----1.---,----,,----,r--1
~ ~ 800 ~I--~~~~---f---f
.~ ~ 600
4ool--l--l--~~~~i-+-I
200
o~L.-&oo:::::..L.-....JL.....-L.-....J"""""",---::",
4 6 8 10 12
west window
~ 1000
~N
:.0 E 800
.~ ~ 600
ys~
----
/
V
-
V V
/ /
---
[7/[7 V
/' .-~
/ V/V/V ~
.>
/V/V/r>V
~
II//~-:
/ VI~
[7
II~t7
/ 1//~ -- - - --
~~
---- ...... -- -- f - - - -
--
-=...-=- ------ -- -
,--- ---
~~ -- -- -- -- --- ---
f--- - --
200
400
200
()4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 h
east window
~ 1000
~ ~ 800 ~~~~...........-.-.---+--;
.~ ~ 600
400 1--f---I~F----1~M-f---+--;
200
Ow.::::::--L...--.LL....-...JL....-...J----I----I..............
---"'"
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 h
south window
600
1000
south east-west
1200
800
@ Comparisons of the direct radiation on horizontal and vertical
surfaces at various positions of the sun during the day. The
level of incident radiation on a surface depends on the angle of
that radiation (yx).
® Horizontal irradiances due to the sun EeS and the (cloudless) sky
EsH' with various turbidities TL' as a function of the elevation of
the sun Ys
CD internal building surfaces which can CV optimum inclination of solar cells for
receive direct incident solar radiation global radiation used throughout the
from winter to summer year > @ - @
@ Optimum angles of inclination for south-facing surfaces
Examples of radiation intensity on vertical surfaces facing in
various directions on cloudless days in winter (Dec.) and
summer (June)
155

Active systems are those in which the heat gain and heat output
processes are driven by equipment installed in the building. They are
also referred to as indirect systems, since the heat output occurs after
the conversion processes. The operating principle of an active
system is represented in ~ @ as a heat cascade. The heat gain can
be achieved by means of solar collectors or something similar.
In passive systems, the solar energy is used 'directly'. This
means that where the form of the building, the material, the type of
construction and the individual components are suitable, the
incident solar radiation is converted into heat energy, stored and
then given out directly to the building.
Four physical processes which are important to the heat gain,
conversion and output are described below.
(1) Thermal conduction ~ @, G)
When a material absorbs solar radiation, this energy is converted
into heat. Heat flow is caused by a temperature difference, and is
also dependent on the specific thermal capacity of the material
concerned. For example, if the temperature of the surroundings is
lower than that of a heated wall, then the 'stored' heat energy is
transferred to the surroundings.
(2) Convection ~ @, (2)
A wall or other material heated by solar radiation gives back the
available energy to the surroundings, according to the temperature
difference. The greater the temperature difference between wall and
surroundings, the greater the amount of heat given up. Air that is
heated in this process will rise.
(3) Thermal radiation ~ @, @
Short-wave solar radiation is converted into long-wave (infra-
red) radiation on the surface of the material. The radiation is emitted
in all directions, and is dependent on the surface temperature of the
materials.
(4) Collectors ~ @, @
Sunlight penetrates glass surfaces which are orientated towards
the south. Solar radiation converted inside the room (long-wave
radiation) cannot pass back through the glass, and thus the inside of
the room is heated (greenhouse effect) ~ @, @.
In any application of the systems described above, account must
be taken of storage, controllability and distribution within the
building.
Summertime thermal insulation
Summertime thermal insulation is recommended for transparent
facades in buildings with natural ventilation in order to avoid the
possibility of overheating. The recommendations are as follows: The
product of the total energy transmission factor (g) (~ @) x the solar
protection factor (z) (~ @) x the window surface component (f) on
the facade. i.e. g x z X f, should have a value of 0.14-0.25 for strongly
constructed buildings, and a value of 0.12-0.17 for those of lighter
structure (see ~ @).
Extensive solar shading precautions ~ @ should be critically
evaluated, since wide-ranging visual effects may result and the view
may be permanently impaired ~ @.
The interplay of natural surroundings, physical laws and the
development of constructional styles in specific materials means
that each case requires accurate, individual analysis ~ @.
Explanation of Figure @
Outside and facade ~ G)
• Shadows and cooling due to vegetation (trees, shrubbery,
etc.)
• Light-coloured pathway (width approx. 1 rn), e.g. pebbles, in
front of the house
• Sun or anti-glare protection (b = 35°) installed, extent approx.
900mm
• Facade in bright reflecting materials (pastel colours)
• Adequate window size (with insulating glass) for incident
light and heat, with white internal frames
Inside ~ (2)
• Consideration for house plants, if present
• Light- or medium-coloured floor covering
• Flexible heating system (a combination of air and hot water)
• Light-coloured curtains as anti-glare protection to diffuse
direct solar radiation (particularly during transition periods)
• Light matt colours (pastel and natural colours for furniture)
on surrounding areas, particularly the ceiling
• Cross-ventilation via tilting flaps
Simple mechanical ventilation, if required
DAYLIGHT
east/west
closed ~ medium
loop ~
gaseous
or
liquid
closed
loop ---.medium .-J
2 heat exchanger
3 heat output
1 heat acquisition, e.g. collectors
Reduction factor z of solar
protection devices in
association with glazing
types
Heat cascade. active
system
south
vertical section
@
solar protection device g
no solar protection device 1.0
inside and between the
panes
fabrics or films 0.4-0.7
Venetian blinds 0.5
outside
Venetian blinds, rotatable
0.25
slats, rear ventilated
Venetian blinds, roller
shutters, shutters, fixed or 0.3
rotatable slats
roof panels, loggia 0.3
window blinds, ventilated
0.4
from above and from sides
window blinds, general 0.5
Arrangement for
sunshields. loggias.
window blinds or similar
Heat reduction through solar protection with simultaneous
cooling by means of passive precautions (e.g. office buildings
without air conditioning)
Total energy transmission factor
g of various glazing types
Recommended maximum
values (gf x f) as a function
of natural ventilation
alternatives
Passive system (principles)
Heating requirement and
sunshine duration
JFMAMJJASOND
quantity
slot 1 2 3
recommended
internal
maximum value (gf " f)
Item construction increased increased
type natural natural
ventilation ventilation
not available
available
1 light 0.12 0.17
2 robust 0.14 0.25
glazing g
double glazing in clear glass 0.8
triple glazing in clear glass 0.7
glass blocks 0.6
multiple glazing with special 0.2-
glass (thermal insulating 0.8
glass/solar control glass)
~~.~o
~~
horizontal section
156

DAYLIGHT
The measurement and evaluation of daylight in internal
areas with light admission from the sides and above.
The daylight in internal areas can be evaluated according
to the following quality criteria: illuminance and brightness;
uniformity; glare; shadow.
Basis: In evaluating daylight in internal areas, the
illuminance of a clouded sky (i.e. diffuse radiation) is taken
as the basis. Daylight admitted to an internal area through
a side window is measured by the daylight factor D. This is
the ratio of the illuminance of the internal area (Ei) to the
prevailing external illuminance (Ea), where D = Ei/(Ea x
100)0/0. Daylight in internal areas is always given as a
percentage. For example, when the illuminance of the
internal area is 500 Ix and the external illuminance is 5000
lx, then D = 100/0.
The daylight factor always remains constant. The
illuminance of an internal area varies only in proportion to
the external illuminance prevailing at the time. The external
illuminance of a clouded sky varies from 5000 Ix in winter to
20000 Ix in summer ----7 @, and depends on the time of year
and the time of day.
The daylight factor at a point P ----7 @ is influenced by
many factors. D = (DH + DV + DR) x t x k1 x k2 x k3, where
DH is the component of light from the sky, DV is the effect
due to neighbouring buildings, DR is the contribution from
internal reflections, and the following reduction factors are
taken into consideration: t, the light transmission factor for
the glass; k1, the scatter effects due to the construction of
the window; k2, the scatter effects due to the type of
glazing; k3, the effects of the angle of incidence of the
daylight.
The reference plane for the horizontal illuminance of
daylight in an internal area is as shown in ----7 @. It can be
taken as 0.85 m above floor level, and is separated from the
walls of the room by 1m. The points EP used for the
horizontal illuminance are fixed on this reference plane. The
corresponding (to be determined) daylight factors can then
be represented in the form of a daylight factor curve ----7 @.
The shape of the curve on the section provides information
about the horizontal illuminance on the reference plane (at
the corresponding points), and then Dmin and Dmax can be
established (see also uniformity). The curve of the daylight
factor also provides information on the variation of daylight
in the room.
Required daylight factors D%. The relevant, currently
valid requirements are laid down in regulations relating to
daylight in internal areas and in the guidelines for work
areas. Since no other relevant data are available at present,
the required variation in daylight can be determined and
checked from the uniformity (see later).
On the assumption that living rooms are comparable in
terms of their dimensions with work rooms, the following
values for the required daylight factors should be adhered
to:
Dmin ~ 10/0 in living rooms, reference point the centre of
the room ----7 @;
Dmin ~ 10/0 in workrooms, reference point the lowest
position in the room ----7 @;
Dmin ~ 20/0 in workrooms with windows on two sides;
Dmin ~ 20/0 in workrooms with light coming from above,
with the minimum mean daylight factor (Dm) ~ 40/0.
Note: With side windows, the associated maximum daylight
factor should be at least six times greater than the
minimum requirement, and in the case of light from above
in workrooms, Dm should be twice as large as Dmin.
Several examples for different internal area illuminance
requirements as a function of external illuminance are
shown in ----7 @.
2 Anticipated internal area illuminance
at EP, at various levels of illuminance
from a clouded sky, with D = 1% (Ei =
Ox Ea/l00%)
external internal
illuminance illuminance
Ea (Ix) Ei (Ix)
5000 50
10000 100
0%
0%
" I
<, .... EP
t/2 t t/2
Daylight ratio with side lighting, showing the reference plane
and the variation in daylight in the internal area
175 20
w/m2
K/x
150 18
16
125
14
t1OO-
12
10
I 75 I
e, t, 8
50 _
25
Horizontal illuminance Ea for a clouded sky at latitude 51°N, as a
function of time of year and time of day; Ee = horizontal irradiance
living
room
daylight ratios required in living rooms
and workrooms
1 Required daylight ratios for
satisfactory internal area illuminance
at various levels of illuminance from
a clouded sky (0 = Ei/Ea x 100%)
@ Internal area illuminance
@ Required daylight ratios in living and work rooms
internal external illuminance
illuminance Ea (lx)
Ei (lx) 5000 10000
200 4.0% 2.0%
500 10.0% 5.0%
700 14% 7.0%
@ Daylight and internal area illuminance at point P
157

DAYLIGHT
Brightness, window sizes and visual links
The position, size and type of windows essentially
determine the pattern of daylight in an internal area ~ @.
The appropriate window sizes for living and work rooms of
various dimensions are defined in ~ @. The following
conditions provide the basis for these calculations for living
rooms:
• 00/0 = 0.9 at the centre of a living room and at the
lowest point in a workroom,
• width of window = 0.55 x room width,
• clouded sky,
• reflection from the wall = 0.6,
• reflection from the ceiling = 0.7,
• reflection from the floor = 0.2,
• light losses from the glass = 0.75,
• light losses from window-frame scatter k1 = 0.75,
• light losses from contamination k2 = 0.95,
• reflected light from neighbouring buildings Dv = 0.2,
• angle of light reflected from neighbouring buildings a
= 0-50° (see ~ ® + @).
Note: This applies by analogy to workrooms when their
dimensions correspond to those of living rooms:
• room height (h) ~ 3.50 m,
• room depth (t) ~ 6 m,
• room area (A) ~ 50 m 2.
Visual links with the outside also demand the reqursite
window dimensions for living rooms and workrooms.
Minimum recommended requirements are summarised in
~ @ and ~ @. These recommendations contain the
following points:
• limiting clearances and clearance areas for the
relevant building heights must be maintained,
• visual link with the outside is a requirement for all
accommodation;
• as a rule, a window size of approx. 1/8-1/10 of the
usable room area must be provided for living rooms.
Among other factors in the town planning interpretation of
building instructions and standards, incident light, building
separation, the external aspects of neighbouring buildings
and window design all have to be taken into account ~ @.
For example, a building separation of 8 = 2H (~ 27°) is the
desired value. This results in an aperture angle of ~ 4°
(limited by building geometry and neighbouring buildings)
to achieve the minimum level of daylight in rooms.
Newly developed town planning schemes should be
carefully checked for the quality of light in internal areas
since, in general, the building regulations and standards
only set minimum requirements.
It is advisable to carry out a visual inspection of the
designs to check the expected appearance of internal and
external areas, either in model form, under an artificial sun
and artificial sky, or using an endoscope device.
workroom
tp P
t-l
l,()
co
o
io
<Xl
o
section
tv (B)
1-----+----1 EB ~-+--~
1-----+----1 EE ~-+--~
I~~~ I ~ IEB ~--+------l
plan
+--
cloudy sky
room height h
window height hF - -
room depth t
room width b
influence of
adjacent building
ex = 0°
Determination of the required window widths (ww) with different
room dimensions and interference from various adjacent building
(extract)
living rooms workrooms
c > 2.20m as for living with h < 3.50 m with h > 3.50 m
hs o.so.» rooms, if: window area c-h s::>1.30m
bf ' 0.55 • b h "2.50m > 30% of hs <:: o.so »
minimum t < 6.0m b x h bF ::> 0.55 • b
requirement A <, 50m 2
@ Diagram to determine the window widths required
window width (ww) (m)
@ Various daylight patterns in an internal area with different
vertical window positions
H
B = 2H good
aperture
angle >4°
B
------~------
angle of
incident
light> 2]0
I
visual inspection
of model
;:;:;:;::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::;:::::::::::::::::::::::::
@ Incident light and building separation
@
workroom
for t . 5m F" 1.25m2
for t > 5 m F " 1.5 m-'
rF = 0.1 • A for A <, 600 m-'
fF = 60 + 0.01 A for A > 600 rn-'
required window sizes in workrooms
,0.55· b
· 0.1· A/m2
· 0.3· Af
· 0.16· A
· 0.07 • A • h/rn'
Window requirements in living rooms
@ Recommended visual links with outside
@ Summary of visual links with outside and window sizes
158

• the level of reflection (if very high),
• the direction of any glare,
• the arrangement of the windows.
Glare is caused by direct and indirect reflection from the
surfaces and by unfavourable luminance contrasts ~ @, @.
Measures for the avoidance of glare include:
• solar shading outside,
• glare protection, inside and outside, in association
with solar shading,
• matt su rfaces,
• correct positioning of daylight-enhancing illumination.
Shadow is desirable to a certain degree, in order to be able
to distinguish objects or other aspects of the room (~ @,
schematic). Measures required for a more three-
dimensional shadow effect in the case of side lighting
include:
• solar shading,
• glare protection (even in the north),
• balanced distribution of daylight,
• no direct glare,
• multi-layered or staggered facade.
Measures for appropriate shading with light from above
include:
• incident daylight on the lower edge of the light
opening, through translucent materials, light gratings
or similar filters (---1 @, schematic),
• daylight-enhancing illumination,
• bright matt surfaces combined with coloured
differentiation (e.g. a supporting structure).
Summary: Quality criteria, daylight coming from the side. In
essence, the named quality criteria for daylight must be
interpreted in such a way that spatial identity results. The
variation of daylight in the internal area, combined with a
good external view, are largely the result of the design of
the facade. that is, the transition from inside to outside. A
staggered, multi-layered and simultaneously transparent
transition from inside to outside can satisfy the various
requirements relating to daylight throughout the seasons of
the year ~ @.
DAYLIGHT
Illuminance, level of reflection, colour rendering and glare
The interplay of these characteristics of daylight has a great
influence on the brightness in internal areas. To fulfil
specific visual tasks, specific daylight illuminance levels are
required, depending on the type of activity ~ @. Therefore,
the choice of reflection levels for the walls has to be
coordinated with the requirements of the visual tasks which
are to be performed. The varied structuring of the
brightness in a room is dependent on the reflection levels of
the surfaces and the choice of arrangement of the windows
in the facade ~ @ (and see also ~ @).
The uniformity G of the daylight illumination (defined as
Dmin/Dmax) should be ~ 1:6 in the case of light from the
side ~ @. In the case of light from above, G ~ Dmin/Dmax
1:2 ---1 @. This, in principle, characterises the variation of
daylight in internal areas. The uniformity is better in the
case of overhead illumination, since the zenith luminance is
three times greater than the luminance on the horizon.
Measures used to vary the uniformity can be influenced
by:
G) D% curve
@Daylight-
enhanced
illumination
(DEI)
colour non-colour-treated floor coverings,
brightness materials rolls and sheets
(dark to bright) (dark to bright) (dark to bright)
red 0.1 to 0.5 smooth 0.25-0.5 dark 0.1-0.15
concrete
yellow 0.25-0.65 faced medium 0.15-0.25
masonry
green 0.15-0.55 red 0.15-0.3 bright 0.25-0.4
brick
blue 0.1-0.3 yellow 0.3-0.45
brick
brown 0.1-0.4 lime 0.5-0.6
sandstone
white 0.7-0.75 wood
(medium)
grey 0.15-0.6 dark 0.1-0.2
black 0.05-0.1 medium 0.2-0.4
bright 0.4-0.5
@ Shadows; light from the side @ Shadows; light from above
@ Glare @ Low glare
t41 lIIuminance'@2ReflectionleVel(materialcolours,
~ 0% untreated)
@
3 U n if o rm it Y; lig ht f rom t he @4 u n if o rm it Y; lig ht f rom
side above
type of daylight,
work D%
coarse 1.33
moder-
ately 2.66
fine
very
fine 5.00
fine 10.00
note:
10% is too high
for the south
side, but good
on the north
@ Light conditions in a Japanese house
159

Nordiyllands Art Museum,
Aalborg, Denmark
Brandywine River Museum,
Chadds Ford, PA, USA
Kimbell Art Museum, Fort
Worth, TX, USA
Art Gallery, Bremen
National Museum of
Western Art, Tokyo
Neue Pinakothek, Munich
DAYLIGHT
Light redirection (light from the side)
As the depth of a room increases (normally 5-7 m), the intensity
of the daylight in the room diminishes (see daylight factor
curve). Redirecting the light allows rooms to be completely
illuminated with daylight, even rooms of considerable depth.
The redirection of the light is based on the principle that the
angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection. The aim of this
redirection is (~ @):
• to obtain a more uniform distribution of daylight;
• to obtain better daylight illumination in the depths of the
room;
• to avoid glare when the sun is high, and to make use of
winter sun;
• to mask out zenith luminance, or to make indirect use of it;
• to redirect particularly diffuse radiation;
• to eliminate the need for additional solar protection
(possibly trees) by achieving glare protection on the inside.
Light shelves (reflectors). These can be placed inside or outside
the window in the area of the abutment. Mirrored, polished or
white surfaces can be used as the reflection plane. They
improve the uniformity of the illumination, particularly if the
ceiling is shaped to correspond with the redirected light. If
necessary, glare protection can be provided in the region
between the abutment and the ceiling ~ @.
Prisms. Optical prisms can be used to achieve a desired
selection of radiation and redirection ~ (@. Prism plates reflect
the sunlight with less deviation, and only allow diffuse light
from the sky to pass through. In order to prevent penetration of
the sun's rays, the prism plates are mirrored. The prism plates
guarantee adequate daylight illumination up to a room depth of
approximately 8 m.
Outlook, light deflection and glare protection. The
illumination in the depths of a room can be improved by
redirecting the light and by providing reflecting surfaces on the
ceiling ~ @. The outlook remains the same, but the zenith
illuminance is masked out. Glare protection is only required in
winter, but if necessary, a means of enhancing daylight
illumination may be provided on the abutment.
Solar control glass, glass bricks and Venetian blinds are used
for radiation selection and redirection, and include the
following systems (~ @):
• solar control glass, i.e. mirror reflectors (rigid) between
the glass panes cause the light to be reflected in summer
and transmitted in winter;
• glass blocks, i.e. polished prisms to increase the
uniformity of the light;
• Venetian blinds, i.e. adjustable bright outer blinds to
deflect the daylight.
Examples of light redirection in ceiling areas in museums are
shown in ~ @.
8) white
surface
CD glazing
(2) glass prism
CD mirror surface
o insulation
® glass prism
® glazing
CD Venetian
blind
® Ceiling design for light redirection
® Prismatic redirection of light
CD ~~~~~~~d (2) ~~~:~d
@ Mount Airy Public Library, NC, USA
@ Principle of light redirection
Guggenheim Museum,
New York
Maeght Foundation Museum,
S1. Paul-de-vance. Paris
Diocese Museum,
Paderborn
Abteiberg Museum,
Monchenqladbach
Uffizi Gallery, Florence
Bauhaus Archives, Berlin
external
-r-: Venetian
~m blinds
glass blocks
winter
reflectors
between
insulating
1m glazing
160
@ Redirection of light
@ Redirection of light; light from above (the examples shown here
are museums)

DAYLIGHT
A number of methods are available to determine the level of
daylight, for example calculation, graphical methods,
computer-supported methods and measurement techniques.
In order to arrive at a basis for a decision on the 'room to be
built' or the 'building to be erected', an approximate simulation
of the daylight levels is recommended. This can be
accomplished using drawing methods or with a model.
However, the distribution of the daylight can only be
determined and evaluated in three dimensions. Therefore a
model of the room or building should be tested under simulated
conditions so that the various effects of daylight can be
examined.
Experimental method. A model room was built with a
suspended bright, matt, transl ucent ceil ing, artificial
illumination above the ceiling and a mirrored surface rotating in
a horizontal plane which mirrored the surrounding walls. This
simulated the actual effect of a uniformly clouded sky -4 @.
An illuminance of approx. 2000-3000 Ix was adequate. The
external illuminance of the artificial sky was measured (Ea =
2000 lx), using a special purpose-made device, on a 1:20 scale
architectural model. The illuminance in the inner area of the
model was measured by means of a probe (Ei = 200 lx). Thus the
daylight factor in the internal area had a value of 100/0 at point P.
The variation of daylight in the model was determined using
th is method -4 @.
Different materials can be used to influence the variation in
daylight, illuminance, colours effects, room dimensions, etc.,
but care should be taken that the quality criteria for daylight are
maintained. The following materials can be used to experiment
with the effects of light on the model: cardboard or paper of
various colours, preferably pastels; transparent paper to
prevent glare and to generate diffuse radiation; aluminium foil
or glossy materials as reflective surfaces -4 @.
Daylight in internal areas with light from above
The illumination of internal areas with daylight from 'above' is
subject to the same prerequisites and conditions that apply to
rooms with windows at the side, i.e. daylight illumination with
a clouded sky. Whilst light from the side produces relatively
poor uniformity of light distribution (and hence increased
demand for Do/a), this is not the case with lighting from above.
The quality of daylight in the latter case is significantly
influenced by zenith luminance, room proportions, quality
criteria, daylight from above and diminution factors.
The best place to work in the room shown (-4 @) is at a
distance from the side window which is equal to the height
above the working position of the overhead light source. If the
same level of illuminance that is produced by the overhead light
on the reference plane (0.85 m above floor level) is to be
generated by light from the side window, then the window must
be 5.5 times larger in area than the roof light aperture. The
reason for this is that the light from above is brighter, since the
zenith luminance is roughly three times the horizontal
luminance. This means the light from above represents 1000/0 of
the light from the sky, whereas only 500/0 of the light from the
sky is admitted through a side window.
The illumination of a room from above is dependent on the
proportions of the room, i.e. length, width and height (see .~
@). However, the possible occurrence of the 'dungeon effect'
should be avoided.
Quality criteria for overhead light. The variation of daylight
(Do/a) in an internal area with side windows is characterised by
Dmin and Dmax -4 @. A uniformity of G 2 1:2 (Dmin/Dm) and a
Dmin of 220/0 is required for daylight illumination with overhead
light in workrooms (Dm)min ~ 40/0 -4 @.
Methods and procedures for determining the level of daylight
(0%) in internal areas (side and overhead light) with a clouded
sky
visual
inspection
overhead light
6
4-5h
5.5a
visual inspection
instrument to
measure lux
:visual . /~
Inspectlon_~
model table
light from the side
wall with moderately
bright colour
aluminium foil or similar
I-- h---t
model
M ~ 1 20
.., probe
mirror
Ea = 2000 Ix
*-
g ~
....------------11 ~..l...-....L------J r-r------------t eft
model table
dome of
clouded sky
@ Square room with a roof aperture and a height of 3 m (left) and
12-15m (right) ~
~
0% Ea
Ea •• •
Dm
ax G ~ 1 6
(Dm,r/Dm
ax)
DOlo
horizon horizon
f59 Room with roof aperture and side window, showing the
~ distribution of zenith luminance
@ Experimentation with the light on the model under an artificial sky
100% zenith
®
® Measurement of daylight on the model under an artificial sky
_! •.__,L ~ _t__~ __i_~~ ~ i i l l
@ Artificial sky, example
~-------L..-~LJ l l l l l 1 1 1 1 1
Daylight (D% and Dm%) and uniformity (G) with side and
overhead light
161

height of overhead illumination, room height and the uniformity of lighting which is sought
showing the corresponding overhead light arrangements in the roof area (ke factor)
@ Recommended values for the ratio Dmin/Dmax
Rooflighting
DAYLIGHT
Rooflights arranged at points on the ceiling area generate
typical minimum and maximum brightnesses in the region
where the light is required, the work plane. The mean value
between these 'bright' and 'dark' areas is calculated, and
this is termed the mean daylight factor Dm.
Thus, Dm is the arithmetic mean between Dmin and
Dmax with respect to the reference or work plane (0.85 m
above floor level). The required G ~ 1:2 is not based on
Dmax, but on Dmin, since unevenness in the daylight from
above is sensed physiologically as 'stronger than contrast'.
At this uniformity (Drnin = 1 and Dm = 2), Dmin must be ~
20/0 (compare ~ @).
Furthermore, the quality criteria striven for in controlling
the overhead daylight in the room are limited by the room
height and the shape of the rooflight (ke factor).
An ideal uniformity is achieved when the spacing
between the rooflights (0) is equivalent to the room height
(h), i.e. a ratio of approximately 1:1.
In practice the rule is that the ratio of rooflight spacing to
room height should be 1:1.5-1:2 (see ~ C@). This figure
contains a table from which these ratios and their effects
can be obtained. The figure also provides a
recommendation for the light shafts which should be let
into the roof.
......
"" r-,
~
'"
"""
0.4
0.6
Ky
1.0
0.8
(b) Diminution factor ky as a function
of the inclination y of the glazing in
shed roofs
daylight factor
(TQ)
10
20
15
[m]
(a) Comparative variations in the
daylight factor for side and
overhead illumination with various
inclinations of the rooflights
ratio
ke value = O/h
recommen-
~I~~
Dmin:Dmax dation 0= h·ke
:pprox.1:1 ' ~ { < 1 . .. 1.1 0 I
target II[ ]I
~
values
~~d1!
1.2 1.3 1.4
1:1.5
~ tolerable 1.4 1.5 1.7
1:2
~
h
critical 1.6 1.8 2.0
1:2.5
~ avoid 1.7 2.0 2.2
1:3
..:.:. ~. ~.... :.:.:.~. ~ ..:.:.:.:.!.~:.:.:.:.:.:.!: ~:.:.:
Type of rooflight and construction
The inclination of the rooflights determines the percentage
of the light component from the sky which is available. In ~
@a, the quantity of incident light admitted through a side
window is compared with the quantity of light provided by
rooflights at various inclinations. The greatest quantity of
light is received through a horizontal rooflight.
On the other hand, the maximum illuminance from a
side window is achieved only in the vicinity of the window;
for glazing which is vertically overhead, the lowest
illuminance is on the reference plane.
Thus there is a diminution factor (ky) for the quantity of
incident light which depends on the angle of inclination of
the rooflight. The diminution factors corresponding to shed
roofs of various inclinations are shown in ~ @b.
The diffuse incident light which falls on the rooflight is
affected by the construction and depth of the installation
before it supplies the room with daylight. The various levels
of incident light for shafts of different proportions beneath
rooflights the are shown in ~ @. Excessively high and
massive shafts and built-in depths should be avoided ~ C@a,
while a filigree, highly reflective construction is to be
recommended ~ @b.
The quality of daylight in an internal area with rooflights
is not only dependent on the factors discussed above.
Another significant factor is the ratio of the total area of the
overhead lights to the floor area of the room (kF factor).
The diagrams in ~ @ show the levels of daylight from
side windows with various geometrical features and
overhead illumination.
In order to increase the daylight factor Dmin by 50/0 for
side windows or opposite-facing rooflights, the proportions
of the windows must be increased significantly, typically up
to a ratio of 1:1.5. By contrast, for the same demands from
overhead lighting, particularly with shed roof-type lights,
the area need only be increased by a relatively small
amount. A ratio of rooflight area to floor area of from 1:4 to
1:5 is adequate.
Additional diminution factors for rooflights are given
below.
• transmittance of the glazing, t
• scatter and constructional features, k1
• soiling of the glazing, k2
• diffuse illumination, k3.
(b) Uniform illumination in the internal
area and hence better daylight
conditions from rooflights with a
lighter, filigree lower structure, with
good reflection characteristics
0.2
~
10 -: I
8=::;::>"~'=:
0.25
~
10 I I
5 I c===> <=> I
oI I
~-10
~80.6
kF = window area/floor area = 1.6
values required for Dmin = 5% are shown for comparison
Effects of different windows and rooflights on the variation in
the daylight factor in a room with fixed principal dimensions
1 with horizontal rooflight; no shaft, i.e. h ;:: 0
- --- 2 with a light shaft; h ;:: a
- .- - 3 with a light shaft; h ;:: 2a
side windows and 0 0 rooflights + shed
opposite-facing ~Yf D _~~A roofs + inclined
rooflights or - 0 shed roofs
30+-~~~~~::::;::::~~==1l
25
20
15 4--#--+--:~4--~~--+-~-+---I1
10
5 +-i+-~"-2--.i~t-----i---f~~-:+-:-:t I -.
(m]
(a) Reduction in the quantity of
daylight with overhead lighting with
deep aperture shafts and bulky
lower structures
162

zenith
Side and overhead
illumination. room-enclosing
surfaces recessed
t1"4' Constructional style suitable
!..Y for northern regions (high
proportion of diffuse light).
side and overhead illumination
(c) tent shapes (e.g. leisure buildings)
horizon
(scheme)
Constructional style
suitable for southern
regions (high direct solar
radiation). side illumination
Style with potential for
illumination from the side
and overhead
horizon
(a) shells (e.g. stations. stadia)
Side and overhead lighting
The choice between side and overhead illumination depends on
the use to which the building is to be put and also on the available
external light sources, i.e. the geographical location. For example,
where there are extreme light and climatic conditions, appropriate
forms of construction must be developed and the shapes of
buildings must be designed to match the prevailing light
conditions at that latitude (i.e. to make optimum use of the diffuse
and direct sunlight ~ @ - @.
DAYLIGHT
(b) membranes (e.g. for sports halls) (d) transparent room under a freestanding
roof with directed outward vision and
passage of light
@ Large rooflights with distinctive shapes
Empirical evaluation of the quality of daylight from overhead
illumination
The definitive evaluation of daylight conditions should be
performed against the background of a clouded sky. However,
rooflights are not only recipients of diffuse radiation, they are
also subject to direct solar radiation. These varying lighting
conditions should be simulated, not only under an artificial sky,
but also under an artificial sun. In this process, the quality
criteria for the daylight on the model should be assessed by eye
~®.
Design parameters for overhead illumination are listed
below (~ (@ - @; see also ~ @).
• Rooflights should not be orientated toward the south.
• Convert solar radiation into diffuse light radiation.
• Maintain quality criteria for daylight.
• Avoid excessive contrasts in luminance levels.
• Pay attention to variation in Om.
• Ensure illumination of all room corners and enclosing
surfaces.
• Avoid glare by artificial shading.
• Treat room-enclosing surfaces according to their
separate technical requirements.
• Ensure that it is possible to see outside.
(d) glass roof with slats for
diffuse and direct light
(c) cornice rooflights
(d) rounded with white
external surfaces
(c) opposed inclined surfaces
(note corner illumination)
"
(d) ridgelights (also as
individual pyramids)
(c) lantern lights
(d) light shafts for direct and
indirect incident radiation
I
I
I
I

.-
(a) dome (e.g. swimming bath)
(a) 90° inclined
(a) monopitch rooflights
(a) intermeshed offset diagonal shells
(b) butterfly rooflight with
translucent ceiling
@ Special shapes
(b) 60° inclination (concave,
convex)
@ Northlights (concave. convex)
(b) inclined lantern lights
® Continuous rooflights
(b) barrel vault (e.g. arcades)
@ Large individual rooflights
® Artificial sky and artificial sun
163

Application
The path of sunshine on a
planned structure can be
obtained directly from the
following procedure if a plan
of the structure, drawn on
transparent paper, is laid in its
correct celestial orientation
over the appropriate solar
path diagram. The following
solar path data relate to the
latitude region 51.5°N
(London, Cardiff).
For more northern areas,
e.g. at 55°N (Newcastle), 3.5°
should be subtracted. The
values in degrees given
inside the outer ring relate to
the 'azimuth', i.e. the angle by
which the apparent east-west
movement of the sun is
measured in its projection on
the horizontal plane. The local
times given in the outer ring
correspond to the standard
time for longitude 0°
(Greenwich, i.e. the meridian
of Greenwich Mean Time).
At locations on degrees of
longitude east of this, the local
time is 4 min earlier, per
degree of longitude, than the
standard time. For every
degree of longitude to the west
of 0°, the local time is 4 min
later than the standard time.
Duration of sunshine
The potential duration of
sunshine per day is almost the
same from 21 May to 21 July,
i.e. 16-163/4h, and from 21
November to 21 January, i.e.
8'/4-7'/2 h. In the months
outside these dates, the
duration of sunshine varies
monthly by almost 2 h. The
effective duration of sunshine
is barely 400/0 of the figures
given above, owing to mist
and cloud formation. This
degree of efficacy varies
considerably depending on
the location. Exact information
is available from the regional
observation centres of the
areas in question.
Sun and heat
The natural heat in the open
air depends on the position of
the sun and the ability of the
surface of the Earth to give
out heat. For th is reason, the
heat curve lags approx-
imately 1 month behind the
curve of solar altitude, i.e. the
warmest day is not 21 June,
but in the last days of July,
and the coldest day is not 21
December, but in the last days
of January. Again, this pheno-
menon is such that local
conditions are extraordinarily
varied.
DAYLIGHT: INSOLATION
Determination of the sunshine on structures
s
s
N
N
Solar path:
spring equinox (21 March)
autumn equinox (23 September)
Solar path at the summer solstice (21 June)
longest day of the year
51.5°N (London, Cardiff)
w
w.-.......
CD
164

in sunshine from
14.45 to 18.00 (3'/4h)
in sunshine from
06.00 to 09.45 (33/4 h)
,
12II
in sunshine from
14.00 to 20.15 (6'/4 h)
.;
in sunshine from
03.45 to 10.30 (63/4h)
south-east
shortly after 11.00 shadow begins to form on the
north-east side; shortly after 13.00 the south-east
side is also in shadow, whilst the other sides are
in sunlight at the corresponding times
the north-east side is in shadow shortly after
10.00, the south-east side shortly before 15.00
® Equinox
DAYLIGHT: INSOLATION
south-east
12 II
® Summer solstice
in sunshine from /~
09.45 to 18.00 / ~
(8'/4h) '
/I
Y
north.
38.5°
s
I
21 December
?summer solstice
21 March and /
23 septe/,q; equinox
winter solstice
Solar positions at midday
on the equinoxes and
solstices
N
21 December, shortest day of the year,
51.5"N (London, Cardiff)
o
G) Solar path, winter solstice
w
observer
.
to establish the duration of sunshine or shadow on a building at a particular time of
year and time of day (e.g. 11.00 on the equinox), the azimuth in the plan view is
constructed on the corner of the building in question. This determines the boundary of
the shadow in the plan view upon which the solar altitude (effective light beam) is
constructed by rotation about the azimuth line. The intersection x at right angles to the
plan view shadow, translated to the elevation, provides the boundary of the shadow on
the front of the building as a distance below the upper edge of the building.
ro----i
165
in sunshine from
08.15 to 09.00 (3/4h)
not in sunshine
north ..
([) Winter solstice
the north-east side is in the sun for barely 1 h. the
south-east receives shadows shortly after 15.00

in sunshine from
09.00 to 15.45
(63/4h)
w
37.1" solar altitude

~ .
I -t
/ aZimut~.
19"
I
/
8) Plan
10---_[_·)........1 _
..... a-t
o Elevation

A
welded
edges
full glass edge with two panes
welding
G) Multi-pane glazing units
with three panes
GLASS
Doublerrriple Glazing
Multi-layered, insulating glazing units are manufactured out
of two or more sheets of glass ~ CD (clear float glass, tinted
and coated glass, rough cast and patterned glass) separated
by one or more air- or gas-filled cavities. Multi-layered
glazing units can, depending on the assembly, provide high
thermal and/or sound insulation (e.g. sound-reducing units,
solar protection units, heat-absorbing units, laminated
glass with intermediate layers). There is dried air or a
special gas in the spaces between the glass sheets.
Different edge treatments define three types of units: full
glass edge welding ~ CDA; edges welded together with
inserts ~ CDs; glued organic edge sealing ~ CDc.
build-up OPTIFLOAT (mm) 4 4 4 5 5 5 4 4 4 5 5 5
cavity width (mm) (8.5) (8.5) (8.5) (8,.5) (6) (6) (6) (6)
k value (W/m2K ) 1.9 1.9 2.0 2.0
light transmittance (%) 74 72 74 72
unit thickness (rnrn) 29 32 24 27
max. edge length (em) 141 x 240 180 x 240 141 x 240 180 x 240
min. size (crn-'] 24 x 24 24 x 24 24 x 24 24 x 24
aspect ratio 1:6 1:6 1:6 1:6
max. area (m 2) 3.4 3.4 3.4 3.4
weight (kg/m2) ca. 30 ca. 38 ca. 30 ca. 38
thickness tolerance: -lmm size tolerance: ±2.0 mm
+2mm
® Triple glazing
® Double glazing
cavity double glazing k
width with 2 x OPTIFLOAT float glass (W/m2K)
4mm 5mm 6mm 8mm 10mm 12mm
width (em) 141 185 185 300 300 300
height (em) 240 300 500 500 500 500
8 surface area (m 2) 3.4 5.5 9.2 15.0 15.0 15.0 3.2
aspect ratio 1:6 1:10 1:10 1:10 1:10 1:10
overall thickness (mm) 16 18 20 24 28 32
width (em) 141 245 280 300 300 300
height (em) 240 300 500 500 500 500
10 surface area (m 2) 3.4 7.3 14.0 15.0 15.0 15.0 3.1
aspect ratio 1:6 1:10 1:10 1:10 1:10 1:10
overall thickness (rnrn) 18 20 22 26 30 34
width (em) 141 245 280 300 300 300
height (em) 141 245 280 300 300 300
12 surface area (rn-') 3.4 7.3 14.0 15.0 15.0 15.0 3.0
aspect ratio 1:6 1:10 1:10 1:10 1:10 1:10
overall thickness (mrn) 20 22 24 28 32 36
thickness tolerance (mm) ± 1.0 ± 1.0 ± 1.0 ± 1.0 ± 1.0 ± 1.0
size tolerance (rnrn) ± 1.5 ± 2.0 ± 2.0 ± 2.0 ± 2.0 ± 2.0
weight (kg/m2) 20 25 30 40 50 60
~
triangle
I A I
segmental arch
~
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polygon
l--- A-----J
rounded corners
~
semi-circular
wIB
t---A----i
semi-circular
A
polygon
A
min 50cm fA
max. 200 em
@
~IB
I------A--------J
rounded corners
e
segmental arch
circle
~A--------J
polygon
right-angled triangle
o Heat transfer with single, double and triple glazing
I---+-~D_---li .s, ~
B[~Ic B[B B[BB[~rD
t-----~ I A I I A Ie ~
one slanting edge trapezium parallelogram polygon
:101DB[~DlcI~[B'~~I
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o Manufactured glazing units, possible shapes
recommended glass
thicknesses for inside
and outside panes of
double glazing up to
20.00 m installation
height (wind load =
1.2kN/m2 or 1200Pa)
50
75 ~
Q)
100 -g
125 ~
150 u,
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300
width, long edge (em)
o 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
o
50
75 ~ recommended glass
thicknesses for inside
100
Q)
and outside panes of
E
en
-g double glazing up to
E 5
125
~
8.00 m installation
height (wind load = r.Il
150
r.Il 6
0.75kN/m2 or 750Pa)
Q)
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200 o
en ~
250 ~ r.Il 8
r.Il
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300
width, long edge (em)
o 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
o
E
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r.Il
~ 5
o 6
~
~ 7
0>8
o Recommended thicknesses, 8 m high glass o Recommended thicknesses, 20 m high glass
166

yes
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mm
*TG = toughened glass
TG*
6/16/4
GLASS
CD Examples of multifunctional glass
Light transmittance TL in the 380-780 nm (nanometres)
wavelength band, based on the light sensitivity of the
human eye (0/0).
Light reflection RL from outside and inside (0/0).
Colour rendering index Ra:
Ra >90 = very good colour rendering;
Ra >80 = good colour rendering.
UV transmittance Tuv in the 320-2500 nm wavelength
band is the sum of the direct energy transmission and the
secondary heat emission (= radiation and convection)
towards the inside.
The b value is the mean transmittance factor of the sun's
energy based on an energy transmission of a 3 mm thick
single pane of glass of 870/0. Accordingly:
b=g(%)
870/0
where g is the total energy transmittance.
Selectivity code S. S = TL/g. A higher value for the
selectivity code S shows a favourable relationship between
light transmittance (TL) and the total energy transmittance
(g).
The thermal transmittance k of a glazing unit indicates
how much energy is lost through the glass. The lower this
value, the lower the heat loss. The k value of conventional
double-glazing units is greatly dependent on the distance
between the two sheets of glass and the contents of the
cavity (air or inert gas). With solar-control glass, an
improved k value is achieved because of the precious metal
layer. Standard k values are based on a glass spacing of
12mm.
Generally, colour rendering seems unaltered when
looking through a glass window from inside a room.
However, if a direct comparison is made between looking
through the glass and through an open window, the slight
toning produced by most glass is perceptible. Depending
on the type of glass, this is usually grey or brown. This
difference can also be seen when looking from outside a
room through two panes set at a corner. The interior colour
climate is only marginally effected by solar-control glazing
since the spectral qualities of the daylight barely change.
Colour rendering is expressed by the R index.
Multifunctional Double-Glazing Units
Owing to the increasing demands being placed on facade
elements, glazing is required to provide a wide range of
functions: thermal insulation, sound reduction, solar
control, personal security, fire protection, aesthetic and
design aspects, environmental protection and
sustainability. These functions demand an increased
protection element which cannot be provided by
conventional double glazing.
Multifunctional double-glazing units can combine
several protection properties, and it is technically possible
to fulfil almost all of those listed above. However, a
standard multifunctional double-glazing unit is not yet
commercially available ~ @.
240x340
240x340
(J)
c
o
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Cll~
E E
:.au
. x
~ E
E~
240x340
300x500
260x500
240x340
240x340
240x340
260x500
240x340
240x340
240x340
240x340
240x340
240x340
260x500
240x340
240x340
240x340
240x340
240x340
200x340
260x500
0.83 1.08
0.59 0.92 240 x 340
0.45 1.09 240x340
0.45 1.31
0.44 1.34
0.23 1.85
0.32 1.36
0.38 1.48
0.30 1.38
0.40 1.43
0.34 1.67
0.49 1.14
0.55 1.00
0.37 0.16
0.38 1.09
0.25 0.68
0.25 0.68
0.30 1.54
0.26 1.30
0.50 1.50
0.37 1.56
0.37 1.53
0.45 1.15
0.30 1.54
0.32 1.40
0.49 1.53
Cll
U
C
Ctl
light
transmission
36% 30%
radiation radiation
reflection transmission
to outside 14%
45%
secondary
emissions
3%
to inside
51
39
20
28
39
38
43
33
26
72
26
23
35
30
43
48
32
33
22
22
44
32
32
39
26
28
o Solar control double glazing
V (gold 30/17)
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.6
1.6
1.4
1.3
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.4
1.2
2.6
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.5
1.4
1.5
1.3
1.4
1.4
27 2.9
18 1.5
15
18
98 3.0
12
8
11
11
14
18
14
13
8
8
9
8
7
9
10
11
8
9
17
inside
6 22
7 17
15 15
11 30
16 10
25 36
34 17
16 35
26 46
25 36
18 40
40 35
37 34
36 22
39 21
40 14
46 26
48 45
26 42
15 11
19 16
38 36
30 17
32 22
26 11
21 18
51
51
49
36
37
38
40
30
50
50
49
48
37
36
36
15
66
66
50
49
45
40
39
grey
47/51 47
43/39 43
clear glass 78
(for comparison)
neutral
51/39
51/38
bronze
49/23
36/26
type
silver
50/35
50/30
49/43
48/48
37/32
36/33
36/22
15/22
green
37/20
38/28
gold
40/26
30/23
titanium
66/43
auresin
66/44
50/32
49/32
45/39
40/26
39/28
Solar Control Double Glazing
Solar control double glazing is characterised by a high light
transmittance and an energy transmittance which is as low
as possible. This is achieved by a very thin layer of precious
metal deposited on the protected inside layer of one of the
panes. Apart from its solar control qualities, solar control
double glazing fulfils all the requirements of highly
insulating double glazing, with k values up to 1.2W/m2K.
The choice of a wide range of colours and colourless tones,
augmented by the availability of colour-matched single-
and double-glazed facade panels, presents many design
opportunities. Solar control glass can be combined with
sound-reduction glass, armoured glass, laminated glass,
safety glass or ornamental/cast glass as either internal or
external sheets. A combination with wired glass is not
possible.
Each glass type is identified by colour (as seen from the
outside) as well as by a pair of values: the first is the light
transmittance and the second the total energy
transmittance, and both are given as percentages. Example:
auresin (= blue) 40/26.
desiccant
poly--~~~
sulphide
seal
outside -
Inert gas
6mm
solar-control
layer
CD Solar control double glazing
G) Solar control double glazing
167

168
TG glass thickness (mm)
combin
TG
ations float LG
4 5 6 8 10 4 5 6 8 10 6 8 10 12
4 100x 100x 100x 100x 100x 100x 100x 100>< 100x 100x 100x 100x 100x 100x
200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200
E 5 120>< 120>< 120>< 120>< 120x 100>< 120>< 120x 120x 120>< 120x 120x 120x 120x
E 240 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300
(fl
6 141>< 210>< 210>< 210x 210x 100x 210x 210x 210>< 210>< 210>< 210x 210x 210x
C1l
c
240 300 360 360 360 360 360 360 360 360 360 360 360 360
o
£ 8 141>< 210>< 210>< 210>< 210>< 100x 210>< 210x 210x 210>< 210x 210x 210x 210><
(fl
240 300 360 360 360 360 360 360 360 360 360 360 360 360
(fl
Ct1
OJ 10 141" 210x 210x 210x 210>< 100><210x 210>< 210>< 210x 210x 210>< 210x 210x
240 300 360 360 360 360 360 360 360 360 360 360 360 360
TG = toughened glass, LG = laminated glass
G) Normal maximum sizes of glazing units using toughened glass (em)
LG glass thickness (mm)
combin-
float TG LG
ations
4 5 6 8 10 4 5 6 8 10 6 8 10 12
E 6 141><225>< 225x 225>< 225x 100x 120><210x 210x 210>< 225>< 225x 225x 225x
E
240 300 321 321 321 200 300 321 321 321 321 321 321 321
(fl 8 141x 225>< 225x 225x 225x 100x 120x 210x 210x 210x 225x 225x 225x 225x
C1l 240 300 400 400 400 200 300 360 360 360 321 400 400 400
c
u 10 141x 225>< 225x 225x 225x 100x 120x 210x 210>< 210x 225x 225x 225x 225x
£ 240 300 400 400 400 200 300 360 360 360 321 400 400 400
(fl
Ct1 12 141>< 225>< 225x 225x 225x 100x 120x 210x 210x 210x 225x 225x 225x 225x
OJ 240 300 400 400 400 200 300 360 360 360 321 400 400 400
TG = toughened glass, LG = laminated glass
o Normal maximum sizes of glazing units using laminated glass (em)
Toughened (tempered) glass
Toughened safety glass is a pre-stressed glass. Pre-stressing
is achieved by thermal treatment. The production method
consists of rapid heating followed by rapid cooling with a
blast of cold air. In comparison to float glass, which
produces sharp, dagger-like glass splinters when broken,
this glass breaks into small, mostly round-edged glass
crumbs. The danger of injury is thus greatly reduced.
Toughened glass has the further advantages of increased
bending and impact-resistant qualities and tolerance to
temperature change (150 K temperature difference, and up
to 300°C compared with 40°C for annealed material. It is also
unaffected by sub-zero temperatures). Toughened glass also
has enhanced mechanical strength (up to five times stronger
than ordinary glass), so it can be used in structural glazing
systems. Alterations to, and work on, toughened glass is not
possible after production. Even slight damage to the surface
results in destruction. However, tempered safety glass can
be used in conventional double-glazing units ~ CD.
Areas of use: sports buildings (ball impact resistant);
school and playschool buildings because of safety
considerations; living and administration buildings for
stairways, doors and partitions; near radiators to avoid
thermal cracking; for fully glazed facades. and elements
such as glazed parapets and balustrades on balconies and
staircases to prevent falls.
Laminated glass
During the manufacture of laminated glass, two or more
panes of float glass are firmly bonded together with one or
more highly elastic polyvinylbutyral (PVB) films.
Alternatively, resin can be poured between two sheets of
glass which are separated by spacers, and the resin is then
cured. This process is called cast-in-place (CIP). The normal
transparency of the glass may be slightly reduced
depending on the thickness of the glass. Laminated glass is
a non-splintering glass as the plastic film(s) hold the
fragments of glass in place when the glass is broken, thus
reducing the possibility of personal injury to a minimum.
There are several categories of laminated glass: safety
glass, anti-bandit glass, bullet-resistant glass, fire-resistant
glass and sound-control glass. The thickness and the
number of layers of glass, and the types of interlayer, are
designed to produce the required properties.
GLASS
Laminated safety glass
Laminated safety glass normally consists of two layers of
glass bonded with polyvinylbutyral (PVB) foil. This is a
standard product which is used to promote safety in areas
where human contact and potential breakage are likely. The
tear-resistant foil makes it difficult to penetrate the glass,
thus giving enhanced security against breakage and break-
in. Even when safety glass is broken, the security of the
room is maintained. Laminated safety glass is always used
for overhead glazing for safety and security reasons ~ (2).
Building regulations insist on its use in certain situations.
Areas of use: glazed doors and patio doors; door side-
lights; shops; all low-level glazing; balustrades; bathing and
shower screens; anywhere that children play and may fall
against the glass, or where there is a high traffic volume,
e.g. entrance areas in community buildings, schools and
playschools.
Laminated anti-bandit glass
Laminated anti-bandit glass is the most suitable material for
providing complete security in protective glazing systems.
Anti-bandit glass can be made with two glass layers of
different thicknesses bonded with PVB foil, or with three or
more glass layers of different glass thicknesses bonded
with standard or reinforced PVB foil. Additional security can
be provided by incorporating alarm bands, or wires
connected to an alarm system.
One side of this glass will withstand repeated blows from
heavy implements such as bricks, hammers, crowbars,
pickaxes etc. There may be crazing in the area of impact, but
the tough, resilient PVB interlayers absorb the shock waves,
stop any collapse of the pane and prevent loose, flying
fragments of glass. Even after a sustained attack, the glass
continues to provide visibility and reassurance, as well as
protection from the elements. Additional security can be
achieved by bonding the glass to the framing members so
that the frame and the glass cannot be separated during an
attack. Normally, the side of the expected attack is the
external side. Only in law courts should the side of the
expected attack be on the inside. It is not permissible to
change the orientation of the glazing without good reason.
Areas of use: shops; display cases; museums; kiosks and
ticket offices; banks; post offices; building societies; wages
and rent offices; etc.
Blast-resistant glass
Safety and anti-bandit glass can also be used to provide
protection against bomb attack and blast. The glass
performs in two ways. First, it repels any bomb which is
thrown at it, causing it to bounce back at the attacker, and
second, under the effects of a blast it will deform and crack,
but the glass pieces remain attached, reducing the
likelihood of flying splinters.
Bullet-resistant glass
For protection against gunshots, a build-up of multiple layers
is required, the overall thickness (20-50 mm) depending on
the classification required. This glass incorporates up to four
layers of glass, some of different thicknesses, interlayered
with PVB. When attacked, the outer layers on the side of the
attack are broken by the bullet and absorb energy by
becoming finely granulated. The inner layers absorb the shock
waves. A special reduced-spalling grade of glass can be used
to minimise the danger of glass fragments flying off from the
rear face of the glass. Even after an attack, barrier protection is
maintained and visibility (apart from the impact area) is
unaffected. Bullet-resistant classifications are based on the type
of weapon and calibre used, e.g. handgun, rifle or shotgun.
Areas of use: banks; post offices; building societies;
betting offices; wages and rent offices; cash desks; security
vehicles; embassies; royal households; political and
government buildings; airports; etc.

o Super sound-control double-glazing units
ai
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mm mm kg/m 2 W/m2K DID - % dB cm m 2 - -
37/22 6/12/4 22 25 2.9 82 97 75 37 300 4.0 1:6 0.86
39/24 6/14/4 24 25 2.9 82 97 75 39 300 4.0 1:6 0.86
40/26 8/14/4 26 30 2.9 81 97 72 40 300 4.0 1:6 0.83
43/34 10/20/4 34 35 3.0 80 96 69 43 300 4.0 1:6 0.79
44/38 10/24/4 38 35 3.0 80 96 69 44 300 4.0 1:6 0.79
GLASS
Fire-resistant glass
Fire resistance can be built up in two ways. One is a
laminated combination of Georgian wired glass and float
glass (or safety or security glass) with a PVB interlayer. The
other way is to incorporate a transparent intumescent layer
between the pre-stressed borsilicate glass sheets which,
when heated, swells to form an opaque, fire-resistant
barrier. Fire resistance of up to 2h can be achieved. It must
be remembered that in any given situation, the
performance of the glazing depends on adequate support
during the 'period of stability' prior to collapse.
Areas of use: fire doors; partitions; staircase enclosures;
rooflights and windows in hospitals; public buildings;
schools; banks; computer centres; etc. (--) pp. 130-31.)
Structural glazing
There is an increasing demand for large, uninterrupted
areas of glass on facades and roofs, and it is now possible
to use the structural properties of glass to support, suspend
and stiffen large planar surfaces. Calculation of the required
glass strengths, thicknesses, support systems and fittings to
combat structural and wind stresses has become a very
specialised area (consult the glass manufacturer). A wide
variety of glass types may be used, e.g. toughened and
laminated, single and double glazed, with solar control or
with thermal recovery twin glass walls. Panels as large as
2 m x 4.2 m are possible. These are attached at only four, six
or eight points and can be glazed in any plane, enabling
flush glazing to sweep up walls and slopes and over roofs
in one continuous surface. Various systems have been used
to create stunning architectural effects on prestigious
buildings throughout the world, even in areas which are
prone to earthquakes, typhoons and hurricanes.
Dimensional tolerances tend to be very small. For example,
in a project for an art gallery in Bristol, UK, a tolerance of ±2
mm across an entire frameless glass facade 90 m long and
9 m high has been achieved. The 2.7 m x 1.7 m glass facade
panels are entirely supported on 600 mm wide structural
glass fins.
Sound-control glass --) CD - @
Compared with monolithic glass of the same total
thickness, all laminated glass specifications provide an
increased degree of sound control and a more consistent
acoustic performance. The multiple construction dampens
the coincident effect found in window glass, thus offering
better sound reduction at higher frequencies, where the
human ear is particularly sensitive. The cast-in-place type of
lamination is particularly effective in reducing sound
transmittance.
Sealed multiple-glazed insulating units and double
windows, particularly when combining thick float glass (up
to a maximum of 25 mm) and thinner glass, effectively help
to dampen sound.
Areas of use: windows and partitions in offices; public
buildings; concert halls; etc.
Other types of glass
There are other types of glass which have been developed
especially for certain situations. Shielding glass has a
special coating to provide electronic shielding. Ultra-violet
light-control glass has a special interlayer which reflects up
to 980/0 of UV rays in sunlight. Various mirror-type glasses
are used in surveillance situations, e.g. one-way glass
(which requires specific lighting conditions) or Venetian
striped mirrors with strips of silvering (any lighting
conditions).
• weight of glass: the heavier the
glass pane, normally the higher
the acoustic insulation
• the more elastic the pane (e.g.
resin-filled cast-in-place). norm-
ally the higher the acoustic
insulation
• the thicknesses of the inner and
outer panes must be different;
the greater the difference,
normally the higher the acoustic
insulation
inside
asymmetric glass build-up
cast-in-place
(CIP)
laminated
glass
outside
gas filling
<l>' -0
c' ..c
-0 ~ ~ 0
j o,
type '2 <l>
~ ~
-0 '~ 0 ~
-- .~ 0.. <l>
:::l-o
<l>
8
o '(jj (/) 0) co :::l 0)
~ 0) co <l>
g-,~ (/)
~'
,~ E c
<l> -0
<l> -0
g>
~
s: E 0',: <l> co '(jj
,> U <l> :::l
-g
-0 ...... 0)
m ......(/)
'-0 m x x x
~
::= ';;
'~ >
..cC c c >
£cl E E E
:::l co
£ ~~ <l> <l>
.Du ~
0) __
0)
mm mm kg/m2 W/m 2K % - % dB cm m 2 - -
45/30 CIP
CIP 9.5/
30 40 3.0 78 97 64 45
200x
6.0 1:10 0.74
15/6 300
47/36 CIP
CIP 10/
36 40 3.0 78 97 64 47
200x
6.0 1:10 0.74
20/6 300
50/40 CIP
CIP 10/
40 50 3.0 77 95 62 50
200x
6.0 1:10 0.71
20/10 300
53/42 CIP
CIP 12/
42 55 3.0 75 95 60 53
200x
6.0 1:10 0.69
20/10 300
55/50 CIP
CIP 20/
50 75 3.0 72 93 54 55
200x
6.0 1:10 0.62
20/10 300
o Sound-control double-glazing units
G) Sound-control double-glazing unit
169

GLASS
Glass entrance screens consist of one or several glass
doors, and the side and top panels. Other possibilities are
sliding, folding, arched and half-round headed entrance
screens. Various colours and glass structures are available.
The dimensions of the doors are the same as those of the
frame ----t @ - @. When violently smashed, the glass
disintegrates into a network of small crumbs which loosely
hang together. Normal glass thicknesses of 10 or 12mm are
used, and stiffening ribs may be necessary, depending on
the structural requirements.
DIT] rn[]]]
OJ [ill [}] ITIIJ
~ ED [] rn rn[ill[ill
OJErn[ill ffiJrrrn
[ill[ill [ffi][ill
DLDJ rnm
D[ill rn[ill]
Double-leaf doors
o Single-leaf doors
glass pattern colour thickness double-glazing max. max.
unit aspect size
ratio
structure with
12mm
(mm) direction side cavity (ern)
old German yellow, clear 4 x. 1:6 150 x 210
old German K, clear, yellow,
short side >250mm bronze, grey 4 x '>. 1:6 150 x 210
ox-eye glass yellow, clear 6 x 0 1:6 150 x 210
chinchilla bronze, clear 4 . x 1:6 156 x 213
Croco 129 clear 4 x, x 1:6 156 x 213
Delta clear, bronze 4 x x 1:6 156 x 213
Difulit 597 clear 4 X x 1:6 150 x 210
wired Difulit 597 clear 7 x x 1:10 150 x 245
wired glass' clear 7 x x 1:10 186 x 300
wired glassI clear 9 x x 1:10 150 x 245
wired optical clear 9 x 0 1:10 150 x 300
wired ornamental 187
(Abstracto) clear, bronze 7 D 0 1:10 180 x 245
wired ornamental 521, 523 clear 7 x 0 1:10 180 x 245
wired ornamental
Flora 035 + Neolit clear 7 . x 1:10 180 x 245
Edelit 504,
one or both sides clear 4 . x 1:6 150 x 210
Flora 035 bronze, clear 5 .1 x 1:6 150 x 210
antique cast yellow, grey, clear 4 x x 1:6 150 x 210
antique cast 1074,1082,1086 grey 4 x x 1:6 126 x 210
Karolit double-sided clear 4 . x 1:6 150 x 210
cathedral large and small
hammered clear 4 x ». 1:6 150 x 210
cathedral 102 yellow 4 x x 1:6 150 x 200
cathedral 1074, 1082, 1086 grey 4 x x 1:6 150 x 210
basket weave clear, yellow 4 .1 0 1:6 150 x 210
beaded 030 clear 5 .1 x 1:6 150 x 210
Listral clear 4 .1 0 1:6 150 x 210
Maya clear, bronze 5 x 0 1:6 156 x 213
Maya opaque clear, bronze 5 x 0 1:6 156 x 213
Neolit clear 4 .1 0 1:6 150 x 210
Niagra yellow, bronze, clear 5 /! 0 1:10 156 x 213
Niagra opaque clear 5 .1 x 1:10 156 x 213
ornament 134 (Nucleo) bronze, clear 4 .1 x 1:6 150 x 210
ornament 178 (SilviO bronze, clear 4 .1 X 1:6 150 x 210
ornament 187 (Abstracto) yellow, bronze, clear 4 D 0 1:6 150 x 210
ornament 502, 504, 520 clear 4 x x 1:6 150 x 210
ornament 521,523 clear 4 x 0 1:6 150 x 210
ornament 523 yellow 4 x x 1:6 150 x 210
ornament 528 clear 4 x 0 1:6 150 x 210
ornament 550, 552, 597 clear 4 x x 1:6 150 x 210
patio bronze, clear 5 . 0 1:10 156 x 213
hammered crude glass clear 5 x x 1:10 186 x 300
hammered crude glass clear 7 x x 1:10 186 x 450
Tigris 003 clear 5 .1 x 1:6 150 x 210
Ii = structured surface either way x = structured surface either side
. = structured surface vertical = structured surface outside only
1) wired glass in rooflights, max. aspect ratio 1:3
G) Cast glass combinations
The term cast glass is given to machine-produced glass
which has been given a surface texture by rolling. It is not
clearly transparent ----t CD. Cast glass is used where clear
transparency in not desired (bathroom, WC) and where a
decorative effect is required. The ornamental aspects of
cast glass are classified as clear and coloured ornamental
glass, clear crude glass, clear and coloured wired glass, and
clear and coloured ornamental wired glass. Almost all
commercially available cast glass can be used in double-
glazing units ~ CD.
Normally, the structured side is placed outside in order
to ensure a perfect edge seal. So that double-glazing units
may be cleaned easily, the structured side is placed towards
the cavity. This is possible only with lightly structured glass.
Do not combine coloured cast glass with other coloured
glasses such as float, armoured or laminated glass, or with
coated, heat-absorbing or reflective glass.
glass type nominal tolerance max. dimensions
thickness
(mm) (mm) (ern x cm)
agricultural glass
3 ±0.2 48 x 120 73 x 143
46 x 144 73 x 165
(standard sizes)
4 ±0.3 60 x 174 60 x 200
size I size II size III
standard door leaf,
709 x 1972 rnrn- 834 x 1972 rnrn-' 959 " 1972 rnrn-'
overall dimensions
frame rebate
716 x 1983mm2 841 x 1983 mm? 966" 1983mm2
dimensions
structural
750 x 2000 mrn? 875 x 2000 rnm? 1000 x 2000 mm-'
opening sizes
special sizes are possible up to dimensions of:
1000 x 2100mm 2
1150 x 2100 m m 2
o Glass doors. standard sizes
glass type glass maximum thickness
thickness sizes tolerances
(mm) (mm-'] (mm)
clear, grey, bronze 10 2400 x 3430
± 0.3
12 2150 X 3500'
OPTIWHITE® 10 2400 x 3430
± 0.3
10 2150 x 3500'
structure 200 10 1860 x 3430
± 0.5
10 1860 x 3500'
bamboo, chinchilla 8 1700 x 2800
± 0.5
clear/bronze 8 1700 x 3000'
o Agricultural glass ® Glass entrance screens (side and top panels)
170

smallest radius R with glass thickness 8cm
joints must be < 1.0cm wide
glass block
nominal size 11.5cm 19.0cm 24.0cm
joint width
c e tBcrn 200.0cm 295.0cm 370.0cm
joint width
e = 1.8cm 95.0em 180.0em 215.0cm
joint width
e = 2.3cm 65.0cm 105.0em 135.0cm
~
0'8 em ~
65cm min. radius
11.5cm nominal
block size
> 0.8 em e =2.3 em
n
--.:;::::;
105cm min. radius
19cm nominal
W block size
c e t.a cm ~
I :i135cm m~dlus
e =1 5 emU 24 Ocm nominal
block size
GLASS
Glass Blocks
Glass blocks are hollow units which consist of two sections
melted and pressed together, thereby creating a sealed air
cavity. Both surfaces can be made smooth and transparent,
or very ornamental and almost opaque. Glass blocks can be
obtained in different sizes, coated on the inside or outside,
uncoated, or made of coloured glass. They can be used
internally and externally, e.g. transparent screen walls and
room dividers (also in gymnastic and sports halls),
windows, lighting strips, balcony parapets and terrace
walls. Glass blocks are fire-resistant up to G 60 or G 120
when used as a cavity wall with a maximum uninterrupted
area of 3.5 rn-'. and can be built either vertically or
horizontally. Glass blocks cannot be used in a load-bearing
capacity.
Properties: good sound and thermal insulation; high
light transmittance (up to 820/0), depending on the design;
can have translucent, light scattering and low dazzle
properties; can also have enhanced resistance to impact
and breakage. A glass block wall has good insulation
properties: with cement mortar, k = 3.2 W/m2K; with
lightweight mortar, k = 2.9W/m2K.
® Dimensions of glass block walls
o Permissible limits for unreinforced glass block walls
® Minimum radii of glass block walls
wall dimensions
arrangement thickness shorter longer wind load
of joints (mm) side (rn) side (m) (kN/m2 )
vertical -,1.5
?80 < 1.5 c.. 0.8
offset (bonded) <6.0
.. dimensions weight units units, units.
(mm) (kg) (m 2) boxes pallets
~ 115 x 115 x 80 1.0 64 10 1000
~
146 x 146 x 98 1.8 42 8 512
6" x 6" x 4"
~ 190 x 190 x 50 2.0 25 14 504
~ 190 x 190 x 80 2.3 25 10 360
~ 190 x 190 x 100 2.8 25 8 288
~
197 x 197 x 98 3.0 25 8 288
8" x 8" x 4"
~ 240 x 115 x 80 2.1 32 10 500
~ 240 x 240 x 80 3.9 16 5 250
rnlm 300 x 300 'x 100 7.0 10 4 128
section
4
section
section
H A
4
1 slip joint
2 expansion joint,
e.g. rigid foam
3 flexible sealing
4 plaster
5 U section
6 anchor or peg
1 slip joint
2 expansion joint,
e.g. rigid foam
3 flexible sealing
4 plaster
5 aluminium
window sill
6 U section
7 L section
8 anchor or peg
1 slip joint
2 expansion joint,
e.g. rigid foam
3 flexible sealing
4 plaster
5 aluminium
window sill
6 L section
7 anchor or peg
-_..,
••_.1
.........,
..."•.J
-_...,
...._-~
3
A
Constructional examples of
glass block walls
Installation with U sections
and external thermal insulation
Internal wall junction using U
sections
H=A+c+d
plan of corner detail
plan
formula to calculate the minimum structural opening
CD
CD
~4
I 6
built onto a facade with angle anchoring
plan
G) Standard dimensions for glass block walls
built into an internal rebate
~«2:::
Wi? ::::: ~======;7,[,;=:=~
B
[A= n1 ·b + n2 . aJ n1 = number of blocks (a)
B =A + 2TJ nz = number of joints (b)
c = 8.5cm
d = 6.5cm
171

G) Profiled glass - sections
height from
r-L..., LL-J II t II
ground level
to top of up to up to up to up to up to up to up to up to up to
glazed opening 8m 20m 100m 8m 20m 100m 8m 20m 100m
glass type -7 CD L" L" L" L" L" L" L" L" L"
NP2 3.25 2.55 2.20 4.35 3.45 2.95 4.60 3.65 3.10
K22/41/6
NP26 3.05 2.40 2.05 4.10 3.25 2.75 4.35 3.45 2.90
K25/41/6
NP3 2.75 2.20 1.85 3.70 2.95 2.50 3.90 3.10 2.65
K32/ 41/6
NP5 2.30 1.80 1.55 3.05 2.40 2.00 3.25 2.55 2.15
K50/41/6
SP2 5.15 4.05 3.45 6.65 5.45 4.65 7.00 5.75 4.90
K 22 /60/7
SP26 4.85 3.85 3.25 6.55 5.15 4.40 6.90 5.45 4.65
K 25/60/7
K 32/60/7 4.40 3.45 2.95 5.85 4.55 3.90 6.20 4.90 4.15
(a) single bends as sections of a
circle with and without straight
sections
(b) double or multiple bends with
identical or different radii
(c) sine curve bends
(d) 'S' bends
(e) 'U' bends with or without
straight sections
j
01
=J~
I IAII A == nominal unit
H L dimension plus joint
II I
B == overall frame width
C == overall frame height
.1 ~I L == length of glass
~ _ J_ == units of 25cm
~2.5 indication of
65 (85) width and height
width B == n.A + 5cm
height H == L + 4cm
nominal size
t-----------f
A
IT!: nU :E
double-glazed
[], U
0
single-glazed
55 (60) 55 (60)
~ ~25
Q!~~I"~L-~;;;;;;;;; ;;;;;;;;:::J!J~I~I~~~ ] 65(85)
~~ 2 A ~ ~ 2 A 2.5
B
GLASS
Profiled glass is cast glass produced with aU-shaped
profile. It is translucent, with an ornamentation on the
outside surface of the profile, and conforms to the
properties of cast glass.
Low maintenance requirements. Suitable for lift shafts
and roof glazing. Rooms using this glass for fenestration
are rendered dazzle-free.
Special types: Profilit-bronze, Cascade, Topas, Amethyst.
Heat-absorbing glass Reglit and Profilit 'Plus 1.7' attain a k
value of 1.8 W/m2K.
Solar-control glass (Type R, 'Bernstein'; Type P, 'Antisol').
which reflects and/or absorbs ultra-violet and infra-red
radiation, can be used to protect delicate goods which are
sensitive to UV radiation. The transmission of radiant
energy into the room is reduced, as is the convection from
the glazing, whilst the light transmission is maintained.
For glazing subject to impacts, e.g. in sports halls,
Regulit SP2 or Profilit K22/60n without wire reinforcement
shou Id be used.
Regulit and Profilit are allowed as fire-resistant glass A
30. Normal and special profiles are also available reinforced
with longitudinal wires.
o Bent forms
® Building dimensions
up to 89%
up to 81%
up to 29 dB
up to 41 dB
up to 55 dB
k == 5.6W/m2K
NP k == 2.8W/m2K
SP k == 2.7 W/m2K
L == length of glass units (m)
711
218
117
Isp2 I 160 K 22/60/7
232
711 248
117
Isp26 I 160 K 25/60/7
262
711
317
117
I I 160 K 32/60/7
r----- 331
NP/ SP =Reglit
K =Profilit
single-glazed
double-glazed
single-glazed
double-glazed
triple-glazed
single-glazed
double-glazed
486
sound reduction
thermal insulation
light transmittance
K 50/416
6 1+----- ~--~- --------+16
INP5 , 141
f- -~-------t
611
220
116
INP2
,141 K 22/41/6
232
I
611
250
.16
INP26 1141 K 25/41/6
~-~
262 --~
011
319
il6
INP3 1141 K 32/41/6
331 --4
h/a == 0.25; -(1.5 o q ) H/a == 0.5; -(1.7 o q )
height from ,-----'L---, LL-J cb ,-----'L---, LL-J cb
ground level
to top of up to up to up to up to up to up to up to up to up to up to up to up to
glazed opening 8m 20m ~OOm 8m 20m 100m 8m 20m 100m 8m 20m 100m
glass type ~ CD L" L" L" L" L" L" L" L" L" L" L" L"
NP2 2.60 2.10 1.75 3.75 2.95 2.50 2.45 1.95 1.65 3.50 2.75 2.35
K22/41/6
NP26 2.50 1.95 1.70 3.50 2.80 2.35 2.35 1.85 1.60 3.30 2.65 2.20
K25/41/6
NP3 2.20 1.75 1.50 3.15 2.50 2.15 2.10 1.65 1.45 2.95 2.35 2.00
K32/41/6
NP5 1.85 1.45 1.25 2.60 2.10 1.75 1.75 1.35 1.15 2.45 1.95 1.65
K50/41/6
SP2 4.20 3.30 2.80 5.95 4.65 3.95 3.95 3.10 2.65 5.55 4.40 3.70
K22/60/7
SP26 3.95 3.10 2.65 5.60 4.40 3.80 3.70 2.90 2.60 5.25 4.15 3.55
K 25/60/7
K32/60/7 3.60 2.80 2.40 5.00 4.00 3.40 3.35 2.65 2.25 4.75 3.75 3.20
o Physical data
o Exposed buildings
CD Sheltered buildings (0.8 - 1.25 g)
FIHMI
G~f~~
practical examples of possible bent forms using ornamental glass
. unfolded
H r L- :=lli, ,li"L. "21
E-I == double-glazed, alternative forms
® Possible combinations
Mr-----rr---l1
A == single-glazed, flange external
rIlfITrIl1
B == single-glazed, flange internal
fIj-11 r-
C == single-glazed, flange external and internal
r----frITl11
D == single-glazed, flange alternating
~
172

173
o Glass block areas
glass block airborne sound
format sound reduction
(mm) reduction rating
value (LSM) (R'w)
190 x 190 x 80 -12 dB 40 dB
240 x 240 x 80 -10 dB 42 dB
240 x 115 x 80 -7 dB 45 dB
300 x 300 x 100 -11 dB 41 dB
double-
skinned
wall with
240 x 240 x 80 - 2 dB 50 dB
Standard sound-reduction
levels for windows
Recommended standard sound-reduction levels for standard
categories of room use subjected to traffic noise
GLASS
Sound reduction
Because of its weight, a glass block wall has particularly
good sound insulation properties:
1.00 kN/m2 with 80 mm glass blocks;
1.25 kN/m2 with 100 mm glass blocks;
1.42 kN/m2 with special BSH glass blocks.
To be effective, the surrounding building elements must
have at least the same sound reduction characteristics.
Glass block construction is the ideal solution in all cases
where good sound insulation is required. In areas where a
high level of sound reduction is necessary, economical
solutions can be achieved by using glass block walls to
provide the daylight while keeping ventilation openings and
windows. These can serve as secondary escape routes if
they conform to the minimum allowable size.
Follow the relevant regulations with regard to sound
reduction where the standards required for particular areas
can be found. The sound reduction rating (R'W ) can be
calculated from the formula R'w = LSM + 52dB (where LSM
is the reduction value of airborne sound) ~ @. Single-skin
glass block walls can meet the requirements of sound
reduction level 5 ~ @.
sound- Rw
reduction
level
6 ? 50dB for double-skinned glass
block walls/windows
5 45~49dB for single-skinned
glass block areas
4 40-44dB for single-skinned
glass block areas
3 35-39dB
2 30-34dB
1 25-29dB
0 <25dB
noise source distance from window recommended standard sound
to centre of road reduction levels for standard
categories of room use
1 2 3 4
motorways, 25m 4 3 2 1
average traffic 80m 3 2 1 0
250m 1 0 0 a
motorways, 25m 5 4 3 2
intensive traffic 80m 4 3 2 1
250m 2 1 0 a
main roads 8m 3 2 1 a
25m 2 1 a a
80m 1 0 0 0
secondary roads 8m 2 1 0 a
25m 1 0 0 0
80m 0 a a 0
main roads in small building 5 5 4 3
city centres intensive traffic
large building 4 4 3 2
average to
intensive traffic
®
• equivalent maximum permitted constant level
f4 Permitted maximum sound levels for different categories of
~ room use
type of room permitted maximum sound levels in
rooms from outside noise sources
mean levels" mean max. levels
1 living rooms in apartments, day 30-40dB(A) day 40-50dB(A)
bedrooms in hotels, wards in night 20-30dB(A) night 30-40dB(A)
hospitals and sanatoriums
2 classrooms, quiet individual offices, 30-40dB(A) 40-50dB(A)
scientific laboratories, libraries,
conference and lecture rooms, doctors'
practices and operating theatres,
churches, assembly halls
3 offices for several people 35-45dB(A) 45-55dB(A)
4 open-plan offices, pubs/restaurants, 40-50dB(A) 50-60dB(A)
shops, switch rooms
5 entrance halls, waiting rooms, 45-55dB(A) 55-65dB(A)
check in/out halls
6 opera houses, theatres, cinemas 25dB(A) 35dB(A)
7 recording studios take note of special requirements
steel
frame
plaster-
board
building
boards
steel
6.5 50 6
II II
G 90
1 angle steel, 50 x 55 mm
length> 100 mm, at least four
per glazed area
2 allowable fire-resistant pegs
and steel screws M 10
3 flat steel strips to fix the glass
block wall (welded)
spacer
10.0 > concrete
illl!lllllllll!ll!j!lil1illlll!I!!
11.5 > masonry
2
G60
4 15 6.5
~
steel or
f:~::;~nium ~1i;=3.I"v
sealing
4 15 65
H----H
11.0 > concrete
11.5 . masonry
G 30
o
I<;:<-:<-:-:-:.<·:-:-:-:-:·:":':":':~ ~ ~
uSl
c C1l
8E
Fire-resistant glass
Normal glass is of only limited use for fire protection. In
cases of fire, float glass cracks in a very short time due to
the one-sided heating, and large pieces of glass fall out
enabling the fire to spread. The increasing use of glass in
multistorey buildings for facades. parapets and partitions
has led to increased danger in the event of fire. In order to
comply with building regulations, the fire resistance of
potentially threatened glazing must be adequate. The level
of fire resistance of a glass structure is classified by its
resistance time: i.e. 30, 60, 90, 120 or 180min. The fire
resistance time is the number of minutes that the structure
prevents the fire and combustion gasses from passing
through. The construction must be officially tested,
approved and certificated ~ CD.
Fire-resistant glass comes in four forms: wired glass with
point-welded mesh, maximum resistance 60-90 min;
special armoured glass in a laminated combination with
double-glazing units; pre-stressed borosilicate glass, e.g.
Pyran; multi-laminated panes of float glass with clear
intumescent interlayers which turn opaque on exposure to
fire, e.g. Pyrostop. (~pp. 130-31)
Glass blocks with steel reinforcement
Fire-resistant, steel-reinforced glass blocks can, as with all
other glass block walls, be fixed to the surrounds with or
without U sections. All other types of fixing methods are
also applicable. Because of the strongly linear spread of fire
and the production of combustion gases, fire-resistant glass
block walls should be lined all round with mineral fibre
slabs (stonewool)--) @.
resistance class I G 60 G 120 G 90 G 120 F 60
glazing size (m 2 ) 305m 2 2.5m2 9.0m2 404m 2 4.4m2
max. element height 1 305m 305m 305m 305m 3.5m
max. element width 1 6.0m 600m 6.0m 6.0m 600m
sill height needed 1.8m 1.8m none none none
type of glazing single double single double double
skin skin skin skin skin
glass block format 190x 190x80 190x 190x80 190x 190x80 190x 190x80 190x 190x80
lli;;iQ;jilitillE%1
® Edge details, fire-protection glazing
o Fire-protection classes for glass blocks
G) Glazing with fire-protection class G

ABS = acrylonitrile- PC = polycarbonate
butadiene-styrene PE = polyethylene
CR = chloroprene PIB = polyisobutylene
EP = epoxy resin PMMA = polymethyl
EPS = expanded polystyrene methacrylate (acrylic
GRP = glass fibre-reinforced glass)
plastic PP = polypropylene
GR-UP = glass fibre-reinforced PS = polystyrene
polyester PVC = polyvinyl chloride,
IIR = butyl rubber hard or soft
MF = melamine formaldehyde UP = unsaturated polyester
PA = polyamide resin
Construction using plastics is best planned in the form of panel structures
(shells). These have the advantage of very low weight, thus reducing
loading on the substructure, and also offer the possibility of prefabricated
construction ~ @ - @. Structures in plastics (without the use of other
materials) at present only bear their own weight plus snow and wind
loads, and possibly additional loads due to lighting. This allows large
areas to be covered more easily ~ @ - @.
Plastics, as raw material (fluid, powdery or granular), are divided into
three categories: (1) thermosetting plastics (which harden when heated);
(2) thermoplastics (which become plastic when heated); (3) elastomers
(which are permanently elastic). Plastics are processed industrially using
chemical additives, fillers, glass fibres and colorants to produce semi-
finished goods, building materials, finished products · CD - @.
The beneficial characteristics of plastics in construction include: water
and corrosion resistance, low maintenance, low weight, colouring runs
throughout the material, high resistance to light (depending on the type),
applications providing a durable colour finish on other materials (e.g. as
a film for covering steel and plywood > ® etc.). They are also easy to
work and process, can be formed almost without limits, and have low
thermal conductivities.
Double-skinned webbed sections are available in a wide range of
thicknesses, widths and lengths. Being translucent, these sections are
suitable for roof or vertical glazing. These are permeable to light • @.
The large number of trade names can be bewildering so designers
must refer to the international chemical descriptions and symbols when
selecting plastics, to ensure that their properties match those laid down
in standards, test procedures and directives. The key plastics in
construction, and their accepted abbreviations, are:
PLASTICS
The plastics used to produce semi-finished materials and finished
components contain, as a rule, up to 50% filling material, reinforcement
and other additives. They are also significantly affected by temperature
so an in-service temperature limit of between 80° and 120° should be
observed. This in not a serious problem given that sustained heating to
above 80° is found only in isolated spots in buildings (e.g., perhaps
around hot water pipes and fires). Plastics, being organic materials, are
flammable. Some are classed as a flame inhibiting structural material;
most of them are normally flammable; however, a few are classed as
readily flammable. The appropriate guidelines contained in the regional
building regulations for the application of flammable structural materials
in building structures must be followed.
Classification of plastic products for building construction
(1) Materials, semi-finished: 1.1 building boards and sheets; 1.2 rigid
foam materials, core layers; 1.3 foam materials with mineral additions
(rigid foam/light concrete); 1.4 films, rolls and flat sheets, fabrics,
fleece materials; 1.5 floor coverings, artificial coverings for sports
areas; 1.6 profiles (excluding windows); 1.7 pipes, tubes and
accessories; 1.8 sealing materials, adhesives, bonding agents for
mortar, etc.
(2) Structural components, applications: 2.1 external walls; 2.2 internal
walls; 2.3 ceilings; 2.4 roofs and accessories; 2.5 windows, window
shutters and accessories; 2.6 doors, gates and accessories; 2.7
supports.
(3) Auxiliary items, small parts, etc.: 3.1 casings and accessories; 3.2
sealing tapes, flexible foam rolls and sheets; 3.3 fixing devices; 3.4
fittings; 3.5 ventilation accessories (excluding pipes); 3.6 other small
parts.
(4) Domestic engineering: 4.1 sanitary units; 4.2 sanitary objects; 4.3
valves and sanitary accessories; 4.4 electrical installation and
accessories; 4.5 heating.
(5) Furniture and fittings: 5.1 furniture and accessories; 5.2 lighting
systems and fittings.
(6) Structural applications; 6.1 roofs and supporting structures,
illuminated ceilings; 6.2 pneumatic and tent structures; 6.3 heating oil
tanks, vessels, silos; 6.4 swimming pools; 6.5 towers, chimneys,
stairs; 6.6 room cells; 6.7 plastic houses.
T
24
@ Ribbed
t - - - - 45 ---------i
Sandwich dome, three-
point support, Hanover
(Jungbluth, 1970): 33 kg/m2
Supporting elements with
plastic sheeting
f13 Ceiling
!.:V improvement
~
~
@ Surface structures (shells)
® Finished parts
® Webbed sandwich
~ I
Wall
improvement
@ Corrugated
@
Skeletal supporting structure
Sandwich
filling
'"
f19 St Peter's, Rome (1585):
.!.:!) 2600kg/m2
@ Folded
o Sandwich panels
~
~~
® Pre-formed parts
(3) Sections
G) Available forms, sheet
174
Concrete shell (Schott Jena,
1925): 450 kg/m2
Hall supported by air
pressure, Forossa, Finland
(1972): 1.65kg/m2

:::l :::::::::::::
SKYLIGHTS AND DOME ROOFLIGHTS
Domes, skylights, coffers, smoke vents and louvres, as fixed or
moving units, can be used for lighting and ventilation, and for
clearing smoke from rooms, halls, stair wells etc. All these can
be supplied in heat-reflecting Plexiglas if required.
By directing the dome towards the north (in the northern
hemisphere), sunshine and glare are avoided -" @. The use of
high curb skylights -" CD will reduce glare because of the sharp
angles of incidence of the sunlight. Dome rooflights used for
ventilation should face into the prevailing wind in order to
utilise the extraction capacity of the wind. The inlet aperture
should be 200/0 smaller than the outlet aperture. Forced
ventilation, with an air flow of 150-1000m3/h, can be achieved
by fitting a fan into the curb of a skylight -" @. Dome rooflights
can also be used for access to the roof.
Attention should be given to the aerodynamic extraction
surfaces of smoke exhaust systems. Orientating each extraction
unit at an angle of 90° from the adjacent one will allow for wind
coming from all directions. Position to leeward/windward if
pairs of extraction fans are to be mounted in line with or against
the direction of the prevailing wind.
Smoke extraction vents are required for stair wells more
than four complete storeys high. Variable skylight aperture
widths up to 5.50 m are available, as is a special version up to
7.50 m wide which does not need extra support.
Skylight systems offer diffuse room lighting which is free
from glare -" @. North-facing skylights with spun glass fibre
inlays guarantee all the technically important advantages of a
workshop illuminated by a north light -" @. Traditional flat roofs
can be modified to admit a north light by inserting skylights
with curbs.
f------B-----j
Dome rooflight with high
curb
~ T
J:=:::=:=:::=:=:~fan
tb
o North light dome
A= B =
rooflight area roof opening
72 x 1.20 x 1.08 1.25 x 1.25
72 x 2.45 x 2.30 1.25 x 2.50
75xl.16x76 1.50 x 1.50
CD
50 x 1.00 1.00 x 1.00 1.20 x 1.50
50xl.50 1.00 x 1.50 1.20 x 2.40
60 x 60 1.00 x 2.00 1.50xl.50
60 x 90 1.00 x 2.50 1.50 x 3.00
90 x 90 1.00 x 3.00 1.80 x 2.70
with solid or ventilated curb
o Pyramid rooflight
G) 'Normal' dome rooflight
A B C D
40 60" 60 1.6 1.80 x 1.80
70 90" 90 1.7 2.00 x 2.00
80 1.00 x 1.00 2.20 2.00 " 2.20
1.00 1.20" 1.20 2.30 2.50 x 2.50
1.30 1.50" 1.50 2.40 2.70 x 2.70
60" 60 1.20 " 2.40 1.80 x 2.40
80 " 80 1.25 x 2.50 1.80 x 2.70
90" 90 1.50" 1.50 1.80 x 3.00
1.00" 1.00 1.50 x 1.80 2.20 X 2.20
1.00 " 2.00 1.50 x 2.40 2.50 x 2.50
1.20 " 1.20 1.80 " 1.80
1.20 x 1.80
rou nd domes: 60, 90, 100, 120, 150, 180
220, 250cm dia.
:.:.:.:.:.:.:.~.:.:.:.:.~.:.:.:.:.:
...............................:
./
/' /'
,/ ./
./ ./
,/
f-150 650-i r - 10 650 ~5.0----1 ~ 5.0----'1
'.--/
-:
90° vertical saw-tooth north
light
Continuous mono-pitched
skylight
~---5.00-----1
@
®
Continuous double-pitched
skylight
f----- - - 2.00 400-------1
@ 60° saw-tooth north light
Monitor rooflight with
vertical panes
® Continuous barrel skylight
Continuous multiple barrel
skylights
® Monitor rooflight with
inclined panes
CD
south
37
angle of incidence
of sun's rays
north
light transmission
76%
45A
=::.~ •••••••••••.
@ Double-skinned rooflight units
f--- ~ 1.50 --; 25 mm
~ 1.51-3.00 -----130mm
1 3.01 4.00 I 40 mm
I 4.01-550 170mm
551 7.50--------<190mm
unit
96 % ----+ 4%-i
heat insulation in area of
shadow of spun glass inlay
-----~170 mm
r--- up to 1.50 -125mm
r - - 151 2.50 ----130mm
I 251 3.60---~140mm
t--- 361 450
I 451 650 - - - - - - - - 1 1 90 mm
unit
@ Saw-tooth glass fibre-reinforced polyester skylight
175

WINDOWS: SIZES
If daylight is considered to be essential for the use to which
a room will be put, then windows are an unavoidable
necessity. Simple apertures for daylight have developed
into significant stylistic features, from Romanesque semi-
circular arched windows to Baroque windows surrounded
by rich, elaborate decoration. In the European cultural
region lying north of the Alps, window forms reveal
particularly strong features. In contrast to the climatically
favoured cultural region of the Mediterranean, daily life
here mainly had to be spent indoors. The people were thus
dependent upon daylight because artificial light was
expensive and good illumination of a room during the
hours of darkness was beyond the means of most of the
local population.
Every work area needs a window leading to the outside
world. The window area which transmits light must be at
least 1/20 of the surface area of the floor in the work space.
The total width of all the windows must amount to at least
1/10 of the total width of all the walls, i.e. 1/10 (M + N + 0 + P)
~ CD·
For workrooms which are 3.5 m or more high, the light
transmission surface of the window must be at least 300/0 of
the outside wall surface, i.e. ~ 0.3 A x B ~ 0.
For workrooms with dimensions similar to those of a
living room, the following rules should be applied.
Minimum height of the glass surface, 1.3 m ~ @.
Height of the window breast from the ground, ~ 0.9 m.
The total height of all windows must be 500/0 of the width
of the workroom, i.e. Q = 0.5R ~ @.
B
(3) Window stze > 0.3 A x B
I
clear window aperture
t
T
~ 130
1
glass area = 1/20 of room area
window width = 1/10 (M + N + a + PI
G) Window sizes for industrial
buildings
~. el b a
~ 30°- ~45°
el bl
~ a
C1J
u
c
~ i: 18°-:1 30°
--lbl ;Ia
.~
~AO ---- ----
a
C1J :ii 18·
mI
~
I
'??hJ I
6 ~c
5 10 15 20 25"10
c- window size as % of room floor area
When calculating the
window size for a living
room, both the floor area of
the room and the angle of
incidence of the light must
be taken into account ~ @.
Here, 'a' is the minimum
window size for a living
room as a percentage of the
floor area of the room, 'b' is
the minimum size for a
kitchen window and 'c' is
the minimum size for all
other rooms. The angle of
incidence of the light is 'd'.
The larger the angle of
incidence, the larger the
windows need to be. This is
because the closer the
neighbouring houses are,
and the higher they are, the
greater the angle of
incidence and the smaller
the amount of light
penetrating into the house.
Larger windows will com-
pensate for this smaller
quantity of light.
Dutch regulations stip-
ulate the sizes of windows
in relation to the angle of
incidence of the light.
Example ~ ®
A For a flat, angle of incidence of
light 18°-30°
B Necessary window size for the
living room
C 17% of the room floor surface area
is sufficient for the size of
the windows.
The slope of the roof surface
is known. A skylight with a slope
of 0° needs to be only 20% of the
size of a vertical window to make
the room equally bright - however,
there is no view. Windows are
generally the poorest point in
terms of heat insulation. For this
reason, it is convenient to fit the
room with smaller windows, as long
as the solar heat gain through the
windows is discounted.
As well as the window size and
the slope of the window surface,
the siting of the house plays an
important role. A free-standing
house admits more light with the
same surface area of windows than
a house in the city centre.
Example '® -([)
A Slope of a roof window of 40°
B The house is not free standing,
but is also not in heavy shadow
C 10% of the room floor surface area
is sufficient for the size of the
windows.
25
20

15
~
I
shady
workshop
o Width of the window
aperture Q ?: 0.5 R
® Window sizes in domestic buildings
o Section of fa~ade
+
~
~
0+
N L free
g ~ standing
'L-. position
j 0 / . _ A _
.~. ~
'0 ~
~~~
]o~ I
•~: ~ :c
o 5 10
• window size as % of room floor area
® Window sizes (j) Roof window
176

WINDOWS: ARRANGEMENT
o With steel-frame structure
With reinforced concrete
DDD
I " II
I J. II
' ~. ,_, ...J
o With half-~imbered
construction
o With brickwork
EFFECT ON WIDTH
EFFECT ON HEIGHT
G) With stone walls
T
1.00
1
® Office
T
75
-.l
(j) Normal window height
T
50
-L
® Rooms with a view
CD With scenic view and
balcony
I
125
1
r
150
1
T
II
I
1.75
I
® Kitchen @ Office (filing room) @ Cloakroom @ Skylight e.g. drawing office
VENTILATION HEATING
@ Cool air drawn into room,
warm air extracted
@ Flap control: ventilation
better
@ Cold and warm air hitting the
seated person (unhealthy)
@ Built-in radiators (convectors)
require entry/exit for air
BLINDS AND CURTAINS
l[f
@ Allow sufficient wall space
in corners for curtains
@ Verti~al blinds, slatted
curtams
@ Roller blinds of cloth or
plastic
@ Venetian blind
177

50-100
~
Protection measures must
prevent glare and regulate
the inflow of heat from
sunlight. In temperate
climates, large window
apertures with a high but
diffuse incidence of light
are preferred, whereas in
hot climates, small window
apertures still allow
sufficient light to enter.
Venetian blinds @
(with flat slats of wood,
aluminium or plastic), roller
shutters, roller blinds and
partially angled sun blinds
are all useful and can be
adjusted as required. Fixed
external devices are clearly
less flexible than retractable
or adjustable ones. Vertical
panel blinds ~ @ (either
fixed or pivoting around the
axis of the slat) are also
suitable for tall or angled
window surfaces.
Heat rising up the face of
a building should be able to
escape, and not be blocked
by external sun screens or
allowed to enter the
building via open skylights.
Internal shades are less
effective than external ones
for reducing solar heat gain
because the heat they
absorb is released into the
room.
.r.
Sloping awning with vertical
fringe
WINDOWS: SHADING
angles of sun 0.' and angle of shadow 0.
are given for a south wall at latitude 50°
north -. (f) - @
21 June (summer solstice), midday
u' = 63°; a = Z]"
1 May and 31 July, midday
a' = 50°; a = 40°
21 March and 23 Sept (equinox), midday
a l = 40°; a = 50°
In general, projection P = tg angle
of shadow a x height of window H;
at the very smallest projection,
P = (tg angle of shadow 0. x height of
window H) - wall thickness D.
®
o Roller shutter
® Partly angled sun blind
® Double sun shades
o External louvred blind
Awning keeps sun's rays
and heat at bay
Internal venetian blind: sun
comes through window
(not good)
mprojection:~
~::-~----------1
::::::::::::::j~ ~ 400 0 go
angle of sun IX' unob-
~/ / _~ structed
7 r view
a a:iofshadow•
wall thickness
/
PROTECTION FROM THE SUN
(j) Arrangement of single sun
shades
® Balcony or
window ledge
@ Wooden, AI or @ Double @ Angled
sheet steel sun sun shade shades
shades
@ Blind alignment gives
diffused light or shadow
effect
@ Sun-blocking
slats
Vertical
slats
@ Sun screen @ Partially
angled blind
@ Sloping and
vertical blind
Cantilevered
screen
Projecting
screen
® Adjustable awning
178

Vertically
pivoted
Horizontally
pivoted
CD
Casement,
bottom hung
WINDOWS: TYPES AND DIMENSIONS
Casement.
top hung
CD
/
/
Casement.
side hung
CD

WAYS OF OPENING
G) Fixed light
Horizontally sliding
,
,
,
@ louvred
Projected.
top hung
@
® Linked hopper
¢
®
(j) Vertically
sliding
COORDINATING SIZES
Note: BS and module 100 metric range includes doors &
associated mixed lights (not shown); fl = fixed lights
Ranges of steel windows to BS 990: Part 2
and to 'Module 100 Metric Range' as given
by Steel Window Association
:
~
,...-
~
I!!!!I
..--
~
D
I------- ~
-
600
700
900
300
500
2100
1800
1300
1100
1500
1800
1500
1200
fll m II I I II I
fl fI
fI fl
fl fI
II fl
fl II
900
700
mm 500 600 800 1000
200
300
500
600
1500
1300
1100
@
Note: This range also includes 1800 & 2100 h
with fixed lights only: 2100 h include doors
Ranges of aluminium windows to BS 4873 - wide range of
windows including vertically and horizontally sliding types
~-=~
roo-
-
J
500 600 800 900 1200 1500 1800 2 100 2400
Note: Above diagrams intended for general guidance on overall sizes only; no
distinction made between types of opening light; some sizes, fixed lights
only (designated fl) obtainable in standard ranges
1500
1200
600
1050
900
500
100
300
700
900
600
mm
00
300
500
1800
1500
1200
600 900
2
ft
I. fI
fI
fl 1
fI 1
fI 1
@ Metric preferred range of W20
steel windows as specified by
Steel Window Association
@ Dimensionally coordinated metric sizes for wood windows as
recommended by British Wood-working Federation
179

CD Pivoting windows (3) Top-hung windows; sliding
LOFT WINDOWS
In planning the size of windows, the optimum daylight level
relative to the purpose of the room must be the deciding
factor. For instance, building regulations require a
minimum window area of 1/8 of the floor surface area for
living rooms ~ GJ).
Large windows make living rooms more comfortable.
The window width in secondary rooms can be chosen
according to the distance between the rafters. Generously
wide windows in living rooms can be achieved by the
inclusion of rafter trimmers. Steeper roofs need shorter
windows, while flatter roofs require longer windows. Roof
windows can be joined using purpose-made prefabricated
flashing, and can be arranged in rows or in combinations
next to or above one another ~ @ + @
O
· · · · · ·T"'. · · · ·~ · · · ·~ · · · · · I~
...L-J...L-J... ..... U1

, ,
~ 1/
.s: 'E]-
-" ~----" ~--
.: "[g--~--,' §~u
" , ' " " , / / II ~ ::I::;
' " , "~I 1/ '" ; / " I / ~ .....I
. <.» ... / ... <,> ... ',~ (// "... ~ ~
~••..··~]~L
[1 [j, g:s,.••.........
. ' I . ' ... ," . . .
.............. . ..
plastic frame
pivoting
window
MIUqOM
bixonud
pivoting
window
double top-
hung/pivoting
window
pivoting
window
extra unit:
round arch
1
64 cm I
...............
escape windows
[J" 81
~ ..
"J
I '
: ", I
~I
/'1
~1
I
1/
' / I
''' ~ /
~1
:/' / .. ... . .
o Top-hung window with
vertical unit ~ @
>>~O » eO
~40 ~50
<> 30
~30
® Layout of roof windows
o Sliding windows; escape
@ Window sizes
@ Calculation of window size, in relation to floor area
~'.•'.~'.~•••~.~
vertical
window unit
~@
window size 54/83 54/103 64/103 74/103 74/123 74/144 114/123 114/144 134/144
surface area
of light
admission 0.21 0.28 0.36 0.44 0.55 0.66 0.93 1.12 1.36
(m 2)
room size (m 2) 2 2-3 3-4 4-5 6-7 9 11 13
2.00
r-)-::E-------::;:"~~-- 230
(j) With vertical unit
1201.1100
1401 120
185
1.90
® At the eaves
19
II
, I
19
r r r r r :» ,-----,
I I , I
I ' , I
I
19
II
19
II
115
~o 75
® Section of built-in options ® Horizontal section @ Row of windows with
vertical window units -t ® @ Adjacent to/above one
another

t;;;;::::::::i:;:~;~;:~:1
i:~:~:~:~:~:~ffl~:~:~:~:~:~
G) TImber windows
plan view
WINDOWS: CONSTRUCTION
Wooden sections for turning, turn and tilt, and tilting
windows have been standardised. Windows are classified
according to the type of casement -4 ® - @ or the type of
frame ~ ®-@. The many demands made on windows (e.g.
protection against heat and noise) have resulted in a vast
range of window shapes and designs-~ CD - @. Externally
mounted windows and French windows must at the very
least be fitted with insulation or double glazing. The
coefficient of heat transfer of a window must not exceed
3.1 W/m2K.
A B C 0 E F G H
1
......... 1>'::;:=1 I:. ::::::.1
. .
---dJt-----
~ 0~~
1::::::::::1 1-:·:-:·:-;/ 1::-:::::::1
plan view single composite box double recessed flush protruding sliding
window window window window frame frame frame sash
window window window window
CD Steel windows ® Window types
o Profiled steel tube windows
plan view
plan view
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
description of glazing ~
Cw for windows and French
~
~1
doors, including frames of
material group21 W m 2K '
.~~
~ 19
OlU 1
1?1 I?? I?ol ':I
~ (.!J
OlU 1 2.1 2.2 2.3 3
with use of normal glass
1 single glazing 5.8 5.2
2 double glazing: 6mm ..;:; gap < 8mm 3.4 2.9 3.2 3.3 3.6 4.1
3 double glazing: 8mm s gap < 10mm 3.2 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 4.0
4 double glazing: 10mm ..;:; gap < 8mm 3.0 2.6 2.9 3.1 3.3 3.8
5 triple glazing: 6mm ..;:; gap < 8mm (x2) 2.4 2.2 2.5 2.6 2.8 3.4
6 triple glazing: 8mm s gap < 10mm (x2) 2.2 2.1 2.3 2.5 2.7 3.2
7 triple glazing: 10mm ..;:; gap < 16mm (x2) 2.1 2.0 2.3 2.4 2.7 3.2
8 double glazing with 20 to 100mm 2.8 2.6 2.7 2.9 3.2 3.7
between panes
9 double glazing with single glazing unit 2.0 1.9 2.2 2.4 2.6 3.1
(normal glass; air gap 10 to 16mm) with
20 to 100 mm between panes
10 double glazing with two double glazing 1.4 1.5 1.8 1.9 2.2 2.7
units (air gap 10 to 15mm) with
20 to 100 mm between the panes
11 glass brick wall with hollow glass bricks 3.5
o Plastic windows
plan view
11 for windows in which the proportion of frame makes up no more than 5% of the
total area (e.g. shop window installations) the coefficient of thermal conductance
CG can be substituted for the coefficient of thermal conductance Cw
2)the classification of window frames into frame material groups 1 to 3 is to be done
as outlined below
Group 1: Windows with frames of timber, plastic and timber combinations (e.g.
timber frame with aluminium cladding) without any particular
identification or if the coefficient of thermal conductance of the frame is
proved with test certificates to be Cw < 2.0 Wm 2K 1
N.B. Sections for plastic windows are only to be classified under Group
1 when the plastic design profile is clearly defined and any possible
metal inserts serve only decorative purposes
Group 2.1: Windows in frames of thermally insulated metal or concrete sections,
if the coefficient of thermal conductance is proved with test
certificates to be CF < 2.8 Wm-2K-1
Group 2.2: Windows in frames of thermally insulated metal or concrete sections,
if the coefficient of thermal conductance is proved with test
certificates to be 2.8 < CF < 3.6 Wm-2K1
® Aluminium windows
Values of thermal conductance for glazing and for windows and
French doors including the frames
181

5l
§
~ 'g ~,~ .!!;::
Q)
~
~iii~ ~
II)
~~~'~
'g
~- ~a:=~
Q)
~,2'~ '0
i Q)a:'I
Ol~
~-g
i~
~~~E
c.ca ~,~'~ e
ca~
0 ~ 50 25 (30)
I 51-55 25 (30)
II 56-60 30 (35)
III 61-65 35 (40)
IV 6~70 40 (45)
V > 70 40 (45)
21 values in brackets apply to outside walls and
must also be used for windows if these form
more than 60% of the outside wall surface
@ Selecting sound insulation
Any window design must satisfy the technical
requirements of the relevant parts of the building. The
main considerations are the size, format, divisions, way of
opening, frame material and surface treatment.
Ventilation, thermal and sound insulation, fire resistance
and general safety issues, including the use of security
glazing, must also be taken into account. The design of the
sections and the location and type of sealing are of great
importance in guaranteeing a long-lasting water- and
draught-proof seal. Built-in components such as roller
shutter boxes, window sills and vents must match the
noise insulation of the windows ~ ® - @ as well as other
technical specifications.
WINDOWS: CONSTRUCTION
~~ II)
o ca Q)
~ 0
!L
Q) .s~
Q)
~~
~
c:
ca
0
(J~
'§'~ s ~
c:~ Q)
8-
~~§
>'c: ... II)
~ ~~ ~ 'g
residential < 10 0
street
two-lane <35 0
residential 2~35 10-50 I
street 11-25 II
~ 10 III
residential > 100 0
main road 3~100 I
(2 lane) 2~35 50-200 II
11-25 III
~ 10 IV
country road, 101-300
built-up area 1) 101-300 I
(2 lane) 3~100 II
residential 11-35 200-1000 III
main road ~ 10 IV
(2 lane)
urban main 101-300 III
roads, 3~100 1000-3000 IV
industrial >35 V
areas
main roads 101-300 IV
4 to 6 lanes
motorway ~ 100 3000-5000 V
feeder roads
and
motorways
11 apply the next highest noise level band for
surburban built-up areas and roads in
commercial areas
'.r: :~.~.:.:.:.:.:.~.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.: :.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:
••••••••••i••••••••••••'.'•••••••••••••••••••••• • • • • • • • • • .
oAluminium thermally separated
composite casement window
(up to 47 dB)
CD·~~.CD.:~;~~·~~~~~·~;·I~:::·
separated profile sections
(up to 37 dB)
II
® Aluminium thermally separated ® Aluminium/timber combination @ How loud is it?
sliding window (up to 35 dB) casement window (up to 40 dB)
..................................................•..........................................
:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.
o Universal aluminium window
into which a sun screen can
be fitted (up to 47 dB)
~
G) Aluminium windows with
flush mounted casements
IE G£] ~ ~ 500
EEl GE [ill ~ 600
lE ffi ~ ~ 700
B3 [fJ rn EEJ EE ttJ ~ 900
fB [E IE [fJ EB EEJ ff] 1100
ffi tEEE EB EEJ EB tEJ 1300
ill H3 EBEEJEBEfJ 1500
0 tB ffi EB 1800
~ ~ ~ 8lfJEB 2100
ciS:~i~~~;~·:~:;~~~~:·:;~·~·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·
aluminium facing frame
(up to 42 dB)
@ Noise insulation classification for windows
noise noise guiding remarks for design characteristics of Windows and
insulation insulation ventilation equipment
class value (dB)
6 50 box windows with separate recessed frames specialty sealed
and very large gap between the panes; glazed with thick glass
5 45-49 box windows with special sealing, large gap between frames
aid glazed with thick glass; double glazed composite casement
windows with isolated casement frames. special sealing, more
than 100 mm between panes and glazed with thick glass
4 40-44 box windows with extra sealing and average densitv glazing;
double glazed composite casement Windows with special
sealing, over 60 mm between panes and glazed with thick glass
3 35-39 box windows without extra sealing and with average densitv
glass; double glazed composite casement Windows with extra
sealing, normal distance between panes and glazed with thick
glass; sturdy double/triple glazing units; 12 mm glass in fixed or
well-sealed opening windows
2 30-34 composite casement Windows with extra sealing and average
densitv glazing; thick double glazing units; in fixed or well
sealed opening windows; 6 mm glass, in fixed or well sealed
opening windows
1 25- 29 double glazed composite casement windows with extra sealing
and average density glazing; thin double glaZIng units In
windows without extra sealing
0 20 24 unsealed Windows with single glazing or double glazing unit
...............................................................................................
® Plastic ~ouble glazed ~indow,
composite casement, mtra-
pane sun screen (up to 45 dB)
8 0 0 0 0 0 0
C1 ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~
o 0
o 0
CD C1
® Coordinating sizes of
(horizontally and
vertically) aluminium
sliding windows to
BS 4873
182

type of building outside window roof window
offices every 3 months* every 12 months
public offices every 2 weeks 3 months
shops every week 6 months
(inside, 2 weeks)
shops (high street) daily 3 months
hospitals 3 months 6 months
schools 3-4 months 12 months
hotels (first class) 2 weeks 3 months
factories (precision work) 4 weeks 3 months
factories (heavy industry) 2 months 6 months
private house 4-6 weeks
(]) Intervals of time for window cleaning
WINDOWS: CLEANING
* ground floor windows must be cleaned more frequently
Safety belts with straps, safety cables or safety apparatus
for working at heights should be used as a protection
against falls -~ CD.
Facade hoists and mobile equipment (allowing access to
fixed glazing) for cleaning windows and facades ~ ® - @
are available to carry out maintenance and repair work
(thus saving the cost of scaffolding). If fitted at the right
time, they can be used to carry out minor building work
(such as fixing blinds, installing windows etc.l. With slight
modifications, facade hoists and access equipment can be
used as rescue apparatus in the event of a fire. The options
available include mobile suspended ladders mounted on
rails, trackless roof gantry equipment with a cradle, and a
rail-mounted roof gantry with a cradle and attached to the
roof deck or the balustrade.
Suspended aluminium ladder equipment (for facade
access) ~ (2)consists of a suspended mobile ladder on rails.
The width of the ladder is 724 mm or 840 mm, and the total
overall length is 25 m maximum, depending on the shape of
the building. The maximum safe working load (S.W.L.) is
200 kg (i.e. two men and the apparatus itself). Alternatives
are available, such as maintenance gangways ~ @ and
cleaning balconies ~ @.
o
o
80
1.20
~56 I
I
® Cleaning platform
~
/
/ ~
~
~~

0
• eo
.....
84 <, -1
~(~
L{)0'l
~
<DO
f---------=-=---1 .....:Ci
0
.....
ex:>
I es
J
................................................
o Shading shows acceptable
cleaning surface area
............••.............•.•...•.....••.•....•..............................................•
(3) Parallel travel safety ladders
(for 3 or 4 storeys)
.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:
CD Maintenance gangway
G) Mobile safety cradle and
safety belt
oAdjacent window cleaning
20
25
10
15
30
45
35
40
55
50
60
@ With two independently
operated jibs
~
I :::::::::::.::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
® Parallelogram jib action
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
20
25
® One person fa~ade cradle
hoist
30m
@ Work platform hoists
Gardemann system
183

E':·:·;':·:·:·:':·:·:·:':
@ Hung left
® Two doors correctly fitted
o With radiator
.:..: ~JJj
DOORS: INTERNAL
8
1 .
@ Hung right
E':·:':·:':':·:':·:':':':'
oTwo doors wrongly fitted
E·:·:·:·:·:':·:·:·:·:·:·:':
o Min distance from wall

o
.. ~
(~ t..:~
~ ~
@ Hung left
c·:·:·:·:·:·:·:.:·:.:·:·:·:·:·:·
® Arrangement of two corner
doors, opening into the
same room
o Generally, correctly hung
(
70--t
....................
® Hung right
® With cupboard (good
arrangement)
G) Generally, wrongly hung
;.;.;.;.;.;.;.;.;.:.:.:.;.:.J/.:.; ;..;.
@ Paired doors; right-hand lock @ Swinging double doors;
pass through on right
@ Pivoting door, eccentrically
mounted
@ Pivoting centrally; pass
through on the right
~--,)~
@ Four-leaf door
~A t7E'7
~eningleaf
@ Three-leaf door
F·:·:··:····:·····:·;.
@ Sliding door, wall mounted
~ [ .
======- .-.- L~
locking leaf
@ Sliding door, recessed
~ d paired doors b
......·......·I~I· ..........·......··..I~I ......·
···..·········]0·············
@ Sliding door, with hinged
leaf
@ Four-leaf sliding door, with
two hinged pairs
@ American 'balanced door' @ American 'balanced door'
@ Door panel shapes
Internal doors must be positioned in order to maximise the
usable room space ~ CD- @. It is necessary to decide whether a
door should open inwards or outwards. Normally doors open
into the room ~ @. Door types are named according to their
construction, position and purpose. A balanced door ) @ + ~1l
requires little strength to open it, and is well suited for corridors.
The width of a door is determined by its use and the room
into which it leads. The minimum inside width of a door
opening is 55cm. In residential buildings the standard door
opening widths are as follows. Single-panel doors: main rooms
approx. 80cm; auxiliary rooms approx. 70 cm; front doors to
flats approx. 90cm; front doors to houses up to 115cm. Double
doors: main rooms approx. 170cm; front doors 140-225cm.
Door opening height at least 185cm, but normally 195-200cm.
Sliding and revolving doors are not permitted for escape or exit
doors, as they could block the route in an emergency.
Disabled persons have special requirements. The minimum
convenient door width for the ambulant disabled is 80cm. This
is too narrow for wheelchair users, but 90 cm is usually
adequate. There should be adequate space to position a
wheelchair beside the door. Corridors should be not less than
120cm wide so that wheelchair users can position themselves
to open a door in the end wall of a corridor or at the side. An
end door should be offset to give maximum space beside the
handle. Similarly, when a door is located in the corner of a
room, it should be hinged at the side nearer the corner --) @, ~~
D
D
o
@ Doorswing in a corner for
wheelchair users
D
o
@ Corridor door for
wheelchair users
11188
184

OJ structural openings for these preferred sizes are, as a rule, for double doors
G)Typical structural opening sizes to DIN 4172 ~ @
DOORS: SIZES AND FRAMES
The sizes of wall apertures for doors ~ CD are nominal
standard building sizes. If, in exceptional cases, other sizes
are necessary, the building standard size for them must be
whole number multiples of 125mm (100mm according to
British Standards). Steel frames can be used as left- as well
as right-hand frames ~ @.
® Standard rebated door panels and door frames
nominal standard size of door panel size of door frame
building size
standard structural standard overall door rebate size, door door
opening sizes door dimensions nominal opening opening
for doors dimensions width height
at the at the
tolerance rebate rebate
± 1 + 2;- 0 tol. ± 1 tol. + 0;-2
1 875 1875 860 1880 834 1847 841 1858
2 625 2000 610 1985 584 1972 591 1983
3 750 2000 735 1985 709 1972 716 1983
4 875 2000 860 1985 834 1972 841 1983
5 1000 2000 985 1985 959 1972 966 1983
6 750 2125 735 2110 709 2097 716 2108
7 875 2125 860 2110 834 2097 841 2108
8 1000 2125 985 2110 959 2097 966 2108
9 1125 2125 1110 2110 1084 2097 1091 2108
o
io
CJ
CJ
o
o
o
CJ
2500
limit for use
of term 'door'
1
I
I
I
2000
I
I
I
I
I
1750
1250
1125
4 5
875 1000
preferred sizes shown in thick outline
the standards give the exact measurements concerning frames and door panels for
those sizes which are indicated with a number • ®
2 3
o
[J
® Sizes of internal and external doors to BS 4787: Part 1
I'mIll!:
DI I.co oro dimensrons ---- -- I
L .~ leaf drrnensrons (Internal doors) +-- t'
- ---+ leaf dimensions (external doors) ---rtl
iii
1000 1200 1500 1800 2100- J
I j
rX46
i I~:~~~I I~:;~~ I I~::~~ I 1~: ~~~~:t_1
ill rn CD OJ []
900
2x412
I I
800
2x362
rn
600 700 800 900
~-~ 526 626 17261 18261
r~ II II 807
·~ nDDD
Vi Vi 1~
gg. s es
~"O V) ~~~
ro(;j c:: --
c:: c 0
~ ~.~
~c=E
In 0<0
f~ I _11[
o Height of the door
I
I door panel size
nominal standard
I building size
o Width of the door
---.:
I
II frame rebate size
I door panel size
I nominal standard building size
@ Standard steel frame types
. IIdoor panel size
I .frame rebate size
nominal standard
i building size
oWidth of the door (UK)
structural
.~openlngSlze
185
I
I IIframe rebate size
I
I door panel size
nominal standard
building Silf
@ Full lining frame
II Iframe rebate size
door panel size
Inominal standard
I building size
@ Combined lining
and architrave
frame
structural
opening size
nominal standard
building size
111 frame rebate size
I door panel size
@ Architrave frame
:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.
':':':':':':':':-:':':':-:':-:':':-:-:I~~~I--
......................................
:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.
iliii:iililliliiiiililiiiiilliliiiiiii
I
Idoor panel size
frame rebate size
I
norrunal standard
buildinq size
o Full lining door frame (UK)
60
-~Tstructural
I opening size
II
II frame rebate size
I I door panel size
I nominal standard
I building size
® Recessed door frame

[
Revolving doors are made in
several different designs. C!j -
@. Some are adjustable, e.g.
when the number of users is
large, particu larly in the
summer, the panels can be
folded into the middle to allow
people to go in on one side and
out on the other at the same
time. Some designs have
panels which can be pushed to
the side if traffic is only in one
direction (e.g. when business
closes for the day).
Actuating devices for
automatic doors can be
controlled by radar, electric
contact mats ..~ (f) - ® or
pneumatic floor contacts.
Unidirectional or reflecting light
barriers controlling automatic
sliding doors with six panels up
to 8 m wide are ideal for
installation on emergency
escape routes in office blocks,
public buildings and
supermarkets. Air curtain doors
~ @ can be shut off at night by
a raised door ~ ®.
Room dividers can be
provided by the use of folding
doors, guided from the side .--)
@. Concertina doors are
centrally hung ~ @ for closing
off wide openings. A revolving
movement can be combined
with a sliding movement.
Accordion doors can be made
of plywood, artificial leather or
cloth ~ @.
Telescopic doors have
several panels joined by
engagers. Externally guided
telescopic doors are single-
skinned @; those with
internal guides are double-
skinned ~ @. These doors can
move alongside each other
~ @ or retract inside each other
~ @. Sliding wall doors,
suspended from above, can be
guided round corners ~ @ or
can be used as flexible
enclosures ~ @.
Curtain partitions can be
folded down from above ~ @,
or can move horizontally with
guides above ~ @. They allow
large rooms to be divided up
into sections.
® Drop gate installation
-------11
REVOLVING AND SLIDING DOORS
...................
® Revolving doo.r with extra
emergency exrts
@ Accordion door; wood panels
or flexible material
@ Sliding hinged door.
going round a corner
~min1~0
~ norma.12.40
~ max2.60
~ l
o With four panels
.~min1~0
sliding
door or
roller
lattice
shutter
normal 2.40
t max 2.60
I
~~
® Door assembly pushed to side
../ JL
artificial
leather T I
~ 18-60cm I
I---..-~~ 80
1
.
r~
und~rsider-~
~ of.. ~ss-section
?::~
.; •....•. ~
<, ,00
.:' "1~
/~~~
/~~~-
!ff5.~f/
495 ~
8.00 contact mat
6 panels length ~ 1.20
® Automatic sliding doors
------M11
with pendulum arm
@ Folding door with central
guides (concertina door)
@ Telescopic door
~tfmin1~5
normal 2.10
~maxl20
o With three panels
max 2.60
~ 2.00
/
normal 240
------~ .
flat folding door
@ Folding door with side guides
rubber
G) Revolving door. two panels
~<so
@ Telescopic door
~
o Four panels. folded back
(j) Automatic hinged doors
@ Roller wall @ Partition curtain @ Variable sliding doors @ Air curtain installation. ®
186

Up and over doors can be used
for garages and similar
installations CD. They can be
folding doors, or doors with a
spring counterbalance or a
counterbalance weight. They
can have a single or a double
skin, and be solid, partially
glazed or fully glazed. They can
have wooden panels, or be
made of plastic, aluminium or
galvanised sheet steel. The
largest available dimensions for
access purposes are 4.82 m x
1.96m, and the maximum panel
area is approx. 10 rn-'. Up and
over doors are also available in
arched segments. They are easy
to operate since the door drive
is mounted on the ceiling and
controlled by radio.
Also available are lifting
folding doors ~ ell, sectional
doors ~ @, telescopic lifting
doors ~ ® and roller shutter
doors made of aluminium~ @
which are completely out of the
way when open. Single- or
multiple-skin doors can be used
for industrial, transport and
workshop buildings. The
maximum available size is 18 m
wide and 6 m high. These doors
can be activated by a ceiling
pull switch, a light barrier, an
induction loop or remote
control (either electric or
pneumatic), or contact pads.
Drive-through doors should
be power-operated for speed ~
@. Rubber swing doors-4 ®
and single-layer clear PVC are
resistant to abrasion and
impact, and PVC strip curtains
are also available ~ @. Rubber
sections which serve as door
seals and rubber cushion seals
are available for loading and
unloading from docks and in
and out of heated storage
depots. They give protection
from the effects of the weather
during these operations -~ GJ),
@.
Fire protection doors
T30-T90 can be single- or
double-leaf ~ @. Sliding fire
protection doors are also
available ~ @. Any movable
fire-resistant barrier, such as
sliding, lifting or swing doors,
must be able to operate
independently of the mains
electricity supply. In the event of
fire, they must close
automatically. (See also p. 130.)
o
,/
A x B L8.00 x 6.00
c) with counterbalance
weight
I
·
···
....
:.....
:..
::
.....
:.,.,..:...
::...
:......
:.....
:..
::...
:.,.,..:.....~::::
····················R·&
i D
~ l
~~;
15-18 t ..:..
o Telescopic lifting door
@ PVC strip curtains for large
drive-through passages
"': .
CD Slidingdoor';~:::'I'~::-T90)
b) spring counterbalanced,
no rails. suspended from
the ceiling
.:..::.;:........: ... ;... ;:::.;.;.,••• ',' ';,',',' 't ;.;.;.;.;.;::.;.;:.;.;.;.;.;.;.;.;.;.;.,.,.,.,.;,.,.;::,',',',','
a) folding
GARAGE/WAREHOUSE DOORS
® Drop door
!~:~"[if':':""":::,:,.
~:~ ~ ~:;65 ~ B](S; :::::::
400 m 275 m ::::::~
;:gg ~ ~:gg ~ .:::~ 15-18
8.00 m 7.00 m
CD Linked up and over door
(sectional)
® Rubber swing door
214m
____
----
A:~
220 2.00
I I
2.80 2.50
possibly with glass panels
B
A B
225 190
250 201
3.00 2125
~20m2
3.37 225
2375
standard door
G) Up and over doors
® Roller shutter door
(in steel or aluminium)
o Folding, lift door
® Power operated folding
door (quick operation)
@ Rubber cushion door seal
B
2.00
2.125
2.00
2.125
2.00
2.125
200
2.125
2.50
B
concealed counterbalance
weight A
~
., 100
);~ j~
1.75
1.75
2.50
double leaf
~----~
@ Sliding fire doors T3O-T90
single leaf
A B
75 1.75
75 1.875
75 2.00
B 80 180
80 1875
80 2.00
875 1.875
875 2.00
- 100 1.875
1.00 2.00
1.00 2.125
double leaf
1.50 2.00
~'b~ I
2.25 2125
.,
@ Fire doors T3o-T90
rubber cushion
door seal
flexible; adjusts
to suit
truck height
to suit truck
platform height
40
3.10
310
100
@ Rubber segment door seal
187

CD Combination key system
oMaster key system ,
LOCKING SYSTEMS
Cylinder locks offer the greatest security, for it is virtually
impossible to open them with tools. The cylinder lock
developed by Linus Yale is very different from other locking
systems. There are profile, oval, round and half cylinder
locks. Cylinder locks are supplied with extensions as
necessary on one or both sides, increasing in increments of
5 mm, to suit the thickness of the door ~ @.
During the planning and ordering phase for a locking
system, a locking plan is drawn up which includes a unique
security certificate. Replacement keys are only supplied
after production of this document.
Combination key systems
With a combination key system, the key of the entrance
door to each flat also opens all doors to shared facilities as
well as shared access doors, e.g. courtyard, basement or
main front door. This is suitable for houses with multiple
family occupancy or estate houses -~ CD.
Master key systems
In a master key system, a principal pass key opens all locks
throughout the complete system. This is suitable for single
family occupancy houses, schools and restaurants.
Central key systems
With a central key system, several combination key systems
are combined. This is suitable for blocks of flats ~ @.
Separate keys unlock the front door to each flat and to all
shared facilities. In addition, there is a master key which
unlocks all the shared doors in the blocks.
o Combined combination key and master key system
dimensions
in mm
T
General master key systems
A general master key system consists of multiple master
key systems. The general master key allows one person
access to all rooms. It is possible to subdivide areas by
using main and group keys. Each cylinder has its own
individual lock and, with the exception of the correct master
(or pass) key, can only be opened with its own key.
This system is suitable for factories, commercial
premises, airports and hotels ~ @. Vulnerable points which
should be taken into account during the planning stage are
set out in ~ @.
1
1
® Check list
filing cabinets, bath cubicles, letter boxes, access doors,
emergency exit doors, cloakrooms, locks for boxes, cold
at risk
stores, furniture doors, tubular framed doors, roller shutter
doors, cupboard doors, writing desks, sliding bolts, changing
cubicles
lift machinery room, lift switch box, electricity rooms, garage
strongly
access doors, garage up and over doors, lattice gates, boiler
room doors, basement doors, oil filler pipes, distribution at risk
boxes
main office doors, skylights, tilt and turn windows, computer
very strongly
rooms, main entrance doors, gratings, front entrance doors
to blocks of flats, trap doors, basement windows, fan lights, at risk
switch boxes
~ main group
I key 2
o===J1==u
'
group " group
key 3 W key 4
n
Wgeneral
~ master key
o .
'
main group
key 1
8) General master key system ® Cylinder lock: profile, half, round
188

The term 'security technology' is to be understood as
covering all devices used for defence against criminal
danger to the body, life or valuables. In reality, all parts of
a building can be penetrated, even those made of steel
and reinforced concrete. The need for security should be
established by an in-depth study of vulnerable areas, with
an estimate of costs and benefits. The police will advise
on the choice of security and monitoring system
equipment.
Mechanical protection devices are constructional
measures which provide mechanical resistance to an
intruder. These can only be overcome by the use of force,
which will leave physical traces behind. An important
consideration is the effectiveness of this resistance. Such
measures are necessary for the main entrance doors,
windows and basement entrances in blocks of flats, and
display windows, entrances, other windows, skylights
and fences in business premises. Mechanical protection
devices include steel grilles, either fixed or as roller
shutters, safety roller shutters, secure locks and chains.
Wire-reinforced glass also has a deterrent effect, and
acrylic or polycarbonate window panes offer enhanced
protection.
Electrical security devices will automatically set off an
alarm if any unauthorised entry to the protected premises
is attempted. An important consideration is the time
taken from when the alarm is triggered until the arrival of
security staff or the police.
(1) Burglar and attack alarm systems help to monitor and
protect people, property and goods. They cannot prevent
intruders entering premises, but they should give the
earliest possible warning of such an attempt. Optimum
security can only be achieved by mechanical protection
and the sensible installation of burglar alarm systems.
Supervisory measures include monitoring the outside of
the building, as well as each room and individual objects
of value, security traps and emergency alarm calls.
Fire alarm systems give an early warning of smoke or
fire, and may also alert the emergency services. Fire
alarm systems are there to protect people and property.
(2) Outdoor supervision systems are used to monitor
areas around the building. They increase security by
recording all nearby activity, usually up to and including
the property boundary. They consist of mechanical or
constructional measures, electronic or other detection
devices, and/or organisational or personnel action. Their
objective is legal fencing, to deter or delay intruders, or
to detect and give early warning about unauthorised
people or vehicles. This also includes the detection and
identification of possible sabotage attempts or
espionage. Mechanical measures include construction
work, fences, ditches, walls, barriers, gates, access
control and lighting. Electrical measures can involve
control centres, detectors, video/television sensors, an
access control system, an alarm connected to higher
communication systems, an automatic telephone dialling
device and/or radio. Organisational actions include the
briefing of personnel, observation, surveillance, security,
task forces, technical staff, watchdogs and an emergency
action plan.
(3) Goods protection systems, also called shoplifting
protection systems, are electronic systems which serve to
protect against theft and the illegal removal of goods
from a controlled area during normal business hours.
monitoring
by fields
[iJ
capacitor
field chang
alarm
internal alarm
g;(] in~~~~1 elect.
alarm hooter
elect. buzzer
alarm lights
outdoor electrical
protection
section
monitoring
~D
ultrasonic
barrier
~.~
high-frequency
barrier
burglar and attack alarm system
/ lift emergency
/ call system
E
- P
h ca, -s. ~ilentalarm
~ re~olving alarm auto-dialling
8 light device
flashing light ~ normal
searchlight ~ telephone
back-up help
services
fire alarm system
remote control system
goods protection system -.........~
------- -._-
.----------
video system
outdoor monitoring area
oSecurity systems
[~ attack alarm
~
e_le_c_t~ical s~pply ~
~O electrical
240V mains
Q emergency
CfJ S~~ly_ ---.J
SECURITY OF BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS
o Outer perimeter security on private premises
[_
~~OUStIC ala;:-J-
- --
c(] mains power
alarm
m'1 electronic
~ siren
surface monitoringl room monitoring
p body sound I I - I
opening contact p ~::~~break- IT)))) I
I • I .HJll ~:nf;~~~g ~~~~~~iC
magnetic contact l-JUlJ'~il~edglass I_ -O(~;
I
I I ~ vibration high-frequency
lock contact -+ contact doppler I
+ +~~r~t~~tPUII _ ~
pendulum contact L[]wall alarm Infra-red alarm
(also for .i _ tread mat L_ ~
area monitoring)
o Security in the industrial and community sectors
189

SECURITY OF BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS
190
a • • • P- JlIlJ WTIB ~ ~
+ ~ + +
parts of building and
Q)
~ .~
1J Q)
~
c ... 1J
equipment to be t.l c: Q)
.~ i
CIl
c ~ ~
1'0
.g tl '0 Q) c Q)
~
.~ tl ~ £
H
Q.1'O
protected ::: t.l c
~ i:[ 'i ~ E
(ij
c 1'0 Q) 1'0
.~ E ~~j 'c
~~
>E 1J
'i
~E
0)-
~ E
1'0 c 0::: 1J ...
~~
Q. c: ...
~ 8 ~ 8 oo!! Q)o!!
.Q 8 E 8 O).Q 1'0 E.2 "Cl.2 .Q 1'0 ~ (ij ~ Q.1'O
front doors, external doors .2)
• 0
internal security doors .3)
• • 0 .4)
room doors 121 .3)
• • 0 0 5 )
internal sliding doors 121 0 3) 0
• • 0 0 5 1
garage up and over doors
• 0 .6)
windows with casements
• 0
• 0
• 07)
glass doors, lifting doors
• 0 0
• 0
• 07) 0 5 1
external glass sliding doors 0
• • 0
• 07) 0 5 1
dome lights 0
• 0 .8)
roof windows
• • 0 9 1 07)
glass block walls 0
•
display windows, large
fixed glazing
• • • 07)
heavy walls and ceilings
• • 0
light walls and ceilings
•
loft ladder - retractable 0 0
• 0 5 )
• 0
individual objects 121
- sculptures
paintings
• • 101
internal floor surfaces 12)
•
safes 12)
• 0 5 ) .111
cupboards for apparatus 121
• • 0 5 )
conduits, ventilation shafts,
service installations
• •
burglar alarm • very suitable 1) various alarms only to be used with reservations (e.g. not on wired, laminated or toughened glass)
o still suitable 2) principally as a security device
3) if there is rapid switching on this door
4) if only the internal security door is to be protected (cf. also door interlock with alarm)
5) designed for security traps
6) magnetic contact - special type for floor mounting
7) not to be used where it can be touched by hand, if panels are unstable or there are vibration sources near by
8) there are dome lights with built-in alarm protection
9) note reservations concerning the weight of glass
10) individual protection is recommended for very valuable furnishings or those with very valuable contents
11) capacitative field alarms are the recommended protection
12) and/or included in the room surveillance
G) Contact and surface monitoring -- appropriate use of burglar alarms
V IT]]_ ....~~, <J
comparanve cntena ultrasonic roomprotection ultrasonic doppler high-frequency doppler infra-red alarm
monitoring features preferred,
[ttJ ~ ~l ~
direction ofmovement registered
rnomtonnq range perunit- whenmounted onceiling depending uponunit30--50 m1
depending uponunit150--200 m2
depending onunit60-80 m1
recommended values andrange 9o--110m2
, wallmounted upto 14m upto Zbm roomsupto 12,1
~ 40m1upt09m
corridors upto 60m
surveillance of complete room guaranteed notguaranteed notguaranteed guaranteed
lover8O'¥ooftheroom
monitored)
typicalapplication -small to largerooms -small to largerooms - long,largerooms -small to largerooms
-corridors - monitoring partof rooms -monitoring partof room -completeandpartroom
-completeandpartroom -secuntvtraps -securitytrapsin largespaces monitoring
monitoring -securitytraps
-at same timefirealarm
permissible ambient temperature:
underO°C conditionally permissible conditionally permissible permissible permissible
from0°Ct050"C permissible permissible permissible permissible
over50
vC
notpermissible notpermissible permissible notpermissible
areseveral alarms possible In the noproblem withcare withcare noproblem
same room)
mfluences fromadracent roorns noproblem noproblem notrecommended noproblem
or nearby roadtraffic
possible cause of falsealarms -loud noises in ultrasonic -loud noises in ultrasonic -deflectionofbeambyreflection -heatsourceswithrapid
frequency band frequency band frommetalobjects temperaturechangesie.g.
-air heating nearthealarm -air heating -beam penetrates wallsand incandescent lamps, electric
-strongatrturbulence -air turbulence windows healing, openfirel
-unstablewalls -unstablewalls -unstablewalls - direct,strongandchanging
-moving obiects te.q. small -moving objects le,g small lighteffectonthealarm
animals, fans) animals, fans) -moving objects (e.g.small
-disturbinginfluences nearthe -electromagnetic influences animals,fansl
alarm(sensitivity toogreat)
(3) Room monitoring - the most important comparative criteria
(4) Access control systems
are devices which, in
combination with a
mechanical barrier, only
allow free access to any
area by means of an
identity check. Access is
only granted after electronic
or personal authorisation. A
combination of access
control and a time-
recording device is
technically feasible.
(5) Remote control systems
or data transfer/exchange
over the public telephone
network facilitate monitor-
ing at a distance. Such
systems can be used for
measurement, control, diag-
nosis, adjustments, remote
questioning, controlling the
type of information, and
assessing the position of
one object in relation to
another.
(6) Monitoring systems
observe or control the
sequence of events by
means of a camera and a
monitor which are operated
either manually and/or
automatically. They can be
installed either inside or
outside, and can operate
both day and night
throughout the year.
(7) Lift emergency systems
are used in personnel lifts
and goods Iifts. Lift
emergency call systems
ensu re the safety of the
users. They are designed
first and foremost to free
people who are trapped
inside. Anyone who is
trapped can talk directly to
someone in a control centre
which is constantly man-
ned, and who will alert the
rescue services.

......................................................•.....................•................
STAIRS
f13 Stair width allowing three
~ people to meet and pass
Calculations for the construc-
tion of stairs, ramps and
guards are set out in various
national building regulations.
In the UK, British Standards
and the Building Regulations
should be consulted (see
Approved Document K). The
guidelines here are based on
German standards.
Dwellings with no more
than two flats must have an
effective stair width of at least
0.80 m and 17/29 rise-to-tread
ratio. Stairs which are not
strictly covered by building
regulations may be as little as
0.50m wide and have a 21/21
ratio. Stairs governed by
building regulations must
have a width of 1.00 m and a
ratio of 17/28. In high rise flats
they must be 1.25 m wide.
The length of stair runs from
~3 steps up to <18 steps 4 @.
Landing length = n times the
length of stride + 1 depth of
step (e.g. with a rise-to-tread
ratio of 17/29 = 1 x 63 + 29 =
92 cm or 2 x 63 + 29 = 1.55 m).
Doors opening into the
stairwell must not restrict the
effective width.
The time required for
complete evacuation must be
calculated for stair widths in
public buildings or theatres.
Such staircases or front
entrance steps are climbed
slowly, so they can have a
more gradual ascent. A
staircase at a side entrance or
emergency stairs should
make a rapid descent easy,
Covered entrances to
cellars and trapdoors
should be avoided.
However, this combination
has advantages and is safe
125
®
@
2 St air w idt h ali OWin g t w o
people to pass
»:..:::.::.:
handrails and banisters are not needed
for less than five steps
...........................•...•.....•.•..•....•...•...•.•...............•.................•..
~
......::::..:.......~..::....:
stairs with a rise of less than 1:4 do not
require handrail
® Steps without a handrail
...........................
. :.:: height
::':' of handrail
•::" above the
'::, ::': ' front of the step
lm at least 90C;.. ~ .
I ;.
1 .:.:. I rise
., .::. to match length of stride,
2 risers + 1 going = about 62.5cm
CD Optimum rise-to-tread ratio
17/29
55
~
If stairs are straight and wide
the distance of the line of
walk to the handrails should
be 55cm
.•..•.•.....•.••..•...•...•.......•.•........•...................
Laying the rafters and beams
parallel to the stairs saves
space and avoids the need
for expensive alterations
Normal stairs 17/29; landing
after a max. of 18 steps
On a ramp the stride is
reduced proportionately
(desirable slope 1: 10-1 :8)
~/Ianding
~~
/~
/ ' .:. max. of 18 steps
®
CD
_ .
ships' stairs
(engine room stairs)
~
.: 35 40 cm
.............................................
625
~- -1
Standard stride of an adult
on a horizontal plane
If stairs are narrow or
curved the distance of the
line of walk to the outer
string should be 35-40 cm
Ladder stairs with a
handrail
200
...............
(j) Superimposed stairs save
space
>90cm
when tread (w) is less than 260 mrn, the
stairs must be undercut by' 30mm
~
""''''''I'~
.................
~30 .:.
~~.:::J~ h
9r·····················
The proportions of the stair
rises must not change as
you go up
@
larger flight widths for
buildings containing more than
150 people
dwellings with more than
two storeys and other
buildings
10m
in up to two-storey
dwellings
125 m
in high-rise flats
stairs in a family house
or inside flats: to loft
and basement
... or between the handrails
effective flight width measured
from wall surface to inside edge
of handrail
stairs must have a fixed handrail;
if stair width is greater than 4 m,
there must also be a central
handrail; spiral staircases must
have a handrail on the outside
@ Mi~imum dimensions for
stairs
191

STAIRS
The experiences one has of
ascending and descending
stairs varies greatly with the
stair design, for example
there is a significant
difference between an
interior domestic design
and a grand flight of
entrance steps. Climbing
stairs takes on average
seven times as much
energy as walking on the
flat. From the physiological
point of view, the best use
of 'climbing effort' is with
an angle of incline of 30°
and a ratio of rise of:
rise of step, r _ 17
going of step, 9 - 29
The angle of rise is
determined by the length of
an adult's stride (about
61-64cm). To arrive at the
optimum rise, which takes
the least energy, the
following formula can be
applied:
2r+ 9 = 63cm (1 stride)
In the dimensioning and
design of flights of stairs,
the function and purpose of
the staircase is of primary
importance, taking in the
factors mentioned above.
Not only is the gaining of
height important, but also
the way that the height is
gained. For front door steps
in frequent use, low steps of
16 x 30cm are preferable.
However, stairs in a work-
place, or emergency stairs,
should enable height to be
gained rapidly. Every main
staircase must be set in its
own continuous stairwell,
which together with its
access routes and exit to
the open air, should be
designed and arranged so
as to ensu re its safe use as
an emergency exit. The
width of the exit should be 2
the width of the staircase.
The stairwell of at least
one of the emergency
staircases or fire exits must
be :s; 35 m from every part of
a habitable room or
basement. When several
staircases are necessary,
they must be placed so as
to afford the shortest
possible escape route.
Stairwell openings to the
basement, unconverted
lofts, workshops, shops,
storerooms and similar
rooms must be fitted with
self-closing fire doors with
a fi re rati ng of 30 min utes.
30 46
going (ern)
20
I
I
~----~
~
...1.12,~,;
~
02.70
On a spiral
staircase
10
r-T"'T"'T"'T"""'r.......- - ..... -- - ,
I
I
~.............:< .::{ ....:.................... ---J
I~
Three flight-width stairs are
expensive and a waste of
space
@
26-r----r------_~-__..
energy ~onsu~~~7~.............
the three ........
22 ~~~v;s~jt~i; at~~-7"J~__---'""I
same energy I
consumption I
,
Energy consumption of an
adult climbing stairs
o Height of storey and step rise
height two-way single, triple
of stairs width and
storey stairs in
buildings
easy rise easy rise
steps, steps, steps, steps,
no. height no. height
a b c f g
2250 - - 13 173.0
2500 14 178.5 15 166.6
2625 - - 15 175.0
2750 16 171.8 - -
3000 18 166.6 17 176.4
~ 14
(l)
c
o
c 1O-+---~-...L--+----+-__~
o
Transporting a
stretcher
@~@16 risers of 17/29,17.2/28.1
height of storey 2.75m; flight width 1 m
1 1.20 11~ 120
50m2
~52m2
~9m,
Minimum
space required
for moving
furniture
I
I ,
ramp~ ~~~~:~~5mps 10-24°, or
ramps with a non-slip
surface 6-10°, or 1:10-1:6
. _. -·flat ramps up to 6° or 1:10
/16/31
,,/ 15/33
, , / .> 14/34
".....,/ 12.5/37.5
outside steps
/
21/21
2.0/23 steepest house stairs
/19/25
/ ./ 18/27 house stairs
,./ ,,/ which are easy
./ / ' 17/29 to climb
/ ./
. ~i~e;,
Curved steps at t2Q
the landing on a 't:::J
narrow stairway
save landing space
r ---,
I I
t ,
I I
Stairs with landings take up the area of one flight of stairs
+ the surface area of landing - surface area of one step.
For a height per storey of ? 2.75 m, stairs with landings are
necessary. Width of landing? stair flight width.
All stairs without landings, whatever the type, take up almost the same surface area. However,
the distance from the top of the lower floor stairs to the foot of the next staircase can be
considerably reduced by curving the steps ~ ® - @. Therefore curved steps are preferred for
multistorey buildings.
I
,
I
L _
Winders
save space
Incline for ramps, outside stairs, house stairs, machinery access
steps and ladders
----I
, I
I ,
,
I
~ __J
1
I :
~ -- -'
T
r---l
I ,
I ,
I I
@-@
®-@
@
type of type of stairs effective rise, going,
building width of r2i g3)
stairs
residential essential stairs leading to habitable 280 17 ± 3 28+~
building stairs rooms, cellar and loft steps
with no (building which lead to non-habitable ? 80 < 21 221
more than regulations) rooms
two Ilats !'
stairs (additional) considered non-essential ? 50 s 21 >21
according to building regulations
stairs (additional) considered non-essential according ? 50 no stipulations
to building regulations (flats)
other essential stairs according to building ? 100 lr~ 28+~
buildings regulations
stairs (additional) considered non-essential 250 S 21 :.>21
according to building regulations
11 Also includes maisonettes in buildings with more than two flats;
}i but not <14cm.; 31 but not >37 cm = stipulation of the ratio of rise rig
o Stairs in buildings
CD
192

size of loft ladder
21'<;6 at IOU [sqqsr
STAIRS
To avoid marking risers with
shoe polish from heels, use
recessed profi les wh ich
have longer goings ~ CD.
Maximum space is
required at hip (handrail)
level, but at foot level
considerably less is needed
so the width at string level
can be reduced, allowing
more space for the stairwell.
Staggering the handrail
and string allows better
structural fixing. A good
string and handrail arrange-
ment with a 12 cm space
between stairwell strings is
shown in @. An additional
handrail for children (height
about 60 cm) is also shown,
along with some less
popular string and handrail
positions.
Circles in theatres, choir
lofts, galleries and
balconies must have a
protective guard rail (height
h). This is compulsory
wherever there is a height
difference in levels of 1m or
more.
For a drop of <12 m, h =
0.90m
For a drop of >12m, h =
1.10m
Loft ladders have an
angle of 45-55°. However, if
user requirements stipulate
a stair-like access (e.g.
where loads are carried and
available length is too short
for a flight of normal stairs),
then alternating tread stairs
may be designed -+ @.
There should be a
minimum number of risers
for this type of stair (riser
< 20 em). Here 'the sum of
the goings + twice the rise =
630 mm' is achieved by
shaping the treads; goings
are measured (staggered) at
the axes a and b -+ @, of the
rig ht and left foot.
o Handrail on
landing
Space-saving loft ladder
(scissor frame) for rooms
2.0-3.8 m high
H 16
without
stairwell
CD
1.30 x 70
1.40 x 70
1.40 x 75
A
IF If ~I~
metal profile plastic profile Plexiglas
r··..· 15
.
a
..
·······:··t:':'t··:················t·····
::::..:::......~....::::::::::::::::.:::::.
trap-door,
should be
fireproof
H
4
® Flat roof exit with loft steps
wood profiles
H
12
«
loft
child's handrail
I
I
I
III
II
H
12
Space-saving, telescopic
aluminium or wooden
ladders for lofts -~ @ + ®
7
~
....
...
u~ ).IF ~ ~ S······ F ~
~t.. ~t .2it.: ~~:.. .:::::::::::t. J~:: J;:.......
® Space-saving retractable stairs, in one, two or three sections -----1 (f)
(j)
o Handrail and string details
G) Step profiles
o Handrail profiles
Plan: goings at lines a and
bare 220cm
I 190 I
Normal stairs (goings too
~~~~~ .
® Wooden alternating tread
stair, section through centre
15.8
..:.....:..:.::t:':'t::...::::::....:::::..:.:::::
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ~O 111213
.•...•.•............•..••......•....•...•.•..•.•.•.......
@
E
E
0
~
II
.0
.~ x
<13
U E
'0 §
L Cl
en
~
x
E
Fixed catladder
storey height, size of loft ladder
FFL to (em)
underside of
ceiling (em)
220-280 100" 60(70)
220-300 120 " 60(70)
220-300 130 " 60(70,80)
240-300 140 " 60(70,80)
frame width:
W = 59, 69, 79 em
frame length:
L = 120, 130, 140 em
frame height:
H = 25 em
@ Telescopic loft ladders
-----1@-@
193

Ramps should be provided to
allow wheelchair users and
those with prams or trolleys to
move easily from one level to
another ~ CD- @.
Under building regula-
tions, a main or 'essential'
staircase with a ceiling
aperture size of about 210cm
diameter (with a minimum
80 cm flight width) is
permissible for family houses,
and from 260 cm for other
buildings (with a minimum
1.00 m flight width). Spiral
stairs with less than 80cm
effective flight width are only
permitted as 'non-essential'
stairs. Material used can be
metal plate (with a plastic or
carpet overlay if needed),
marble, wood, concrete or
stone ~ @ - @. Stairs in pre-
fabricated steel sections,
aluminium castings or wood
for installation on site, are
suitable as service stairs,
emergency stairs and stairs
between floors ~ @. Stair
railings can be fitted in steel,
wood or Plexiglas ~ @. Spiral
staircases are space-saving
and, with a pillar in their
central axis, are of sturdy
design -) @ - @. They can,
however, also be designed
without a central pillar, giving
an open winding staircase
with a stairwell -) @ - @.
Spiral and helical stairs in
the UK are usually designed
in accordance with BS 5395:
Part 2 to fulfil the recommen-
dations of the Approved
Document K (AD K).
railing
RAMPS AND SPIRAL STAIRCASES
PVC
Steps are in wood, wrought
iron or stone
~~~~~~!!Isteel sheet
® PVC on cement screed
®
CD Stair ramp
railing
can be easily
managed
steel sheet
insulating material
® Solid wooden step
® Spiral staircase ~ @
o Stepped ramps
I I
5~~ ~
section
by setting the front edge of the
step at a tangent to the newel
post, the tread width is increased
o Spiral stair treads
CD Step formation
(2) Ramp
@ Square ceiling opening @ Round ceiling opening @ Angular opening
examples of uses with details
use
two-way traffic impossible two-way traffic possible two-way traffic easy
easy to pass easy to pass passable with comfort
still passable small furniture dismantled furniture furniture can
can pass through can pass through pass th rough for heavy traffic
secondary rooms
basements, lofts
I----
home bar, hobby room
I----
bedrooms, sauna
I---
swimming pool, laboratory
-
workshop, garden
-
gallery, small store -
salesroom
-
maisonette, boutique
office rooms, large storeroom -
consulting/shop room
~
guest bedrooms
~
emergency stairs
~
main/essential' domestic stairs
-
stairs dia. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 C-
O l.(') 0 0 l.(') 0 l.(') 0 l.(') 0 l.(') l.(') 0 l.(') 0 0
(nominal dimension) ~ CI M l.(') l.(') CD CD ,..... ,.....
~ CO 0
N N
CI v
~ ~
.9
~ ~ ... ~ ... ~ ... CI CI
E~
.9
flight width (mm) to ; to M co M co M co l.(') 0 0 l.(') 0 l.(') l.(')
to l.(') ,..... 0 CI l.(') ,..... CI l.(') l.(') r-, 0 CI CI
l.(') l.(') l.(') to to ,..... ,..... ,..... ,..... to to "- r-, co co 0>
~
between the newel post and handrail from 10cm depth of tread
@ Determination using minimum sizes for spiral stairs of all types
@ Vertical section of spiral
staircase
® Plan view of • @
194

ESCALATORS
(3) Escalator width
emergency stop button
~ p•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
IL!::' ~1
L: ~
30~30
level 1
~ opening
IftI step width
~ ~ emergency stop button
i
I
I
:I
32
opening
32
opening in floor 6.20 m
#23
908
FFL
1.05
234
t
~ ~
'0 '0
.c .c.
0) 0)
~ ~
FFL
20~t opening 3.75m
foundation
drawing
longitudinal
section
@ Performance data ) CD - @
These guidelines are based on recommendations issued by
the German Federations of Trade Associations. In the UK,
reference is usually made to BS EN 115: 1995: Safety rules
for the construction and installation of escalators and
passengerconveyo~.
Escalators ~ CD - @ are required to provide continuous
mass transport of people. (They are not designated as
'stairs' in the provision of emergency escape.) Escalators,
for example, in department stores rise at an angle of
between 30° and 35°. The 35° escalator is more economical,
as it takes up less surface area if viewed in plan but for large
ascents, the 30° escalator is preferred both on psychological
as well as safety grounds. The transportation capacity is
about the same with both.
Escalators in public transport installations are subject to
stringent safety requirements (for function, design and
safety) and should have angles of ascent of 27-28°. The
angle of rise is the ratio 3/16, which is that of a gentle
staircase.
In accordance with a worldwide standard, the width of
the step to be used is 60cm (for one-person width), 80cm
(for one- to two-people width) and 100cm (for two-people
width) ~ CD - @. A 100cm step width provides ample space
for people carrying loads.
A flat section with a depth of ~2.50 m (minimum of two
horizontal goings) should be provided at the access and exit
points of the escalator.
In department stores, office and administration
buildings, exhibition halls and airports the speed of travel
should, as a rule, be no greater than 0.5 rn/s. with a
minimum of three horizontal exit goings. For underground
stations and public transport facilities, 0.65 m/s is preferred.
The average split of traffic that goes upstairs in a large
department store is:
fixed stairs 20/0
lifts 80/0
escalators 900/0
Coming down, about three-quarters of the traffic uses the
escalators.
According to current assessments, on average one
escalator is installed for every 1500 m 2 of sales area; but this
average should be reduced to an optimum of 500-700 m-',
o Dimensions and performance for escalators with either 30° or
35° angle of ascent
step width 600 800 1000
A 605-620 805-820 1005-1020
B 1170-1220 1320-1420 1570-1620
C 1280 1480 1680
transportation 5000-6000 7000-8000 8000-10000
capacity/h persons persons persons
® 1.00m wide
Double crossover
CD
CD Superimposed
where
Gp = people per step (1, 1.5, 2)
v = conveyor speed (rn/s)
9 = going (rn)
f = 0.5-0.8 escalator utilisation factor
transportation capacity
Q = 3600 " G
p
" v " f (people/h)
9
Length in plan ~ CD
with 30° escalator = 1.732 x storey height
with 35° escalator = 1.428 x storey height
Example: storey height 4.50 m and angle 30° (note that 35°
angle is not allowed in some countries)
length in plan: 1.732 x 4.5 = 7.794
Including landings top and bottom, total length is
approximately 9 m, allowing for about 20 people to stand in
a row on the escalator.
speed time width sufficient for:
per person
1 person I 2 persons
0.5 rn/s - 18 s 4000
I
8000
0.65 m/s - 14 s 5000 10000
people/h can be transported
(]) Escalator 60cm wide ® 80cm wide
~~t:::::::::::::"::::::::::'1~t"::::::::::::::::::::::"~
® Crossover
G) Cross-section/foundation diagram of an escalator
195

level 1
level 2
I
II
II II
1------1
1-~5
type 60 80 100
A 600 800 1000
B 1220 1420 1620
C 1300 1500 1700
o Cross-section .--> CD
~650
~
TRAVELATORS
1150 ~
1 ~320
~ ~ I I
L -..:- .:.=~==--=-__-=--=-~J
possible provision of water drain
~---4.00-4.60------1
section
ci E~-£3-t-
foundation drawing
CD Travelator. cross-section and foundation diagram
o Dimensions ~ CD - (2)
Travelators (or moving pavements) are a means of
conveying people horizontally or up a slightly inclined
plane (up to a maximum angle of 12°, or 210/0). The big
advantage of the travelator lies in its ability to transport
prams, invalid chairs, shopping trolleys, bicycles and
unwieldy packages with only a slight risk of accident. At the
planning stage the expected traffic must be carefully
calculated, so that the installation provides the best
conveying capacity possible. This capacity depends on the
clear width available, the speed of travel and the load factor.
The number of people transported can be as high as
6000-12000 people/h. The speed of travel on inclined
travelators is normally 0.5-0.6 rn/s although where the
inclination angle is less than 4° they can sometimes be run
a little faster, up to 0.75m/s. Long travelators can be up to
250 m in length but shorter runs (e.g. about 30 m long) are
better because they allow people to access and exit to and
from the sides. It is therefore sensible to plan a series of
smaller travelators.
The advantage of the reversible travelators is their ability
to offer both horizontal directions of travel ~ ® - @, in
contrast to ~ ([) - @. The low height required for
construction (this being only 180 mm) allows these
travelators to be fitted into existing buildings.
The cotangents of the travelator gradient are:
Gradient Wt") 10° 11° 12°
cot W 5.6713 5.1446 4.7036
Horizontal length L = cotan W x conveyor lift
Example: conveyor lift, 5 m; gradient 12°
L = 4.7036 x 5 = 23.52 m
(to two decimal places).
@ Dimensions and performance of horizontal travelator --> (J)- ®
horizontal cleated conveyor reversible
travelator belt belt (rubber) travelator
effective width, S 800 + 1000 750 + 950 2 " 800 + 2 " 1000
overall width, B 1370 + 1570 1370+1570 3700 + 4200
design flat construction with ~4° incline
length of a section 12-16m - 10m
inter-support distance in accordance with structural requirements
possible length, L ?250m
capacity 40m/min 11000 people/h
E':':':':':':':':':':':':':':':':':
.................
:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.~.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.-.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.
The hourly capacity of a travelator is
calculated according to the formula:
Q = 36~~2~·w.v (persons/h)
where
w = transportation width (m)
v = speed (rn/s )
K = load factor
The load factor varies between 0.5 and 0.9
(average 0.7) according to the use.
The 0.25 in the denominator represents a
step area of 0.25 rn-/person.
® Two people; 1 m width
o One person with 60 cm
..::!..) shopping trolley (width 80 cm)
one way
superimposed
crossover arrangement
scissor arrangement
converging
----f! I i Ell I I I 11:f-~--
~
....
tensioning pulley drive
r------- --~
I ,", r, I
:~==~~: ~~
,- i""69-j 3.32 I b. I 3.32 I 1.91 - -(
@ Plan view ~ ®
® Section of a reversible travelator -~ @
rubber conveyor belt with cleated belt
® Plan view ~ ([)
with cleated belt
o Section of travelator with rubber conveyor belt
o Arrangement of travelators
196

1000kg (large lift)
LIFTS
for use by passengers with hand
baggage only
630 kg (medium lift) for use by passengers with prams
and wheelchairs
can also accommodate stretchers,
coffins, furniture and wheelchairs
~@
Lobbies in front of lift shaft entrances must be designed and
arranged so that: (1) the users entering or exiting the lifts, even
those carrying hand baggage, do not get in each other's way
more than is absolutely necessary; and (2) the largest loads to
be carried by the lift in question (e.g. prams, wheelchairs,
stretchers, coffins and furniture) can be manoeuvred in and out
without risk of injuring people or damaging the building and the
lift itself. Other users should be not be obstructed by the loads
more than is absolutely necessary.
For a lobby in front of a single lift: (1) the available minimum
depth between the wall of the lift shaft door and the opposite
wall, measured in the direction of the lift car, must be at least
the same as the depth of the lift car itself; and (2) the minimum
area available should be at least the same as the product of the
depth of the lift car depth and the width of shaft.
For a lobby in front of lifts with adjacent doors the available
minimum depth between the shaft door wall and the opposite
wall, measured in the direction of the lift car depth, should be at
least the same as the depth of the deepest lift car.
The upward and downward movement of people in newly
erected multistorey buildings is principally achieved by lifts. An
architect will normally call in an expert engineer to plan lift
installations. The guidelines given here are based on German
standards. In the UK, lift installation is covered by BS 5655,
which contains recommendations from CEN (Committee for
European Normalisation) and the International Standards
Organisation. It is anticipated that future standards relating to
lifts will be fully international in their scope.
In larger, multistorey buildings it is usual to locate the lifts at
a central pedestrian circulation point. Goods lifts should be kept
separate from passenger lifts; though their use for carrying
passengers at peak periods should be taken into account at the
planning stage.
The following maximum loads are stipulated for passenger
lifts in blocks of flats:
400kg (small lift)
load capacity (kg) 400 630 1000
operating speed (<;m/s) 0.6311.00 11.60 0.6311.0011.6012.50 0.6311.00116012.50
minimum width, c (mm) 1800 1800 1800
~
minimum depth, d (mm) 1500 2100 2600
min. shaft pit depth, p (mm) 14001150011700 1400115001170012800 1400 /1500 /1700 /2800
min. shaft head height, q (mrn) 37001380014000 37001380014000 15000 3700 138001400015000
0
clear width lift door, C2 (mm) 800 800 800
~ clear width shaft door, S2 (mm) 2000 2000 2000
E minimum area (m2) 8 10 10 12 14 12 14 15
0
2 minimum width, r (mm) 2400 2400 2700 2700 3000 2700 2700 3000
0
0 minimum depth, s (mm) 3200 3200 3700 3700 3700 4200 4200 4200
E
;E minimum height, h (mm) 2000 2200 2000 2200 2600 2000 2200 2600
-
clear width, a (mm) 1100 1100 1100
clear depth, b (mm) 950 1400 2100
co clear height, k (mm) 2200 2200 2200
o
~ clear access width, e2 (mm) 800 800 800
clear access height, f2 (mm) 2000 2000 2000
permitted no. passengers 5 8 13
I L J
: c::::::=....-----
:c:==
::.:...:.
Shaft of hydraulic lift
~
:; L ~
;:~
Iii -- III
:::::::::::~::::
t--80--i
1------1.80~
central opening
Doors
CD
o 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
no. of inhabitants on all floors
r- e---i
•• .",:;1'
Plan view of lift shaft
.............
.':.&::il ~
I
FFL
I
~r
I
:s
I I
~T
~
·.................
II
1
I
lL_-_-___
'I
II
II II
II
II
I~C
20
II II
II
j
II
I
T ~T
~L
_____
-_-
___
-
T
L~T--T¥--r--L..
I ~ ~'l D I D ~
L: . __. __.
~
access In this area
CD lift motor room
CD lift motor room (set of lifts)
® Shaft and lift motor room
Conveying capacity requirements for normal flats: finite
elements method (FEM)
® Structural dimensions, dimensions of lift cars and doors
197

100 x transportation capacity
number of occupants of building
300 (s) x car load (passengers)
cycle time (s) x no. of lifts
Transportation capacity expressed in percent:
average waiting time (s) cycle time (s)
number of lifts/set
Transportation capacity is the maximum achievable carrying
capacity (in passengers) within a five minute (300 s) period:
transportation capacity (Yo)
transportation capacity
LIFTS
® Structural dimensions (mm) ~ CD - @: lifts allow wheelchair
access
For Offices, Banks, Hotels etc. and
Hospital Bed Lifts
® Structural dimensions of hospital bed lifts
The building and its function dictate the basic type of lifts which
need to be provided. They serve as a means of vertical transport
for passengers and patients.
Lifts are mechanical installations which are required to have
a long service life (anything from 25 to 40 years). They should
therefore be planned in such a way that even after 10 years they
are still capable of meeting the increased demand. Alterations
to installations that have been badly or too-cheaply planned can
be expensive or even completely impossible. During the
planning stage the likely usage should be closely examined. Lift
sets normally form part of the main stairwell.
Analysis of use: types and definitions
Turn-round time is a calculated value indicating the time which
a lift requires to complete a cycle with a given type of traffic.
Average waiting time is the time between the button being
pressed and the arrival of the lift car:
carrying capacity (kg) 1600
I 2000
I 2500
nominal speed (rn/sl 0.6311.0 11.612.5 10.6311.0 11.612.5 10.6311.0 1 1.61 2.5
min. shaft width, c 2400 1
2700
min. shaft depth, d 3000
1
3300
min. shaft pit depth, p 1800117001190~2800 116001170011900128001180011900121 001300C
min. shaft head height, q 4400154001 4400 1
54001 4800 1
560C
shaft door width, c, 1300 I 1300 (1400,
shaft door height, r, 2100
min. area of lift motor room (m2) 26 1 27 1 29
min. width of lift motor room, r 3200 1 3500
min. depth of lift motor room, s 5500 I 5800
min. height of lift motor room, h 2800
car width, a 1400 1 1500 1 1800
car depth, b 2400 1 2700
car height, k 2300
car door width, e2 1300 1
1300 (1400,
car door height, f2 2100
no. of people permitted 21
I 26
I 33
carrying capacity (kg) 800 1000 (1250) 1600
nominal speed (m/s) 0.6311.0 1 1.6 2.5 0.6311.0 11.61 2.5 0.6311.011.6 1 2.5
min. shaft width, c 1900 2400 2600
min. shaft depth, d 2300 2300 2600
min. shaft pit depth, p 1400j150q170~2800 14001 1700 12800 1400I 1900 12800
min. shaft head height, q 3800 ~OOO 5000 4200 1
5200 4400
1
5400
shaft door width, c, 800 1100 1100
shaft door height, f, 2000 2100 2100
min. area of lift motor room (m2) 15 18 20 25
min. width of lift motor room, r 2500 2800 3200 3200
min. depth of lift motor room. s 3700 4900 4900 5500
min. height of lift motor room, h 2200 2800 2400
1
2800 2800
car width, a 1350 1500 1950
car depth, b 1400 1400 1750
car height, k 2200 2300 2300
car door width, e2 800 1100 1100
car door height, f2 2000 2100 2100
no. of people permitted 10 13 21
€
.. ~
1400
~ j
~ 2500 kg
~ 3
U~aI
1600 kg I
~
f6 General overview of the
~ lifts ~ @-®
f4 General lift motor room for
..J a set of lifts
1900 2400 2600
13~ ~ -tE:fu
II~ I I
1250 kg
I
~ 10
suitable for 1600 kg
the disabled
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
of inhabitants on all floors
I
1
.. ....... .. . .......
....... ......
}}f}':':'
... ·::::::1
....... ..~.:.:. .:-:.; ~
... ....... ......... :.~
•... .. .......
•..... ....... ....... ....... ..........".
.:.~ 10
® ~
I ~ 2 1X 400 kg 10 rrvs
. ~
3 1X630 kg 10 mls
4 1X 1000 kg , 0 mls
~5~6 .. 5 1X 400 + 1X 1000 kg 10 rrvs
6 1x630 + 1X 1000 kg 1.0 mls
E ...... .~
8 1x630 + t x 1000 kg 1.6m1s
.::::.~ 0 2 X630 + t x 1000 kg 1.6m1s
~
2 2xl000 kg 25m1s
3 3xl000kg 2.5 m/s
~ 10
~
(l)
(l)
Q.
E
8 1
o
Transportation capacity requirements for flats with and without
floors of offices: finite elements method (FEM)
finished
floor level
(FFl)
(FFU
(FFU
-. -.
1j ~ l~ 1"0
• 82 •
~:~~~~
~ ~
15
......................
. ..
20
(])
® Shaft for a single lift
I a~c-e~s
~~at~.
G) Plan of lift shaft
I R
j~'" .,.·:·;:r:::::::··:····'" '.: 1
:: -t,-
:: I,
:: II
1~~ ~L-f ~- - ~ :. T
1
Ul
[
r;c~~l
I ~a~h_;
L: __._~
access to power lift
motor room in this area
CD Lift motor room
..................
···....·..·..··1
198

~ ... J .. .J..
I
~
--t
lit- - f--
.. I
..
Small goods lifts: payload
~300kg; car floor area ::;0.8m2;
for transporting small goods,
documents, food etc.; not for
use by passengers. The shaft
framework is normally made
of steel sections set in the
shaft pit or on the floor, and
clad on all sides by non-
flammable building materials.
~ CD - ® Dimensions and
load-carrying capacity .~ (j).
The following formula is
used to estimate the time, in
seconds, of one transport
cycle:
Z = 2 h + B, + H (t 1 + t 2)
v
SMALL GOODS LIFTS
I
u..
I
r,
s. ~
~ I
f--[-W=OW---l
~ _S_W_ _-----4
f3 With corner
~ loading
L
I cw=o~
~ _S_W
__---t
CD With loading
from both
sides
I
:
I
~
+
- ~ -r-- >-
~
i
..
~=OW I
~?Y'{~----------4
Small goods
lift loaded only
from one side
CD
loading arrangement one side access and corner access and loading
loading from both sides
payload, Q (kg) 100 300 100
speed, v (rn/s) 0.45 0.3 0.45
car width = door width (CW = OW) 400 500 600 700 800 800 800 500 600 700 800 800
car depth (CO) 400 500 600 700 800 1000 1000 500 600 700 800 1000
car height = door height (CH = OH) 800 1200 1200 800 1200
door width, corner loading (OW) - - - - - - - 350 450 550 650 850
shaft width (SW) 720 820 920 1020 1120 1120 820 920 1020 1120 1120
shaft depth (SO) 580 680 780 880 980 1180 1180 680 780 880 980 1180
min. shaft head height (SHH) 1990 2590 2590 2145 2745
lift motor room door width 500 500 600 700 800 800 800 500 600 700 800 800
lift motor room door height 600 600
loading point clearance 1930 2730 2730 1930 2730
loading point clearance 700 450 700
min. sill height at 600 800 800 600 800
lowest stopping point. B max. load (kg) x 60
Z (s)
Under building regulations,
the lift motor room must be
lockable, have sufficient
illumination and be of a size
such that maintenance can be
carried out safely. The height
of the area for the lift motor
must be ~1.8 m.
For food lifts in hospitals,
the lift shafts must have
washable smooth internal
walls.
An external push-button
control must be provided for
calling and despatching the
lift to/from each stopping
point.
Larger goods lifts may be
designed to convey goods
and carry passengers
employed by the operator of
the installation.
Accuracy of stopping: for
goods lifts without deceler-
ation = ±20-40 mm; for pas-
senger and goods lifts with
deceleration = ± 10-30 mm
Speeds: 0.25, 0.4, 0.63 and
1.0m/s.
where
2 constant factor for the
round trip
h height of the lift (m)
v operating speed (rn/s)
Bz= loading and unloading
time (s)
H = number of stops
t, = time for acceleration and
deceleration (s)
t2 = time for opening and
closing lift shaft doors (s)
With single doors t2 =6s; with
double doors, lOs; with
vertical sliding doors for
small goods Iifts, about 3 s.
The maximum transport-
ation capacity in kg/min can
be found from the time for
one transport cycle, Z, and
the maximum load the lift can
carry:
~
I
-- §
SO
Small goods lift and
vertical sliding door
opening at waist level
@ Cross-section ~ @ - ®
®
shaft
pit
T
I
I
I
I J
----L----
Small goods lift with
hinged door opening at
floor level
ir----~ :r·D··············~·~:~ -1=1- ~i
I I :.: n·:· I I
I I :~: ~ -t U
~:~e55 I:
I I :.: J..:. I I
.:. :.: I I
II ~ cw ~ II
II ~II II
I I ow I I I
I I I I
I I I I I I
I II90X180 I I I I
L~ ~==-=--=-=J~=-=-~J
"" mot?r room extendIng to the right
lift motor room
I extending to the left ,
® Goods lift with loading
only from one side, and the
lift motor room
I I
I I I shaft
I I I pit
L_
I I
I __ .J
---~---
Goods lift with loading
from both sides
Small goods lift with
sliding doors opening
vertically at floor level
~
CW
I SW I
I
@ Structural dimensions -- drive pulleys -- goods lifts ~ @ - ®
®
load carrying capacity (kg) 630 1000 1600 2000 2500 3200
nominal speed (rn/s) ....... 0.40 0.63 1.00 ~
lift car dimensions (mm)
CW 1100 1300 1500 1500 1800 2000
CO 1570 1870 2470 2870 2870 3070
CH 2200 2200 2200 2200 2200 2200
door dimensions (mm)
OW 1100 1300 1500 1500 1800 2000
OH 2200 2200 2200 2200 2200 2200
shaft dimensions (mm)
SW 1800 2000 2200 2300 2600 2900
SO 1700 2000 2600 3000 3000 3200
SPH 0.4 and 0.63 (mm) 1200 1300 1300 1300 1300 1400
1.0 (mm) 1300 1300 1600 1600 1800 1900
SHH 0.4 and 0.63 (mm) 3700 3800 3900 4000 4100 4200
1.0 (mm) 3800 3900 4200 4200 4400 4400
PHH (mm) 1900 1900 1900 2100 1900 1900
(j) Dimensions of small goods lifts
199

These meet the demand for
transporting heavy loads
economically up and down
shorter lift heights and are
best used for up to 12 m lift
height. The lift motor room
can be located remotely
from the shaft itself.
Standard direct-acting
piston lifts can be used to
lift payloads of as much as
20t up to a maximum
height of 17 m ~ CD - (J),
while standard indirect
acting piston lifts can lift 7t
up to 34 m. The operating
speed of hydraulic lifts is
0.2-0.8 rn/s, A roof mou nted
lift motor room is not
required. Several variations
in hydraulics can be found
~ ® - ®. The most com-
monly used is the centrally
mounted ram ~ CD - @.
The ram retraction
control tolerance, regard-
less of load, has to be kept
within ±3 mm, so that a
completely level entry into
the lift car is 0 bt ained.
Height clearance of the lift
doors shou Id be 50-100 m m.
greater than other doors.
Double swing doors or
hinged sliding doors can be
fitted - either hand-operated
or fully automatic, with a
central or side opening.
HYDRAULIC LIFTS

....... ::"-
I I
I I
I I
I I
00 = 600mm
cso= H+1ooomm
I I I
00 700mm
00 = 700mm
CSO H+1ooo
cso= H+1100mm
01) =600 mm :::::::J:::::::-~
CSD H+900mm ::::::::::::::-.~
::: :::::::V::::: ::::~""-
I ~= I
o Plan view of shaft with lift motor room
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 H
height of lift (m)
Graph to determine shaft head height SHH; shaft pit depth SPD;
cylinder shaft depth CSD; cylinder shaft diameter 0
2000
payload Q :Ie 5000 kg Q:Ie 10000 kg
shaft width SW CW + 500 CW + 550
shaft depth SO
CD + 150 with one door
CD + 100 with opposite doors
approx. measurements
for lift motor room width 2000 2200
(lift motor room should
be within 5 m depth
2600 2800
of the shaft but may be
further away if
absolutely necessary) height 2200 2700
a ~.
payload (kg)
ICI
Ill..
10000
cncn
9000
8000 :I:~-
u .....
+
7000 8
~
6000 8
~
5000
4000 :I:~
u .....
3000 +8
~N
~ .....
2000 ~
1000
~~
8~
~
2
IDJ-
:.:::.:::::::.:.:.:.:::::::::::::..::::~r::':' :::.o.
D
~
~ ~
;:; : U1
~ r:':':':':':
O
: ' : ' :
O
o Vertical section of shaft
~-:--1
min. opening W
I' SW I
o Plan view of shaft
® Technical data ~ CD - @
capacity (kg) 630 1000 1600
speed (rn/s] 0.30 0.18 0.23
0.47 0.28 0.39
max. lift height (m) 6.0 7.0 7.0
car dimensions (rnm)
W 1100 1300 1500
-0---'15OO1Too---noo
H 2200 2200 2200
W 1100 1300 1500
H 2200 2200 2200
shaft dimensions (rnm)
111 11 1 W 1650 1900 2150
I I I I I I 0 1600 1800 2300
II t~11 SPH min. 1200 1400 1600
L~-_JJ SHH min. 3200 3200 3200
® Rucksack arrangement 1: 1 dimensions ~ ®
IIIIII1III11
:::: 11 1 1::
I J.tJ I I ~:U I
L __ .J L __ ..J
o Tandem arrangement 1: 1
capacity (kg) 1600 2000 2500 3200
speed (rn/s) 015 0.18 024 0.20
(f24tl300.3S(}30
max. lift height (m] 6.0 7.0 70 70
car dimensions (rnrn)
W 1500 1500 1800 2000
IT .--2200 '2200' i7003500
H -22002200-22002266
_W l.500 1500 !§.~
H 2200 2200 2200 2200
shaft dimensions (rnrn)
W 2200 2200 2600 2800
-0---23602860 i8603600
SPH min. 1300 1300 1300 1300
SHH min. 3450 3450 3450 3450
dimensions -~ (f)
capacity (kg) 630 1000 1600
speed (m/s) 0.28 0.30 0.24
0.46 0.50 0.42
0.78 0.80 0.62
max. lift height (m) 13.0 16.0 18.0
car dimensions (mm)
~---~~~
o 1500 1900 2200
H 2200 2200 2200
doer dimensions (mm)
W 1100 1300 1500
H 2200 2200 2200
shaft dimensions (mm)
W 1650 1900 L1.§.lL
o-'-16OOiOOO-- 2300
SPH min. 1200 1400 1600
SHH min. 3200 3200 3200
capacity (kg) 1600 2000 2500 3200
speed (rn/s! 0.23 0.19 0.25 0.21
0.1.9 0.3?.__
0.3~~
0.61 0.50 0.64 051
max. lift height (m) 13.0 140 16.0 18.0
car dimensions (mm)
W 15QQ.l~.Q l§OQ.JOOO
0-=-_2200 2200 1700 350.Q
H 2200 2200 2200 2200
door dimensions (rnrn)
W 1500 1500 1800 2000
-H---2200 220022002200
shaft dimensions (rnm)
W 2300 2300 2600 2900
o- 2300 280()2S()O ~60.Q.
SPH min. 1300 1300 1300 1300
SHH min. 3400 3550 3650 3650
200
® Rucksack arrangement 2: 1 dimensions ~ ® ® Tandem 2:1 dimensions ~ ®

PANORAMIC GLASS LIFTS
Panoramic lifts are available in a variety of cabin shapes .
CD - ® and a carrying capacity of 400-1500kg (5-20
passengers). There are several possible drive systems and
nominal speeds, depending on the height of the building
and requirements for comfort: 0.4, 0.63, 1.0 rn/s with a three-
phase a.c. drive; and 0.25-1.0 rn/s with a hydraulic drive.
Construction materials used are glass and steel - polished,
brushed or with high gloss finish - brass and bronze.
The panoramic lift enjoys great popularity. This applies
both to external lifts on the facades of imposing business
premises from which passengers can enjoy the view, and
internal lifts in department stores or in foyers of large
hotels where they look out on to the sales floors and
displays.~ @ - @
Stairlifts
Stairlifts allow people with impaired mobility to move
between floors with ease. They can be used on straight or
curved stairways, and traverse landings. Aesthetics and
maintenance of the rail mechanism must be given careful
consideration during design and installation. In the UK, BS
5776: 1996 Powered stairlifts defines the requirements for
such lift installations in domestic properties as well as in
other buildings.
I,{)
co
1
glazed shaft structural
framework
CD Hexagonal shape
170 ---"1
CD Circular shape
o
(1)
T
protective panelling in
circulation areas
CD Octagonal car shape
170 --1
o Semi-circular shape
154
r-100 - I protective
panelling
® Circular car ® U-shape ® Group of panoramic glass lifts
............................................................•.•••.....•.........................
j.........
descent
@ Panoramic lift· ~'
glass
@ lift on the inside of a
building ~ Q)
T
s
N
1
II
Ii
.. .
.............:~ .....
lift motor
room
T
I
I,{)
N
1
® Cross-section of cable lift
o
N
T
I
s
l
·
·
·
·

·
II ~i~~r! I...1········
l::::::::::::·:·:·:::::~:::~::.;:·::·::.:.::.::.:~~~l :::::::::::::::::::::.
o Cross-section of hydraulic
lift ,Q)
201

RENOVATION OF OLD BUILDINGS
Repairing, modernising, converting or adding structural
extensions to an old building requires a different approach
to the design process than for new buildings. It should be
remembered that old buildings are often protected by law
(e.g. listed buildings in the UK).
The first task in any renovation project is a thorough
survey of the existing structure, in which every important
component and detail has to be carefully inspected. The
survey begins with a general description of the building (the
plot, building specifications, applicable regulations or
bylaws, the age of building and any historical design
features, the use of the building (domestic or commercial)
and any other features of interest) followed by a description
of the building materials and the standard of the fittings, the
technical building services, the framework and structural
characteristics. Details about ownership, tenants and
income from rental etc. should also be included. Sketches
should be made and measurements taken so that plans of
the building can be drawn ~ CD - @.
The survey must also describe the building's condition,
with details of specific areas (facades, roof, stairs, cellar,
and individual rooms), and all significant defective areas
should be noted ~ @, Typical problems include: cracked
chimney tops, damaged and leaking roof structure, dry rot
or woodworm in the timber (eaves, roof and wall
connections, wooden joists in floors, doors, stairs etc.l,
cracks in the masonry and plaster, structural damage,
leaking facades and guttering, no heat insulation and
underlay, and cellar walls in need of damp-proofing. If
structural steelwork is in place it should be checked for
rust.
It is common to find that the existing heating and
sanitation are unusable and that underground lines and
house connections are damaged or possibly
underdesigned.
defective
gutter
::::::::::::. slope
1 t 7,~:':':':':':':':::::::::: water
v:-: ':::::::::
'-:,:,:,:,:,'::;r:..:.:.:.:-:.:.:.:.:.:.:.::fIfIfff::~~~~~eduP
spring water
missing
gutter
:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:
® Main defect areas
CD Survey: measurement sketch 0 Survey: plan layout, sketch
IC
ILJ'
• .: I
• • I
~ ~/~
- 1 . ~ /-.
. :'
jU j 1J-:tl~
,/ shrinkage behaviour <,
of dry clay beneath
buildings
building's corners tilting out
Injected damp-proofing
/
/
jJ
@ Pinning of a tilting corner
sawn or
drilled
Retrofitted horizontal
(damp-proof course)
Retrofitted damp-proofing
and drainage in cellar area
~o:lllllllllllllilllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllli~
@
®
r~::::
working'
area I.:
~~~ess~: - . :::
;b~).l:·:~~2~:·~;~;IE-l:·:·:·::::::?·
plinth, block
pavement
gutter in sand
drainage
decayed sill etc.,
dry-rot attack etc.
water
bearing
strata
dammed-up
water
pressurised
water
@ Repairs to soil side of
masonry foundations
(j) Main points of attack by
pressurised water
Damp-proofing from inside
with partially inaccessible
outer walls
facade water
danger lone,
foundation
JOints
Wind, heavy
rain, snow
danger point
(meeting
ground),
surface water
~
® Main points of attack by
non-pressurised water
202

<,
~;;-"'-"
!!!!!j!!ji:!il:llllllllllilililili':iitif:f::~tI:~:~:~:f~:~:~:~:~::::::::::t::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:'.
G) Main defect areas in half-timbered houses
The early half-timbered houses contained no metal (nails,
screws etc.) and repairs are possible using only parts made
from wood if the intention is to preserve the house in its
original state. The filling material used within the
framework was traditionally earth or exposed masonry.
There is no modern material that can be recommended as
a substitute so these panels should be maintained and
damaged ones repaired. Infilling with brickwork will stiffen
the house and this is contrary to the structural principles of
half-timbered structures.
The main defects encountered in half-timbered buildings
appear in verges, eaves and roof connections, gutters and
downpipes, connections on window plinths and other
timber joints, where dry rot, fungal growth, mould, insects
and water penetration can all cause problems ~ CD.
With old stone buildings, which may be either ashlar or
'rubble' construction, the main problems are with
bulging/bowing of the walls, often accompanied by
cracking, defective pointing, erosion and decay of the
stones. As with conventional brick walls, there are effective
restoration techniques to deal with these problems but it is
important to understand the cause of the damage in order
to make the repairs completely effective. If there are clearly
major defects professional advice should be sought.
construction with
framework visible from
outside and inside:
15 mm silicate plaster,
fabric, 20 mm
lightweight wood wool
composite panels,
80mm mineral fibre
insulating board, 25 rnrn
composite panel, mesh
(non-metallic), lime
plaster
Sill corner reanchored with
cap screws
New panel
o
®
CD
construction with good
heat insulation, internal
frame panelled: external
mineral plaster, 25 mm
composite panel,
2 x 40 mm mineral fibre
insulation boards,
24/48 mm battens,
plasterboard or
composite panels and
reed mats, rendered
o
® New panel
o Sill re~lacement in two
cperattons
external insulation
with highly vapour
permeable insulating
material under back-
ventilated panelling:
wood shingle,
24/48mm battens, air
gap, 40 mm heat
insulation, old lime
plaster, mud and
straw with wooden
supports made from
oak canes and
willow, inner plaster
(lime)
Exterior panelling
Corner stiffening with metal
anchor
o
CD
(j)
with dowels
bracketed
® Corner connections for
framework sills
o Framework construction
---:==--~ floor beam
___~ projections
~~~
o
wall construction with
new masonry infill,
mineral insulation
boards and bricks, and
framework visible
from outside and
inside: mineral
external plaster, 60 mm
calcium-silicate
insulating board,
mortar-based
adhesive, 52 mm solid
bricks, lime plaster,
cellular rubber strip
inside o poor good H'15
New panel
Panel built up with earth and
wooden canes, filled in with
building rubble, with klinker
nogging
@ Theoretically favourable
panel formation
@ Shallow repairs to earth
panels
203

-
-
-
.-
-
-
$ t I a
tiles on reinforced
lime mortar bed,
oiled paper, heat
insulation (rigid)
60 mm, damp-proof
membrane
'1 ,
I i I I
damaged tensile
anchoring, sagging ridge
Removal of ties leads to
displacement caused by
wind pressure
f'-
..... "

, t-T-11'-:--T+---+-+-.--t---A.~
4-,

:::::::.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.::::::::
lIiL 'hi t
elevation
section
® Strengthening weak points
in the span
o Floor renewal on concrete
slab
soil infill
natural stone
slabs
section
elevation
® Strengthening weak points
in the span
® Old natural stone flooring
in areas with no cellar
..................................~ : ..
·w
i~~~~?:=
o Repair of a coupled roof
using plastic joints or
wooden joint splicing
The roof is the part of a building that is subjected to the
worst effects of the weather and roof maintenance is
therefore crucial. Small defects, which may go unnoticed,
can result in significant damage if left for a period of time.
For a renovation project to be successful it is vital to have
the roof framework and cover in perfect condition.
----7G)+@
Historically, the material used for roof construction in
most parts of the world has been wood and all forms of roof
truss are still based on triangular bracing in many different
designs ----7 CV - @.
To avoid later claims for damage, a thorough knowledge
of the load distribution is required before carrying out roof
renovation. Roof loads do not consist just of the dead
weight of the roof and snow loading: rather, because roofs
have a high surface area, loads are mainly imposed by
wind. The condition and existence of wind bracing is
therefore of great significance for the stability of the roof
----7@.
Where there is no cellar below, it is recommended that
existing floor coverings with no heat insulation or damp-
proof membrane be renewed with a completely new
structure ----7 @ +(f).
projecting
beam head
~_.- -14.00----1
:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:
(b) with collar and
ridge beams 4
/T*Fb
/ .a..n. n
D.. .n.
1---- - 14.00-----i
~;:I~
!lfrlrn lLlL n
coupled roof
~
a Sim:l: coup~ 0 ~ R
........ ~ An
......... ~
1----6.00-1
- 14.00--~-i
~--- -14.00 - ---;
(f) combined hanging-strut system
--JL
;>JL
o Designs of purlin and coupled roofs
damaged
roof eaves
defective gutter
G) Main defect areas in the roof
® Key problems in floors and their causes
purlin roof
(a) simple Slandin
T
~.~
(b) double standing, f--6.00 ---4
br~~ed. truss ~. ---.L.L
,.-y/' tiT
~ .~
(c) trebl.e standing f--8.00 ----1 (c) with two collar f----- 8.00----1
,rU;~
...,'lh SI.ru" -ll- ij beams, trus~pports&and
bressumer
~ frft
~ TT ~:~ n D. 0-
(d) treble braced f---10.00---i lJ ~_ 10.00----1
truss with knee Piec.e ~, "<; (d) with standing and horizontal truss
~ ~ SUPP.O~Slorhigh =adsA
~&~~
-12.00~------1 ~-12.00-----i
(e) double hanging system l.nJ (e) horizontal truss for
~ /.4L --.w-- Iree rool space
~~&u
M'~'y i t · , *"'---......
--..,------~
204

~
'"
··.·c·
...
·.·.·.".·_·_····_···_·_~··.'····'··.··
~~.:
-'~~~ -~~~
:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:
lJL
:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:
f8 Draught excluders for old
~ doors
----------------J I_-
II
I
II
II
-------jl--
=-=--=~ __ 38/78
~8~28~ ~~~_8~ plan view
II
section
section
good
Level compensation in
threshold area
I 1111I1
8/58
~--
__-J~3.J.8/_68r.--_~
after
before
poor
illustration of a load-distributing lower
chord for light partition walls
I 11
1'1
I
I 'II
!
.M W ====;::;t=;;=3't
@ Reinforcement of a single-pane window as a composite window
In early times the sizing of load-bearing floor beams in old
buildings was calculated empirically by the carpenter. The
loads are normally carried by cross-beams which are
supported by one or more longitudinal joists.
An old building manual from 1900 gives a ratio of 5:7 for
the height and the width of a beam as a starting point for
the determination of the required beam strength. Another
rule of thumb held that the beam height in cm should be
approximately half the size of the room depth in
decimetres. Because of these methods, old wooden beam
floors often display significant sagging. However, this does
not endanger the structural stability as long as the
permitted tensions are not exceeded.
There are several options when carrying out renovation
work: for example, joists can be strengthened by adding a
second wooden beam and an improvement in load
distribution can be achieved with the installation of
additional floor beams or steel girders ~ CD - @. In
addition, the span can be shortened by installing one or
more additional joists or a supporting cross-wall. However,
structural changes of the framework must be preceded by
an accurate analysis of all load-carrying and stiffening
functions and the integrity of all connections must be
checked thoroughly.
(j)
gypsum plasterboard,
loosely suspended
bitumen or minerai
fibre matting, studs,
plasterboard
minerai fibre matting,
alrgap,gypsum
plasterboard
studs, mineral fibre
mattlng,composlte
panel
new
steel beams
between old
~~m~Sl'i beams
lower door stop, new
lower door stop, old
Light partitioning for old
buildings
CD
battens wood wool
composite panels
(insulation of wooden beam floor on
cellar side)
I
old beam system only 't valuable ceiling
carries ceiling below on plaster base
f4 Insertion of new steel
.J beam floor
llmmlSIIIXIS/$I$l>ISl9Sh
=c:====~==-~~~~,er~~~lr~~I~I~9'
stnps, composite
panels,plasterboard
======== - wooden panelling,
studs, loosely
suspended bitumen or
minerai fibre matting,
studs, plasterboard
composite boards
lathing on spring clips~
plasterboard 12.5 mm
o Acoustic improvement of
~ floor
upper floor 50 mm
on chipboard concrete slab
wooden
boards,
timber
supports,
sand filling,
cellar
vaulting
renovated
external
panelling
mud and straw filling
Floor above cellar vaulting
(new)
- ~ - - - - - - - - - ~ ~
lathing on spring clips
plasterboard
Acoustic improvement
with suspended ceiling
carpet
poured asphalt screeding
covering membrane
floor beam
wooden boarded floor above cellar vaulting
§i~~~~~f~~~~;n
mortar bed,
insulating
layer,
sealing,
cellar
vaulting
beam lathing plaster
frame
new
rebate
and door
(ceiling construction with new set-in
boards on battens)
CD
I I lamination I
=~~~~
(Impact sound insulating floor construction
with poured asphalt screeding)
carpet chipboard soft fibreboard
:J>~f
to~g
and straw filling filling
o New floor covering (impact
.V sound insulation)
Moisture damage to outer
cladding
@ New oak door drip on old
wooden frame
@ Insertion of a prefabricated
window
@ Timber-framed house
205

Wet rooms and bathrooms
Improvement in sanitary facilities is one of the most
important modernisation tasks. Planning of the new
solutions should be highly sympathetic to the existing
layout and then coordinated with the technical necessities
~@-®.
Walls and floors must be planned and installed with
care. The most serious damage to be avoided is that
associated with leaks around showers and baths ~ @ - @.
Faulty or missing vapour barriers mainly on outer walls
with internal insulation can also lead to condensation
forming in the structure. This is a major cause of rot and the
incidence of mould.
Stairs
External and internal stairs are significant structural
features in old buildings. If the stairs are in poor condition
remember the most important rule for repairs is: repair only
what can be repaired ~ CD - @.
External stairs are mostly made of natural stone and
normally serve to reach floor levels on plinths ~ (2). Worn-
down stone steps can sometimes be restored if they are
reversed and dressed underneath.
There are many types of design and materials used for
internal stairs although the most common material used is
wood.
extended step
to Increase
tread
::::::.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.::::.:.-
CD Extension of stair strings
o Extension of worn stairs
'---:~__ step covered
or coated
extension
worn steps
compensating layer (plastic
or alternative material)
angle section (template
for compensation)
'------- PVC edge-strip
G) Renovation of worn steps
o Extension of stair strings
---~
kitchen
larder
option III
® Widening to bath length
o
o
a
option II
(}) Prefabricated bathroom
made of plastic
option I
® Increase around bath size
kitchen
c= __u
'~--
o
o
o
existing building
® New bathroom
installations ~ ® - @
r I
I
II
':00 f
1 ~
II
ortarbed -
of course -
d
al beam
e (nom. lOOmm) -
lIing
r
r support
laster
am
Noise insulating double-
leaf wall construction
installation system in double-leaf
partition wall
tiles
screed/m
damp-pro
dry scree
diHerenti
drain pip
ceiling fi
false floo
false floo
ceiling p
ceiling be
@ Laying waste pipe below
new floor
~PI suspension
basin on steel
frame in front of
partition wall
floor connection at
door threshold
wall and floor structure
for shower tray
plaster
Important details in damp
locations
@ Sealing options for
wooden beam floors
.-tiles
)~,::;:7::r.::;:::7::r.::(L7=r=;:.
,::;:7:::;II?=>::;:/=;:::::;
<,::IJ9::::;;.::;/==--.. screed
~
.......•......... ". " '.' :./ moisture barrier
<. ','.' / '. / .... -"- lean concrete
~'~__ .: / .,. /< ~ae~b~~~~f
/ -. false floor
- - - - - - - floor beam
___~ ~--'-_-=- plaster
1+§'i"fPl M "¥fc)y,4;:;:w tzz:
;n;;
-
.._ -.-:-:.- old filling
_~ _ _ . __ ~ -==-J false floor
floor beam
- - - - - -
• permanent elastic joints
• floor tiles stuck on sealinq filler
• screedlretnforced)4.5cm
• double glued or building
membraneweldedupto5cm
above upper surface of floor
• impact sound insulation
view of new arrangement
Floor/wall structure in
damp areas in a masonry
building with wooden
beam floors
• protective paper board
c , impact sound i","I~
I' ~I::~:ckedfloor mrr-m-
Floor/wall structure in
damp areas in a half-
timbered building
@
-- view of oriainal
® Pipes/lines laid in surface-mounted ducts
• timber framed wall
• vertical battens everv Jucrn
• core Impregnated
plasterboard
'sealtngfiller
• wall tiles fixed with flexible
tile glue (PVA)
• permanent elastic jorntmq
• glued floor tiles
• 4.5cmscreed,retnforced
construction
• side welded membrane at
least5cm above upper
surface of floor
206

Examples of solutions
MAINTENANCE AND RESTORATION
In this example, the aim was to preserve an old wooden
structure by covering it with an arched steel roof.
The multipurpose hall built in Munster in 1928 was
covered over with a steel roof which was so badly damaged
in the Second World War that it had to be completely
renewed. However, after the war steel was too expensive to
consider, so for 35 years the 37 x 80 m hall was covered only
by a wooden network shell with no columns. The structure
carried just its own weight, snow load or loads such as
lighting platforms, and had no heat insulation.
Project requirements
The new roof skin must:
• meet heat insulation regulations;
• insulate the inside from external noises and keep
internal reflected sound to a minimum.
The new structure should also:
• carry special loads, such as sporting equipment,
backdrops, lighting bridges etc.;
• be sufficiently strong to be walked on;
• be able to be mounted on the existing foundations;
• allow the network construction to be maintained;
• offer planning and manufacturing times as short as
possible.
Solution
A spaceframe structure made from circular-section tubes
screwed into nodes gave the required minimisation of the
total weight and the existing wooden structure was
suspended from this ~ CD. Twenty-two of these spaceframe
arches are cross-linked by expanding diagonals and bridge
an area of 37.34 x 80.30m. One of the two 70cm high rows
of supports has sliding bearings to allow movement and the
second row is designed as a pin-jointed support system
~ @. Ten transverse catwalks are installed in the
spaceframe ~ CD.
Small cranes preassembled seven large-scale structural
elements, weighing up to 32t, which were then put in
position in 21/ 2 days with a 500t crane ~ (J)- @.
The structure is galvanized and painted with a PVC
acrylic paint and a special insulation layer for corrosion and
fire protection. The roof skin consists of purlins, steel
trapezoidal sheets, a vapour barrier, heat insulation and
aluminium standing seam sheeting to protect from rain
~@-@.
The parties involved were: Munsterlandhalle GmbH,
Hochbauamt Munster, MERO spatial structures and
numerous specialist engineers.
IO.70
!
70
701
970
~
.>
~ V
~ r-.
~
~ :::::::
-
~
b
----.---1
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========:j
- - _._-
- - ~
~~
- - ~
@
I
18.67__--+
F
_
·7
-t
4, longitudinal view
row B
37.34 m
18.67
®
I
11 x 7.30 x 80.30 m
row D
/ .> 7 /" -7~/~/<,/~ <. r-: <,
<, <, ~ <. <, /""-.. v".... '/""/ / -: c-:
/' ./ .> -: ./"-.. ./""-..V~ V~ <, <, r-.
<, <, <, <, .......... / "-..'/""V -: .> / V
..-/ / -> -: / "'V"'Vr-, <, <, <, r-.
<, <, ~ <, <,v""-..VI"....V / -> -: -:
./" ./ ../' ../ ./1'. ./""-..V~ <, <, <, <,
<, <, <, <, <, "-..vr"-...'/ -: / / /
t.> / / / ./'""'-/~/<, <, <. r-. <.
<. r-. <, <,v'~/~V""'-./'1/ / -:./'
./" ./' ./ .> /'.. ./~/~ <, <, r-. <,
<, <, <, <, ........... / '-..v"'v1/ v -: /
/ V / V f'/"'V~/<,v~ r-, <, r-,
- _.
--- ._=
== ~- -
- - -
=- - - ------1
._ ...
--~-- :.:=.... _~~
_.
--
(gr-
-:.-====
-- _ ..
. -
~.
---~
--
- ~ -
.. - - - . - . - - - --
----======-.:.--=-:.~
- - - - - - - - - - -
=--- - - -
------::-:--:=
2.74 37.34
I I
Static system to allow for movement
Spaceframe/view of roof
Cross-section ~ ~
o
et'>
,....:
o
et'>
I'-
0)
CD
CD
Roof skin structure,
longitudinal view
trapezoidal
sheet
® Cross-section ~ @

® 70 cm high support allowing
one-way movement ~ @ ® Lifting a space frame section into place ~ o:
207

G) Old and new cross-section drawn over one another ~ (2)+ @
large machines remain in place during conversion
(3) Longitudinal section ~ @
[
o Plan view
In this example a renewal and extension was carried out by
building a steel frame over the top of an existing building.
On densely built-up land in Munich a light metal works had
reached a stage at which it became necessary to renew and
extend the forging shop. The old building had already been
altered many times and with the installation of new
machines had undergone many different roof
reconstructions ~ CD - @.
The requirements for the new shop were that it should:
• have substantially greater headroom;
• stand within the building lines of the old shop,
because there was no possibility of pulling it down
and rebuilding;
• not interrupt production for more than 2-3 weeks and
keep disruption to the minimum;
• have an aesthetically attractive appearance that is in
keeping with the adjacent listed administrative
building;
• permit the addition of a second building phase.
Solution
The architects selected a steel structure to take advantage of:
• a column-free building ~ (2)+ @;
• a large span with low dead weight
• opportunities for prefabrication and assembly in a
short time with lightweight equipment, a decisive
factor in the project.
The outer walls consist of suspended concrete-
composite prefabricated panels. These provide the high
noise insulation mass and robustness required for a forging
shop as well as permitting dry assembly.
Conversion work was precisely planned: after assembly of
the steel structure the old shell was dismantled with a new,
in-house overhead travelling crane and at the same time the
new roof covering was progressively fitted ~ ®- @.
The sloping roof with trussed rafters is hipped at one
end of the building in order to match the hipped roof of the
administrative building, to maintain the spacing heights
and to permit natural ventilation. Air supply louvres are
built into the outer walls and extract air openings are in the
roof ridge ~ ® + @.
old walls
dismantled
after new steel
structure is fully
assembled
(]) Dismantling of old walls
begins
Architects:
Henn and Henn
new steel
structure is
installed above
existing roof of old
shop
® Installation of new steel
structure begins
IIiililliJ I I I I Irr=
Existing situation when
planning started
new crane takes over dismantling old
roof; parts removed through the still-
open west gable; outer walls and roof
are then closed up
® Dismantling of old roof
begins
® Section of fa~ade with
fresh air openings
@ The new building is planned with regard to the old one
208

Design proposal for implementation by Busmann & Haberer
with prof. Polonyi
®
This example examines the refurbishment of the main
platform hall of Cologne Central Station. All corrosion and
residual war damage was to be removed from the beautiful
80-year-old steel structure, which has 30 main curved
trusses. The multilayered roof skin and strip rooflights also
had to be renewed. The historical shape had to be retained,
despite the use of modern materials, and the building work
could not significantly affect railway operations and traffic.
Solution
A travelling steel internal scaffolding unit was planned to
give simultaneously a working platform and protect the
railway operations below from falling tools or building
components. It used the MERD nodal rod system, with 1400
nodes and 5000 rods, and consisted of five main
components that were connected together to make one
50tonne element of 38 m x 56 m. It was moved in sections
on six tracks and in three-weekly cycles. The individual
parts, which were pre-assembled in a goods yard, were
mounted on wagons and put together under the main hall
arch according to a time plan that had to be accurate to the
minute ~@.
An illustration of how new technology was used in the
restoration work is shown in the renewal of the transverse
wind bracing. The old system connected two curved trusses
respectively into one rigid unit and the round steel wind
bracing extended right down to the luggage platform. In the
new system, four curved trusses are respectively combined
in the lower area to make a flexurally rigid frame and the
expansion joints reduced ~ @. Although the cornice details
etc. have a lower number of profiles, they have also been
designed to look almost identical to the old ones ~ @.
Following completion of the restoration of the main hall
it was planned to renew the vaulted roofs to the south east.
Being close to the cathedral and a new museum, the
requirements went far beyond simple functionalism and the
awkward geometry of the tracks added further difficulty.
Three proposals were made during an expert survey
~ ® - @. Two used intermediately suspended and
differently curved shell construction. The third proposed a
spatially effective bearer system, which spans the whole
area, like crossed vaulting ~ @. Because this system
offered considerable advantages it was recommended for
further development.
o Design proposal: Neufert Planungs AG
T-~ndtruss on
A B I ~~p beam
A) old verge cornice
B) new verge cornice: reduced number of
profiles; great attention paid to water run-off
o Cornices
Old wind bracing installed right down to platform; new bracing
with strengthened curved trusses in lower area
Curved trusses span 62 m
Design: Busmann & Haberer
Cologne Central Station with platform canopies
® Design proposal: Planteam West Koln-Aachen
CD
209

Architect: R. Bofill
CHANGE OF USE
There is currently enormous interest in converting
structurally sound old buildings for new uses.
---1 G)-@ Previously a textile factory, the spinning hall was
converted into a town hall and the textile mill was
converted into dwellings and business premises. A hotel
was created from the wool store.
---1 @-0 The old market halls at Covent Garden now house
shops, restaurants and a pub. Offices have been installed
on the upper floor.
---1 @- ® This silo plant is now an architect's office. Walls
had to be taken out and bridge-type platforms installed to
connect the silos at different levels.
---1 @-@ A waterworks that supplied Rotterdam with water
until 1975 is now an arts centre, with workshops and
dwellings too.
® Plan: a silo plant converted into an architect's office .~)
e~
I
t--j
® Covent Garden, plan
CD Town hall ----. CD
r ., r ..,
• L-....,J • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • I ._
• ----' • • • • • • • • L.....J.
f4 Covent Garden, London
~ • @-CV
(l ~""", town h.all " , ,~maiS,
..O.n.ett..
eS,.r,.~,A~~.;'....~.'.,;
-T-J'&': : '0 - - L ' ~- > "0
-~- ." - : = = ~ I ~ 0/,'"
hotel fO
ll. ~~ ~ " 0 0
---r--[r~l'~ r;~f~.,...~
'~.,-~~o~~~[D
..,f"
..·
•• ~J~.··'-1 c'
r R-x ,0 )~f'"" ' ;
g-t: - I 0 ) cafe/dwellinq
8-9<''': _,I ShOPS.:, c~Olire brigade '-CW 00-
~[':ll~~~O~~~_~)'::~ I . q; tO~-
/.-l.----Ul 0 _1'
i:
(2) Engelskirchen textile factory conversion
oMaisonettes ...... CD
® Covent Garden, cross-section @ Plan: conversion of Honingerdijk waterworks into an arts centre
o Covent Garden: old market halls are now a complex of shops,
~ restaurants and offices
Utopia group, Rotterdam
@ Section .. (jQ)
210

CHANGE OF USE
Flats, Nestbeth Housing, New York
~ ® There are now 384 flats in this former telephone
factory. In addition, shops, workshops, exhibition rooms, a
cinema and rehearsal rooms were created on the available
area of about 60000 m 2.
SchloB Gottorf, Schleswig
~ ® - @ This former riding hall was converted into a museum
and now houses a collection of contemporary art. The building
is the most significant cultural building in the region.
School building, San Francisco
~ © Originally a storehouse, this building is now a school.
The fourth and fifth floors contain training laboratories, the
second and third floors house the school and there are
more laboratories on the first floor.
Flats in Boston, USA
~ CD - ~ This former piano factory has four wings surrounding
an inner courtyard. The building is narrow and has many
window openings, which made it highly suitable for flats.
Pavilion Baltard, Nogent-sur-Marne, France
~ @ - @ An old market hall is now a multipurpose hall
suitable for events with up to 300 attendees. There are new
parking facilities and function rooms in the basement.
Culture centre, Geneva
~ @ - (J) This building, which had existed since 1848 and
was previously a slaughterhouse, was converted into a
culture centre with exhibition rooms, a theatre, music
rehearsal room and a restaurant.
oInside view ---. @
.0
II.

lo__ . _
~
G)Typical plan
f3 Before: market hall;
::..) after: multipurpose hall
I-~---
® Before: riding hall; after: museum -. @ - ®
I l.L::~~;:··: ....rw:
~~-~---
® Before: slaughterhouse; after: culture centre -~ @ - ([)
® Internal view • @ (I) General view -. @
@ Cross-section • ® @ Internal view of hall • (9)
upper floor with dwellings J
® Before: telephone factory; after: dwellings @ Former storehouse is now a school
211

250 ,9l5
~ ~
0.25
4.25
0.50
I II
0.25
I
o Lorry/bicycle
I I
ROAD DIMENSIONS
r---------,
I I
I I
I I
I I
I :
0.50
I II
0.25
+--_....::-::.~----+--
o Lorry/car
r--------~r--------,
I II I
I II I
I II I
I II ,
I II I
I I
0~--~.~-~~-2.SO I~'~
0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25
~ __--6~.2-?---_____l
CD Lorry/lorry
J
"It
C")
I I
B
i ~ ~
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
r--------..,
: c:::=::::) i
O.SO 2.50 O.SO 2.SO OSO
~-- - ------++---++-----~__+::_+=_1
0.25 0.25 025 025
~---- 650 I
G) Bus/bus
SPACE REQUIREMENT AT FULL SPEED k 50 km!h)
® Car/car
® Van/van Van/bicycle
1
0.25 050
I I 1
1 00
I I
0.25
3.85
2.10
0.25
O.SO
I II
o
~10 ,0,~5 175 I~~
0.25 0.250.25 0.25
I 5.10
o Van/car
2.10 0.25 2.10 0.50
IIII II I
0.25
I
OSO
I II
SPACE REQUIREMENT AT LOWER SPEED (~40km!h)
······0~·;·;5·O·O~~~;·.OO~·········
0.25 . ~
3.SO
® Car/bicycle
O'F~ 2.SO ~~_00~5
0.125 0125
+.---4_.00 .....
@ Lorry/bicycle
0-F~ 2.50 I I 1.75 ~5
0.125 0.25 0.125
L---.-~~~
@ Lorry/car
2.SO 0.25
III
0.125
r-------,--------,
I I I
I I :
I I I
I I I
I I I
I~===~:J
0.125 0.25
I 5.SO
@ Lorry/lorry
0.25 2.50 O.SO 2.50 0.25
4+-----"=- --- ~--------~
025 0.25
+_~__~Q.0_---+
@ Bus/bus
The road space necessary
for the free movement of
vehicles comprises vehicle
size, ~ pp. 432-3, side and
head clearances, an extra
allowance for oncoming
traffic, and space for verges,
drainage gutters and hard
shoulders. Based on a vehicle
height of 4.20 m ~ @, the
safe clearance height is 4.50
m although it is better to
allow 4.75 m to cater for
repairs to the carriageway
surface. The safe side
clearance ~ @ is dependent
on the maximum speed limit
for that area: ~1.25 m for
roads with ~70 krn/h limit;
~0.75 m with a limit of
~50 km/h.
The basic space required
for cyclists is 1 m wide by
2.25 m high; for pedestrians
it is 0.75 m by 2.25 m. For
sufficient head clearance for
foot- and cycle paths, 2.50 m
should be allowed. The safe
side clearance for cyclists is
0.25m.
safe side clearance
safe head room
pedestrians
clearance limit
limit of space for
traffic
cyclist
motor vehicle
C
MV
Car/bicycle
Car/car
@
@
MV
-------------,
I
I
I
I
I
>/
~
ufiI
I
roadway
clearance limit
limit of space for traffic
Basic dimensions for traffic space
and a selection of cases showing
the clearance necessary for traffic
passing in opposite directions
both at full and lower speeds
MV
@ Van/bicycle
r - --
I
I
I
I
I
I
Sse
SSMV
Soc
el~>--------------------1
:-r----;
I I
I I
: C -..J
I I
Van/car
Van/van
Clearance dimensions for motor vehicle traffic
..........................
@
212

i -t-- 750 ~ t
llr:·:::·r:·?lillr:::·:·:r:·::·~ll f'
1 5050 50 50 50150
c4 m
G) Standard cross-sections for open roads
Cf)
c
C1J
Cf)
u:
(l)
Cf)
~ U
o, ~
d4mpr
ROAD DESIGN
To harmonise the design, construction and operational use
of roads, standard cross-sections should be strictly
observed unless there are special reasons. The standard
cross-sections for open roads are shown here ~ G) as are
those for roads in built-up areas ~ (2).
Notation (e.g. 'c6ms'):
• a-f the cross-sectional group with the basic lane width
being 3.00-3.75m
• 6 the number of lanes in both directions of travel
• m a central reservation (physical separation of the
directions of travel)
• s a hard shoulder
• r path for cycle riders within the cross-section
• p parking bays or parking spaces on the edge of the
road.
For application areas of these standard cross-sections
~ p. 214
~0~~1 ~~~o~~
/j r·:·:··i··:·:J [" /t1""":..:::1":"::"1t"
1.50 150 1 00 1.00
e2
f2p
I
I
I F A A
c4pr
A
~~Q
t:1t- 13.50
c2pr
CD
A
~ 375
d4pr
Standard cross-sections for roads in built-up areas
375
A positive image of space on the road can be created by
clear but subtle dimensional changes, varying the layout of
the individual cross-sectional parts, and a rich variety of
vegetation on the verges. The landscaping of the road
should promote a feeling of well-being not only on the open
road but also inside towns.
The verges on either side of the road have an influence
on both the functional and visual shaping of space. The
following items have to be co-ordinated: foot- and cycle
paths alongside the roadway, areas for stationary vehicles,
areas for public transport, residential areas and areas for
manufacturing plants and commerce.
213

214
ROAD DESIGN
Field of application Type of road
Road Traffic loading Special criteria Standard Type of Speed limit Junctions Design speed
category (vehicles/hr and speed) of application cross-section traffic Vperm (km/h) Ve(km/h)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
< 3800 with V = 90 krn/h a 6 ms motor v - different level 120 100
< 2800 with V = 110 krn/h
< 2400 with V = 90 km/h a 4 ms motor v - different level 120 100
<: 1800 with V = 110 krn/h
AI
< 2200 with V = 90 krn/h With light lorry traffic b 4ms motor v - different level 120 100
< 1800 with V = 100 krn/h or restricted conds.
< 1700 with V = 70 krn/h b 2 s motor v < 100 (120) (diff. level) 100 90
< 900 with V = 90 krn/h same level
< 1300 with V = 70 krn/h With light lorry traffic b2 motor v < 100 (diff. level) 100 90
< 900 with V = 80 krn/h same level
< 4100 with V = 70 krn/h b 6ms motor v - same level 100 90
< 3400 with V = 110 krn/h
< 2600 with V = 70 krn/h b 4ms motor v - different level 100 90
< 2200 with V = 90 krn/h
< 2300 with V = 70 krn/h With light lorry traffic c4m motor v < 100(80) (diff. level) 100 90 (80)
<: 2100 with V = 80 krn/h or restricted conditions. same level
< 1700 with V = 70 krn/h b 2s motor v < 100 same level 100 90 80
All
< 1400 with V = 80 km/h
s 1600 with V = 60 krn/h With light lorry traffic b2 motor v < 100 same level 100 90 80
< 900 with V = 80 krn/h
<: 1700 with V = 60 krn/h With agricultural traffic b 2s general <: 100 same level 100 90 80
< 900 with V = 80 krn/h > 10 veh/h
<: 1300 with V = 60 krn/h b2 general < 100 same level 100 90 80
< 900 with V = 70 krn/h
< 1000 with V = 60 km/h With light lorry traffic d 2 general < 100 same level 100 90 80
< 700 with V = 70 krn/h
< 2600 with V = 60 km/h c4m motor v < 80(100) (diff. level) (100) (90) 80
< 2100 with V = 80 km/h same level
< 2300 with V = 60 krn/h With light lorry traffic d 4 motor v < 80 same level 80 70
< 1700 with V = 60 krn/h With agricultural traffic b 2s general < 100 same level 80 70
Alii
< 900 with V = 70 km/h > 20 veh/h
< 1600 with V = 50 krn/h With heavy lorry b2 general < 100 same level 80 70
< 900 with V = 70 krn/h traffic
< 1300 with V = 50 krn/h With light lorry traffic d 2 general < 100 same level 80 70 60
< 700 with V = 70 km/h
< 800 with V = 50 krn/h e2 general < 100 same level 80 70 60
< 700 with V = 60 krn/h
< 1400 with V = 40 krn/h With heavy lorry d 2 general < 100 same level 80 70 60
AIV
< 900 with V = 40 krn/h e 2 general < 100 same level 80 70 60
< 700 with V = 50 krn/h
< 300 Measurement not tech. f 2 general < 100 same level 70 60
practical
< 2800 with V = 60 km/h With heavy lorry b 4ms motor v < 80 different 80 70
< 2400 with V = 80 krn/h traffic level
B II
< 2600 with V = 60 krn/h c4m motor v S 80 diff. level 80 70 (60)
< 2100 with V = 80 krn/h (same level)
< 2500 with V = 50 km/h With light lorry traffic d 4 motor v S 70 same level 70 (60)
< 2500 with V = 50 krn/h With heavy lorry c4m general < 70 same level 70 60
s 2200 with V = 50 km/h d 4 general < 70 same level 70 60 (50)
< 1800 with V = 60 krn/h
B III < 1400 with V = 40 krn/h d 2 general s70 same level 70 60 (50)
< 1000 with V = 50 krn/h
< 900 with V = 40 km/h With light lorry and e2 general < 60 same level 60 (50)
< 700 with V = 50 krn/h limited bus traffic
< 1400 with V = 40 krn/h d2 general < 60 same level 60 50
< 1000 with V = 50 krn/h
B IV < 900 with V = 40 krn/h With light lorry and e 2 general < 60 same level 60 50
< 700 with V = 50 krn/h limited bus traffic
< 2100 c 4mpr general < 50 same level (70) (60) 50
< 2000 With light lorry traffic d 4mpr general < 50 same level (70) (60) 50
':: 1900 Special case of the c4mpr c 4pr general < 50 same level (70) (60) 50
C III
with restricted conditions
< 1800 Special case of the d4mpr d 4pr general < 50 same level (70) (60) 50
with restricted conds.
<, 1700 c 2pr general < 50 same level (60) 50 (40)
< 1500 With light lorry traffic d 2pr general < 50 same level (60) 50 (40)
< 1000 With light lorry traffic c 2pr general < 50 same level (60) 50 (40)
CIV < 1000 d 2pr general < 50 same level (60) 50 (40)
<,
600 limited bus traffic f 2p general < 50 same level 50 (40)
G) Fields of application and standard cross-sections + p.213

'T' junctions - roads
on same level
INTERSECTIONS
Junctions are where one road flows into another (directly)
~ G)-(2); crossroads are where two roads cross each other
at their point of intersection ~ @-@. Junctions on single
carriageways are usually in the same plane (and can be with
or without traffic lights).
Roundabouts ~ @-@ are a form of intersection popular
in some countries (e.g. UK). They offer several advantages:
reduced risk of serious accidents; traffic lights are rarely
necessary; there is less noise generated and energy is
conserved. The diameter of the roundabout depends on the
available space and the acceptable length of the tailbacks
caused by high volumes of oncoming traffic. An offset
crossroads makes more room available; road intersections
are visible at a glance and the road ends can be spacious.
They are suitable for slow flowing traffic, as is found in
residential districts ~ @.
residential road,
open to main
through traffic
(3) as ----. CD
c?.....------
:,
I
I
(l)
(l)
l/l
>-
~
(l)
c
o
CD
CD
'T' Junction main road in
a built-up area
With widening of the
section and islands to
aid those turning left
Crossroads - on same
level ® as ----. @
I
I
"i"
------=-::' I '---=-=---~-
--·--;;-I-~·-
road axis 111111 JR
--i> ~t~r~~~~ i
1111111
pedestrian I
crossings I
(}) as ----. @
® as ----. @
normal
crossroads
(for secondary
roads)
service or
residential
road
service or
residential
road
CD
space
saving
crossroads
traffic lights
necessary at
intersections
main
road
space
saving
crossroads
secondary
road
interchange
via slip roads
requiring a
relatively
large area
secondary
road
secondary road
(;; Junctions/crossroads-
~ at different levels @ as ----. ® @ as -+ ® @ as ----. ®
@ Reduction in the width
of the carriageway
@ Roundabout
Roundabout with
pedestrian subways @ Offset cros.roads only
for slow traffic
215

30
..
..
..
e~~!!tii
0.70070070
~Ol~_l
TTlWTGTET
.-2.5°/~
PS/GS
E = electricity
G = gas
W = water
DH = district heating
T = telephone cable
CS = combined sewer
FW = foul water drain
RD = rainwater drain
F = footpath
R = cycle riding
MV = motor vehicle
PS/GS = parking or green strip
MV
R
~;~i>-m/
trees J
(e.g. plane
trees, t.75
maple,
oak) 3.501-+--....Ji'-.-
50
~~
::
==~~~~~=t~~
.-2.5%
~ 25%
PS/GS
2.5% --+
parking bay
flower bed
special purpose areas
with bollards 50/50
Examples of lay-out of road space in built-up areas
buildings with
hotel entrance
2.5% -+
"'""'....
F
2.5% ---.
I I roadway I
--+- 6-8 m t- 10-" m -+
@
Footpaths ~2m wide (1.50m minimum clear width plus a
0.50 m strip between the path and the road); ~3 m in the
vicinity of schools, shopping centres, leisure facilities etc.
Cycle paths ~1.00m wide for each lane, with 0.75m safety
strips separating them from the road.
Combined use If the path is for both pedestrian and cycle
riders' use, the width should be ~2.50 m.
ROADSIDE PATHS
~ =<:, ~~
0.700.700.700.90 1.00 : 1.20 ~ /'
~~II
1ElGTw1 r-1DHl I cs I/~/ RD
I rl
: ~ r
~.J
® Basic widths for the supply and drainage pipework layout in the
road space
@
@-@
+--7_10m--+--;~a-.?1~a~
-+
@
: ••: ••:::••:::::::::::::.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:••~.~~I.~~~~~
7)Radiused out at junctions
8) In exceptional cases
abbreviations ---. CD - (f)
F = footpath
R = cycle riding
R, = radius of bends
S = longitudinal slope
Rs = rounded out radius of brow
Rs = rounded out radius of dips
values for design details
clear
R1
S2) Rs Rs height
min max min min min
[rn] % [rn] lml [rn]
6
(12)81 2.50
10 depending on 30 10 2.50
(2)7) type of street
3
10 (4 in <250m)8) 30 10 2.50
(2)7) (8 in < 30m)8)
3
10 (4 in 250m)8l 30 10 2.50
(2)7) (8 in < 30m)8)
6
(12)8) 2.50
3
10 (4 in <250m)8) 30 10 2.50
(2)7) (8 in <30m)8)
6 3.50
(12)8) (-2.50)
250
(200
~O.75~~~0255)
(~050) (160)
Common footpath and
cycle path
Separate cycle riders' path
Separate footpath
Cycle path running
alongside the road
Footpath running alongside
the road
Cycle riding track
Path serving housing;
not suitable for vehicles
~ O.755~)'-rt'--....,jL,j'-~ 0.755)
(~050) (~0.50)
~075~( L~400 L~~0.755)
(~050) 1 '1 (~0.50)
notes:
1) Slight variances in the dimensions may be
necessary due to the actual slab widths
2)Srnlf)= 0.5% (for drainage)
31 Length of service paths unsuitable for
vehicles
1 - 2 storeys 2' 80m
3 storeys? 60 m
4 storeys and more 2' 50 m
41 With partitioning drain 4 - 4.50m
51 Other additions to the width: continuous
rows of trees require a strip of at least
2.50 m width for planting
61 Traffic in both directions only allowed in
exceptional cases
cross-sections 11
(values in brackets are
minimum dimensions in
existing b.Uilt-uP area) »>:
ll
r:
S
" ~c--
I"""""'"
II
~0755~~0255)
(~050) ~ 1 50
®
CD
CD
®
CD - (j) Pedestrian and cycle riders' paths
(j)
216

PATHS AND PAVING
a b e d e
high kerbstones
CD 12 15 25 13
C~~)
flat kerbstones @ 7 12 20 15 100
15 18 19 13 50
round kerbstones @ 9 15 22 15 100
50
lawn kerbstones
® - 8 - 20
C~~)
- 8 - 25
border kerbstones @ - 6 - 30 100
oFlat kerbstone 0 Rounded kerbstone
I
d T
1 c ,
"h'y v/
G)High kerbstone
o Lawn kerbstone
height width length blocks/
(em) (em) (em) m 2
6 11.25 22.5 39
8 11.25 22.5 39
10 11.25 22.5 39
® Interlocking blocks
(em) (em) (em) m 2
6 10 10;20 48;96
8 10 10;20 48;96
® System paving blocks
® Border kerbstone
(em) (em) (em) m 2
6 14/9 23 38
8 14/9 23 38
f7 Ornamental interlocking
..!J blocks
(em) (cm) (em) m 2
8 7 21 68
8 14 14;21 51;34
® Rustic paving blocks
In addition to pavements, interlocking block paving can be
used for pedestrianised roads, parking areas, hall floors,
paving between rail tracks and on the beds and side slopes
of water courses.
The dimensions of paving blocks (length/width in cm)
that match standard road building widths include:
22.5/11.25; 20/10; 10/10; 12/6 etc. Kerb heights of 6, 8 and
10cm are commonly used.
The depth and material of the substructure (e.g. gravel,
crushed stone with grain sizes 0.1-35 rnrn). which acts as a
filter or bearing layer, should be adapted to the ground
conditions and the expected traffic load. If the ground is load
bearing the bearing layer should be 15-25 cm deep,
compacted until it is sufficiently stable. Pavement beds can
be 4cm of sand or 2-8 mm of chippings. After vibrating the
overlay the pavement bed can be compressed by about 3cm.
Wedge-shaped curved blocks can be used for circular
paved areas or curved edges ~ @. For farm track paving,
parking areas, fire-service access roads, spur roads,
reinforcing slopes against erosion damage or access routes in
areas liable to flooding, multi-sided lawn blocks are available
~ @. These are also useful in heavily landscaped areas,
allowing a fast covering of stable greenery to be provided.
Composite and round palisades made of concrete
~ @ - @ are suitable for bordering planted areas to
compensate for height differences and for slope revetment
~ @. These are also available in pressure-impregnated
wood.
(em) (em) (em) m 2
10 33 16.5 18
10 33 33 12
solid block has same dimensions
block 1'/2 nor- 3/ 4 '/2 wedge wedge
mal -1 -2
CD @ @ @ @ @
height 8 8 8 8 8 8
width 12 12 12 12 8/11 5/13
length 18 12 9 6 12 12
no.zm? 46 69 92 139 87 92
I
87
1
@ Round paving blocks @ Lawn blocks @ Concrete paving ----. @ @ Circle --. (j2)
straightening
batten
-concrete
excavated material
gravel
t-011-l
40; 60; 80; 100;
120; 150; 180; 200
~~~~t t - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - i
installation depth =
one-third total height
@ Palisades/concrete @ Composite palisades @ Concrete border blocks @ Wooden palisades
217

BICYCLE PARKING
Dimensions of bicycles ~ (1)-(2). Note allowances for
baskets and children's seats. Include space for special types:
recumbent bikes up to 2.35m long; tandems up to 2.60m;
bicycle trailers (with shaft) approx. 1.60m long, 1.00m wide;
bikes adapted for disabled people and for delivering goods.
Offer comfortable parking ~ @ wherever possible:
narrow parking can cause injury, soiling and damage during
locking/loading. Double rows with overlapping front wheels
can save space.
Cycle stands must give steady support, even when loading
the bike. Locking should be possible using only one 'U' lock,
securing the front wheel and the frame to the stand at the
same time. Tubular stands are therefore suitable ~ @.
Provide an intermediate bar for children's bikes. Stands should
be 1.20m apart with access lanes 1.5Q-1.80m wide ~ (1)-@.
Cycle stands which do not provide sensible locking
opportunities only suitable for internal use in areas of
restricted access.
General installation design should be clear and user-
friendly: close to the destination, easy to find and
approach. For long-term parking, consider roofing and
lighting ~ p. 219. Supervision is advisable at railway
stations, sports grounds, shopping centres etc.
Bicycle with
basket/child's seat
CD
8
N
1.20
1.20
Basic bicycle dimensions
~
60
I 75 I 45 I 75 I
~ Ii ii125
I 170-190 I ~~)
__I ~I150
o Bicycle parking: ample space CD Close packed
apartments 1 per 30m2 total living area
visitors to apartments
student residential halls
1 per 200m2 total living area
1 per bed
secondary schools 0.7 per pupil place
1.90-2.00
I
--+-4-
-+-t-
.)
1.80 1.90-200
I
colleges of further educ.
lecture theatres
libraries
college canteens
places of work
0.5 per student place
0.7 per seat
1 per 40m
0.3 per seat
0.3 per employee
f"5 Basic layout parallel in
V straight lines
clb
~'..'.~.
. .'-~
®
I 1.50 I 1.50 I 1.50
Parallel, herringbone
formation
shops for daily supplies
shopping centres
retail units for
professional offices, doctors' practices
sports arenas, halls, indoor swimming pools
1 per 25m2 sales area
0.2 per client on premises
0.5 per clothes locker
regional gathering places 1 per 20 visitor places
sol=¥;:
-f-+-
other gathering places
local restaurants
beer gardens
1 per 7 visitor places
1 per 7 seats
1 per 2 seats
I I
1.90-2.00 1.80
1.50 I 1.50-1.80 I 1.50 I
If several uses happen at the same time in a building, then the totals for the different
uses should be added up.
Staggered, parallel straight
formation ® Staggered, herringbone
formation
Guide values for capacity of cycle parking
I 0
I tubular stand I ~
I --L : I
I -+ 1 0
I I ~
I-t-- ~;
L ....J
~
50 1.00 I ~ ~~ I ~1.00
50
~~~
5.80
1.75 3.20 1.75 1.60 1.60 1.60 160 1.60
1
70
70
70
® With tubular stands @ Front wheel overlapping @ Front wheel overlapping with central access
218

BICYCLE PARKING AND CYCLE PATHS
Basic space requirements for cyclists are made up of the
bicycle width (0.60 m) and the height allowed for the rider
~ @ plus the necessary room for manoeuvre under various
conditions. Although the minimum width of a single-lane
cycle path is 1.00 m, it is preferable to increase this to
1.40-1.60 m, particularly where riders could be travelling
at higher speeds. Where traffic is two way, an ideal width
of 1.60-2.00m allows oncoming cyclists to pass each other
safely as well as making it easy to overtake slower riders.
~
3535
Intermeshed
o Parallel
74
53
~
2.38
53
r--i
50
:::::::::::::::::~:.:~:6::::,:::::::::~::~g:::::::::::::~::.:~:g:::::::::::::::
3.70
G) Cycle racks
~ 1.50
footpath
t 0.70 -t-- 1.00-2.00 ----f--- -+
road I cycle path I I
t;=2.5% 1. J,
~:n;t:l;nrEJIII'- _
.....~-~~~E:!ZICi3IZ~afl'D
'''''''''1..
lcycle path:
safety strip: natural stone or red concrete paving;
concrete paving (dark grey) red concrete slabs;
red asphalt
8) With frame holder
2.00
"""",}I~,::,:"::II,,, """"""~""""",,
160 double arrangement
freestanding
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::1::::::::::::::::::::::::::1::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
1.65
o Tilted racks
1.60 I
--------1
230 1 45 I
® Minimum cross-section
-----,
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
o Where space is limited
1.00
-------,
: 0.70 I 1.00
2.70
® Two lane
-----1
.40
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
n
II
II
II
: 0.70 I 1.00 : I
1.70 25
Normal cross-section for
cycle path width
CD
~3.10
I 1.60-2.00
120
® Grass strips between them and
the road are a good solution
@ Most suitable arrangement
Grass strips are necessary
with two-way traffic
@ Cycle lanes avoiding drains
and similar obstacles
2.50 2.50
2.20
f---------------j
@ Cycle sheds
Tubular framed cycle shed
Double racks with curved
roof
Weather protection roof -
curved roof
@
219

MOTORWAYS
Motorways are twin
carriageway (each with two
or more lanes and a hard
shoulder, and separated by a
central reservation) roads
with no obstructions,
designed for high-speed
traffic ~ CD-@. They are the
safest and most efficient
roads. Environmental
considerations have top
priority in their planning and
construction.
Motorway intersections
are constructed using
variations in levels of the
carriageways ~ @-@ with
special entry and exit slip
roads for junctions ~
@-@.
Direction signs should be
positioned at least 1000 m
before an exit for connecting
roads and 2000 m before
motorway intersections ~@.
Building restrictions (i.e. a
requirement for special
planning permission) apply
to the construction or major
alteration of structures
40-100 m from the outside
edge of motorway
carriageways; construction
of high buildings within 40m
of motorways is banned.
® Fork
2.5%
--.
3.75
3.50 0.50 2.00 1 501
• I ,
2.5%
--.
2.5%
---.
~ 4._oo ~_.7_5---;- 0.5-+-~_2.=
29.00 ~
3.50 Oj5p 3.00 Ojsp 3.50 I
26.00
3.75
® Triangle
2.5%
.....-.
2.5%
~--
3.75
2.5%
.-
t50 2.50050 3.50
I -+l-+I---:~--+----'-----'--=--~-+------'--'----~-=-c-=..:~+--------=--==---+-+---+--,--,-
- - - - - - - - - - -
motorway
junction with
three legs
~.50. 2.50 0.50
+-- I I
1
1 50 2.50 050 3.75
CD Trumpet intersection
o As above but 26 m wide
(3) Standard cross-section for four-lane motorways 29 m wide
G) Standard cross-section for six-lane motorways 37.50 m wide
motorway
junction with
four legs
building 40 m
ban zone I
building
restriction zone
----------x--------
----------- --------
I
I
5.00
(4Tm
~
(100m)
@ Building ban/restriction
~~~~~~~t~~~lm~1I~~~I~~II~~I~I~~~~I~[~It~~U~Iml~
..:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.)
(.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.,
r::::::··:.·.·.·:····:.·::··:.·::.·::::::::··:.·:::.·..:..:::::..::..:::..:..::•.
:..: J
.................................................................................
~
(1.00m)
® Windmill
® Maltese cross
motorway
junction with
four legs
(j) Clover leaf
@ Half-clover leaf @ Lozenge @ Sign gantry over carriageway
220

o Minimum clearances for track on special segregated sections
on a public road
A tramway is controlled entirely by sight and shares the
road with other general traffic; an urban light railway travels
over stretches of track with standard train safety
equipment, just like the underground (US: subway) or main
line railways, as well as alongside roads on special track
bed. (The underground travels only on defined,
independent track beds, with no crossings, and does not
mix with urban traffic.)
• Track gauge the standard gauge is 1.435m, or a
metric gauge of 1.000m, and the clearance width is
the carriage frame width (2.30-2.65m) plus extra to
compensate for deflectional movement on curves
and an extra allowance for the width on cambers plus
sway (at least 2 x 0.15m)
• Distance of kerbstone from carriage frame for
special track beds 0.50m; can be as little as 0.30m in
exceptionaI cases
• Carriage heights the height of the carriage body
should be ~3.40 m; min. height allowance for safe
passage under buildings is 4.20 m, and on roads
should be 5.00 m
• Safety clearance space 0.85 m width from the
outside limit of the vehicle outline on the door side of
rail vehicles.
The width of street platforms should be at least 3.50 m
(although 2 m can be regarded as an absolute minimum for
platforms on the side of streets where space is limited).
Where a waiting room is to be incorporated, the platform
width should be at least 5.50 m. The platform length should
exceed the train length by ~5 m to allow for inaccurate
braking.
TRAMWAYS/URBAN LIGHT RAILWAYS
top edgeof retracted
pantograph
bottom of overhead
conductor wire on
--+-_ _
+_5_.00_ public roads
b) at stops and safetyislands
0.05
bl at stops and safety islands
al on an open stretch of road
vehicle'soutline
carriagewayof public road
dimensions a) on an open stretch of road
mrnrn
G) Minimum clearances for track laid in carriageway of public road
bottom of overhead
conductor wire on
public roads
2.65 0.30 2.65
T II
6.60
clearanceline for fixed
or moving objects(plus
other rail vehicles)
vehicle'soutline
clearancefor escape
nichesand safetyrooms
(top of rail) !O,OO
spacerequiredfor
pantographs
clearancefor escape
nichesand safety
rooms (top of rain
&00
spacerequired for
pantographs
0.30.40.3 2.65
ern
7.30
0.30 2.65
n
8.40
Type B
central masts
0.50.40.5 265 05040.5
..:~t.::~.:~~·:·:·:·:·:· eml--"'--------'--'--"'---_--Lo_~:·:·:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:
o Standard widths for segregated sections of track in secondary roads bottom of conductor
cable on public roads
clearance line
Permanent pedestrian
crossing without signals
Clearance limits for the
road and tramway
®
.I.
~ + 5.oom
outside limit for
vehicle outline
.J_
+420m
lowest
height
for
conductor
cable
when
passing
under
buildings
±o.oo
--I...-
3.50
3.50
3.50
0.30 2.65 0.05
II It
9.65
2.65 0.30.40.3 2.65 0.05
IrJ I II
10.35
2.65 0.30 2.65 0.05
II I
10.55
0.50
0.50.40.5
Tram stops on one side
Type B
central masts
Type C
side masts
·····:::··:··:··:::··:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:11,... ----:........ --------.4(:::..::::::::::::
Type A 3.50 0.05 265 0.30 2.65 0.05 3.50
no ~~~~~.J; LT:~ JI I , I[ JL i!
····:··:··:····:··:··1 waiting room 12.70 tram shelter r:':':':':':':'::':::::
Type B 3.50 0.05 2.65 0.30.40.3 2.65 0.05 3.50
central
I I
M
I n
masts
0 J T
0
'.':.':.'::::::.':, 13.40 f'·:::::::::::··:·
Type C 3.50 005 2.65 0.3 2.65 0.05 3.50
side
f!! I II ~
rtl
masts
:,,::::,::,..:
, 0
, ,
0 I:::::
::·'::::::,':::1 12.70 r:::··::::::::::
® Tram stops on both sides of road --. @
C~=--j~ ,
I ,B/2 B/21 I
I : II
I ~B = 400'm1
I 0~0~5 Q.15
® With signal control lights for
crossing the track
221

I g>
~
a.
~
~. 3bT ~
:~:~:~:~:::~::::::::.,,:::,.:::::::.::::7. ...:....:::..::.::::::::::::::::.:::::.
elevation t-- 7.50 -+- 7.5O---i
I--- 15.00 ~
O Parking spaces between
the houses
-----+1 6.00-1
- - - - - - 1
plan view
25.00
37.00
•
............................... . .. :•.:::::::.:.~:::::
'~i~~'~;i~~""""""""" '2~50"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""'"
~ +4.25~ 750 -f4.25+-40-1
I - - - 22.50 ----I
o Class III roads with two lanes
f-5.0+5.0+- 14.00 -+ 5.0 + 5.0~
I 34.00 I
o Class III roads with four lanes
II
II
I
1.-
I
'I"
II
II
':
I,
TRAFFIC LAYOUT
The layouts for traffic must take all the associated
circumstances into account. We need to differentiate
between the following classifications:
I Connecting traffic - urban railways, motorways with
~4 lanes
II Main roads with or without sections of tram tracks
-)CD
III Secondary roads with 2-4 lanes, some sections with
parking at the side of the road -) ~
IV Residential roads having ::;2 lanes, and parking
spaces in the road -) @ + @.
Residential roads must have large parking areas -)
@ + @; alternatively, where necessary, parking spaces
between blocks of flats -) (f). Class IV roads offer wide
scope for good layout design, with footpaths, squares and
open areas.
Local commuter rail traffic, where the urban railway is
being extended, must be taken out of the road space and
ru n on its own track bed -) CD -) p. 223 CD-@.
'I II
I!!!!!!IIIII!IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII!IIIII! .;: !i··· "'1'11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111
:~1'~~':~~;;~~:;:;:;:;:;:;'::.:: : L I :
::;:;:;:;:;~;~:~;~~;.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:
.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:. :.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.
;:::::::::::::: b ::::::::::::::::::::::
..
:::.:.:;;;;;;;;;;;;.:::~:.::::::.......
::::::::::::::::::.J.:::..:::::::::.::!fff#ffff::.:.:.:.:/ffJ.,fJ
elevation
1-6.00+1----
I
With parking on both sides of the road
Ii
I,
I,
1,-
I
I ~
I
II
II
II
'I
'I
'I
'I
I,
II
II
'I
"
I,
I,
:'
I
i~i
I I
I I
I I -~_.......
I I ~r~~rn~O
I estate
o
I
I
I
I
II
II
II
II
plan view
®
----+-~.~
I
CIl
Q)
~
0)
22.50
31.00
residential street
plan view
® With parking on one side of the road
parking
spaces
plan view
footpath
1111111111111111111111111111111111·
JJlr··············1
...............
"""'.""",
______J
:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·1
~
.~j~i~j~~~;~l~~ = I Q ...
~:x~::::~:::::::~ ~
·~I·~~~·ti~·~··········~···~;·~··=~~~~·=~··~:·.~··~6i"~"""""'"
£Jlii'L~~ 24~ ~
:::::::.~::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~··66··::::::
:::::::::::::..;j:66:..
:....·:·:. . ~ ..
elevation ~ 1000-+ r' --t-- 14.50 --r' i- -j .••.:.:..::•••
O
Traffic layout in 3.00 3.00 ...•.••
2 a housing estate I----- 24.00 I
II
/I
·.~I:
'1
I
II
'I
I,
'I
II
222

-~ = ~i = ~!
~ =~ ~
_·a·A·..
•.••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••·•·•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••.•••.•...••••.••.•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••.••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
G) Urban railway with overhead conductor cable
® Urban railway
CD Elevated section
o In a shallow cutting
® In a cutting retained by sheet piling
industrial/commercial firm
(j) Elevated section. with parking below
TRAFFIC LAYOUT
Urban railways with overhead conductor cables - or, even
better, with conductor rails - work efficiently on their own
tracks and can be separated by railings or hedges from the
road traffic ~ CD +@. Elevated railways ® allow traffic to
move freely below and improve rail traffic circulation
because trains are not affected by road signals; however
they increase noise for residents. A better solution is to run
railways in shallow or deep cuttings, or even underground
~®+@+®.
Road noise in flat terrain is reduced by uninhabited
buildings (e.g. garages), which provide sound insulation, by
planting trees or by using backfilled earth embankments
planted with trees. Even more effective are roads partly in
cuttings with planted earth slopes or sunk completely in a
cutting ~ @-@).
In general, it is only possible to put in noise suppressing
walls with new roads, particularly when planning the layout
of new areas where high-speed traffic (100-120km/h) can be
segregated from residential buildings and run in cuttings
with slip roads leading to the residential areas. These would
be flanked by rows of garages, with parking places in front
of them, and linked by wide footpaths leading to the
houses/flats. Plenty of lawns and evergreen trees (i.e.
conifers), improve the quiet, homely environment.
Elevated roads are only convenient for commercial and
industrial estates, where the road noise causes less
disturbance.
. ' .
~~~:~:~: .,..... g.Sj2
.... • -= I .
::::::::.:~.:o:::::::::::::.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:::::::::o:::::::::.:.:.:.i.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.
@ Road in flat terrain
...........
~~::~l::::::~::::::::::~:'c... ....::;:::::::~:~:}::..~"'.... ~ ·C.;.:~:::::::::::::.:.:..:-. '.'~~::;:::::::::i:i:i:::i:;:~:::~~:
== ~~~[g ..
............ .
•.......•...•.........•.......•......••.••...•......•.•.•....••••....•••....•••.•.•.•.•.•.•.•.•.•.•.•.•...•...•.•.•...•.•.....•...•.•••••.••..•.•...•.•.•.•...•.•.•••.•••...•...••...•.••.•.•..•...••....•.•........•..•.•....•....•..•••..••••••••.••.........•........•..••.•.•..•..•.•.•.•.........•.....•.••.
Tests have shown that a road sunk in a
cutting with a tree planted bank is the
best technical arrangement to contain
sound. The main sound waves must not
directly impact on the building
road
pedestrian tunnel
® Sound protection is good with side embankments
I----- 20.0 --------i
@ In a tunnel
223

individual measures:
81 + 82 + 83 +
(where appropriate, 84 + 86) + C1 ... C2;
driving and pedestrian areas separated,
reduction in road size in favour of wider
pavements, speed reduction by
narrowing the road and partial use of
raised paving;
this gives more space and greater safety
for pedestrians - improved layout
through space subdivision
TRAFFIC LAYOUT
(A3) + 81 + 82 + 83 + 84 + 85 + 86 + C1;
layout for driving, parking and walking in
a common (mixed) area so multiple use
of the whole road area is possible;
speed is limited to 'walking pace' (or 20
krn/h rnax.):
total reorganisation of the whole layout,
taking into consideration the primarily
residential needs
. -'-'-'-,'-'-'-'-
_._._,_.--.._._._.-
f3 Road layout:
.::!..) proposal 1 ..... (j)
of>
residential
areas
grass and trees (play and sports area)
town and regional main roads
footpath area only
area with priority for
motor traffic
area with priority given
to slow traffic;
alternatively equal
priority or priority for
pedestrians and
cyclists
c c
~
c 0 key to measu res
desired ~
Q)
o '~c
U
"'0 E ~ Q3 0 A- traffic system
effects c ~
o~
Q)
~
"'0 ",p
B- detailed layout
'+- 0 co
.E
> '00 ~
o u '';:; c...c '+-~
0
c~ o E '0
c ,-
c- traffic control
o~ >00 8 (5
,9 ~
::::J
+-' C Q)
"'0 00 co ~ co o c C "'0 E •• desi red effect
oo+-'
~ '00 '';:; co co 0
00 Q) co 'i:: 0- 'c Q) Q)
probable effect
~"'O
co C 00 +-' 00 +-' '';:;
~ :~ •
"'0 ...c Q) 00 00 U Q)
no. measures 8:'~ Q) O-~ co Q) co Q) ::::J 00 0 possible effect
Q)
E 00
~"'O ~"'O "'0 ,- -§ ~
::::J ::::J 0- X Q) X Q) Q) 0
00 0 00 Q) ~ Q) 0- Q) 0- ~ c Q)..9-
A blind alleys
•• 0 0
• LLLl
1 cui de sacs
2 crescents
• 0
.rtr!
~
]
one way
• 8
~
..
OUG M9A • ~
~
3
one way
• 0 ~
streets .......
B change of road
~
surface •
1 material
narrowing of
~:::.::::.:::::.,:;::.j
2 • •• • •
road section ~ ---,.~.,:,:,::.:,:,::.u'i.:,:,
visual
~rttt§~
3 rea rra ngement
• • •• • • •
of road space
dynamic
~"0••
="=.~
4 obstacles • •• •
(humps)
reorganisation ~ p ~
5 of stationary
•• •
traffic --./-;[I -.-JL p
611
1
'1" I
6 raised paving
• •• •• • •• • •• Ilil '::':t
lilt J
~~J
~ ,
C sign:
II
'Residential
• • •• •• • • traffic signs
1 area'
2 speed 30 krn/h
• • • e
change of
y
3 priority for 0
• 0
drivers
G) Traffic calming measures and effects in residential roads
o Outline diagram of the space allocation of traffic priorities
Road layout:
proposal 2 .. (j)
224

housing
r:j Isophonic map: effect of an earth bank or noise shielding wall
...V on sound levels
TRAFFIC NOISE
Guidelines for Road Noise Shielding
Increased environmental concerns have made reduction of
traffic noise a top priority. Effective measures include earth
mounds and noise shielding walls and pyramids ~ CD-CD.
There are many suitable pre-cast concrete products on the
market today as well as sound insulating walls made from
glass, wood and steel.
The sound level of road traffic can be reduced by ~25
dB(A) after passing through a noise shielding wall. (With a
reduction of 10 dB(A), the sound seems half as loud.)
The shielding effect is dependent on the wall material
but far more so on its height. This is because refraction
bends the path of the sound waves so a small part of the
sound energy arrives in the shadow area. The higher the
wall the lower the amount of sound penetration, and the
longer the detour for the refracted sound.
50
65dB(A)
.>
/60dB(A)
/ -----
/ / »> 55dB(A)
~~
»> ----
<,
70dB(A) "'"
-,
v v
f - - 28 ---+------
road wall
o Determining the required height of a noise shielding wall
45
40
night
35
65 50
70 70
45-70 35-70
60
planned sound levels (dB(A))
village,
mixed area
town centre,
commercial area
industrial estate
special area
day
residential zone, 50
weekend homes
general residential area, 35
small housing estate
/
//
e ~ ~5 t If/-
/ 50 I
/ 10 V
'/ 200m
V / /
/VV /
'/1/ /
./ V
~ V /
..,...,. ./
~ .-" ,."
~ l./
~
.".,
.--......
o
0.2
® Reduction of sound level
o T
H
1
for I H max.!« ~
at
~.: ::..:::::
::::::::::::: ~
»>
~
--
--
road width
f----- at ----i
wooded area
~F~'=iO
.•••...•...•.•.....•...•.•...•...•.•.•.:.•.•.•......•.......•.......•.•.........•...........•.
@ Rough estimate of anticipated traffic noise reduction
® Sound reduction by distance
@ Rough estimate of anticipated road traffic noise
wall or bank height (m) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
reduction (dB(A)) 6 10 14 16.5 18.5 20.5 23.5
traffic density, classification of road distance from noise norse
both directions types according to traffic emission point/centre level
(daytime vehicles/h) density in urban areas of road (m) band
<10 residential road - 0
10-50 residential road (2 lanes) >35 0
26-35 I
11-25 II
~10 III
>50-200 residential main road >100 0
(2 lanes) 36-100 I
26-35 II
11-25 III
~10 IV
>200-1000 country road within town 101-300 I
area and main residential 36-100 II
road (2 lanes) 11-35 III
<10 IV
country road outside town 101-300 II
and on trading estates 36-100 III
(2 lanes) 11-35 IV
~10 V
>1000-3000 town high street and road 101-300 IV
on an industrial estate 36-100 IV
(2 lanes) <35 V
>3000-5000 motorway feeder roads, main 101-300 IV
roads, motorway (4--6 lanes) ~100 V
required reduction 10 15 20 25 30 35
meadows 75-125 125-250 225-400 375-555 - -
necessary
distance
woods 50-75 75-100 100-125 125-175 175-225 200-250
f40-9~
f25+- 50 -+25i
Noise insulating modular
wall
Noise insulating wall of
concrete blocks
buildings not affected ~
by sound _______
o
o
125
/ / ::::.:..:.:.:.:...
r- 62 ---1
f25+-- 1.50 ---+25j
Noise insulating pyramid
(pre-cast concrete
components)
Standard arrangement for
noise shielding walls on roads
r--- 2.50
~ 50 +--- 2.00
bank of earth ~
::..:~:.,:.::.=..=.:=JD
wall wall in garden of house
o Noise insulation measures on a main road
®
225

/
SECURING EMBANKMENTS
Long rounded banks with their faces planted as lawns or
with shrubs and trees are aesthetically desirable but all
steeply sloping surfaces must be secured. For a bank which
is steeper than the natural angle of repose, turf, wattle,
cobbles or retaining walls can be used for this purpose.
If the slope is more than 1:2 use grass turf fixed with
wooden pegs or stepped turf for securing steeper slopes of
1:1.5 to 1:0.5 ~ p. 230. Wattle is suitable for fixing steep
slopes on which it is difficult to establish plant growth -~ p.
230. It is necessary to distinguish between dead and live
wattle: in the case of live wattle (willow cuttings)
subsequent permanent planting with deciduous shrubs is
called for because willow is only a pioneer plant.
Vegetation is not suitable for securing large bank
cuttings, such as in road building or on sloping plots, so
more expensive artificial forms of retention are necessary -~
Q)-@.
There are several types of anchored frameworks that can
be used to create retaining walls. The simplest consists of
horizontal, preanchored beams and vertical posts, with
intermediate areas covered with reinforced sprayed
concrete ~ @. With planted supporting walls considerable
height differences can be overcome to create ample space
for roads or building plots in uneven terrain ~ @ + (f). High
walls can also be built with earth anchors, depending upon
the system and the slope -~ @.
- drain hole
palisade, diaphraqm
or sheetpiling wall
• (with or without
anchoring)
clay-bound or partially
solidified unconsolidated
mass
Primary bank retention
using anchored framework
Lined wall; unconsolidated
rock
CD
bedrock
Lined wall for banks of
loose stone
VSL multi-strand
anchor, 33-65t
In steps, material removed from top to
bottom and immediately shored with
wall elements and alluvial anchors
(Brenner motorway)
f3 Bank retention;
~ unconsolidated rock
CD
/
wall built directly
(bonded) onto
rock
Geological influence on
slope retention
(by L. Muller)
wall built in front
of (and away
from) rock
steep strata falls
(with stepping or
embankment)
® Rock facing, either as
filled or solid walling
@
Staggered 'Krainer' walls
give space for new road
Geological influence on
slope retention
flat strata falls
(possibly without stepping)
o
@
Lattice support wall
(Krainer wall) made of
concrete (Ebensee system)
Retention considerations:
multi-strata slope
steep artificial slopes (K)
only possible if special
retention measures used
(e.g. base wall)
®
natural (unstable)
slope (N)
alluvial rods,
generally
3 to 6m long,
5-15 t
in steps, material removal from top to
bottom, with immediate securing using
sprayed concrete and reinforcing steel
fabric and alluvial rods
® Bank retention;
unconsolidated rock
steep slopes only possible with retention
(particularly for non-solid layers)
® Retention considerations:
multi-strata slope
226
@ Krainer wall @ RGS SO wall @ Wall with land anchors
(Ludenscheid example)
@
6 The Eb en see Krainer w all
~®+@

GARDEN ENCLOSURES
In most countries, neighbours have legal rights in relation
to fencing. Within an area built as an integrated
development, the owner of a building used for domestic or
business purposes is obliged at the request of the owner
of the neighbouring plot to enclose his plot along the
common boundary. Local (or national) regulations may, if
both plots are built on or used commercially, require both
owners to erect a boundary fence/wall jointly and share
the cost. Under English law, ownership of, and
responsibility for, fences etc. is spelt out in the property
owner's deeds.
A 'common fence' is located in the centre of the
boundary whereas with an 'own fence' the foundation wall
should be flush with the boundary.
The style of fence chosen should always suit the locality
as far as possible ----t @ - @. Fencing that is intended to
protect against wild animals should be sunk 10-20cm into
the ground, particularly between hedges ----t @.
Wooden fencing, posts, frames and palisades can last
more than 30 years if they are first chemically impregnated
in a tank.
Wooden louvre fences are best for privacy ----t (f) + @ and
can also provide some measure of sound insulation.
Scissor or rustic fencing is also popular for plot enclosure
----t@.
impregnated
post
post
stone
Sinking posts
o Batten head shapes
CD
~post
,r::1~
I~
concrete
~~~~~~~ nnnn
nn~ n
nnn~
fitting crossbars to posts
better
rzzz;z"J! rzzzza
possible
G) Fixings for posts, fencing,
pergolas
o Battens on crossbar
CD Fence with projecting posts ® ...with continuous crossbars
~ ~
~
T
T
~
- ~
1
.........................................
......•.....•.•.•.........•......••...•.•.•.....•.•.•.•...••.••.•.•.•..••..••.•.•••...•.•...•..• ..................•...................................•.•.•.•:...:.:.:.:.:.:.....:.:•.•.•.•..:
;=
=
<, ,/
<, ,/
<, ,/
"
,/
<, ,/
<, ,/
<, ,/
<, ,/
<, ,/
<, ,/
.................. ...........................
.......•.................•.•.....•.•.•.......•.................................................
(j) Horizontal louvres
JIII~
:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:-:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:-:.:
® Vertical wooden louvres
section
Bent wooden slats on tubular
steel frame
~
/~/ I
;/ n ....
--+ - ~ :~::::
horizontal U vert;~~·I·· .:: ..
section
concrete or
masonry
plastic
fence bar
~
Rough-sawn boards nailed
to posts
____Z.OO--~
:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:1.:.:.: ••:.:.1.:.:.:.:
T
o
~
I
!~
l
post
6 :z
fence
Square cross-section wood
beam fence
~ barbed wire
r----- Z.5- 3.O ~ __ JL~
40-50
/'
@ Meadow fence with offset
posts and spars
® Rustic fence @ Ornamental fence @ Rustic fence with frame @ ...with rough-cut boarding
~I r~ ««<:>::..::.:::::::~ I ~ ~
aluminium plate flxmgs
Hedge with wire netting
Wire netting: the bottom
either has a small gap (with
barbed wire) or is buried
Steel profile fence
(galvanised) with plastic
fencing bars
@ Partition fence of ornamental
wired glass on concrete base
227

1500
section
post details
1250
T
Tt
o 0
N N
I i
1 I
1
~~~
detail
8/12
5/9 6/10
5/9
4/8 5/8 6/8 8/8 12/8
4[7
4/65/6 6/6 8/6 10/6
4/5 5/5 6/5 8/5 9/5 10/5
--
4/45/4 6/4 7/4 8/4
4/3
outer corner
187.5375
~ 250 500625 750 875 1000 1125
II I I I I I I
II
~
II .. ~ ~
I gripping yoke _' screw ~.';-U~
tension wire -
t- holder, end post
tension !", tension wire tension wire:;.:>.J/~
Wire, outer holder tension ~~
corner holder, end post
outer corner ~
~
wiremesh=i~
bracing steel clip
•. ba'be~
" tension wire holder,
tension wire holder, end post
M) ~1: II)~
!i III'~
II I
ground anchor
GARDEN ENCLOSURES
The owner of a plot usually erects fencing only on one
long side since the neighbour on the other side puts up the
fence on that long boundary.
Wire mesh fencing ~ CD can be obtained in many mesh
sizes to cover a wide range of usage conditions and if the
mesh is plastic coated and supported by galvanised posts
the fence will require close to no maintenance. Mesh fences
can be braced with wooden, concrete or steel posts which
are anchored in the ground ~ (J) + @. Ornamental wire or
lattice fencing is usually spot-welded and galvanised4 @ +
@.
Wrought-iron fencing can be elaborate or simple in
design and almost any shape is possible ~ @.
Natural stone such as granite or quartz quarry stone can
be used without any processing ~ ® or cut to shape by a
stonemason ~ @. If possible, only one sort of stone should
be used.
@1
Connect ion m et hods f or iron @
12 Steel railings
fence/gate elements ~ @
@ Tensioning details for a twisted link wire netting fence ~ (f)
B] :~: ~
~375/375-l
~
centre-line
distance
view section
~
@ Common shapes for
§
commercially available
cast concrete blocks
00
the table shows the dimensions ~
according to the dimensional
~
regulations for building
construction: all centre-line ~
distances are a multiple of
~
125mm with 10mm joints
section
section
m 0901065/040
em ...-X""X'"X"')~C
o75 -+--.....-....--+---+---+
3 x 15 6.25 ll'l
15 r-,
3 x 10
200/22 100116 FR
3 X
l0
FR
2 x 20
end post
Garden gates made from
wrought iron
Twisted link and decorative
lattice
15
, [
I I
I
I
I
~
I
I I I I
,~
view
view
CD
Woven wire mesh gate and
fence panel
middle post
fence
gate - - - - -
..
~ ii~~~·
Ilr~:-- f---- f----
~I--- ~-f-----
I
1--.
f-·
t
;~=J
f--+-+- _.,-
lIII
o Ornamental wire lattice 0 Welded mesh fencing
o Tensioning of intersecting wire netting
corrugated expanded
G) Wire mesh: standard mesh
width 4-5.5 cm
~S]
square
•
® Layered walling with stone
layers of different heights
® Quarry and cast stone walls
228

PERGOLAS, PATHS, STEPS,
RETAINING WALLS
Prefabricated paving slabs are ideal for creating solid and
easily maintained garden paths between beds ~ @. Paving
stones can be laid in the borders or the lawn, either raised
or flush with the surface ~ ® - ([). Allow for a gradient when
laying paths ~ @ - @. (See also page 217.)
Examples @ - @ show various arrangements for garden
steps. They should be safe and easy to use (note that a
concave gradient is more comfortable to walk on ~ @ + @)
but should also fit harmoniously into the surroundings. The
steps should slope gently forwards to permit rainwater to
run off. In gardens that are designed to be as close as
possible to a natural state, log steps are a worthy solution
~ @ + @. Whatever type of garden steps are chosen, the
same rules as apply to indoor stairs should be taken into
account ~ pp. 191-4.
It is possible to incorporate ramps in the garden steps to
facilitate movement of bicycles, prams and roller waste bins
~ @. Wheelchairs being pushed by carers can also make
use of such ramps.
Layered dry stone construction can be used for retaining
walls up to 2 m high in front of uncultivated earth, with an
inclination to the slope of 5-200/0 -~ @. However, concrete
retaining walls ~ @ are simpler and cheaper, and can be
bought as ready-made sections ~ @ in various sizes and
shapes such as corner profiles, quarter segment profiles
and round sections, making it possible to form bends with
standard parts.
.:.::::.".'":.:...:.:.:..,.:.:...-14
: : : frost-
I I I free
~ ~/ 1
o Raised
timber frame
(avoids rot)
DOC
slab spacing = stride
length; thickness ~ 3 cm
(j) Stepping stones
length width edge height
(ern) (ern) (ern)
50 50 12
50 70 14
o Pergola
on brick
pier
® Flush with lawn
surface
no impediment to lawn
mowers
easier to keep clean
~----- 160 -----1
® Path raised
above borders
f---- W -----------1 f--- W -----1
o Garden path blocks
G) Climber supporting frame
Road on slope
@
Footpath on
slope
Paths beside
house
gradient
~
® Bad: convex slope
Good: concave slope
(easiest to walk down)
®
@ Small paving @ Brick paving
blocks, expensive
but durable
CJt: =F~
110
brick paving
sand
clinker or
broken stone
lr::
8-=1O
10~15
II · blocks ICObb:S'
~-- bedding sand
top layer
binding layer
fine layer
coarse layer
@ Gravel path
@ Stones smoothed
on two edges
@ Vertical stone
slabs
Wooden posts
229
Concrete block steps with
ramp
Karlsruhe garden stones
arranged as concrete steps
Ready-made concrete sections for retaining walls
Block steps in natural or
cast stone
~ .
f-35~ .:::: .
T .
~}.:.:.:.:.:::~~::.:.:.:.:.:.:.? .
filling
crushed stone
drainage
Concrete retaining wall
(also available in ready-
made sections) ~ @
@
@ Concrete steps on
supporting blocks
~4:::::·
E3F~·:··
~::.~L (:··········
@j"..~.~~~~.·'::~~e with stone slabs
bonded
layers
earth
(uncultivated)
7-8
H
Dry wall, special drainage
unnecessary
I
2.00
::::.::.l·It.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:::::
@ Steps made with wooden posts
@ Steps made with stone slabs
on supporting blocks

EARTHWORKS
Topsoil can be stored on site by temporarily removing it and
building soil mounds ~ CD. If it is not in the shade, the top
of the mound should be protected (with turf, straw etc.) to
prevent excessive drying out. Topsoil mounds should be
turned over at least once per year, and 0.5 kg of quicklime
added per cubic metre. If the topsoil needs to be stored for
very lengthy periods, consider sowing plants on the
mound.
When making up the ground again after the earthworks
are completed, compaction measures are necessary if
landscaping, lawn laying or planting work is to be carried
out immediately, and especially if the work involves laying
paths and paved areas. The following techniques can be
considered.
• Rolling using a tracked vehicle (e.g. bulldozer) usually
provides sufficient compaction for each layer of fill.
• Soaking can be used, but only if the filling material is
good (sand and gravel).
• Rolling with a drum roller to compact stable soil in
layers (fill height 30-40cm per layer) is another
option. Note that it is important always to roll from
outside towards the centre (i.e. from the slope
towards the centre of the built-up surface). Use
rolling for broken stone hardcore when building
roads and paths.
• Tamping or ramming is possible on all stable soils.
• Vibration can be used in the case of loose, non-
binding materials.
All compaction should take account of subsequent work.
For paths and paved areas compaction is needed up to and
including the top layer while lawns require 10cm of loose
topsoil, and planted areas 40cm.
Slope protection
To avoid slippage and erosion by wind, water run-off etc.
the filling on slopes should be laid in layers. Serrated
subsoil profiles ~ @ prevent the loose infill mass from
forming a slip plane on the base material. In the case of
higher banks with steeper slopes ~ @, stepping provides an
effective means of preventing slippage (step width ~50cm).
If steps are inclined into the slope a longitudinal gradient
must be created to allow any build up of water to run away.
structural skeleton
made of plastic or
structural steel mat
Preserving bank surface
with structural skeleton
Topsoil fill on sloping
surface
(3)
(j)
<>
Preserving bank surface with
shrubs and stabilised grass
j0
Cohesive material in core
with shallow stepping
serrated
subsoil profile
®
G) Topsoil mound
CD
soil type density angle of
(kg/m3 ) repose
(degrees)
earth loose, dry 1400 35-40
loose, naturally moist 1600 45
loose, saturated with water 1800 27-30
compacted, dry 1700 42
compacted, naturally moist 1900 37
loam loose, dry (average for light soil) 1500 40-45
loose, naturally moist 1550 45
loose, saturated with water
(average for medium soil) 2000 20-25
compacted, dry 1800 40
compacted, naturally moist 1850 70
gravel medium coarseness, dry 1800 30-45
medium coarseness, moist 2000 25-30
dry 1800 35-40
sand fine, dry 1600 30-35
fine, naturally moist 1800 40
fine, saturated with water 2000 25
coarse, dry 1900-2000 35
crushed stone, wet 2000-2200 30-40
clay loose, dry 1600 40-50
loose, very wet 2000 20-25
solid, naturally moist (heavy soil) 2500 70
dry sand and rubble 1400 35
stone overhang, stone bed
Slope support using stone
@
/ stone bedding
//
f-- 50 em -1
half bowl
supporting ribs
seepage line (upper limit)
sand and gravel backfill
filter material,
standard size
• '. matched to backfilling
. 0 -
sand and gravel backfilling
Drainage and support of
slope base
@
front view
(shape
according
to local
conditions)
gravel and
sand filter
@ Stone ribs for drainage and
support
Open topped. stepped
composite grid arrangement
® Densities and angles of repose for different soil types
230

30-SO
1--;
o Trellis attached to wall
GARDENS: PLANTING METHODS
l
T ~'Yl~<s::----,
30
t
2.25 protective
I matting
[
l
i
6
.f- ,j
30 -).~
;. I'I 30cm into the earth
1 70
IJ.
o Trellis wall made of wood
wire tensioner
Frame for double trellis
CD
trellis posts
-wire
Trellis frame made of boiler
pipes
T
60
-+
'30
...r
'30
;0.,
)-1 05
II
CD
T
- trellis posts
- ....-""I--~----'--~- trellis wi r
I
o
u1
T I
o 0
L() cry
tI
r30+30~
~30+30~
, I t
I 1
~ ,1
I N
N
1 ~
~~I
1
"lJIl'
....
1 -- I 1
, ,
1
T
® Two-armed horizontal training
® Vertical training
f-- 1.20 -----l
(1.25)
® 'Chandelier' training
f-- 90 -+- 1.2 ---i
(1.25)
'Verrier' training (six and
eight branches)
I 150-----1
@ Wire framework for blackberry branches
. . .
only two branches are allowed to grow
at an angle to the ground; the shoots
from these form the fan in early spring
@ Fan array
(])
•
•
• •
• •
• •
• •
r
• • • • • • •
::1: :.
: ~~: :.:
·. ...
,....
, 1 • • •
~ ...
-.- .
• ••••••
• ••••••
spacing trees per 0.25 ha
main 1stfill 2nd fill
s x a x am 69 69 103
8 ...4 x 4m 39 39 58
10x5x5m 25 25 37
@ Square planting,
double infill
t-- 6O--i
trellis wire
/
5.0
•
•
•
•
U-shaped training
•
®
•
•
.*
..
o I 0
- - - ....
·'. .
C. o.
main filler
4 ...4 x (2) m 156 156
6 x 6 x(3)m 69 69
lOx 10 ...(5)m 25 25
@ Square planting
with infill
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
r50+50-l
•
•
•
• i •
•
.i;
L.
:1:
• •
~.
4 4m 156
6 6m 69
10,10m 25
@ Square planting
system
tension wire
-l 1.5 t- gooseberries ~ 1.5 t-
~ @ '@ @
after the harvest, cut back to leave 5-8 canes
post
I- 3.0 - 4.0 % wire plants
o til M: If 4. wi. T "'l
~
@ Raspberries
t+-'~H-tl-+t-++--++--++---1H-+-+--+++'~-+----I--lI--"'""--l""+-~-+-+-J
when ca nes grow
beyond the top
supporting wire
by up to 15 em cut
them back, then
bend into a U
shape and tie up
• •
• •
•:';i:~: •
·:.~.
~ ..:..
trees per 0.25 ha
main 1st fill 2nd fill
3x 3m 46 46 184
4x4m 26 26 104
@ Rectangular planting,
double infill
•
•
•
•
•
•
• •
main filler
3x5"'25m 167 167
4 x 6 ...3m 104 104
6xl0 ...5m 42 42
@ Rectangular
planting with infill
312
69
42
trees per 0.25 ha
•
• •
Rectangular
planting system
•
2 4m
6 6m
4xl0m
@
spacing
3x3 ...3m
4 4x4m
6 6 ...6m
trees per 0.25 ha
320
178
80
main filler
15 x 3 x 3m 320 320
2 x4x4m 178 178
3 x6x6m 80 80
main 1st fill 2nd fill
3 3 ...3m 80 80 160
4 4 x 4m 44 44 88
It w O*~ j,.~
~ -150-60
MMOMMNO
@ ~ @
redcu rrents
@
@ Triangular
planting system
(equilateral)
@ Triangular
planting with
infill
@ Triangular
planting, double
infill
@ Spacing for raspberry
plants
@ Gooseberries in square
formation in combination
with redcurrents
231

G) Climbing plants and their growth heights
GARDENS: PLANTING METHODS
Two important factors for the successful cultivation of
climbing plants are the soil quality and the direction they
face. In addition, the height to which they will grow must be
taken into account -'f G). Climbing aids are required for
plants that are to grown up house walls -'f @ + @.
In the case of beans each plant requires a climbing cane.
The tent method is best used for two rows of plants -'f (J).
The wigwam method is ideal for growing plants in
troughs and tubs -'f @ and twigs gathered during coppicing
can be used as a climbing aid for peas -'f @, as can taut wire
netting -'f @ or a double wire mesh. Wire mesh is also
useful to protect seeds and shoots from birds -'f @ + @.
Guidelines for the choosing the best conditions for
perennial climbing and creeping plants are given in @.
annuals height growth leaves
(m)
bell vine 4-6 fast summer, green
ornamental gourd 2-5 fast summer, green
Japanese hop 3-4 fast summer, green
trumpet convulvulous 3-4 fast summer, green
sweet pea 1-2 fast summer, green
scarlet runner bean 2-4 fast summer, green
nasturtium 2-3 fast summer, green
f
[JL
~(~S"'~ .~
t~fB~q~·,
~ ar.;::P-~ ~'):i'
--~ I~'~
->:., j • .;{~.
~!
o Beans growing up a wall
r15~
..~
o Horizontal climbing aids
(j) Tent method
Wigwam method for 8-11
plants
®
CD Wooden fencing trellis
Hexagonal wire mesh
distance apart: 70 x 60, maximum 50 x 100
® Twig frame ® Double wire mesh frame
Wire mesh to protect
plants from birds
Climbing mesh for peas
made of wire netting
perennials height growth climbing aid leaves watering flowers/month location
ivy (Hedera helix) up to Zfirn slow winter - 9-10 greenish
•
knotgrass (Polygonum eubertiii up to 15m fast x necessary summer + 7-9 white
•
virginia creeper (P tricuspidata 'veitctiii'i up to 15m fast summer (+) 5-6 greenish ~
anemone (Clematis montana) up to 8 m fast x summer + 5-6 white ~
wisteria (Wisteria sinensis) uptol0m medium x summer (+) 5-6 blue ~
common traveller's joy (Clematis vitalba) up to 10m fast x summer + 7-9 white ~
climbing hydrangea (Hydrangea petiolaris) 5 to 8m medium (x) sensible summer - 6-7 white ~
dutchman's pipe (Aristolochia macrophylla) up to 10m medium x summer (+) 5-6 brown ~.
trumpet vine (Campsis radicans) up to 8m slow (x) sensible summer + 7-8 orange
grapevine (Vitis coignetiae) uptol0m medium x summer (+) 5-6 greenish ~
grape (Vitis vinifera) uptol0m medium x summer + 5-6 greenish ~
red honeysuckle (Lonicera neckrottiit 3 to 4m medium x summer (+) 6-9 yellow-red ~
hop iHumulus lupulus) 4 to 6m fast x summer - 5-6 greenish ~
honeysuckle (Lonicera caprifolium) up to 5m medium x summer + 5-6 yellow-red ~
climbing rose up to 5 m medium x summer - 6-8 various ~
spindle shrub iEuonvmus tottuneii 2 to 4m slow (x) sensible winter (+) 6-8 greenish ~.
traveller's joy (Clematis hybriden) 2 to 4m medium x summer + 6-9 various ~
winter jasmine (Jasminum nudiflorum) up to 3 m slow x winter + 1-4 yellow ~
232
@ Summary of some climbing and creeping plants .~ CD = sunny location ~ = half shade, e.g. north wall • = shade

flowers:
brown
flowering
months 5-6
~~
()-e
~ 10m
m
V
~to-15m
crevice holding roots
holding roots with suckers
favourable area
growth: slow, medium,
fast
sunny, half shade, shady
deciduous, evergreen
climbing aid: wood, wires,
steel mesh
Clematis likes cold foot
and hot head
south/south-west
orientation
L:j~
Oct.
~~,
ta III _
v¢
~
~
(j) Dutchman's pipe
flowers: green
flowering
months 6-7
@ Virginia creeper
~I//
~O~
~/l~
flowers: yellow
flowering
month 7
@ Actinidia chinensis
~
o-()
~2-4m
ffi=
V
flowers:
green
flowering
months 5-6
~
()
~ 4-6m
~
p
~ 1O-20m
fEII III
f
flowers: white
flowering
months 7-9
~~
o-e
~ 25m
-7
¢
flowers: greens
flowering
months 9-10
TENDRIL AND CLIMBING PLANTS
flowers: various
colours
flowering months 6-8
® Climbing rose
@ Common hop
@ Watering
@ Russian vine
o Ivy
GJ
o
'6m
m
¢
flowers:
white
flowering
months 4-5
~ErJ
o-()
~ 2-7m
ill 1 00
Y
~
o
~1.5-3.00m
$111
Y
flowers:
various
flowering
months 6-9
~
o-()
~ 2-Bm
EE 1111
P
no retained
water
flowers: yellow-red
flowering months 5-7
® Honeysuckle
@ Clematis
@ Ground must be well drained
flowers: white
flowering
months 5-6
® Climbing strawberries
o Blackberry
~
o
~ 5-10 m
III
~
~
o
flowers: blue
and white
flowering
months 4-5
tE11 e
~
~~
o-()
~5-8m
mill
p
~ 6-15 m
V7-12 m
flowers: white
flowering
months 6-7
flowers: purple
flowering
months 4-5
Planting a clematis
o Wisteria
flowers: orange
flowering
months 7-8
@ Campsis radicans
® Climbing hydrangea
@
233

Banked beds are ideal for
growing vegetables in the
garden. They offer the
possibility of quick harvests
and very high yields. The
most important factors in
constructing a banked bed
are the correct build-up and a
north-south orientation
CD - @. Although they require
some effort to build, banked
beds can be used for several
years. In general, a banked
bed is approximately 1.50 m
wide and 4 m long and
watered with a sprinkler hose
~ @ or trickle irrigation. It is
best to ca rry out the
construction process in the
autumn when the most
garden debris is available.
Mixed planting has proved to
be particularly effective in
banked and raised beds.
The raised bed is a
variation of the banked bed in
that it has the same
composition and is, in
principle, a compost heap
contained by a boarded frame
-t @. Any rot-resistant
material is suitable and can
be used instead of wooden
boards (e.g. impregnated
logs, wood blocks, or stone
walls). In addition to the
advantages of the rich
bedding material, the plants
also benefit from the sunshine
which impinges on the side
walls.
If the beds are
600-800 mm high, it is no
longer necessary to bend
when planting seeds, bedding
plants or harvesting ~ @ +
@, which makes raised beds
ideal for the elderly and
wheelchair users. Raised
beds give increased yields
when they are filled with
layers of organic materials,
tree stumps at the bottom,
then branches, then chopped
twigs up to well rotted
compost.
concrete border
timber 40/60 mm
Small pond in a raised bed
made with stones
sprinkler hose
Raised bed built against a
south wall; covered with
glass like small green
house
Bed covered with plastic
sheeting
BANKED AND RAISED BEDS
®
plastic
sheeting
® Raised bed, ideal for
terracing slopes
/ top-hinged
widows
better with a concrete
border finish --)CV + @
Finish with 100 mm thick
layer of topsoil
!~j
a layer of damp leaves approx. 200 mm thick
~~:;st
100 mm layer of rough compost
concrete border ~ watering channel
~._'
(3)
8 1.00-1.25
II
o
<X>
I
o
0
T
60-80
1
® Raised bed made from prefabricated concrete units
r--- ----~
100-1.25
® Raised bed: same layers as banked beds
topsoil
rough compost
layer of garden debris and branches 250 mm
high and 400mm wide
excavate trench approx. 250 mm deep and
1.50m wide
, branches / ~-
~~.,AlL7'//~"~·~)
paving slabs
CD Cross-section through a banked bed
~.s.~jL:)
a layer of grass sods
CD Construction of a banked
bed-~~+@
234
@ Crater bed 2 m diameter ~ @
new potatoes, cabbage and onions and
cabbage, celery, leeks,
.~.~"i-
• •
y~
@_I ~
french beans, beetroot and strawberries,
salad and gherkins, dill leeks and
spinach and marigolds iceberg lettuce
@ Mixed planting in six crater beds ~ @

roof ventilation
mechanical window opener
exterior blinds
air humidifier
air circulation fan
side ventilation widow
double layer plexiglass
trickle irrigation
G) Greenhouse with practical climate control
9 sprinkler system
10 water pump
11 underground heating
cable
12 watering tank
13 insulation
14 heating
15 plant table
16 propagation bed
17 incubation lighting
18 automatic mechanical
ventilation
19 greenhouse lighting
20 humidity controller
21 air humidity sensor
22 thermostat
GREENHOUSES
The ventilation of green-
houses should be calculated
such that, when fully
ventilated, the inside
temperature can be held
close to that outside. For this
it is necessary that about 20%
of the roof area consists of a
ventilation strip or windows
that can be opened individ-
ually. An adequate supply of
fresh air must also be
ensured.
Where there is insufficient
natural shading from outside
it may be necessary to install
sun blinds in order to
maintain temperate conditions
during bright sunshine.
Blinds can be installed on the
inside or outside of the
greenhouse. Although those
inside are more economical,
exterior blinds are more
effective, particularly when
there is a sufficient gap
between the blinds and the
glass ----t@+ @.
235
....:.:<.:~
@ Optimal angles for glass
surfaces
:::::::::::::f>~:::T::t~:;::::::::
® Dutch greenhouse
frame spacing 3.065 m
mullion spacing 613 mm
air out
1---7.65------l
16-
2.10
T
2.61
........................
~9.38------l
ridge direction north-south
~
~7 '-_/
2.61
~,.......---
r-----13.04----i
® Greenhouse dimensions
and roof slopes
@ Exterior blinds with full
intermediate ventilation
middle wall
o Small greenhouse
,
1.94
I
1
200
r--2.74-----1
Lean-to greenhouse
(h[]<:>-:.:
...
:.:~:
..:.::
..:fJ glass surface
C::· 1> facing the sun
QQ'I:1~

® Cold frame
(j) Solar greenhouse
® Standard greenhouse
o Banked bed with solar hood
L
2I!
1.61~
2.30
2.63
3.17
® Lean-to greenhouse

o Tree shapes
Fertile soil contains an abundance of life, with the different
layers being inhabited by different groups of species >- CD.
Tree roots can penetrate the soil down to rocky layers and
the shape of the underground root network is usually a
mirror image of the shape of the tree's crown ---) (2).
For cultivated trees the cup shape is preferred. These
have open centres from which the branches are drawn
outwards so that light can penetrate the treetops. Side
branches are kept short so they will not break under the
weight of fruit or snow.
The best time for planting fruit trees is late autumn
(October in areas with early frost, November and in milder
areas). Grafting points, which can be clearly recognised as
a swelling on the end of the stem, must always be above
the soil surface. Supporting posts must be a handbreadth
away from the trunk and should be to the south to prevent
sunburn. --) (f)
When planting hedges the correct distance from the
neighbouring plot must be maintained: 0.25 m for hedges
up to 1.2 m high, 0.5 m for hedges up to 2 m high and 0.75 m
for hedges over 2 m. Hedges are ideal for providing privacy
in one's own garden as well as protection from noise and
dust. They also reduce wind speed, increase dew formation,
regulate heat and prevent soil erosion. Banked hedges (so-
called 'quick-set hedges' --) @) are used as windbreaks in
coastal areas.
GARDENS: TREES AND HEDGES
bedrock
mineral layer (decomposed
rock water reservoir)
humus layer (micro-
organisms, nitrogen fixing
bacteria, algae)
rainwater ducts through all
layers
soil cover (leaves, mulch)
digestion layer (bacteria,
fungus, insects)
preferred to the 'Christmas tree', or pyramid,
shape, is the cup shape: with branches
grown outwards the tree has an open centre
like a cup or goblet. which allows light into
the fresh growth at the top; side branches
are kept short so that they can withstand the
weight of fruit or snow
The root network mirrors
the natural top of the tree
CD
• leave trunk and
two or three
branches to retain
the desired shape
-7.~ ,'<,(_ -:.... ;- ,
.. f$~~J~~~
High trunk on a sapling
medium trunk
dwarf tree
Tree shapes for small
gardens ® Trim a hornbeam hedge in the 1st. 3rd and 5th year after
planting (left summer, right winter)
'Quick-set hedge'
(North Germany)
~ ~ x = particularly
~ ::i<D~ ~r suitable for
~!:Ol~nJillltrimlmilng ~
*~~ ~~
~ ~)( )( ~
u, ~ ~
<f~ U1'<f
~ (J) I ~
;-~
g ~
~ ~
~ g
~ ~
co .r=
good
bad
good
@ Heights for trimmed and free-growing hedges (number of
plants required per metre run in parentheses)
® Hedge heights
300
275
250
225
200
175
150
125
100
75
50
25
high trunks
anchored with
tensioning wires
trunk protected
from sun by
straw matting
® When planting a conifer the root ball must be loosened
the grafting point correct planting
must be above of a deciduous
the soil tree
(j) Planting garden trees
236

GARDEN PONDS
Careful consideration needs to be given as to how best to
integrate a pond into the garden. To begin with, selecting
the correct position is extremely important for the well-
being of the plants and animals in and around the pond. For
instance, the majority of bog and water plants require
plenty of sunlight (about 4-6 hours per day). The pond also
needs to be easy to view so the best position is in the
proximity of a terrace or a seating area, where it can be
observed at leisu reo
In addition, the constituent elements of the pond need to
be carefully planned. If the correct proportions of plants,
water and sand are used, a biological balance can be
achieved within 6-8 weeks, at which time the water
becomes clear. One of the most important factors in this is
to have the correct ratio of water surface to water volume (a
pond average of around 400 I per m 2 of water surface is
recommended). The garden pond will then become a
habitat for both insects and plants.
The planting of the pond is done before the water is
carefully topped up to its final level. The pond edge and
surrounds need to be specially designed: bog and flood
water zones, as well as moist beds, ~ CD + (V help to expand
the pond area and create a more natural balance. The pond
should be sized according to the area of the garden: a water
area of 20-25 m2 is ideal, although even 3-5 m 2 gives
enough room for many types of plants. Generous shallow
water zones of 50-200 mm depth and a deep area of at least
600 mm in depth are necessary for the survival of aquatic
insects and larvae during the winter months. The deep
areas also provide a place of hiding for all of the pond
inhabitants.
The pond should be kept full throughout the winter to
reduce the possibility of it being forced out of the ground or
tilted by the action of ground frost.
Fish, frogs and other amphibians will only survive the
winter if the pond is protected from freezing over
completely for extended periods so an ice preventer or a
heating stone should be used.
Prefabricated ponds provide planting shelves at
appropriate depths and these prevent gravel and planting
soil from slumping or sliding away completely ~ (V.
Garden pond installation:
compacting
set the pond level and fill
it with water to the first
level
fill the hollow side are~as
compactly with soil from
the excavation
/
~//
Garden pond installation:
excavating
more than 50 mm sand can lead
to settling and tilting of the pond
excavate the pond areal
30-50 mm deeper than
the pond form
---f---- ;- /
/ 30-50 mm ~
deeper ~/
/
paving
stones
/',/,/.
20mm gravel
G) Pond planting in a stepped arrangement
shallow water zone deep water zone
~--------t> ~ca----~
(3) A suitable prefabricated pond
CD
liner
Cross-section of a stream
®
o Edge zone
wooden boards
® A cantilevered jetty
paving
slabs
c===
straw
Put in a bundle of straw or
heating stone during frost
air layer
CD
(f)
~
E ~ ~
£
U
(/)
::l
£
~a;
.. ~
(f)
_OJ
.~
E '" .....
i
~.2
~
0
®
'6. ;;::
Aquatic plants
237

Explanations
Net area: the plan area of the
roof connected to the gutters
(equivalent to the plan area of
the house).
Annual rainfall: mean annual
rainfall (e.g. typical values are
740-900 mm = 74D-900I/m2 ) as
read from appropriate rainfall
maps or information from a
local weather station.
Run-off value (f): f = 0.75 for
pitched and flat roofs.
Factor g: when the difference
between rainwater production
and rainwater requirement is
less than 200/0, use g = 0.05.
g = 0.03 when the difference
between rainwater production
and rainwater requirement is
more than 200/0.
g = 0.20-0.40 when the water
is used mainly for garden
watering and when there are
large seasonal rainfall variations.
In the design of new buildings it
is desirable to include means
for collecting and storing
rainwater. Rainwater systems
can also be installed in existing
houses or gardens. The storage
volume should be generous
because the greater the volume,
the more the potential econ-
omies. The average storage
required for garden watering
(given 40-601/m2 as a typical
annual usage) for a single
family house is about 5000 I (it
depends on the area of garden,
annual rainfall, roof area and
run-off value). To calculate
domestic water needs, use the
following figures for average
water consumption per person
per day: 151 drinking/cooking,
10 I washing, 40 I bathing/
showering (total: 651 potable
water); 181 clothes washing, 41
cleaning, 451 we flushing (181
with economy flush), 81
sundries (total: 751 rainwater or
481 with economy flushing).
Example
Annual rainfall 800 mm = 8001/m 2
Pitched roof run-off value f = 0.75
Net roof area = 120m2
Rainwater production = net roof area
(m 2 ) x annual rainfall (11m 2 ) x run-off
value (f)
= 800 x 120 x 0.75
= 72000 l/vear
Number of persons = 4
Usage per day = 451 per person
(We with economy flush)
Garden area = 200 m 2
Annual garden watering = 50 11m2
Rainwater requirement = persons "-
usage per day (I) x 365 days) + (garden
area (m 2) x usage per year (11m2))
(4 x 45 x 365) + (200 x 50)
= 75700 I/year
Factor g = (1 - [rainwater production
-:- rainwater requirement]) x 100%
= (1 - [72000/75700]) x 100 = 4.9%
(this is less than 20% so use 9 = 0.05)
Storage requirement = rainwater
production (I) x g
= 72[t]000 x 0.05
= 36001
Recommendation: 4500 I rainwater
storage tank
suction
pipe
discharge opening min
20mm or 2 x internal
dia. of supply
sz
ZS
house
Rainwater storage for
garden watering
Eco rainwater storage up
to 125001
d . /" garden hose
~1 ~uctlon
'I',J pump
submersible -~~lli.l~
pump
@
magnetic
valve
rainwater
r¥drinki~W~
l '--- "' V
..
Filter before the rainwater
store
domestic water supply
non-return valve
drinking water supply
storage tank
overflow
down pipe
drain
filter pot
trap "t/--r--.ir$-·,'-
r{ "I~ Jl,.-:-).'
1<.-
Rainwater collection system with filter pot and external storage tank
inspection chamber
to main drains
1 down pipe/gutter
2 filter collector
3 supply pipe
4 storage tank
5 trapped overflow
6 suction pipe
7 domestic water supply
8 empty running protection
9 rainwater supply pipework
10 drinking water supply
11 magnetic valve
12 floating switch
-'
down pipe
sieve with flap~ ,
~filterp::I~~ctor
to we,
laundry,
garden
GARDENS: USE OF RAINWATER
pumping equipment
adjustable
height
cable ends
switch-over distributor
with level indicator
non-return valve -
with open
supply
@ Drinking water supplementary supply
@ Drinking water supply
® Rainwater system
®
CD
1.45 72 1.335 53kg
1.52 72 1.605 81 kg
2.05 72 1.64 130kg
length width height weight
soakaway
Constant storage for
watering (rainwater butt)
large filter area,
flush-back effect
11001
15001
20001
capacity
® Distribution system
(j) In-flow filter
® Storage containers
roof gutter
~::-1:::::tr-,
o Rainwater storage with eco
soakaway
CD
238

GARDEN EQUIPMENT
o Garden chair and table
~~~Tl
~ _480 J:-
I "-8501-.. .to
folded 80 thick folded 185 thick
o Garden chairs
~
T
750
-550>- _ 6001
folded 100 thick
03000
~~~~25OO
T
~~ '''''-~,..-J",,-",'~ 1800
1500
1
1700
o Sunshade
l
~:~
L 300 x 800
•- ---
1 7
110.1.. f===::I , ,400
I ~.J85 J
'-200-/
G) Metal foot scraper
® Deckchair ® Hammock
650
"'-y"'t(
(j) Garden swing ® Portable barbecue (gas or
charcoal)
T
750
@ Tiller
@ Wheel cultivator
@ Bicycle
800-1000
@ Hose reels
I
550
1
-.
® Tricycle
@ Rotary mower
T
1f
J v~
@ Sprayer
~1
I~V 910
~
@ Leaf collector
@ Toboggan, skis
football
230 I' <, 320 6m.220
X ~~
<, 600 (240)~~
'~~
~ ~j~
® Tractor mower
1 -,
~ ~
J J
® Garden carts and
Wheel~:;t
fr 1
t /
@ Sports equipment
@ Garden tools
239

The ideal position for a garden
pool is sheltered from the wind
and visible from the kitchen and
living room (to allow supervision
of children). There should be no
deciduous trees or shrubs
immediately next to the pool and
a surrounding walkway ought to
be provided to prevent grass etc.
from falling into the water.
Realistically, the pool should
no less than 2.25 m wide and the
length worked out on the basis of
a swimming stroke length of
approximately 1.50 m plus body
length (e.g. four swimming
strokes equates to 8 m). The
standard water depth is usually
based on the average height to
the chin of an adult. The
difference between the overall
pool depth and the water depth
depends on the type of water
extraction system --) ® - @.
For reasons of cost and the
water circulation system (see
below), the shape of the pool
should be kept as simple as
possible.
The standard type of pool
design uses a sealed surface on
a supporting structure made of
masonry --) @, concrete, steel
(particularly for above ground
pools) or dug out of the earth
--) @. Polyester pools (which are
rarely made on site, being
mostly made up from prefab-
ricated parts) are generally not
self-supporting so lean concrete
backfill necessary --) @. Cast or
sprayed concrete pools ~ (!)
must be watertight. The surface
is usually ceramic tiles or glass
mosaic, although they are
sometimes painted (chlorine
rubber, cement paints).
The water needs to be kept
clean and this is normally done
by water circulation systems and
filters. The process is improved
with a good surface cleaning
system using a skimmer --) @ or
channel --) ® + @. Adding a
regulated countercurrent plant or
through-flow heater can extend
the swimming season consider-
ably without prohibitive costs.
Other factors to consider are
child-proofing measures and
frost protection.
4.25
average size two-
lane swimming pool
(3-4 strokes, 4-5
people); minimum
size for racing dive
from deep end
Pool with sloping sides,
liner and squared timber
edge surround
plastic
aluminium sealing strip
section edge strip
smallest single-
lane swimming
pool (2 strokes,
1-2 people)
edge strip
I ~oncrete slab
squared timber 10/10
GARDEN SWIMMING POOLS
concrete----+-Ioo.o!"!!III-ftooo'IHi-"......
blocks,
cement
plaster on
bothsides
slabs
mortar
®
® Masonry pool with drainage
(3) Pool sizes
@ 'Zurich' channel in
surrounding walkway
CD changing area
0 we
CD shower
CD exercise room
® sauna anteroom
® sauna
(]) sauna area
® footbath
® rest room
@ galley
@ bar
with external
jointing tape
Pool depths
inlet valve
with leakage
flange
(]) Reinforced concrete pool
of simple design
@ Pool with 'Wiesbaden'
overflow channel
flat shallow pool for adults
Normal depths of garden
swimming pools
lean concrete
backfill
soil
sand bed
compacted
and drained
® Skimmer
® Single-shell precast
polyester pool
G) layout of an integrated swimming pool in a single family house
CD
Floor drain with groundwater
pressure balance
well protected
pool
partially
sheltered pool
free-standing pool
wall (concrete)
pool with cover
free-standing,
insulated
(1 cm) pool wall
Relative heat losses in a 5
month season (averages)
-+----+--+-I--+--+_ open pool
location
@
figures are in kWh/m 2/d; special influences are not included, such as the considerable
heat losses in public or hotel pools through the use of heated pool water for filter back-
flushing (up to 1.5kWh/m2/d or 1300kcal/m2/d)
@ Heat losses in open-air pools (average/maximum)
water season additional months
dw 4 months 5 months 6 months 5th month 6th month
22°e 1.25/6.5 1.33n.2 1.55n.8 1.65n.2 2.65n.8
23°e 1.50n.2 1.70n.9 2.00/8.5 2.50n.9 3.50/8.5
24°e 2.08n.9 2.26/8.6 2.66/9.2 2.98/8.6 4.66/9.2
25°e 2.60/8.5 2.80/9.3 3.20/9.8 3.60/9.5 5.25/9.8
26°e 3.50/9.2 3.75/10.0 4.00/10.5 4.75/10.0 5.25/10.5
240

terrace
o Ground floor
GARDEN SWIMMING POOLS
rg
:
....0
.....
0
...
,'"0
" .
Example ~ G) - @: house on a slope with an outdoor
swimming pool reached from the lower floor or exterior
steps.
Example ~ ® - @: the pool is a short distance from the
sauna and bedrooms and on the same level in front of the
living room.
® Ground floor ~ (j) - @
[[J[J 00
• • ~ J
G) Basement ~ (2)- @
--_.-l
roof area J
roof area
o Upper floor (j) Upper floor
CD Section ~ G) - @ ® Section ~ ® - (j) Architect: K. Richter
® Circular swimming pool on a slope Architect: Kappler
® Swimming pool between house and garage
+ 7.00
• + 5.75
II
30
Architect: P. Neufert
r
9.40
L,hardcore .+2.90
.," -.. A-j -._-_-_.>_---+-+
30 9.40
+ 5.70
break line
slope 1:10
section A~A
+ 6.00
1
2 50
+ 2.00
241

PRIVATE SWIMMING POOLS
Atmosphere is a very important factor in the enjoyment of
indoor pools so they should be well lit with natural daylight.
An ideal location for the pool is at the rear of the house,
overlooking the garden. With removable or sliding wall and
ceiling panels it is possible to give the feel of being in an
outdoor pool when the weather permits. Although this is
the ideal it does introduce problems with heat bridges.
Access to the pool can be through the living room or the
master bedroom (allowing an en suite bathroom to be used
for showering and changing) and should include a walk-
through footbath to combat infections.
The standard conditions for indoor pools are: water
26-27°C, air 30-31°C and 60-700/0 relative humidity;
maximum air circulation speed 0.25 rn/s,
Construction considerations
The main problem with indoor pools is controlling the air
humidity. Water evaporates from the pool at rates from
16g/m2/h (when still) up to a maximum of 204g/m2/h (when
in use) and the process continues until the saturation point
is reached ~ p. 243 @ + @. Evaporation loss approaches
zero when the pool is still if a vapour-saturated 'boundary
layer' develops just above the pool surface. Therefore, the
water should not be disturbed by strong air currents from
the ventilation system.
Removing moisture from the pool area is very expensive
using ventilation systems but it is indispensable. If the air
humidity is above 700/0 every small heat bridge can lead to
structural damage within a short time. Ventilation
equipment may be fresh air or a mixed air system ~ p. 243,
with ducts in the ceiling and floor, or ventilation box and
extractor (with the air flow kept low to avoid draughts).
The most common structural design is a fully insulated
all-weather pool with glazed panel roof and walls. Less
common are non-insulated 'summer' pools (which can also
be of a kind that can be dismantled). The materials used
should be corrosion-proof (galvanised steel, aluminium,
plastics and varnished woods): avoid plasterboard.
The pool area in most cases should include a WC and
shower, and a deck for at least two reclining chairs. The
layout must allow 10 m2 for a plant/boiler room. When
considering the width of the surrounding walkway take into
account the wall surface and the likely extent of splashes
~ ([). It is essential to provide an accessible below-ground
passage around the pool to contain pipework and
ventilation ducts as well as to check for leaks. Space
permitting, the design could also include a gym area, a
sauna, a hot whirlpool, a solarium and a bar.
Equipment
The equipment needed for a pool includes: water treatment
and filtration plant, steriliser dosing system, overflow water
trap (approx. 3 m3), water softener (from water hardness
7° dH) and foot disinfecting unit (particularly if carpeting is
laid around the pool). Heating can be with radiators,
convectors or air heating, combined with the ventilation
system, or possibly a solar energy collection unit. Under-
floor heating adds additional comfort but is only worth
while with floor insulation k over 0.7 or hall air temperature
below 29°C. Energy savings are possible using heat pumps
(cost depends on electricity price) and/or recovery heat
exchanger in the ventilation system, or covering the pool
(roller shutters or covering stage, but only where hall air is
below 29°C) or by increasing air temperature (controlled by
hygrostat) when the pool is not in use. Savings of up to 300/0
are possible.
Other considerations are underwater floodlighting
(safety element), slide, diving boards (if the pool depth and
hall height are sufficient), shade from the sun, counter-
current systems (which make small pool sizes practicable
~ @) and acoustic qualities/noise insulation.
Iheating
Iventilation
1.00
Splash distance from point
of origin
Indoor pool in a single-
family house
swimming pool
.
100
.
.
. normal
. • hotel
. 0
50
• 0 0 0
~
minimum limit
.iii 2~ I
0 large town hotel
0
0..
beds 100 200 300
1:
C)
'Q)
s:
..c
CIl
m
~
150t-----+---+--+---+_
150
- - _ _ r heavy splashing
100 - ~ , normal
---...._ " "splashing
.... "<,
~ "
",
(j)
o R.ough guide to hotel pool
sizes
Iskittle alley
Ihairdressing I
300
o
o
e-)
200
II
" II
111111111==~~~:i
, II
'11
II',
O~f~oE:::'"$~ba~th~$j::ll
--~-~----
I'---r--~~ kitchen
""'---,...........;~----'
~-,------------t
reception
""'---------'
100
counter-current system
,7.5 4.00 12.50 I
2.50
Smallest pool
0
walkway
~
g>
.~ m
0
Q)
0
U
m
ex:)
~
g>
0
.~
-g
.~
l!)
.8
N
<0
Common size of private
indoor pool
Arrangements relating to indoor pools
Maximum number of
swimmers present at one
time
beds
I
large t~wn hotel
I
I
I
I
/
I • normal hotel
0 I .
/
/: .
. . ..
/
I ... 0
0 0
. .
.. o. 0
100
CIl
E
E
.~
®
CD
CD
242

Pools that are within the
fabric of residential proper-
ties or hotel buildings are
generally constructed from
reinforced concrete and
supported separately. It is
essential that they have
groundwater compensating
valves to avoid damage to the
pool although expansion
joints are unnecessary for
pools under 12 m long. Plastic
pools are used only in
exceptional cases because of
the requirement for a
surrounding inspection and
services passage ~ (I). Their
use is only possible with a
special reinforcing support
structure.
Pool linings can be
ceramic tiles, glass mosaic or
a simple painted layer (so
long as waterproof cement
has been used). Another
possibility is to use a
polyester or PVC film at least
1.5 mm thick to seal the pool.
The edge of the pool
requires at least a surface
skimmer arrangement or,
better still, an overflow
channel to feed the filtration
and recirculation system.
There are several types that
can be considered ~ CD - @.
Plan for a drainage grille at
the deepest point and,
possibly, a counter-current
swimming system and under-
water floodlights. All such
fittings must be installed with
sealed flanges.
The surrounding floor
finish is normally slip-
resistant ceramic tiles or
natural stone and must be
inclined towards the pool or
overflow channel on all sides.
It is also possible to use
water-permeable carpet floor-
ing on a damp-proof base.
This improves both comfort
and the hall acoustics.
For indoor hotel pools, it is
important to have large
surrounding lounge areas
with chairs and lockers. A
separate connection between
hotel rooms and the pool area
is essential.
sealant + damp-proof course
screeding with gradient
glass mosaic or other type of lining
Suspended underfloor
heating: simple, cheap and
can be easily inspected
'St Moritz' type pool rim
overflow channel
grip tile
®
relative air humidity
water 50% I 60% 170%
temp. air temperature
28°e 26°e 28°e 300e
28°e
R 21 13 0 - 0
24°e M 219 193 143 - 67
R 48 53 21 2 0
26°e M 294 269 218 263 243
R 96 104 66 31 36
28°C M 378 353 302 247 227
R 157 145 123 81 89
300e
M 471 446 395 339 320
11 temperature difference 4k water/air
cannot be maintained permanently
at rest (R) and during maximum use (M)
@ Evaporation rates for
indoor pools (g/m2/h)
®
o Surface skimmer system
slip-resistant
paving
ring
drain
machine room
glazed doors
I
---1--
Ventilation with motor-
controlled air supply valve
(simple solution)
Finnish type rim and
channel
'Weisbaden' type poolside
overflow channel
grip tile
inspection
passage
®
®
CD
expansion joint
Overflowing pool with rim
paving and channel
'Weisbaden' type pool rim
overflow channel
channel
grating
/"
,
hydraulically
r opened dome
~
~
I
access
from
swimming pool anteroom cellar
I I.
L
@ Underground swimming pool
aluminium sheet
wall profile
o Aluminium pool with
polyester lining
CD
air and water temperature (OC)
e.g. water temperature t w 2rC:
evaporation limit in use 36mbar
(30°C/84% humidity) and 28 mbar when
still (30°C/65% humidity)
@ Evaporation limit for indoor
pool
III
~
:~ 50
~ 40
~ 30
g20
0..
~ 10
~ ----~~-~-±::+~~:-:::--
r-------------,I
I
I
I
I
ventila~ion
: condenser
. I
I
I
I
;::; .J
fresh air
from
adjacent
room
~~::rrn
Simple plant without fresh
air supply (cheaper to
operate and install)
norse
insulation
r --
:ventil
L.a~l~n_
Layout of a fresh-air
ventilation plant
--l
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
fresh air
Hybrid heat pump and
dehumidification plant
@
243

under cantilevered
edge
flocculation, pH correction
in pool wall top
bench seat
to drains
o Whirlpool servicing diagram
in lower pool wall in channel in floor
CD Pool covers: built-in options
drains
drains
to drains
o Servicing diagram for pool with overflow channel
G) Classic filter system with skimmer and supply
water 1"
~~... .r"Ia.----- seating
corner
® Swimming pool, whirlpool and sauna
terrace
® Whirlpool, sauna and pool with roman steps
o Swimming pool, whirlpool and sauna
entrance t>
® Round pool with integrated whirlpool
6.50 x 3.20 x 1.20/1.60
10.20 x 4.10 x 1.50
4.00 x 2.35 x 1.00
9.20 x 3.90 x 1.80
® Polyester prefabricated
pool ~@
@ Prefabricated pools
244

Hall adjacent to office
room
®
Entrance adjacent to cellar
steps
HOUSES: PORCHES AND ENTRANCE
HALLS
Porches playa crucial part in sheltering the entrance hall
from inclement weather conditions. They should be
designed as far as possible with the prevailing local wind
direction taken into account. In addition, they should be
visible from the street or garden gate.
The key rooms with the highest levels of circulation, and,
in particular, stairways, should be immediately accessible
from the hall ----? (2) - @. For instance, an effective design
could have the hall providing a direct connection between
the kitchen, stairs and we ~ @.
-Ul E
- 0
~ 2
'-"0
co Q)
0..0
Ul E
- 0
"00
~-o
U Q)
.0
Ul E
- 0
"00
~-o
U Q)
.0
o Side entrance
Q)
o
c::
co
c::
Q)
Q)
TI
'(ji
G) Relationships between rooms
o Central entrance
® adjacent to cellar steps (j) adjacent to living room ® adjacent to porch
® adjacent to kitchen, WC,
cellar steps, bathroom and
bedroom
CORRIDORS
Where a long corridor is
necessary, the width is
established according to its
position, whether the doors
are on one or both sides,
the arrangement of the
doors, and the anticipated
volume of circulation.
Appropriate corridor widths
are shown in ~ ® + @.
If possible all doors
should open into the
rooms.
I
1.60
I
doors on both sides, large volume of
traffic: 1.6m width to allow two (2.0m
or more for three) people to pass each
other comfortably
~.~~
... -
1.30-1.40
1
doors on one side, and wide enough for
two people to pass one another
unhindered: width 1.30 to 1.40 m
~ 90-1.0
-:-:-:-;;:;:I.,
doors on one side and low level of traffic:
minimum width of 0.9 m required (1.0 m is
better)
@ Corridor with doors opening into the rooms
-----rbl M~:2",-,-W-,-,".,","",·--'-'-'-~~'-'--'-'-
II
offset doors on both sides, heavy doors opposite one another on both
traffic sides
I... ~
·1.ao
doors on one side, heavy traffic
777"7"77"J ... '
======~·fl
doors on one side, low traffic: corridor
width = door width plus 50 cm
@ Doors open into these corridors
245

5 m 2 landing serving five
rooms and a bathroom
3 m 2 landing serving four
large rooms, a small one
(e.g. bathroom) and a we
®
7 m 2 landing serving six
large rooms and one small
one
LANDINGS AND HALLWAYS
Floor areas required for different
numbers of rooms
O 3 m 2 landing, as @, with
storelbathroom but no we
(open stairway gives
appearance of 4 m 2 landing)
large and two small rooms
large rooms and we (best
use of space, good layout)
®
CD
1 m 2 landing serving three
large rooms at end of
stairway, no continuation
f5 4 m 2 landing, similar to ®
~ + @, serving no more
rooms but with better plan
4 m 2 landing serving eight
rooms, with split-level floors
(best use of staircase areas)
@
room _ ......... room
rooms, a bathroom, dressing
room and storeroom
rooms, a bathroom and a
dressing room
7 m 2 landing serving eight
rooms
®
kitchen room
room
child's
room

@ 1 m 2 hallway serving four
rooms, separating the
bedroom, children's room,
bathroom and living room
f.i4 2 m 2 hallway serving three
~ rooms; otherwise like @
2 m 2 hallway serving four
rooms with fitted wardrobes
and cupboards
@ 3 m2 hallway serving six rooms:
kitchen, bathroom, three
bedrooms and a living room
246
@ 4 m 2 hallway serving five
rooms, some with fitted
wardrobes
@ 5.2 m 2 hallway with built-in
cupboards serving six rooms
These figures show the arrangement and number of doors
to rooms that are 2 m wide or more for different sizes and
shapes of landing and hallway. The layouts giving the most
economical use of space are shown in @, ®, @ and @. The
majority of these examples are based on an aisle width of
1m, which is suitable as a minimum because two members
of a family can still pass one another. This width does not,
however, leave enough space for built-it cupboards, which
are often desirable ~ @. Enlargement of a landing or
hallway at the expense of room size can allow better door
arrangements and not make the rooms feel any less
spacious ~ @.

STORAGE SPACE
Corners behind doors and
spaces under stairs and
sloping roofs can all be
used to provide storage
space.
The easiest space to
exploit is under the
staircase, where there is
often room for large sliding
cupboards --) ® or even a
work space-) @.
Where cupboards are
built into spaces under roof
slopes it is important to
ensure good insulation
must be provided behind
the units. Such cupboards
should also have air holes
at the top and bottom, or
have louvre doors --> @ - @,
so that there is constant
ventilation.
~:~4~~:~~~~~1
® Work space under the stairs
.: ~
r-:-..
··;.·v:
. ,-;
~u
~.__ """" .....n-
t
jE1-€
o Cupboard in the WC --) ~
perspective r.-:-rrr-.....-~_~l(.
~
~:": ,,~
~ "
:::.i...:
fL
:: r7
l~
"
,:
'"
...,.... ':-'
f'' 1/
, 1 11 1
~~
Cleaning materials cupboard in the spare
space next to a fitted wardrobe
Box bench for cleaning materials and equipment
corner cupboards • G)
o Cupboard in the WC --) @
o
Corner cupboards
next to side door
Sliding cupboards under
the stairs
®
o Equipment storage in the
roof space
Sliding bed stored in roof
space
@
Extended drawers can be
used under the roof slope
Shelves on rollers under
the roof slope
Drawers in the roof space
®
Sliding cupboards in the
eaves
Roof-space cupboards with
louvre doors
@ Roof-space cupboards next
to the dormer
@ Folding bed under a steep
roof slope
247

rungs for room side rail
height (mm) length (mm)
12 3630 1710
16 4750 2250
20 5870 2770
UTILITY ROOMS
In utility rooms there must be adequate cupboard space for
storing cleaning materials and equipment, tools and
ladders ~ CD - @. Each cupboard should, if possible, be no
less than 60cm wide.
In some circumstances, and particularly in multistorey
housing units, chutes made of stainless steel or galvanised
steel sheet can be used for discharging household waste
or collecting laundry ~ @ --@. They will require a
ventilation shaft with a cross-sectional area of 30-350/0 of
the waste chute. For safety, chute insertion points can have
electrical doors so that only one load at a time can be
dropped.
Linen chutes are most likely to be worth considering in
houses on sloping sites with utility rooms in the basement.
Household waste should ideally be collected and
transported in portable containers ~ @ + @, the dimensions
of which need to be taken into account when planning the
standing and movement areas required. These intermediate
waste containers are made of steel sheet or polyethylene
and have capacities up to 110m3 (11001). More common
household dustbins of polyethylene or galvanised sheet
steel are free-standing and have no wheels ~ @. They range
from 50 to 110 I capacity and can be contained in a purpose-
built outhouse ~ @.
@ Waste disposal and laundry collection systems ~ @ + @
shaft dia. (em) minimum dimension (cm)
chute air vent a b c d e
loose household waste 40+45 25 55 55 24 95
waste in bags (110 I) 50 30 60 60 24 130
paper (office waste) 55 30 65 65 24 110
c
co
linen (family house) 30 15 35 35 11.5 110
(/)
,~
linen (larger units such as 40 25 45 45 11.5 110
~
flats, hostels, hotels 45 25 50 50 11.5 110 >;::
or hospitals) 50 30 55 55 11.5 110
rungs for room side rail
height (mm) length (mm)
3 2400 1350
4 2600 1580
up to 8 3500 2540
@ Ladders
Dimensions: waste bin,
broom, dustpan and brush
y
® Stepping stool
o Vacuum cleaners
CD
1--- 30------1
h
20
25
30
Multipurpose vacuum
cleaner
Dimensions: bucket and
long-handled brush/mop
o
20
25
30
® Folding step-ladders ~ ®
CD
air vent
11
i1
11
Waste/collection container in
cellar
@ Waste disposal in bags
~ ~
) ~ ....
I["C !--~!
, n
1.5 , II
I II
_I_~:
--'1
II
II
2.00
® Useful cupboard height
.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:«:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.~
o Carpet-beating bar
73
(40) .-.<--(55)
J~rn-~-I~8
(93)
'1' ~1,36---------r
~I
~~R~
J'~""''''El
-:J~ O~:-:.: 11 T
~ 76 -t-, 76 --j 0 '" 0
~ , ~3 -----1 '. ...: co I"'-
~ 71 --1 =t : -LLl
L r , t N : .•.• , ••••••••
II ~~ ------ll width increased by
820 mm for each
additional door
® Space requirement for enclosed external waste bins @ Dustbins @ Large bins (intermediate
waste containers)
248

UTILITY ROOMS
The best position for utility rooms is facing north. They
should ideally be near the side or rear door and be adjacent
to or accessible from the kitchen -j (f) - @.
Utility rooms are used for a variety of purposes,
including storage, laundry and ironing, sewing and possibly
also for hobby activities. To be of real value, the length
available for standing space or work surface should be a
minimum of 3.80 m (preferably 4.60 m) - j (2).
The arrangement of the equipment should allow safe
and convenient use: for example, an ironing board when
used standing needs to be at a different height than when
seated ~ @ - @.
Standing space required
for equipment
(3)
fittings/ width, better
equipment min (ern)
automatic washing 60 60
machine and dryer
(upright unit)
wash-basin with 60 60
water heater
dirty laundry container 50 60
worktop for folded linen 60 1.20
ironing surface ca. 100 1.00
storage cupboard 50 60
total ca. 380 4.60
Arrangement for utility
rooms
II II It 11
8f6 af6 gf6 af6
II Ii Ii
M+
~
+
s
J..
1-60 -+-1.20------1 1--60+-1.20 -+60-100---1 I-60-1-1 .20--+-60-1 oo-i 1-60-t-1.2O-+60-100~
I----l.80~ r-----2.40-2.80----l r----- 2.40- 2.80 - ------1 I----2.40- 2.80-------i
0 Single-sided domestic
CD Double sided
CD U shape
® L shape
utility room (L shape)
<:> 6 6
(5) Utility room at side
entrance
® Accessible from kitchen
® Beside kitchen, accessible
from corridor
@ Behind kitchen and
bathroom
I
95
,,<~l
~ 1.00------l
Hinged ironing boards on
wall or in cupboard
@ @ Electrical clothes press
Ironing combination,
collapsible
~85--; ~
32
-l
---------........---..~ I
94
1
@ Sewing machine @ Ironing and sleeve pressing
board
@ Electrical ironing machine @ Ironing machine built into
cupboard
249

® Spacious larder
dining
area
kitchen 0 0
D 1.0
PANTRIES, LARDERS
When planning houses or flats, space should be allocated
for rooms such as larders, pantries or cold stores. The most
practical solution is to have a larder in or beside the kitchen
~ (2)- @. It must be cool, well-ventilated and shaded from
the sun. Connections for a freezer unit and a drinks cooler
should also be provided if the larder is of sufficient size and
storage shelves are best arranged right up to the ceiling.
In very large households, there may be a need for a cold
store. These are supplied in modular form in a range of
sizes ~ ® and include separate cooling and freezer sections.
o Larder behind dining area
L shape
I 50 I 75 I
I 125
60
I 50 I 75 I 50 I
175
r--~~---------j
U shape
o Corner larder
20
H
~!4--~
I 175 --1
double sided
single sided
o Larder and cupboard
G) Typical larder plans
kitchen 60 45
(}l :-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:.:.:-:-:-:. o Xl I)
-:.:.:.:.:-:-:.:.:-:.:.:.:.:.:-: 0:.....
................ °
~I' 'I _
u.u 'I
~!' 'I
1.50 ---i
®
® Space-saving larder
adjacent to bathtub recess
([) As ® but adjacent to WC ® Larder by kitchen entrance
Sizes of cold stores
(useful area 1.23-3.06 m 2 )
STORAGE
bedroom
@ Storeroom in hallway @
bedroom
Storerooms in bedrooms
and hallway
Apart from the cellar and attic rooms there should be at
least one storeroom (1 m 2 or more, with a minimum internal
width of 75cm and good ventilation) in the house. For larger
dwellings at least 20/0 of the living area should be planned
as storage room. The space is needed for storing cleaning
equipment and materials, tools, ironing board, shopping
baskets and bags, cases, stepladder etc. Doors should open
outwards to give more space and internal lighting must be
provided, perhaps by a contact switch on the door. A recess
close to kitchen for built-in cupboards is desirable ~ @.
shoe
cupboard
@ Storerooms and cupboards @ Storerooms in entrance
area
Storeroom and shoe
cupboard in entrance area
@ Larder and storeroom in
kitchen area
250

Worktops and storage
60cm deep
KITCHENS
. .
....................... .
I-~ 1.20--1
Low-level oven requires
adequate space in front;
extractor hood above cooker
...............................................
................................................
r60-+-1.10-1.20-r60-j
Section through kitchen;
space for two people
F""'--- 2.30---......._"11
,","" , "~ , " .
.•....•.•.•...•.•.•••.................•...•.....•.............•.•...•.•.............
CD
t-45+ 40+-- 80-+-60-1
Section through kitchen
with two worktops
................................................
crockery storage cupboards, accessible
from both sides
l- 60-+---1.20---+-60-1
® Household sink heights and
high shelving
® Hatch between kitchen and
dining room
(j) Side-by-side working
® Self-closing doors with
kick-plate between pantry
and dining room
......................
....................... ..••.......•...........•......... . .
. . .......•••..................................................
® Correct/incorrect kitchen
lighting
@ Normal table height of 85 cm
lies between the best heights
for baking and dish-washing
@ Pull-out worktop for use
when seated
@ Correct design of cabinet
bases for convenient cleaning
and working (~8 cm)
................................................
..... .
r60-+50-1.10-1
. .
. .
................................................................................
.............................................................. .
recommended maximum height is 92 cm
. .
@ A breakfast bar arrangement
Pull-out/swivelling table
Extractor hood: better than
just a fan
Extractor fan on outer wall
(A), better if directly above
cooker (8)
@
@ Section through kitchen
units: preferred
measurements
@ Kitchen fittings and standing areas required
@ Plinth depth varies height
of work surface
251

Built-in and Fitted Units
KITCHENS
Despite increasing standardisation, the dimensions and
manufacturing ranges of kitchen fittings still vary
considerably. Built-in units are generally available from
20-120cm (in 5cm steps), usually with a height of 85cm.
In an architect-designed kitchen, the various elements
are assembled in a way that cannot be altered, with
worktops and storage surfaces, possibly including an
electric oven (with cut-outs for hotplates) and a continuous
cover plate.
The materials used in kitchen units include, wood,
plywood, chipboard and plastic. Exposed wood surfaces are
varnished or laminated with plastic. Shelves are of wood or
plastic-coated chipboard; metal shelves are best for pots
and pans. Sliding or folding doors are useful if space is
restricted because they require no additional space when
opened.
Floor units ~ CD + CV are for storing large, heavy or
seldom-used kitchen equipment. Wall-mounted cabinets ~
@ + ® have a small depth so that the worktops beneath
them can be used without hindrance. They allow crockery
to be reached without bending.
Full-height cupboards ~ @ can be used for storing
cleaning materials, brooms etc. but are are also suitable for
housing refrigerators, ovens, or microwaves at a
convenient height.
Sinks and draining boards should be fitted into floor
units, which may also include a waste bin, dishwasher and
disposal units (and, if necessary, an electric water heater).
Special equipment, such as retractable breadbins with
universal cutting board, equipment cupboards with special
pull-out or hinged compartments, retractable kitchen
scales, spice drawers, pull-out towel rails etc., save time
and effort.
An extractor above the cooker is recommended ~ @ and
extractor hoods are most suitable for this task. There is a
differentiation to be made between air extraction and
recirculation systems. Extractor systems require a vent to
the outside but are more effective than recirculation
systems and so are the preferred type.
® Corner units
c]IW
f-----l
base shapes
H(cm) x W(cm) x Dtcm) III
85 65-110 60 ~ W
»-~J'-"l
/,..--- ...... ( W
" -_/
o Double wall-mounted unit
Hicrnl x W(em) x Dtcrn) If - 1-'I
85 70-150 60 rn
~
HI~ rn
~~~
o Double floor unit
Htcm) x Wlem) x Diem) It---t----~I
50 70-150 35
65
100 - - -I I - - -
c::=:::=c::==:J
HI~ g
/~7W
D
H(cm) x W(cm) x D(cm)
85 20-60 60
Hicm) x Wleml x Diem) ~ ]I
35 20-120 35
65 _
100 I
c::=:::::J
HI~,' ~
~" ~
~~l EJ
CD Full-height cupboards
o Single wall-mounted unit
G) Single floor unit
Htcrn) x W(cm) x D(cm)
203 45-60 40-60
@ Cooker space
Electrical waste
compaction unit
®
Kitchen centre
®
(j) Built-in cooker
.~
Equipment cupboard and
towel cupboard
Saucepan cupboard with
drawers
@
@ Extractor hood
@ Dishwasher
252

KITCHENS
The dimensions of built-in
units and equipment must be
taken into consideration
when designing the layout
and storage areas of a space-
efficient kitchen. Modern
electrical and gas units as
well as kitchen furniture are
made such that they can
usually be fitted together and
built in, giving combinations
that ensure a smooth flow of
work. Provide sufficient
shock-proof sockets: a
minimum of one double
socket for each working and
preparation area.
A double sink unit is
usually required ~ (J) - @,
ideally with a draining surface
on one side and a standing
surface on the other.
Dishwashers should be fitted
to the right or left of the sink.
Where the kitchen is very
small, compact kitchens ~ @
offer a solution. They require
little space and can be fitted
with many useful features.
@ Compact kitchen
Dimensions: built-in
refrigerators
® Sink units
®
size w d h
(I) (em) (em) (em)
50 55 55-60 80-85
75 55 60-65 85-90
100 55 60-65 90
o Refrigerator
1.24
1.24
86
1.10
® Types of built-in sinks
f5 Dimensions: refrigerators
:::!.} and freezers ~ @ + ®
size w d h
(I) (em) (em) (em)
50 55 55-60 80-85
75 55 60-65 85
100 55-60 60-65 85
125 55-60 65-70 90-100
150 60-65 65-70 120-130
200 65-70 70-75 130-140
250 70-80 70-75 140-150
o Large gas cooker
1[j[J14
1I~~[JI
86 1.24
~.".""":"':':I"....185
~~~
/ /0" .., <Q90
~ .
~ ~/2S'
~".""~
~.-.
~~
..
".•..:
..::.•.
:.•..'.-"'_' t16-18
.. -'.
'~.. .
fl!1!:tiles above~
turned-up edge
o Dimensions: built-in sinks
o Upright freezer
G) Electric cooker
~
@ Kitchen boards
meat/cheese cutting board
fo~
~
@ Gla~s or plastic storage
canisters
I-I-I-I-~
~1()()----t
ffiB 1r"""""""T_'''''''''''_
ffffi"'T""T:
:~-?--o1_1 EEEl
~50----f 1--1oo------t ~50--i
@ Hotplate
[QJ{
24
single cooking plate
~3.5I
@ Mincer
@ Multipurpose slicer
36
@ Food processor
table scales
wall-mounted
scales
@ Kitchen scales
253

KITCHENS
Kitchens should face north-east or north-west and be
adjacent to any vegetable/herb garden and cellar. Ideally the
kitchen should look out on the garden gate, house door,
children's play area and the patio ~ CD. They should be well
located internally with respect to the pantry, dining room
and utility room.
Although the kitchen is primarily a workplace within the
house, it is a room in which the householder may spend
long periods so careful design is important. The kitchen is
also often a meeting point for the family if it contains a
dining or snack area ~ (J).
When fitting out the kitchen arrange the units in a way
that follows the sequence of tasks to reduce the amount of
walking required, and ensure there is sufficient room for
free movement. Where possible, seek to reduce the amount
of work done standing and ensure no activity requires an
unfavourable body posture by matching working heights to
body sizes. Good lighting of the work surfaces is another
essential provision (-t p. 251).
An appropriate arrangement to ease work in the kitchen
would be, from right to left: storage surface, cooker,
preparation area, sink, draining surface -t @ - @. (Note that
left-handed people often prefer to work from left to right.) A
width of 1.20 m between the sides is essential for free
movement and using appliances and fittings. With a depth
of 60cm on each side this gives a minimum kitchen width of
2.40m -t@.
The minimum area for a cooking recess is 5-6 rn-': for
normal kitchens it is 8-10m2, and 12-14m2 for normal
kitchens with dining or snack areas -~ @ - (J).
For planning purposes, the following width
requirements for fittings and equipment may be used:
cooker 60cm, twin sinks and draining surface (including
dishwasher) 150 cm, refrigerator 60 cm, freezer 60 cm,
cupboards (provisions, cleaning materials, crockery and
appliances) 170cm. With a worktop surface width of 200cm,
this gives a total requirement of 700cm of standing area.
pantry,
crockery,
room-divider,
hatch
frequency of use of
routes between areas
main interrelationships
with other areas
frequency of using
work area
--------------,
~ ~~_n_t~~ J
r--------------, r--------------,
I I I I
: __
~t~~~~_r~~~_ :-t~~~~_~:~~~~~~_j
r--------------,
I I
L ~~~~~~ J
o Use of kitchen areas
work and
preparation
area at
window
/
/
view from kitchen
routes
rooms normal only in larger houses
G) Relationship between large kitchen and other areas
o Effective kitchen workplace arrangement
waste
box
L-shaped kitchen with
dining area
(Haas & Sohn)
I I
1"c:::::J.I-- I I
- - -
D I
=
o
........................
200
r.11<......---....------,111I
o
o
----.- 365 -----+--~-Al·1
o sitting area
I~D'2
1111
..--------0
o
...... ODD 0 :.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.::.:::;
II : 00
<11 I
~ I -6,2-.
~ : I 187
5
D '- I I
§ ~ I ~ - -- 80 r-
":!~IDnl'~
~~~I ~:
CD U-shaped kitchen
IIIII ~~ E
0::.:..:
0
D
60 ~.~ C
00
00 ~: B
:' A
.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:
:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.-.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.
F = large worktop and cupboard units
G =wall units
H = full-height cupboard
® Two-sided kitchen
111
Q
[]
T
E t
o 90
t
C 60
00 : 8 ±
00 1
A 3J!
:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:
.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:
A storage surface '30 D ~ s.nk (according to make)
B cooker 60 E = standing/draining
C stor.rqe surface 60 surface
o One-sided kitchen
~-- --/
: I I:
II ! [];;I]
" 11111' .
254
® Perspective view of one-
sided kitchen ~ (4)
® General view
Mini-kitchen with internal
ventilation
~ 90 ------1 t--- 60 -
@ Kitchen wall unit

DINING ROOMS
Dimensions of plates
III
o Serving cutlery
o Dining cutlery
~
~
~ ~
<Jl 0 0>
<Jl (1)
ro
<Jl
.3- ~
0, <Jl ~ C C C
(1) ro 0 0 0 c 0 (1)
c .s 0>
0..
0 0 0 0
.~
ft ft 0
ft ~
2 c .L: ft
(1) 0 <Jl
~ ~
(1) ~ ~
(1) (1) (1)
~
(1) rc
~
.~ '> (1) <Jl C
] <Jl
.0 .0
~
(1)
C
"0 :.0
~
(1)
:::J
;;::
~
(1)
c
~
0, 0.
(1)
~
c
~
~
~
G) Glasses
® Menu: soup, meat course,
dessert, drink
® Menu: soup, fish and meat
course, dessert, white and
red wine
(]) Menu: soup, fish and meat
course, ice cream, white,
red and sparkling wine
® Menu: starter, fish and
meat course, dessert,
white, red and sparkling
wine
@ Tea-trolley
@ Toaster
@ Coffee machine
T
18
1
® Egg boiler
standard extending table
~
O,9()- 7.<o
- - 7~~
/ - ", ~-7 9
I ", ........ S
,/ " , '
1" ,/
",
1"" ", ,
''::::- ", "f
78 -;;"/
1
standard round
extending table
@ Serving table @ Dining table @ Large extending table @ Dining table
-- -,
[]:
--~
[]:I
[]:I
45
~
~ 1.80-----1
r--
:[]
L:__
:[]
I
:[]
I
:[J []~
I I
I II I
I t:::::J I
L. .J
1------1.80-----1
1------2.00-----1
number of diners width depth (em) spaee required
(em) (em) (m 2)
four people 2130 2.6
five people 2180 3.8
six people 2180 2195 3.9
seven people 2245 5.1
eight people 2260 5.2
orou nd table = _(se_a_t_w_id_th_(_m_)x_n_u_m_b_er_o_f-,-pe_o-,-p_le)
3.142
e.g. for 0.60 m seat width and six people = (0.60 x 6) = 1.15 m 2
3.142
@ Minimum area
requirements
@ Minimum area
requirements
@ Minimum area requirements ~ @ + @
255

T
I
1
60
DINING AREAS
It is often desi rable to have
space in the kitchen for eating
snacks, breakfast etc. and use
the dining room for main
meals only. This can be
provided by including a
retractable table, with a height
of 7D-75cm, which is pulled
out of a base unit ~ @. A
movement area of at least
aOcm is needed to the left and
right of the table. If sufficient
space is available a fixed table
against a free-standing unit
can be used ~ @. Another
alternative is the breakfast bar
arrangement @. This
requires less depth than the
fixed table, even though the
surface is also 40cm deep,
because of its elevation but
this also means that special
stools are required. Depending
on their design, full dining
areas require far more space
but they can obviate the need
for an additional dining room
--..., ([) + @. A corner seat and
dining table take up the least
amount of space --..., @.
It is useful to be able to
extend the dining room
through wide doors or a
folding wall for special
occasions --..., @ + @. To eat
comfortably an individual
needs a table area of
60 x 40cm. A strip of 20cm is
needed in the centre of the
table for dishes, pots and
bowls --..., CD. Lighting should
not be dazzling: the ideal
distance from lower edge of
the light to the table top is
around 60 cm --..., CD.
Suitable locations for dining
rooms are shown in @ - @.
n
~gg
'Q
~
H.10-1
Round table, four to six
people
+
50
70
1.80
30::;:
50
i
®
® Breakfast bar
o Allow for drawers and
doors
~60-+ 40+35 +-~~'--
-+-
60
...L
T
1
T
1.35
2.40
I
0
T
I 45
1
I I ~
+ (51
I I
D
T
60
45 30
L__J .i,
+
L::: __ J +
30
[51 +
60 30
0 +
L:: __ J +
30
D'
+
60
c _J 30
1
-~
~ ?
~I.:.•·...·... ......:
....•.•..r-;nla~g-;;~~~l possible by
~ • • • ~ opening up.f~I~lng 4.00
doors to adjoininq room
00000 ------~:---
I
r-50+- 155 -+-- 390 --~--150---------1
Ensure clear access to rear
seats with more than five
diners
Allow space between
sideboard and table for
walkway
1-60-+35+--60-+ ~ +- 80-+ ~-+35~
.........................
I(] []
[J D
I(] D
Q
f-1.00~
®
T~
120 50
4-
1 3J
® Fitted table
f--- 3.00 -----1
CD
1.
T
1.00
1
T
1.27
o~ol~
A ~ /::
V / .:
:~~:J'rn--"'''''''''"1/ J
f-60--1
:[B
: :
:~> :
Smallest space for dining
table and recess
f-- 1.80 ---l
~--- 3.30 ----------1
:: '0
:'- --IIJ--------.
:: I
::•
.;.;._.J~__----l
.:. '0
:::. I
::' I
~55-+-~+-90 - 110-+~+- 1~ ----l
similar space to railway restaurant cars
CD Retractable table
~ 1.70--1
G) Minimum table-to-wall
distance depends on how
food will be served
Minimum size for six diners
with round table
Most comfortable seating arrangement in dining room for 12
people (with sideboard)
~ 40 --+20 +- 40 --1
@ Typical table cover
patio N
~==..-====--...t--,'"
r:j6 Dining room and living
~ room, as @, on common
patio giving good natural
lighting
Dining room between patio
and living room: folding
doors allow combination
with the living room
Self-contained dining room
between kitchen and living
room (undisturbed dining
area)
N
...
@ Dining room layout scheme
256

Bedroom with
shower/bathroom
315
@
BEDROOMS
To ensure comfort while
sleeping, the bed length
should be 250 mm longer
than the individual's height.
Based on average heights,
beds are produced in a
range of standard sizes: 900
x 1900 mm, 1000 x 1900 mm,
1000 x 2000 mm, 1600 x
2000 mm and 2000 x
2000 mm. The bedroom
layout should give at least
600 mm, preferably 750 mm,
around the bed ~ CD. This is
important to allow the bed
to be made easily and also,
if there is a cupboard
standing parallel to the bed,
to give enough space for
movement even if the
cupboard doors are open.
There should always be
a bedside cabinet to the left
and right of double beds
and a headboard, onto
which one can fix clip lights
for reading, is also useful -4
@. Bedside lamps should
be provided in addition to
general lighting.
About 1m of cupboard
length should be planned
per person. If there is not
enough room in the bed-
room, then space can be
found in the corridor -4 @.
At least one mirror, in which
one can see oneself from
head to toe, shou Id be fitted
in a bedroom: mirrored
cupboard fronts are even
better.
c
~
l/l
~
'c
o
E
c
~
l/l
g>
'c
o
E
Bedroom with adjacent
child's room
child's 60
room
2.00 ~~bo1
Large bedroom with
dressing corridor
mirror ~
Bedroom with space for
dressing table and side
cupboard
~<L t75.~
Walk-in cupboard with
folding doors
north
7~+ 75+_ t t 7~
--2:-60-
- folding doors
@
®
o
o
c
~
l/l
g>
'c
o
E
c
~
l/l
g>
'c
o
E
75
.-t--------,
north
4'
200
• •
::.,
.•...•••..•,•..•.•
:.,
.••..•
,
•.••.
,:.....•.•••.:•.
,••...... : L :
..::
.•.•
,........•....,
..
"].:
.•:•.•..•
:•......•..... '$
.1
dressing
room ~ _.
I_l/--l
t
o
o
>------+-_2_.0_0 +~
Bedroom with dressing
room and access to
bathroom
® Bedroom with dressing room
® Standard bedroom layout
(3) Storage: bedside table
c
~
l/l
g>
'c
o
E
cupboards
both sides
75
350
200 100
~----+----l
Bedroom with adjacent
cupboard corridor
~-+-__
2_.00
__+~~
o Bedroom with dressing room
beneficial: wall cupboard
as sound insulation
o Small bedroom for a child
G) Allow 750 mm around beds
Two-bed room for
children/guests
@ Two-bed room @ Dividable -~ @
257

Types of Bed
BEDROOMS
Sofa-bed: pull-out mattress
®
~--,
sloping roof
Sofa-bed: bedding stored
behind backrests
I
so r -
/ r.ao
2.00 ~ 200
/ <, /
Low steel tubular bed 8) Grandmother's feather bed
o
CD
~-~t
t: ~ 55
---- +
/
~.~
Sofa-bed: bedding stored in
drawers under the mattress
CD
t
55
~
70~
o Canvas bed; folds to give a
.V stool
Couch/bed conversions
® Sofa-bed: bedding rolls up
in zipped covers
G) Sleeping bag
+-62-t-
Pullman bed for caravans
and railway sleeping cars
second bed by
rtSing~
'r 1
1
_
.:::<
--- -
57
@
Bunk for railway sleeping
cars, holiday homes etc.
Bed on cupboard for small
rooms, ships' cabins etc.
@
Bed on cupboard unit
Bunk beds and units
®
1.70
/
@ Top-hinged folding bed
@ Side-hinged folding bed
~ '
.J.E3 IS I
--+----1.90--t-
@ Sofa-bed (fold-out)
separate storage
required for
bedding
Fold-up beds
@ Bed/chair (fold-out)
Castor-mounted folding and wall beds
stored in
cupboards
.@-@
~
T
tI:.:::::~:::::.··:::·:::.····.::.·:··:··:·
•.·.·~:·.:··.:.:.·:··.•..:.:
...
· 0 1 :
••
:::·.·.:.:
..:.·.:·:::.:.·.:.::
.•..
:
.•:.:.:.:.:::G}:::::::
•.•.....•.
:..•..
:
...•
:
..•
:
..
".::::, 93
;.:-»:-::·:·::~lf~.:-:.;::.:.::::·.:-_.
.:-:-:<.:« ";--.:->:-:-
...
~ 72 + 68
T~::.:::
•...::::::..
:::..•.:.:.:.:..
:.:::.....:
•.
:.:
...•.•....::.:.:.:::.:.:.•. :~..•
::
.•
:.:
•••:.:
..
:..•:
.•
:
......•.•:.:
..
73 t~
.L
[~~J~
r----------~ r--"---"': T
n- 2.10 ~
2.00
I
I I
L ,
95
2~20
• I
~ - - - - - --- - - - - '
@ Folding bed on castors
Wall cupboards for folding
beds
Beds unfolded in front of
cupboard doors
Hinged/swinging folding
beds
258

® In cupboard alcove
------
/~
o In wall alcove~/
® End of room
BEDROOMS
Bed Positions
The position of the bed within a room can have a significant effect on a person's feelings of well-being:
CD In corner of room
G) Against side wall 0 With head to wall 0 Away from the wall 0 In centre of room
A self-assured person is happy to sleep anywhere in the room whereas somebody with an anxious disposition may prefer
to sleep next to a wall:
In addition to room decoration and furnishings, a restful atmosphere also depends on the orientation of the bed (head best
towards north), position with respect to the light (looking away from window) and the door (looking towards door). Where
there is more than one bed their position with respect to each other is important:
® Friends @ Sisters @ Brothers @ Guests
Different arrangements of beds may be desirable if friends, sisters, brothers or guests sleep in one room:
<,2.00
~
@ Double bed, single mattress @ Double bed, two mattresses
some people
prefer to lie in
opposite directions
® Two beds, side by side @ Bunk arrangement
The arrangement of double beds (and single beds placed side by side or as bunks) has more to rio with personal preference
than space. Separate beds have now become common for couples whereas an enclosed double bed was customary in the past:
@ Box bed @ Four-poster bed ® Canopy bed @ Ornate bed surround
The last example is formed like a basilica and lit by a special ceiling light when the curtains are closed. These last four
examples show how the room and furniture decoration has depended strongly on the customs of the era.
259

o
LO
N
@ Section----t@
o
LO
N
Good wardrobe arrangement; optimum space utilisation
Bed Alcoves and Wardrobes
BEDROOMS
@ Section----t@
Built-in cupboards and fitted wardrobes are ideal for owner-
occupied houses, whereas free-standing units are better for
rented housing. With small rooms it is necessary to make
use of every space and this need can be satisfied effectively
by creative use of built-in cupboards. Highly suitable are
complete fitted wardrobes or cupboard rooms in walls
between the bedrooms.
Care must be taken to avoid condensation in cupboards
on exterior walls. This is achieved by providing insulation
and good ventilation. Ventilation is also necessary for
cupboard rooms ---t @.
T
1.00
1
o
1.0
N
Section ----t (f)
3.25
above
o Double alcove (shelves on
the doors)
o Alcove with single bed and
V overhead cupboard ----t ®
Section through
drawers ----t @
2.00 1.25
Bed alcove formed by built-
in cupboards
® Section----t@
CD
f1' Alcove with two-tier bed
J ---t@
~
~l~
I
....: ......: ....
:;:::::::::.
$
*
Cl
1.50
l-- +
I <:j
.. ...
ill &
60 1.00
55
1.50
65
I 30
65
55
Cupboard room between
two bedrooms
1.10
Built-in double wardrobe;
economical and compact
"
/I .
II
II
II
"
I'
,'/
(,..!:~~,....
~=~~d
30
70
internal finish:
wallpaper or painted
(j) Built-in wardrobe
clothes
shelves
,

,
"
/ 9-10
" .. '" ~/ suits
70
33
® Normal wardrobe
200
Cupboard room with space
for dressing
@
Cupboard room with
cupboards on both sides
8
M
Cupboard area with
separate accesses
io
,....
®
Cupboard space and
shower between two
child's bedrooms
®
260

J~
~
"-----55···15--
30 " r:~.: r<; 2
.:4
........•..•s
•..•.e
•.••••r••.•v
..1
..•
e
..t
•.• t.e.5
9 ..
;I~"':"" "'-.50
6 wash ··
..•.~SdX;.~:.:::·~
~ ~
<:
clo~thS
..
:..
:::::.:::•.:
..
:
.•.....:
...:
..
:•.::
.....::.:::..
:
....:. ,.... .. '.
30 .. ':.'..
: . , . 30
4 .'>::: 18
~halld 3 bath
towels towels
® Towels
6
For women
6 suits
10 coats
5 jackets
20 dresses
15 ski rts
15 blouses
20 tops
15 jumpers
15 pairs leggings/trousers
6 pyjamas/nightdresses
10 pairs shoes
4 hats
24 pillow cases
Storage requirements
BEDROOMS
For men
8 suits
6 coats
8 jackets
12 pairs trousers
20 shirts
15 tee-sh irts
12 jumpers
4 pairs pyjamas
8 pairs shoes
2 hats
When planning storage areas in bedrooms the following
numbers may be used to work out an approximate
minimum volume.
Sundry items
6 sheets
6 duvet covers
12 pillows and cases
8 bath towels
8 hand towels
(j) Bed linen
18~•.
~ ~.
- : ~'2~:eets~
~, 45~
25~ 13
12duvet "2
covers 0 0
12 women's
handkerchiefs
11"8x3
1
130
1 I
I
1.45_)1,60 i
I
,
II I'
ILL,I,
'L:ll'"
~ttl
o Women's dresses
o Trousers
o Pyjamas and handkerchiefs
~90cnl
men's
coats
"<: 5 10 .; 5070cm
~
5 10
1
I
I
G) Coats
~o
~
..::.:::.::•.•.,.: .:..•...:.:.:::.: 5-10 shirts
~~:.:.:::::.::
..
::
..
:
.. ::::.:.:..
:.: :.::.:.: :.,.:::.:::.::::•..•..:.::..:::: -:.. 1
..2 crn high
© •...........
~~12ri/
·
·4
rJ/
~ &/55
o Jackets
® Men's clothes
® Men's hats
27~
7~3J~
r:: ~ hatbox
@ Women's hats @ Boots and shoes @ Socks and gloves
~1.20~
48
l
@ Clothes hangers @ Dressing table Clothes chair (back in the
form of a hanger)
@ Built-in clothes cupboard
using the doors for storage
261

flush uses
6 I of water
Fittings
Deep-flush toilet bowl;
built-in cistern
®
BATHROOMS
convection
heating
® Bath panelled on one or
two sides with convection
heating
1151 575
..-41------1 t-+-l
t-335-i
II~A
L __ .J
lI1......2..
1.70
Squatting we (French
style)
->-
-/0-80 .' " ~
®
o Bath unit
1.50
1.25
1.04
T
45
1
~1.70--t-3O-; 1-30+-105--"1
o Bathing and sitting CD In the shower
~()
1.3-
6~'11 I
J~ !i 77
T
--1
40~
t:
1±1 ~ :t1
® Wall-mounted bidet
CD Wall-mounted deep-flush
toilet bowl and cistern
G) Deeper water required for shorter baths
1----1.05--l
Recommended clearance
@
Minimum space between
bath and wall
@
adjustable foot height
Necessary minimum wall
clearance for washing
we under sloping roof or
stairs
I II T~~~-
105 ~ 1
14~t 7
1530
l!1 ~ .L
··....···..~30·1·· ..···
~1.
@ Single vanity unit
Double vanity unit.
cupboards below
@ Bathroom cupboard
19-2~D~40T
47-75
1
@ Double wash-basin
Two wash-basins. towel
rails between
~
:..::.:.....~
~
:.:,.:-::-:,::-:-:::.~.:.:.:-",
...
:.:.>:.>:
(D,-4'
-,'-I~9-27
23-3d"i
f'14 Hot water storage tank f15 Gas heater: requires a flue
~ beneath wash-basin ~
~I~ mirror
~~
~~
@
262

160-18
70- 8
100-12
120-15
115-145
40- 55
120-175
100-145
A 80-100
B 75-100
L 80-100
T 130-175
A 38-45
B 60-75
L 55-75
T 120-135
A 35-45
B 35-45
L 60-75
T 100-120
Should be of a suitable size
and have ample surround-
ing flat storage surfaces.
Flush-mounted fittings save
space and are easy to clean.
Mixer taps save water and
energy. Note that 1.20 m
wide double wash-basins do
not really provide enough
free arm movement when
washing: better is a layout
with two basins, towel rails
in between and storage to
the sides ~ p. 262 @.
5. Wash-basins:
~L---i
t------A------i
BATHROOMS
4. Urinals ~ CD - @ are often
found in today's
households.
3. Bath tubs are usually
installed as built-in units
and may have convection
heating inside.
2. In contrast to showers,
baths may be used
medicinally (e.g. muscle
relaxation) as well as for
washing.
1. Wall-mounted units are
preferable for hygiene
reasons and for ease of
cleaning. Deep-flush WCs
reduce odours.
20
2S 4015 ~
~2.SO
n
1jt:::5 40 20 40 2S
~.15~
@ t-1.OO-+-70 -1
~1.70~
@
1D;
U25
@ ~2.SO_1._70_ _
@ t75-+-90-+-701t=90~
2.35 1.20--1
r--80-+-90 ~
~1.70~
tSO
-+-75-+-70l
1.95
r-1.00 -+-70-"1
~1.70~
1-70
-+-75
---1
~1.45~
il
75~
~O)
1.55 15
40 0
25
@
@
@
@
r4Of- 75-j
~1.15~
n
1.45 t
11
®
lll3S~.
4O~
20
n
1.75 t
U
(2) e:3
TJ(~)~~~
1 .- 8OX100
1-55-1
n;
145t
11 8
® e:~
CD ,70-+--751
~1.45~
III
1jC!)
CD e:~
CD
CD
263

BATHROOM
Cubicles
Traditional wet room installations usually involve
substantial expenditure and a lot of time. Because the
requirements are largely standardised, prefabrication is
desirable, especially for terraced and multi-family housing
projects, holiday homes, apartments, hotel facilities and for
old building restoration work. Sanitary blocks can be
prefabricated ~ CD - @, as well as utility walls or complete
cubicles ~ @ - @, with premounted piping as well as units
with accessories. Prefabricated compact cubicles are
supplied in a range of fixed dimensions.
Prefabricated cubicles are mostly sandwich construction,
with wooden frame and chipboard or fibre-cement panels.
They use aluminium, moulded stainless steel or glass-fibre
reinforced plastic to match the units and accessories.
o
Bathroom sanitary
elements
block placed against wall
CD
wall-forming block
block placed against wall
~--~- ~ 2 10 ------I
o Sanitary block in front of wall CD Utility wall
~-1.80 -----j
G) WC sanitary elements
f~~
1.32
L
~2.11---l
6 6 6
1+-72 -++--1.207
-------+i
Bathroom cubicle
®
!
224
1
Larger WC cubicle with
shower
7'i
2.115
J
®
I
1.40
1
®
o Shower cubicle with
service duct
~1.07-.,
Compact WC cubicle with
units
I
11
®
,3°i,6_ -~- 1.72 ~6
r;---
-~-!I
:l:2~
I "=""" .
~+--- -
:(0
I " -
r------- 1.53 ----1
I
1.53
1
I
2.05
1
~-- 1.45 ------I
I
1.45
1
t---------.~- 2.15 -----i
Bathroom cubicle with
washing machine
@ Compact WC cubicle @
2 As ~ @butwithshower
to one side
Compact cubicle with
shower
T
1.51 5
t:llr-'""lI::-:::r:I.'hoo'Il....--'"
1
o
:n
~D
:0
1-1.40-1
o
T
1.60
1
~-1.50---4
T
2.21
I
1
00
00
Hotel-style shower cubicle @ Shower cubicle in the
smallest flat
@ Prefabricated bathroom
with kitchen utility wall
Hospital-style WC cubicle
264

BATHROOMS
The most convenient location for the bathroom is adjacent
to the bedrooms (and the we if it is not incorporated in the
bathroom itself). Although showers are compact and often
preferred by younger people, baths are generally more
suitable for the elderly.
If the house has no utility room and a small kitchen,
spaces and connections can be provided in the bathroom
for washing machines and laundry baskets.
Location
bathroom unit/equipment floor area
width (em) depth (em)
built-in wash-basins and bidets
1 single built-in wash-basin > 60 > 55
2 double built-in wash-basin > 120 > 55
3 built-in single wash-basin with
cupboard below > 70 > 60
4 built-in double wash-basin with
cupboard below > 140 > 60
5 hand wash-basin > 50 > 40
6 bidet (floor-standing or
wall-mounted) 40 60
tubs/trays
7 bathtub > 170 > 75
8 shower tray > 80 > 80*
we and urinals
9 WC with wall unit or pressure cistern 40 75
10 WC with built-in wall cistern 40 60
11 urinal 40 40
washing equipment
12 washing machine 40 to 60 60
13 clothes drier 60 60
bathroom furniture
14 low cupboards, high cupboards, according
wall-hung cupboards to make 40
* in the case of shower trays with w = 90 this can also be 75cm
o Bathroom built into kitchen
WC
bathroom
stairs
E
o
2
(f)
ClJ
::J
Ol
Bathroom between bedrooms,
we accessible from corridor
E
o
2
(f)
:g
..c
o
CD
G) Spatial relationships with the bathroom
Swing doors to bathroom
and we from parents'
bedroom
Bathroom on landing
between bedrooms
@ Space requirements for bathroom and we units
water water water approximate
consumption consumption temperature time
for: (I) (OC) (mins)
washing:
hands 5 37 2
face 5 37 2
teeth 0.5 3
feet/legs 25 37 4
whole body 40 38 15
hair washing 20 38 10
children's bath 30 40 5
bathing:
full bath 140-160 40 15
sitz bath 40 40 8
shower bath 40-75 40 6
grooming:
wet shave 1 37 4
Hot water requirements: temperature and usage time for
domestic water heaters
Bathroom and separate
shower
Bathroom between
bedrooms
®
Bedrooms and bathroom can
be closed off using swing
doors
Bathroom accessible from
corridor and bedroom
®
®
265

BATHROOMS
Location
Bathrooms with WCs are self-contained rooms which are
equipped with all of the fittings necessary to meet all the
sanitary needs of the occupants. However, the plan should
ideally include two separate lockable rooms for the
bathroom and WC and this is essential in dwellings for
more than five people. A bathroom with WC can be directly
accessible from the bedroom as long as another WC can be
reached from the corridor ~ CV + @.
A bathtub and/or shower tray plus a wash-basin are
installed in the bathroom, while a flushing toilet, bidet and
hand washing basin are installed in the WC.
For cost efficiency and technical reasons the bathroom,
WC and kitchen should be planned such that they can share
the same service ducts ~ ® + @, (j) - @. In multistorey
homes, an arrangement such that the utility walls for the
bathrooms and WCs are directly above one another helps to
keep installation costs and the necessary sound insulation
measures as low as possible. However, adjacent bathrooms
in two different flats must not be connected to a single
supply or discharge pipe system.
The bathroom and WC should be orientated towards
the north, and should normally be naturally lit and
ventilated. At least four air changes per hour are required
for internal rooms. For comfort, a bathroom temperature
of 22 to 24°C is about right. A temperature of 20°C is
suitable for WCs in homes. This is higher than that
encountered in office buildings, where 15 to 17°C is the
common norm.
Bathrooms are particularly susceptible to damp so
appropriate sealing must be provided. Surfaces must be
easy to clean because of high air humidity and
condensation, and the wall and ceiling plaster must be able
to withstand the conditions. Choose slip resistant floor
coverings.
Consider the required noise insulation: the noise levels
from domestic systems and appliances heard in
neighbouring flats or adjoining rooms must not exceed 35
dB(A).
At least one sealed electrical socket should be provided
at a height of 1.30 m beside the mirror for electrical
equipment. It is also necessary to consider the following for
the bathroomlWC: cupboards for towels, cleaning items,
medicines and toiletries (possibly lockable), mirror and
lighting, hot water supply, supplementary heater, towel
rails, drier, handles above the bathtub, toilet paper holder
within easy reach, toothbrush holder, soap container and
storage surfaces.
corridor
Kitchen and bathroom with
common utility wall
Bathroom accessible from
bedroom and via
showerlWC
Nassauer Hof Hotel, Wiesbaden
® Typical hotel layout
CD
skylight
Bathroom accessed from
corridor
Typical bathroom in
terraced house
Bathroom under roof with
skylight
CD
CD
Kitchen. bathroom and WC
on one utility wall ® Kitchen. utility room.
bathroom and WC centrally
grouped
stairwell
corridor
® Kitchen. bathroom and WC
on one utility wall
En suite bathroom and
separate shower room
@ Spacious bathroom @ Bathroom and sauna
(linked via shower)
266

-
~ ,:
~
0
».
~1lQJ ~
7
Separate shower area
75 75
Shower and bath on 7 m 2
Planning Examples
o
en
o
en
BATHROOMS
LO
CI
L()
CI
o
C1>
Specially designed polyester
baths (wide shoulder and
narrow foot sections) and
shower units offer space
savings that make small
rooms appear more
spacious ~ CD - @.
Baths with chamfered
corners can be useful in
renovation projects .• @.
@
___--+4-- -+-----;
70 10 76 75
1.44
Corner bath
o
en
®
@ Double-sided arrangement
2.50
o As ~ CD. but 2.50 m wide
60 20
75
90/90
75
110
90
~
~
D
~
......
~
R ))
~ 1.60-1.80-
Six-sided bath and shower
Bathroom with separate shower
75 I 75 75
o
~
o
CI
®
®
2.15
o As ~ CD. but 2.15 m wide
90 I I~ 76 I 75 I
___ 1"-4~ +-- 90/90
10
Corner bath and shower
Small bathroom with
corner bath
1.65
Planning example: small
bathroom
®
267
o
C1>
1.00 70 -75
----~-___+_________f
Bath with chamfered
corner (necessitated by
limited space)
25 40 25 90/90
® Shower. WC. bidet. basin
o
l/)
o
o
(j
;.--..,
~ ~
~ ..:....:..:....
C ~
D ~
~
90 75 60
90- --t- 1.75
Bath and shower with
separate washing area
o
C1>
25
en
WC and shower separate
o
en
@
Separate washing area
2.40
~1=1
75 75 90
0
~ ~
en
0
s
C1>
0
CI
rmrroi
L()
8
C!
....
I
...
U1
Cl
@ Bath and shower separated
@
Spacious bathroom
Shower and bath separated
o
<.0
@
@

o
o
N
/1
8
Lri
/1
Double carport with
separate house entrance
---+
2.75 ~ 2.75
@ Common covered car-
parking area
+-~2.75 I
@ Carport for one car and
bicycles
®
o
o
Lri
/1
o
o
N
/1
house entrance
~ 2.75
Carport convenient to house
entrance
® Carport for one car
I
c:n:mo :OOcl'~
I drive
~ PUOCDDE7C
I
JY'1.m
L....:I ~
CARPORTS
Covered parking spaces (preferably with a solid wall on the
weather side) provide an economical and space-saving way
of providing adequate weather protection for vehicles.
A combination of carport and lockable store (for bicycles
etc.) is recommended ~ @.
Carports are delivered as complete building kits,
including post anchors, ironmongery and screws, as well as
gutters and downpipes ~ @ - @.
Examples of the lay-out and design of houses with
covered parking bays are shown ~ @- @.
+-----------+
~ 500
@ Two cars, room for bicycles
o
Lt:!
___________ +Ai
-----
Carport with two-storey
house
CD
House with carport
Pitched roof, ridge parallel to road
section
o
® Carport with storeroom
Individual carports
(Osmo/Gard)
@ Double carports
268

670
kitchen
- T-----c::=D I
D [I~l
Large family tent with high lateral walls, inner tent, canopy and
window
HOLIDAY HOMES
CD
C[ID~
6.00
With inner tent, two apses
and canopy
f 1~_1_0 __~
- sleeping areas
CD
<a~ICgl~I
~~ r---~
Small tent with apse
200
Caravans and campers
Tents
I (.!)j
•• c:o
;;;:;:;:;::::: :::::HH::.::: N
000
night day l cupboard
night day night day night day
Caravan with three beds
and built-in kitchen CD Caravan with five beds ® Caravan with four beds and
toilet
o Caravan with five beds,
toilet and kitchen
@ As @, equipped for
sleeping (for five people)
Caravan with areas for
cooking and eating
height with wheels, 2.45 m
at night, table
becomes sleeping
area for three people
® Perspective view of ®
view of vehicle when open:
front and back sections
made of sailcloth
300
® Fold-out caravan
Camper: Lyding ROG2
C)
®
[]
{c~-=-3 I
@ Camper: Tischer XL65
Camper: Westfalia Joker
1/Club Joker 1
c:> 0
@
c:> •
@ Large mobile caravan:
sleeps eight to nine
- bathroom
- bed
closet
bed
E
o
~
.o
closet
E
o
~
.o
bed
bathroom
bed
Ships' cabins
@ With a double bed and
bath/toilet
@ With two beds and
bath/toilet
@ With one single and one
bunk bed, shower/toilet
Twin cabin with
shower/toilet
269

o
co
T
;0
iCC?
(I
P
~~
ladder
sleeping loft
f-~ ~.30
ground floor
upper floor
SHEDS/SUMMER HOUSES
® Log cabin with sleeping loft
Factors to take into account when assessing a plot are:
prevailing wind direction, groundwater, drinking water
supply, drainage, heating, access and parking space for
cars. Whenever possible, construction should be from
natural local materials (stone or wood). For security
reasons, furnishings should be secured and entrances fitted
with lockable shutters to protect against theft.
~~l
~~J~~2.35
~~~.·'1
"P;<s""
:-------------: T
~+<~~:H~:~Hhl 2.05
: :1
L .J
--------------.,
_iI
10m2 area I
I
I seating area :
L - J
3.15m2 area
Small summer house
o Log cabin
(3)
T
2.94
1
1---2.44 ~
I
~t:lr:::3·6·'S:>~.~~
~3.26~
I I
I
r---------..,
I IT
I I
I 11.27
3.1 rn-' area
Summer house added to
main dwelling
2t:.
1i ~ I
L a~e~ ~
o With overhanging roof
Architect: Konstantinidis
® Holiday house in Greece
(j) Holiday house in Belgium
® Timber weekend house for four people, 25 m 2 living area
Architects: Immich/Erdenich
® Ground floor ~ @ @ Loft~@ + @ @ Section ~ ® @ Elevation ~ ®
•
Architect: Solvsten Architect: Jensen
Architect: Hagen
@ Ground floor of holiday
house in Nordseeland
@ Upper floor ~~ @ @ Weekend house @ Holiday house in Bornholm
270

10 0
'0 0
L _
I 100-120 I
~~
I 100-120 I
~I
~ 20
i 100-120 I 100-120 i
~T
~ 20
~~-- I A I
~I
~ 20
.............................
:~~~~::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::.
~iOx<l~
Projecting upper floors
TIMBER HOUSES
Replaceable beams or
terrace supports
~
upper floor flush
~
The oldest form of timber
housing consisted of prepared
logs or blocks placed one
upon the other and
structurally connected by
rebated corner joints. Today,
the most common form is
timber framed housing (also
balloon framed or half-
timbered construction). Vertical
loads are transmitted to the
ground through structural
posts giving an economic
form of construction that
fulfils all the requirements in
relation to building physics,
quality, structure and comfort.
The most important precaution
is to protect the facade
cladding to prevent water
from penetrating the timber.
Plan the cladding so that the
rain flows off quickly and,
where splashing occurs,
design for the replacement of
parts. Also plan for sufficient
roof overhang.
Joints in half-timbered
frame
~ I
~20
Replaceable construction
of heavily weathered
cladding
_r~20
I 95-115 I

/
/ fI
/ /
/ /
_r~ 20
I 95-155 I
_1~ 20
o Solid timber walls
secondary beam
® Node: continuous column
®
section
Log and block construction
methods
Protecting low-level cladding
against water splashes
l r--~:..I .~ .- ..
I
l
~I
-=
t-II II
section
CD
® Section/plan _.) @ plan
® Section/plan -~ (f)
@
Balloon frame made with studs
G) Timber construction --~ (2)+ @
@ Panel construction @ Horizontal cladding @ Vertical cladding @ ~as@
271

hbD
north
~ east-south
~terrace;
~
d i st a n c e
as great as
possible
I .
I frontage or
I building line
N
-g
~
r.~----~
::J
Sl
~
g~-------t
Preferred house
orientation on
north-south roads
(east side of street
is favourable)
I
CD
south I
terrace I
I
I
I
study
kitchen
one-room flat
EAST
intense sun in
morning,
pleasant
warming-up in
summer, fastest
to cool in
winter
main bedroom
guest-room
breakfast area
best
position
games room
bathroom
office/work area
staff room
changing room
lavatory
entrance
Cloakroom~
~~t~~i~n stables
storage wash-house
utility room laundry area
larder showers
work room
cold store
storage
wine cellar
larder
box room
heating
garage
dining room
playroom
living room
winter garden
terrace
loggia
conservatory
SOUTH
best side of house, midday sun in
summer, strong sun in winter:
consider awnings and overhanging
roofs as protection against the sun
NORTH
little sun, cold winter winds, even
light. large windows for scattered
light during the day necessary, lower
insect problems
drying room
(good ventilation
needed)
staircase
hallway
storeroom
communal area
music room
landing/hall
library
playroom
WEST
weathered side in
Europe, intense
afternoon sun can
cause overheating
and dazzling in
summer so
consider planting
trees
frontage or
building ITne---
favourable
unfavourable
! favourable
I , unfavourable
! lake or river
( "
I I
east-west road
Preferred house
orientation on
east-west roads
Preferred directional
orientation of
individual rooms
garage favourable ---
HOUSE ORIENTATION
boundary
o
o Favourable (preferred) and
unfavourable positions on
slopes and streets
® Preferred house orientation
on streets with various
directions
Optimal residential sites
As a rule, sites to the west and south of towns and cities are
preferred for residential development in areas where the
prevailing winds are generally southerlies or westerlies
(e.g. many parts of western Europe). This means the houses
receive fresh air from the countryside while urban pollution
is dissipated to the north and east. These latter areas,
therefore, are not desirable for housing and should instead
be considered for industrial buildings. Note that in
mountainous areas or by lakes the wind behaviour
described above may be different. For example, sunny
southern and eastern slopes in the north and west of a city
located in a valley basin could be sought-after locations for
the construction of private homes.
Plots located on mountain slopes
Plots located on the lower side of mountain roads are
particularly favourable because they offer the possibility of
driving directly up to the house, where a garage can be
located, and leave a tranquil rear garden with an
uninterrupted view and sun. On the upper side of the street,
this is far harder to provide and walls and concrete ditches
are usually necessary behind the house to guard against
falling rocks and collect rainwater running off the mountain.
Plots located by water
The potential nuisance from mosquitoes and foggy
conditions make it inadvisable to build too close to rivers
and lakes.
Orientation relative to the street
For separate houses with boundary walls, the most
favourable plots are usually situated south of the street so
that all auxiliary rooms, together with the entrance, are then
automatically positioned facing the street. This solves any
privacy problems because it leaves the main living and
sleeping areas located on the quiet, sunny side (east-vsouth-
-west), facing away from the street and overlooking the
garden. If the plot has sufficient width, large French
windows, terraces and balconies can be used to good
effect. ~ CD
Plots are generally narrow and deep in order to keep the
street side as short as possible. If the plot is situated to the
north of the street, the building should be located towards
the rear, despite the extra costs of a longer access. This is in
order to take advantage of the sunny front garden area.
Buildings on such plots can be impressive when seen from
the street. ~ CD
Plots on the east of streets running north-south -~ CV are
the most favourable in areas with westerly prevailing winds
because gardens and living areas then face east, which is
the most sheltered. Additionally, it is less likely that there
will be neighbouring buildings close enough to obstruct
low sun in the east. To take advantage of winter sun (low in
the southern sky), the buildings must be situated close to
the northern boundary so a large area of terrace can be
south-facing. Plots on the west of a north-south street
should be planned in a way that maximises the amount of
southern sunlight received and gives an unobstructed view
from the terrace. This might require the house to be built on
the rear boundary ~ CV. The most favourable plots for
houses in streets running in other directions are shown in
~@.
Plots adjacent to existing houses built on the sunny side
have the advantage that the position and ground-plan of the
new house can be designed in a way that ensures the sun
will not be obstructed at any time in the future.
Room orientation
Whenever possible, all living and sleeping areas should
face towards the garden on the sunny side of the house,
with the utility areas on the opposite side ~ @. This allows
rooms that are occupied for the most time to take
advantage of natural solar heating. Use of a local sun
diagram (pp. 164 and 165) will indicate when the sun will
shine into a room, or a part thereof, at a particular hour for
any season. This information may also be used to decide
which way the building should be orientated and where it
should be placed to avoid being shaded by neighbouring
buildings, trees and the like.
272

I I I
I
1 1/2 1 1/2
I
2 (1)-2
I
1 2
I I I
I I
160 150 160 150 150 130
I 130
I 150
I
I 04 0.5
I
0.62 0.6 I 057 0.8
I
078
I
079
I
(0.32) (0.4)
I (0.5) (0.45)
I (0.45) (0.75) I I
I I
0.5 05
l-~8_ (0.5)-0.8 I 0.6 0.8
- - - - -I--- -
~ OA 1-0-:6 -
- - - - - -
0.4 0.4 04
3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5
maximum permitted floor area index**
9 - - - - - - - - -- -~ -
maximum permitted land use ratio**
I
I 7.5
I 188
I
I 188
I
I
I
I
I 25
I
30
55
165
165
I
I
I
I
lm····l~ l
N C") N
111 111 MI
1 ... 1 ... 1
terraced house
30
160
130 ,
I
(173)
5.5
24
(26)
(143)
HOUSING TYPES
17.5
(20)
(30)
15
(13.5)*
262
(266)
(330)
262
(236)
(300)
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
13.5
250
18.5
(25)
250
(338)
(338)
linked houses
(with yard)
13
20
(25)
260
(325)
260
(325)
I
I
I
I
I
I
15
20
(25)
300
(375)
300
(375)
semi-detached
house
20
20
(25)
400
400
(500)
(500)
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
20
440
440
22
(25)
150
(500)
(500)
034
(03)
detached single
family home
characteristics
house type,
buildings with
attached plot
average gross floor area/house (m 2)
floor area index (calculated)
normal number of storeys
additional area for separate
garage or parking space (m 2)
plot area = net land for
construction (3 + 4) (m 2)
plot depth, minimum (m)
plot depth (preferred value)
minimum size of plot (m 2)
minimum front width (m)
7
8
2
5
4
6
3
10 average occupancy (occupants/dwelling)
net residential density (dwellings/hectare) I I
11 _maxlma~ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 2~ -.l- --35__I-- ~ -l _ 3~ ~ _4~ -L _ 3~ _ ~ J -!o---,I~ ~ _
variance 20~25 26-38 29~40 50 62
G) Summary of typical housing densities
* without garage on the property
** village and residential areas
built-up on
both sides
built-up on
one side
detached
(free-standing)
weather influences
(wind, rain, cold)
noise and air pollution
relationship to environment, view
sun
CD The relationship between dwellings and surroundings
design-related integration with regard to architecture and vegetation
CD Positioning of the house on the plot and integration in the
neighbourhood
wide/narrow
overlooked
site
in shadow shape
characteristics topography, vegetation
garden :.: ".
garden,
less
usable
front
garden
street
~;. '0 • •• • • • : ~
CD Relationship between dwelling and plot
® Plot zones and the impact on the design of the dwelling plan
(the arrangement of rooms, functional areas)
273

principal use of
space
living area
eating area/dining
room
children's room
bedroom
principal period of use;
desired orientation of
the sun
afternoon to evening
morning to evening
afternoon to evening
night:
morning sun desired
o Orientation of living space
N
w
HOUSING TYPES
In addition to complimenting
the overall features of the site
and satisfying the require-
ments of access and spatial
relationships between build-
ings the arrangement of the
houses on the site plan
should have an orientation
based on the path of the sun.
This allows the architect to
produce a design that gives
the optimum levels of
sunlight in specific parts of
the dwelling at certain times
of the day.
A: 100° sun on the shortest
winter's day
B: 200° sun from the
beginning of spring to
the end of autumn
C: 300° sun on the longest
summer's day
G) Orientation of living spaces CD Annual insolation
(solar orientation)
o In the country
® In an 'urban' plan
® On a housing estate
===jl fI===
successful integration of houses into urban and country environments demands a flexible approach to
designing the dwelling plan and must take into account the site-specific features (other houses in the
vicinity, streets, plazas or the natural terrain) to create housing that is compatible with the surroundings
o In a village setting
adaptability of dwellings to topography
gable roof, gable roof,
shallow steep
® Level building ground
hip-roof single-pitch
roof
flat roofs
® Undulating ground; building on slopes
N~
.::::::::::::.~:::::::::::::
..
..:::::::::::::::::
@ Steeply inclined slopes
274

Frequently employed by
developers and based on
the use of identical designs.
Also used on single-plot
projects but rarely are the
two halves individually
designed. Garages or car
ports are often included on
the side boundaries.
HOUSING TYPES
Can be planned as individual
buildings or as groups with
coordinated design. Groups
are usually considered only
for large developments.
Include individual garages
or a communal parking area.
Usually used only by devel-
opers undertaking large-
scale residential projects.
The groups of houses are
built with uniform plans
and designs and can be
layed out in compact or
spacious configurations.
Garages or parking spaces
can be incorporated in the
individual plots or a
separate parking area
provided.
G) Semi-detached housing
o Linked housing
o Houses with courtyard
gardens
2 FR
1 FR
11/ 2 GR
2 FR
2 GR
11/ 2 SPR
11/ 2 SPR
1 FR
1 GR

Examples of Typical Designs

--~
it--~,
1
---",
~ " "
_-- I J '
_-1 1
'""- -~
'- '
CD Terraced houses
A shared building form that
gives rows of identical (or
slightly varied) houses.
Parking is usually on-street
or in communal car parks.
2 GR 2 FR 2 GR
(staggered storeys)
3 FR
A: main residence
'I: W91U lS21QSUCS
A: main residence
3 GR
B: separate residence
B: asbststs lS2!qSUCS
3 FR
key
1,1 1/2:
GR:
SPR:
2b~:
G1:f
J'JN;:
t<sA
key
1,1 1/2:
GR:
SPR:
FR:
number of storeys
gable roof
single-pitch roof
~UaI6-b'C~ lOOt
a9PIS roo]
uruupsi 0t 2!OlSA2
number of storeys
gable roof
single-pitch roof
flat roof
® Town houses
Another shared building
form resulting in rows of
houses that are identical or
contain a matching variety
of designs. Parking space
may be on the plot, on-
street, or in communal car
parks. As with all these
examples, design coordin-
ation and regulatory agree-
ments are necessary.
WSU!2 9lS USCS229lA"
9!!OU suq lSanl9!olA 9alSS-
ments are necessary.

Usually used only by devel-
opers undertaki ng la rge-
scale residential projects.
The groups of houses are
built with uniform plans
and designs and can be
layed out in compact or
spacious configurations.
Garages or parking spaces
can be incorporated in the
individual plots or a
separate parking area
provided.
Frequently employed by
developers and based on
the use of identical designs.
Also used on single-plot
projects but rarely are the
two halves individually
designed. Garages or car
ports are 0 ften inc Iud edon
the side boundaries.
Can be planned as individual
buildings or as groups with
coordinated design. Groups
are usually considered only
for large developments.
Include individual garages
or a communal parking area.
HOUSING TYPES
8 Semi-detached housing
o Linked housing
o Houses with courtyard
gardens
2 FR
2 FR
1 FR
2 GR
1 FR
1 GR
Examples of Typical Designs

CD Terraced houses
A shared building form that
gives rows of identical (or
slightly varied) houses.
Parking is usually on-street
or in communal car parks.
2 GR 2 FR 2 GR
(staggered storeys)
3 FR
A main residence
3 GR
3 FR
key
1,1 1/2'
GR:
SPR:
FR'
number of storeys
gable roof
single- pitch roof
flat roof
® Town houses
Another shared building
form resulting in rows of
houses that are identical or
contain a matching variety
of designs. Parking space
may be on the plot, on-
street, or in communal car
parks. As with all these
examples, design coordin-
ments are necessa ry.
275

self-contained flat in roof
Architects: Kulka/Neufert
upper floor
stairs to
self-
contained
flat
TERRACED HOUSES
terrace house, first floor, and stairs
to self-contained flat in roof
o Corner solution for terraced houses
Architect: Kulka
o Terraced houses with a self-contained flat in the roof
Schirmer
Architects: K. and B. Woicke
® Terraced houses with varying depths
G) Row of terraced houses with offset levels
® Terraced houses: all services contained in one duct ® Terraced houses orientated for favourable lighting and sunshine
~b_aICOnyu
upper Il-~
floor
"
c
ctl
U
::l
"
~=.:3IIIII!III-"~AL: ~
.~
refuse/equipment
o Ground floor ---; ®
upper floor
Architect: Hermann
basement floor
® Basement and top floor ---; ([)
self-contained flat in roof
® Terraced houses with transverse stairs
..,k;tC[5;ni
~_ entrance .1l.!I
. ..
..~3IIE"==-~=lIIU
.~ -_.J;j ~:.
ground floor upper floor flat
cellar
@ Terraced houses with garage space
277

>
c
a
~
Semi-detached houses with
side entrance
Upper floor
®
o
SEMI-DETACHED HOUSES
p
terrace
ground floor
Semi-detached houses
divided diagonally
upper floor
® Semi-detached houses with
front entrance
®
>
c
a
~
ground floor
...
Semi-detached houses with dining room and surrounding terrace
CD Semi-detached houses with off-set levels
@ Ground floor
Semi-detached house
basement
I I
L-shaped semi-detached houses with two terraces
II~
U '!jl1~"ace
store
party room
basement
Semi-detached houses with square plan
o L-shaped semi-detached houses with courtyard
CD
Architects: Hoyng, Nettels. Sandfort
® Upper floor ,(4) @ Cross-section -, Q}) + @
278

By using courtyards it is
possible to provide addit-
ional living space that is
both sheltered and private.
In contrast to detached
housing, courtyard devel-
opments allow a high
quality of life to be offered
to occupants using only a
comparatively small
amount of land area.
Enclosed courtyards can
be as small as a living room
but might need to be
artificia lIy Iit if the
surrounding walls are all
higher than one storey. If,
however, a garden court-
yard is required much
larger areas are desirable to
take full advantage of the
sunlight and allow a full
range of plants to be
considered.
COURTYARD HOUSES
C
ell
s:
o
~
entrance
ground floor
basement
Architect: Ungers
® Differentiated courtyards
Architects: Schwingen and Wermuth
o 180 m 2 living area
Architects: Latty and Tucker
House with garden and
service court
Architect: A. Hennig
Upper floor
CD
CD
.r1~ t~~<
entrance
Architects: Kuhn, Boskamp and Partners
o Courtyard house with
directly accessible open area
G) Ground floor -~ (2)
(]) Ground floor and courtyard
®
~
garageQ
- living
courtyard
'1'~"""'··';·,·"
._C~ba;h
entrance
House with courtyard in California
CD
Architect: C. Papendick
Courtyard house, ground
floor
Architect: Chamberlin
@ Courtyard house on two
floors
Architect: Butler
@ Two-storey patio house
Architect: Bahlo, Kohnke, Stosberg and Partners
Single-family courtyard houses
upper floor
>-
.0
.0
2
Ol
c
~
ell
L
ell
1]
~
C
ell
~
a.
Architects: Jacobs and Wiedemann
@ Ground floor @ Upper floor @ Section ~ @ + @ @ Section
279

terrace
living .~
I i,!J,.'§]
..~l
I/J-
® Upper floor
Architect: R. Gray
CD Ground floor
DETACHED HOUSES
(j) Ground floor -~ @
o Upper floor ----j @
Architect: L. Neff
® Upper floor
o Upper floor
® Ground floor ----) ®
G) Ground floor -~ (2)
OJ
Do
[IJ
living
® Ground floor ----j @ - @ @ Upper floor @ Attic floor @ Section
Architect: Brons
@ Ground floor ----j @ - @ @ Upper floor @ Section
Architects: Tissi
and Potz
@ Section
entrance
court
Architect: Heckrott
@ Section
living
court
.......................
c:=J
workshop
void
@ Attic floor
balcony
{]
I
~~I~==-==1~
@ Upper floor
@ Ground floor ----j @ - @
280

Conservatories are not
simple glass buildings, but
complex systerns that must
be designed with technical
precision. Depending on the
different uses of the
conservatory, the glass
system, the ventilation and
shading must be harmon-
ised in order to make it
work satisfactorily.
A conservatory provides
a buffer zone between the
outside climate and the
interior of the house. Glass
structures work as solar
energy collectors and in
favourable climatic circum-
stances the potential energy
savings for the whole house
can be about 250/0. A
westward orientation of the
conservatory can substan-
tially raise the environ-
mental quality of the
habitat.
It is recommended that
glass doors are incorporated
in the transition area
between the house and the
conservatory in order to
separate both spaces from a
heating point of view and for
reasons of comfort within
the house and energy
efficiency.
HOUSES WITH CONSERVATORIES
conservatory ground floor
8) Ground floor ---) @ + ®
® Upper floor
® Section --) ® + @
Architect: Hellwig
dining/living
I
~-~_~!If ----6
terrace
G) Ground floor ,(2) + @
o Upper floor
CD Section ,CD + (2)
(}) Conservatory with flat roof connection
bath
0.90
0.45
Architect: Gundoqan
® Section -,) (f)
I
I
I
bedroom I
I
I
I
I
__--.J
6.2{}------;
kitchen
flat roof
II -;r-11~ if =- ff"--
" II II II II I:
II II II II II I,
;: :: :: :: :: !:
~I :: :; !I ;: I;
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
L_
living
U§...mh'~;;
, ,
child / ,L__ - - . - . - . - , I
-, I
terra~'a l
- - __ J
® Ground floor: conservatory illuminates ground
and basement '(]Q)
@ Section, ®
281

Architect: Luckmann
@ Upper floor ~ @
THREE-LEVEL HOUSES
Ground floor with garage
@ House with rooms in roof
space
@ Upper floor ~ @
entrance
Ground floor
® Upper floor ~ ®
o Section
CD
House with rooms in roof
space
CD
G) Basement ~ CV - @
@ Upper I
floor ~ @
Ground
floor
® Roof space ~ (J)
upper floor
(j) Living on three floors
Architect: B. Rosewich
® Ground floor with self-contained flat -, (J) + ® @ Barrier-free living
282

1 hall
2 living area
3 kitchen/breakfast bar
4 dining room
5 bathroom
6 bedroom
7 child's bedroom
8 utility room
9 hobby room
10 provisions
11 heating
12 garage
13 terrace
14 terrace dining
15 studio
1'.11
.
tr1
9
10
13 i-
t
entrance
I 01 f)
--1- il.J?
14
SQUARE, CUBIC AND TENT-SHAPE
FORMS
® Ground floor
® Lower ground floor
(j) Section ~ @ - ®
Architect: Brixel
upper
floor
CD Section
o Upper floor
-- ._-- - ---0-,
.....---,...,0
D ur~
~ [J:~
00-
® House on a slope ~ ®
G) Ground floor: square house
~(2)-@
o Attic floor
1-0
0 0..... .......
.~
® Section ~ @
1 garage
2 terrace
3 entrance
4 dining area
5 living area
6 study
7 tiled oven
8 child
9 child
10 parents
11 bathroom
Architect: J. Streli
Architect: J. Romberger
@ Tent house, timber construction: section ~ ([) - ®
Upper floor
Architect: Lederer
@ Section
@ Ground floor
@ Basement ~ @ - @
283

ECOLOGICAL BUILDING
Iller Haus
The timber house is the
epitome of natural, tradit-
ional and healthy living. This
form of construction
conforms to many clients'
ecological, biological and,
not least, economical,
requirements. It uses
selected solid timbers,
natural insulation materials
(e.g. cotton, wool or cork),
natural materials for the
roofing (e.g. clay tiles), and
Kemi Haus plant-based paints for
decoration, all leading to a
high standard of eco-
friend Iiness.
Usually, only the slow
growing timbers from
northern countries are used
for this type of construction.
Unlimited life and low
maintenance are the rule: for
example, red cedar, as it is
commonly known, contains
a tannin which acts as a
natural wood preservative,
Gruber Holzhaus making impregnation un-
necessary. Deeply over-
hanging roofs are used to
shelter the facades.
Manufacturers offer several
types of external wall
construction. Double-block
construction consists usually
of two identical leafs
containing an insulation
layer between. Single-leaf
log walls produce the typical
traditional atmosphere of
the log cabin. The purchaser
Honka Haus has the choice of round logs
or squared blocks.
Many timber houses can
be freely planned to meet
the client's requirements.
The client also has a choice
of which type of timber to
use (spruce, larch, cedar).
Many suppliers offer self-
build options together with
assistance from the firm's
construction specialists.
o Upper floor
CD Upper floor
® Upper floor
® Attic floor
-------l
entrance t;;.
-----------l
I
lttfJ] ~
es dining~~
»: ~ [J
'¥O~
I
I
L __
I
I
I ~iiiiE::::::3iiIii.
I
L - -- - - -, entrance
..... --~- -l
ro
g
10~
L -,
G) Ground floor ---j @
o Ground floor ---j ®
I
I
I
..-u1CCEfE-J'
LL " _ _16
® Ground floor ---j ®
(j) Ground floor ---j ®
19 ventilation duct from
cavity to conservatory
20 floor stores heat pre-
heats the air ducted to
the conservatory
5
3
bathroom extractor
ventilation/windows
stepped ventilation to
under-floor cavity
4 cavity
5 solid-fuel heater flue
6 boiler flue
7 air intake to heating
8 kitchen extractor
9 boiler
10 air supply
11 solid-fuel heater flue
taken down to floor
level for cleaning
access
12 extractor, bath and we
13 solid-fuel heater 16 automatic vent to
14 air supply to open prevent overheating
windows 17 solar energy pre-
15 fresh air intake to heats conservatory
house 18 conservatory
@ Diagram of energy system ---j ®
® Ground floor
284

o Section
._
HOUSE TYPES: EXAMPLES
CD View from south and section through swimming pool
o Upper floor
G) Ground floor -~ (2) - @
® Ground floor ~ ® - @ ® Basement
Section
(j) Upper floor
® Ground floor @ Lower floor
Architect: L. Neff
285

J Architect: L. Neff
Architect: L. Neff
drive
- ---
® Section
CD Lower floor
o Lower floor
''':.
entrance
...
•
~.. .. terrace
--=J.-i-[--l dining
G) Ground floor, house on a slope -) (2)
® Top floor
o Ground floor, house in a quarry -) ® - ®
o Ground floor, house on a north slope -) ®
dining
® Lower floor
~~~~~
ground
floor
upper
floor
® Ground and upper floors -) ®
cellar
@ Section and cellar Architect: V.D. Valentyn
286

® Upper floor
® Ground floor
f7 Section, small house without
!J basement ~ @ + ®
® Upper floor
® Ground floor
ijl
C' •
~ i j
8) Basement ~ @ + ®
Architect: L. Neff
~=;
I
II
II
II
II
II
II
I
L ----~
A drive A
G) Basement, house on a north slope ~ @ + @
o Upper floor
CD
--,
~ - --- - --~
@ Basement ~ @ - @
A
@ Ground floor
garage
B
CD
@ Top floor
@ Section
Architects: Kaplan and Kbnnemund
287

~ north
HOUSES ON SLOPES
bathroom
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
/
cloakroom
® Section
('1
® Lower floor
CD Upper floor
~CV+@
Architect: E. Neufert
-----============~==============v
upper floor ground floor
1 terrace 12 shower 1 entrance 11 dining area
2 hall 13 entrance hall 2 to terrace 12 boiler-room
3 guest-room 14 ventilation 3 living area 13 cellar
4 study system 4 cooking 14 au pair's
5 games room 15 closet area room
6 conservatory 16 kitchen 5 bedroom 15 studio
7 barbecue 17 service area 6 bathroom
16 parent's
8 garage 18 terrace 7 utility room bedroom
9 bathroom 19 entrance 8 toilet 17 children's
10 we 20 sliding door 9 laundry bedroom
11 cloakroom 21 parking area 10 shower 18 wood shed
CD House in Bugnaux, upper floor -) ® + ®
street
® Ground floor ® Section
288

•
north
I
quest-
room --
I
studio and service rooms are near the side entrance, with the office between studio and
living room;
further draughting rooms with north light are situated above the kitchen;
the bedrooms are on the east side, sheltering the residential area (located to the north)
from the wind and preserving the view;
the covered outdoor patio gets western sun
G) Architect's house: scale 1:500
/ ,/ /
/
/
/
/
/
/
LARGE HOUSES
Architect: E. Neufert
o Single-storey house with separate accommodation (chauffeur):
scale 1:500
289

Architect: Shigero Nagano
covered entrance path
INTERNATIONAL EXAMPLES
o First floor and situation plan
G) Second floor and ground floor -----j (2)
O Ground floor, house in
California -----j @ + @
o Ground floor -----j (f) + @ @ Ground floor, house in the USA -----j @
Architect: R. Meier
CD First floor (j) Upper floor @ Upper floor
I
store terrace
";===~ office
~
~~., entrance
CII:IIJ drive
ern
laundry
Architect: R. Kappe, Los Angeles Architect: L. Neff @ Ground floor, house in the USA -----j@
® Second floor
® Basement
garden
Architect: M. Breuer
® One storey house in Victoria, Australia @ Lower floor
290

swimming pool
G) House, student design ~ @ Architect: Biecker
INTERNATIONAL EXAMPLES
o Plan
Architect: V.D. Valentyn
void
Architects: Otto Steidle & Hans Kohl
® Upper floor
glazed
terrace
living room
cellar
(}) Ground floor ~ @
® Section ~ @ - @
19 garage
20 light well
21 heavenly garden
22 side entrance
23 shaft
Architect: Atelier ZO
13 laundry room
14 bath
15 tatami room
16 street
17 gallery
18 machine room
7 conservatory
8 kitchen
9 storage
10 children's play area
11 cloakroom
12 bedroom
19
entrance
rock garden
study
patio garden
toilet
seating area
~~
garage cloakroom
16
o House in Japan
o Section ~ @
® Ground floor --) ® ® Upper floor @ Cellar @ Ground floor @ Upper floor
291

kitchen
living room
bathroorn/Wf
parent's room
child's room
Architect: E.C. Muller
MULTISTOREV HOUSING
(2) Linear arrangement
A spacious building configuration: either groups of identical
block types or of buildings of completely different designs.
There is little or no differentiation of the external spaces
around the buildings.
(3) Slab-blocks
This building form is often used in an isolated
configuration. It can be extended both in length and height
but allows little scope for variety among the room layouts.
Differentiation of the surrounding areas is difficult.
(4) Large-scale developments
By expanding and interconnecting slab buildings to create
large forms stretching out over a wide area it is possible to
develop large tracts. Differentiation between spaces defined
by the buildings is almost impossible to achieve.
(5) Point-blocks
These are distinctive individual buildings, often standing
isolated in open spaces. A 'dominant element' in town
planning, this building type is frequently designed in
combination with low-rise developments.
® Building layout in Augsburg
(1) Blocks
A compact, layered building form (either single buildings or
in groups) that gives high occupancy densities. The external
spaces within and around the building are clearly
differentiated in relation to form and function.
cP
p
o
.0
0°0
.$6
.0
DJ· &>0
f::-:::::········::::-::::J
internal
corridor
2-4 flats, deck
staircase access access
CD Slab-blocks
otfIVI-VII
2-4 flats, deck
CD linear arrangement
~ EfIIl_1VI-VIJ
2-4 flats, deck
G) Blocks
dining area
living room
bedroom
child's room
kitchen
bathroom
dining area
living space
sleeping area
child's room
kitchen
bathroom
(]) Flats off a corridor
Architect: Pogadl
® Plan of building with four flats per floor and staircase access
internal
corridor
3-4 flats, deck
staircase access
access
central access
CD Large-scale developments
CD Point-blocks
292

Architects: HPP
Three dwellings per floor: 2
apartments and one studio flat
Architects: HPP and LKT
Two dwellings per floor
MULTISTOREV HOUSING
o
Architect: Diener
Two dwellings per floor,
internal staircase
CD
Two dwellings per floor,
staircase on outside wall
CD
® Two 60 m 2 apartments per
floor ® Two dwellings per floor
with lift
o Two dwellings per floor
•
® Four dwellings per floor: two two-room apartments,
two four-room apartments
® Three dwellings per floor Architect: L. Neff
@ Four dwellings per floor Architect: Peichl @ Four dwellings per floor Architect: Neufert/Meittrnann/Graf
293

living room
kitchen
bedroom
hall
bathroom
MULTISTOREV HOUSING
Developments with only one dwelling per floor ...~ CD (the
basic form for town houses) are often uneconomical. Four-
storey buildings without lifts are the usual form.
Housing with two dwellings per floor around a central
core -) (2) provides a good balance between living quality
and economy, allowing a variety of plans with satisfactory
solar orientation and flats with different numbers of rooms.
Buildings up to four storeys can have stairs only whereas
those with five or more require a lift. For flats over a height
of 22 m, high-rise building conditions apply.
Having three dwellings per floor and a central staircase
-) @ again offers a good mix of economy and living quality,
and this form is suitable for building corner units. Two-,
three- and four-roomed dwellings can be considered.
Housing with four dwellings per floor and a shared
staircase -) @ requires appropriate planning to provide a
satisfactory relationship between economy and living
quality. Different types of flat on each floor are possible.
With point-blocks -) @ the three-dimensional design is
determined by the plan form.
® Plan of -) (2)
key:
~ living area <J entrance
o sleeping area~ main orientation
• other rooms <J- secondary orientation
upper
floor
ground
floor
~N
lift r-:-l
necessary r- -"'~II
••
r--10-12----1
.6
r-8-10---1
~N
N
-+
8 ~G
T4
~
I 5 I
~ 1
0
--L 4 0 0 1 4
~10-12----i ~12-13--j
~12-151
1;
-----.N
T =4
4
.:.:.: ~ 5
•• I
:-:.:
••••• ~ ~ 1 3
.L 0 D
~
•• N
::: ~
:.: <31
m
i
N IJ
·:~:
.::: <J
~:~
1 living room
~ ~~~i~~a • sec,i0;JIi
One dwelling per floor ~
(town house)
o Two dwellings around a central staircase
3
Architects: Schmitt & Heene
(j) Standard floor with five residential units
~ 12-13 -1
--'N
Four dwellings per floor, staircase access
r-12 - 15 -i
o Three dwellings per floor, staircase access
® Point-block
c iN c
living room
kitchen
bedroom
hall
bathroom
utility room
® High-rise block of flats
Arch itect: W. Iron
294

G)Corner balcony
f3 Balcony group with sight
.::!.) and wind screens
® Inset balconies (loggia)
(3) Open balcony with screen
f4 Balcony group with
V intermediate storage space
for balcony furniture
® Offset balconies
BALCONIES
Balconies offer an effective means of improving the attractiveness of
domestic accommodation units. They also give an extended work
space as well as an easily supervised outdoor children's play area.
Typical uses include relaxation, sunbathing, sleeping, reading,
eating etc.
In addition to the required functional living space an area for
plant boxes should be provided wherever possible ~ @+ @.
Corner balconies -1 G) offer privacy and good shelter and are
therefore preferable to open balconies. Open balconies require a
protective screen on the side facing the prevailing wind~ (2).
Where there are groups of balconies (as in blocks of flats),
screens should be used to ensure privacy and give shelter from the
wind ~ @. Even better is to separate the balconies with part of the
structure because this makes it possible to include some storage
space (e.g. for balcony furniture, sunshade etc.) ~ @ + @.
Loggias are justifiable in hot climates but are inappropriate in
cooler countries. They only get the sunshine for a short time and
cause an increase in the external wall areas of the adjacent rooms,
which increases heat loss ~ @. Balconies which are offset in their
elevation can make facades less severe but it is difficult to provide
privacy and protection from the weather and sun ~ @. Balconies
which are offset in their plan layout on the other hand offer excellent
privacy and shelter ~ (j).
During planning specify:
• good orientation in relation to the the path of the sun and the
view;
• appropriate location with respect to neighbouring flats and
houses;
• effective spatial location with respect to adjacent living
rooms, studios or bedrooms;
• sufficient size, privacy, protection from noise and the weather
(wind, rain and direct sunshine);
• suitable materials for parapets (e.g. opaque glass, plastic or
wooden balusters within a frame).
The balcony frame is best made from light steel profiles or tubes
with a good anchorage in the masonry. Balcony balusters made
from vertical steel rods (note that horizontal rods can be climbed by
children) can be considered but are not desirable because they do
not offer shelter from the wind and lack privacy. Where they are
used, they are often covered by the tenants themselves with all sorts
of different materials.
Draughts can occur in the intermediate spaces between parapets
and the concrete slab -1 @, so it is better to extend the parapet down
in front of the balcony slab or to have a solid parapet. This must be
kept low to avoid a trough-like character and there must be a steel rail
above it at the regulation height (~900 mm). Allow space for flower
boxes if possible -1 @.
295
3.50
~8~:
:t==F=== L1.:1
~ ~I
~I:.I'!
•••
1"I"l
••~
•• l"'1"'li
•• :Tr
•••
T'I'
••
':"!'.:.~.:.'
~~To!
A_~1
I 4.20 I
6.3 m 2 for 1/2 people
·· ·~~~oo:
:..:::..:::..:..::..
s~OOO~
B~ 0 0
480
@ Balcony layouts
@
2 BalCOnY Wit h st orage space
for balcony furniture
~I
=1
o (J
<
o
4.20
fl'
ItJl
@ Balcony layouts
@ Child's cot and pram
l§.~@f
I
390
7.0 m 2 for 3/4 people I
:.:.:.:.:..:::::: ~ .: :: :: : .
BOOB
~
f!]~
t ,
.................
H-~75cm
I 1.80 I
.::..::..::..:::..: /"IC:::::::.r:.·.·
o 0 j ~
0 0 ' 1
..........:......:..... /"1[::::::::..:::.
DOD! {
@ Seating around tables
® Parapet variants
o
gQI]
2.10
2.00
® Reclining chairs
O Offset balconies making use
of angles and staggering

ACCESS CORRIDORS/DECKS
An alternative to the centralised layout (i.e. buildings with
dwellings on each floor around a central staircase or lift) is
to have the dwellings accessed from an internal corridor
or a covered external walkway. This is more economical in
large housing projects. Each level is served by one or
more vertical connection points (lifts and/or stairs) which
also lead to the main entrance to the building. In addition
to stairways and lifts, vertical systems of service shafts are
needed and there should be a clear differentiation of built-
in, added and free-standing constructions.~CD
Dwellings on either side of an interior corridor have a
single orientation and this makes it desirable to employ a
design that uses two or more levels ~ @. A similar
arrangement can be exploited in buildings with an access
deck running along the exterior ~ ® + (f). Note that open
access decks can cause problems in harsh climates.
It is considerably better if the dwelling is on two or
more levels because it allows the functional requirements
to be met more satisfactorily and half-storey split levels,
for example, can be stacked easily ~ (2). Dwellings on only
one level are particularly suitable as studio flats -~ @.
To improve the realtionship between circulation and
dwelling areas the goal should be to minimise the length
of horizontal access routes. Planning corridors on
alternate floors provides the best arrangement for larger
multi-level dwellings and good solutions can be attained
by siting the deck access on alternate sides. The number
of corridors can also be reduced with a mirrored
staggering of maisonettes or a similar arrangement of
split-level dwellings.
E
D
r--
I
L __
+---<>-_....K.~access
deck
corridor in centre of building
B E:JCj
access deck
~
A
o Possible corridor arrangements
G) Vertical connections
0) Section showing possible arrangement of corridors in the core
of the building
Stairway installed in front of the access deck: kitchens are lit and
ventilated via an inset balcony
(j) Floor beneath ®
® Roof storey
Architect: Hirsch
®
o Split-level flats with deck access
296

s
(e - h)
x=a
Plots on steep slopes are
highly suitable for the
construction of stepped
housing. The rake of the front
of the building (ratio of storey
height to terrace depth) can
vary widely (e.g. 8°-40°)
depending on the slope.
Where the terraces are large
(i.e. above 3.2 m deep) the
buildings are usually south
facing and enjoy uninterrupted
views. However, consideration
must then be given to privacy
~ G). Note that some cities
have special regulations
governing stepped housing.
Stepped houses offer
open space for relaxation and
children's play similar to a
conventional house with a
garden. Plants on the terrace
wall further improve living
quality. These advantages
have led to stepped housing
being built on flat sites ~ @-
@ and projects to provide
large internal spaces also
invite the integration of
stepped housing ~ @.
Privacy can be improved
by using an overhang-~ (2)-
@ or progressively setting
back each floor @.
However, the key factor can
be the width of the terrace
wall, which can be calculated
using the following equation:
~G)
® Section
STEPPED HOUSING
1
s
1
step depth
eye level
storey height
wall height
wall depth
terrace depth
~x+ a-x -+x..j
® L-shaped
arrangement
o Asymmetrical
plans
Design: E. Gisel
~x+- a-x -+ p ;
1 living room
2 dining area
3 kitchen
4 bedroom
5 child's room
6 bathroom
7 toilet
-l~,
living room .... ' ... ,
dining area '
kitchen
child's room
bedroom
storage
heating oil storage
utility room
bathroom
(j) Section
® Two-storey
dwellings
Architect: Buddeberg
G) Privacy considerations for terraces
® Plan -~ ®
o Single-storey
dwellings
@ Residential complex, ground floor ~ CD
@ Terraced housing, upper floor @ Section through a convention centre
297

J
_ .:> 1
180__ .... :
I
I
,
I
I
I
I
1
.... I
<, I
T....
..•.............•.....•.......................................................................
An environment for disabled people needs to be designed
to accommodate wheelchairs and allow sufficient space for
moving around in safety (see CD-@) and @-@ for
dimensions and area requirements). Example door and
corridor widths are given in @-@. All switches, handles,
window fittings, telephone points, paper roll or towel
holders, lift controls, etc. must be within reach of an
outstretched arm @- @. The layout of the WC, in
particular, requires careful planning: assess how many
doors, light switches etc. are needed. Consider technical
aids (e.g. magnetic catches on doors and remote controls).
Access paths to the building should be 1.20-2.00 m wide
and be as short as possible. Ramps should ideally be
straight, with a maximum incline of 5-70/0, and should be no
longer than 6 m @. The ramp width between the handrails
should be 1.20 m. Corridors should be at least 1.30 m
(preferably 2.00 m) wide; clear opening of doors, 0.95 m;
height of light switches and electrical sockets, 1.00-1.05 m
(use switches and control devices which have large buttons
or surfaces).
During urban planning, consideration should also be
given to providing wheelchair users with easy access to
general amenities such as supermarkets, restaurants, post
offices, pharmacies, doctors' surgeries, car parks, public
transport etc.
BUILDING FOR DISABLED PEOPLE
~100-105----4
, .
................................................
~65-70--4 ~25-30-l
o Turning circle
o Front view (and folded)
7 7
H---66---+1
~80~
t---107~
o Planview
CD Side view of standard
wheelchair
® Wheelchair on a slope o On stairs (j) VOU workstation ® At a window
~
-"t'...
a
n "
r b
,/'"
nr r-,
I(to""
~
~J- ..r~
J'".Irrl J:::fot""-
{ iI X~. J I
,
• J
rv 1 ~ I
"" ',/
-,
a
..... -r--.{..... b
i"-
:::::~l8 "<,
'/~ .)
rt~r1~ L"..oo r'l
- 1-"'"
,..~ J
IA' ..~
I~
V
r( .... 11: J
~ I!:llll '
V
a ......-I"..-~ <;....... b
/ ~ -.............
N -,
I ( rh '
J...( 1)
...u
'" 1
~ I .~ i-::JDl
" ..III II
I
,,~ I-J 11 IV
II~ I.... I 1/
~--149-157-----l
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
o
100 80 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 80 100120
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
o
100 80 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
120
100
80
60
40
20
o
20
40
60
80
100
100 80 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
® Plan view @ Side elevation @ Rear elevation @ Minimum turning circle
............................
T :.: .:.:
r:' _. ':.
~r ~~ft~~
l
~~ + ~~i~
::: ~1.50 :::
T
r
~90
1
r
·
·
·t ::::::
.. ..
i~-+--' jjj
.. .
~ ...
9~1.50 .~.11
fJ- .
f
·
:
:
:
·+ ~:::::::::::
T
::.. ~ :: t
.:.: I :: 50
78:::: .1.--,
t :: I: ::---;-r
~r --!-- J:.:
L
· ..
~~~~ ~~~~
. ..
:.: 188 :.:.
.. ..
... ..
r
:
:
:
·
:
·
:
· ~
.:. .. T
:::(~.
-~I'-'IJ- ~t90
~ - -y- - -et I .:.
. .: 80
1=....3It···::: 1
......•.•............. . .
::: 78-+--~90 ~
@ Door access with one door @ with 2 doors @ with three doors @ with four doors
298

Houses and Apartments
Accessibility: In the rented residential sector, access via
corridors is the most common layout. This enables large
numbers of angles and corners to be avoided; a straight main
corridor is preferable. The entrance area should be of an
appropriate size, with shelves and coat hooks planned in. The
minimum area of entrance halls is 1.50 x 1.50 m, and 1.70 x 1.60
m for a porch with a single-leaf door. (It should be noted,
however, that minimum recommended dimensions are often not
very generous and in practice can prove to be too small.) For
blind residents it is important to have an intercom system at the
apartment door and the building's main entrance.
Living area: Living rooms should allow adequate free
movement for wheelchair users and have sufficient space for two
or three more visitors' wheelchairs. For blind people, additional
space should be provided for their literature and tape equipment:
Braille books and newspapers are roughly three times bulkier
than their printed equivalents. Single disabled people need more
space than those in shared households. In apartments,
recommended minimum areas for living rooms with a dining
area are: 22 m2 for one person; 24 m2 for two to four people;
26 m2 for five; and 28 m2 for six. The minimum room width is
3.75m for a one- or two-person home ~ @.
If an additional study area is to be incorporated, the floor area
must be increased by at least 2 m2.
Kitchen: Ergonomic planning is of great importance in the
kitchen to allow disabled people to utilise their capabilities to the
full. The arrangement of the storage, preparation, cooking and
washing areas should be convenient and streamlined. The
cooker, main worksurface and taps should be placed as close
together as possible. Storage spaces must be accessible to
wheelchair users (i.e. no high cupboards). The reach of the arm
is roughly 600 mm horizontally and between 400 and 1400 mm
vertically. The optimal working height must be adapted to suit
each disabled person, within the range 750-900 mm, so it is
desirable to have a simple adjustment mechanism.
Single-family houses: The single-storey family house with
garden is often the preferred form of residence for disabled
people. Their requirements can be satisfied easily in this type of
accommodation: i.e. no steps at the entrance and no difference in
level between the individual rooms and the garden; rooms can be
connected without doors and custom designed to best suit the
residents. However, two-storey family houses can also be
suitable, even for wheelchair users, if a suitable means of moving
between floors (vertical elevator or stair lift) is incorporated.
Multi-apartment dwellings: The grouping of apartments in
multiple occupancy dwellings is a housing solution that offers
disabled people an environment which is both sociable and
supportive. In economic terms, it is rarely possible to convert
ordinary apartments into adequate homes for the severely
disabled, so they need to be included at the preliminary planning
stage. It is once again preferable to situate apartments for
disabled people at ground-floor level to avoid the necessity of
installing lifts/elevators.
r
1.40
4.75
1.40
•
Two-room apartment
(So-SSm2 )
I 1.40 I 80 I 90 I
Dining area for two/four
people
I 3.10 I
:rl D~D I~
®
o Wide entrance area
20
I I
outside shelf
letter box
2.00
cupboard •
20
II
~ 3.75
Porch with two-leaf door
One room apartment for
wheelchair user
Deep entrance area with
recessed cupboard
§Qa s
(Ij
D
8
0 lti
Ll)
m Iii
0 ID ~
i-----:~/
I I
I
1
551 2.00
I
1.80
9
- I
4.75
® CD Living/dining room
(4-S people: 23.7Sm2 )
(j)
299
Four-person appartment
including one disabled,
three apartments per floor
@
Three-person appartment
including one disabled. two
apartments per floor
new
~-----.~
Installation of an elevator
old
1-------&-+1----
Annex for disabled person
built onto existing house;
ramps compensate for height
differences
®

Disabled members of a family (husbands, wives, children) who
go to work or school outside the home. Alterations in such
cases relate to access to the house/apartment, furnishings and
provision of sufficient freedom of movement in the living and
sleeping areas, and specially adapted facilities in the
bathroom/WC.
Disabled persons who carry out household tasks. Here,
additional alterations must be made to the kitchen and
elsewhere to simplify work in the home.
Severely disabled persons who are only partially independent,
if at all, and thus require permanent care. Extra space must be
provided for manoeuvring wheelchairs and facilities to aid the
work of carers should be added. Note that self-propelled
wheelchairs require most space.
•
•
•
@ Example apartment areas before/after conversion
Conversions
Extent of the conversion work: Three groups of disabled people
can be identified, each with corresponding requirements:
Comparison of sizes of living area: While apartments for the
elderly are no larger in area than standard apartments (any changes
consisting only of adjusting door widths and tailoring the functional
areas), living areas for disabled people need to be increased
appropriately, particularly for wheelchair users and the visually
impaired. Regulations often require additional rooms in these
apartments as well as a modified bathroom with WC for wheelchair
users.
Recommended values for habitable areas are: 45-50 m2 for a one-
person household; 50-55 m2 for two people.
The needs of disabled people are often not taken into account
sufficiently in new building projects, so it is frequently necessary to
convert existing residential units into appropriate apartments.
Suitable buildings have a generous floor area and offer simple
opportunities for alteration in accordance with the occupant's needs.
The conversion measures required can include: alterations to the
plan, including building work (which is limited by structural
considerations, the type of construction and floor area); alterations to
services, bathroom and kitchen fittings etc.; and supplementary
measures, such as the installation of ramps, lifts and additional
electrical equipment. Attention should also be paid to access from the
street, any floor coverings which require changing and the creation of
a car parking space with ample allowances for wheelchair users. The
extent of the alterations depends on the degree of disability of the
residents and the specific activity within the apartment. As a result,
the conversion measures will often be specified in conjunction with
the disabled person and tailored to his or her needs.
Prior to commencing conversion work, the plan and structure of
the existing apartment should be examined carefully. Ground floor
apartments of an adequate size are particularly suitable because
additional services (passing through the basement) can be installed
more cheaply and entrance modifications are easier.
apartment for disabled (m 2) standard (m 2)
1 person studio 49.99 40.46
2 person apartment 67.69 56.47
Converted to an apartment
for severely disabled
® Studio apartment (45 m 2 )
o After conversion
(3)
One and two-room apartment
prior to conversion (visually
impaired, child) --+ @
® Studio apartment (40 m 2 )
o Two-room apartment (54 m 2 )
f1 Family house before
~ conversion --+ @
300 ® Three-room apartment (95 m 2 ) @ Four-room apartment (110m2 )

~ 1.20
I ~1.50 I
wheelchair user
~ 1.50
1
BARRIER-FREE LIVING
A functionally efficient and well-designed living space is of great
importance to people with disabilities. To turn through 1800
a
wheelchair user requires 1500-1700 mm. This requirement sets the
minimum sizes and circulation space of landings, rooms, garages
etc. shown here. Entrances should not have a threshold or steps and
revolving doors are not permitted. Doors should have at least
900 mm clear width. BathroomlWC doors must open outwards. The
minimum width for a landing is 1500mm, and landings of over 15m
in length should include a circulation area (1800 x 1800 mrn). All
levels and facilities inside and outside a building must be accessible
without negotiating steps; if necessary, include a lift ~ @ or ramps
~®.
~ 1.50
Movement area around we
and wash basin
;!.:::.~.•
~~...
:::~.:..:::~.:~j
::
:i:.:.;::.;.:
IIIlI
I
..
n··
Lj ~~
::
.::::::::.:.~
~
11
o
,...,
11
CD
~ 1.50
shower area
~ 150
rl---.;;;.-=""----i
shower area
I ~ 70 I
~ 1.50
.......................
.....................:.
bath
~ 1.50
Movement area: shower
and bath
Overlapping of movement areas in a bathroom
~ 1.50
Dimensions in kitchens
Space requirement beside a
bed for user and non-user of
a wheelchair
®
Dimensions around the
sink. oven and refrigerator
I ~ 1.90 I
Space requirements:
wheelchair and movement
area
®
1
~ 1.50
1
...........
~X
••
X
IIII
~ 1.50
Movement area in an
L-shaped kitchen
.••.•••••••.••••...•..•..••.•.....••.......••••..•••......••.•..
H
..
::
o
Movement area in a
two-side kitchen
CD
CD
~ 190
~ 1.90
illI,mJ~
~
...• ':::: ':.:.::':.: ••..:
•.. :
•....: •...:
..
:::.:
.••.
:: :
•. :
..
::.:.::•..
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.•..•......•..
:
.••::::.:
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.•.::
..•...•......
:
.•.: . : i L : :
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: ..•.
: : ::
•.•::
.•.......
: :: :
:
.. :.•...•.:•.. ::
.. :: ....•. ::.:.: ..:.: : : : : : : : : :
~/ .••••••••~
C~~>9014 >1~
L.< •.•...-..-....J 1
@ Halls and passages
20
T
:51.20
1
1
~ 1.50
~ 1.50
15
150 ----+i
.................................
................................
.................................
..............................................: .
.................................................................
.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.
@ Section of ramp
~ 1.50
r:1
~)!,
15
II
T
90
1
max6.00 ~ 1.50
wheel buffer
( ~ T
: :1
I~ ~ >140
......:.':.-
..
-.~ _-
@ Ramp
@ Lift car dimensions and
movement area in front of
the lift door
Space requirement in
garages
Movement areas in front
of hinged doors and ...
@ ... in front of sliding doors
301

OLD PEOPLE'S ACCOMMODATION
Depending on the degree of support required, there are three
main types of accommodation and care for the elderly: (1) old
people's housing, (2) old people's homes and (3) nursing homes.
In the United Kingdom, depending, inter alia, on type of
dwelling and facilities provided, housing for elderly people can
be classified into: category one housing, category two
housing, sheltered housing, very sheltered housing, retirement
housing, extra-care housing, residential care homes, nursing
care homes, and dual registration homes. In the United States,
although similar building types have been developed, the
terminology differs. The building types that house elderly
people in the United States can be described as independent
retirement housing units, congregate housing, personal care
housing, skilled nursing home, and life care communities.
Old people's housing ~ @ - @ consists of self-contained
flats or apartments which cater for the needs of the elderly so
that they can avoid moving into an old people's home for as
long as possible. Such housing is usually

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