Neufert Architects' Data Fourth Edition - PDF Room.pdf

Ernst and Peter Neufert
llliii
I
Fourth Edition
Updated by Professor Johannes Kister
on behalf of the Neufert Foundation
with support from the University of Anhalt
Dessau Bauhaus (Dipl. lng. Mathias Brockhaus,
Dipl. lng. Matthias Lohmann and
Dipl. lng. Patricia Merkel)
TRANSLATED BY DAVID STURGE
(5BWILEY-BLACKWELL
A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication

English language first published 2012
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Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and product names
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not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative
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sought.
First English language edition published by Crosby Lockwood Staples 1970
Reprinted 5 times
Second (International) English language edition published by Granada Publishing 1980
Reprinted 3 times
Reissued in paperback by Collins Professional and Technical Books 1985
Reprinted by Blackwell Science Ltd 12 times
Third English language edition published by Blackwell Science Ltd 2000
Fourth Edition language edition published by Blackwell Publishing Ltd 2012
Originally Published in the German Language by Vieweg + Teubner, 65189 Wiesbaden, Germany, as "Ernst Neufert: Neufert
Bauentwurfslehre. 39. Auflage (39th Edition)"
© Vieweg + TeubneriGWV Fachverlage GmbH, Wiesbaden 2009
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Data available on application
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
ISBN: 978-1-4051-9253-8
Set in 8/10 Arial by Aptara
Printed and bound in Singapore by Markono Print Media Pte Ltd
2012

This book provides architects and designers with a concise
source of the core information needed to form a framework for the
detailed planning of any building project. The objective is to save
the designers of buildings time during their basic investigations.
The information includes: principles of the design process, basic
information on siting, constructing and servicing buildings, as
well as illustrations and descriptions of a wide range of building
types. Architects need to be well informed about the requirements
for all the constituent parts of new projects, to ensure that their
designs satisfy their clients and the buildings conform to accepted
standards and regulations.
The contents list shows how the book is organised and the order
of the subjects discussed.
To avoid repetition and keep the book to a manageable length,
the different subjects are covered only once in full. Readers
should therefore refer to several sections to glean all the
information they require. For instance, an architect wanting to
prepare a scheme for a college will need to refer to sections
other than that on universities and colleges, such as: drafting
guidelines; multi-storey buildings; various sections on services
and environmental control; catering; residential buildings, hotels
and flats (for student accommodation); office buildings (for
working environments); libraries; car parks; accessible building;
indoor and outdoor sports facilities; gardens; details on doors,
windows, stairs and other building components; the section on
construction, and more.
Readers should note that most of the material is from European
(substantially German) contributors. This means, for example,
that information on climate and daylight is from the perspective
of a temperate climate in the northern hemisphere. The actual
conditions at the site of a proposed building will always have to be
ascertained. Similarly, in the section on roads, illustrations show
traffic driving on the right-hand side.
References to standards, regulations and guidelines reflect the
book's origins. For this translation, the publishers took the decision to
leave the specific text references to German standards, regulations
and guidelines in place, to indicate where similar standards,
regulations and guidelines might exist in other jurisdictions. Users
The publishers wish to thank the translator, Mr David Sturge. The
publishers also wish to acknowledge and thank the copyeditor
Using this book
elsewhere must familiarise themselves separately with such national
and local legislation and guidance. Again, local conditions must be
taken into consideration for each individual case.
The terminology and style of the text is UK English, which
will need to be taken into account by readers accustomed to
American English. These readers will need to be aware that, for
example, 'lift' has been used instead of 'elevator' and 'ground
floor/first floor' instead of 'first floor/second floor'.
The data and examples included in the text are drawn from a
wide range of sources; as a result a variety of conventions for
dimensions is used throughout. The measurements shown are
all metric but a mixture of metres, centimetres and millimetres is
used (and sometimes not identified).
Readers will also find some superscript numbers associated with
measurements. When these appear by dimensions in metres with
centimetres, for instance, they represent the additional millimetre
component of the measure (e.g. 1.265
denotes 1 m, 26 em,
5 mm). Anyone familiar with the metric system will not find this
troublesome. Those people less comfortable with metric units can
use the conversion tables (to imperial measures) at the end of the
book.
The plans and diagrams of buildings do not have scales as
the purpose here is to show the general layout and express
relationships between different spaces, making exact scaling
unnecessary. However, all relevant dimensions are given on the
detailed drawings and diagrams of installations, to assist in the
design of specific spaces and constructions.
To help readers identify relevant background information, details
of British Standards Institute (BSI) and German Institute of
Standardisation (DIN) building-related standards are provided in
two types of location. At the end of the book is a selected list of
BS and DIN standards, arranged broadly by topic. Additionally,
the margin of many pages of the main text contains relevant BS
and DIN codes. Please note that, if a British or Gerrnan code
includes EN or ISO (signifying European or international), there is
automatically a German dr British counterpart with the same code
and title.
Acknowledgements
and proofreader, Ms Kay Hyman, for the very significant
contribution she has made to this publication.
v

Foreword ................................................................................... xii
BASICS
Abbreviations and symbols ..................................................... 1
Sl units ........................................................................................2
Drawings
Paper formats ..............................................................................4
Technical drawings ...................................................................... 5
Layout of drawings ......................................................................6
Construction drawings ................................................................. 7
Construction drawing symbols .................................................... 8
Water supply and drainage symbols, ........................................ 12
Electrical installation symbols ................................................... 14
Security installation symbols ..................................................... 17
Gas installation symbols ........................................................... 18
Drawing by hand ....................................................................... 19
Computer-aided drawing ........................................................... 20
Accessible Building
Dimensions for wheelchair users .............................................. 21
Accessible public buildings ....................................................... 22
Accessible housing ...................................................................23
Dimensional Basics and
Relationships
Man as measure and purpose .................................................. 26
The universal standard ............................................................. 27
Body measurements and space requirements ......................... 28
Geometrical relationships .......................................................... 30
Dimensions in building .............................................................. 34
Building Biology
Basics ........................................................................................ 36
Room climate ............................................................................ 37
Electromagnetic fields ............................................................... 38
Visual Perception
The eye ..................................................................................... 39
Perception of colour ..................................................................41
DESIGN PROCESS
Design
What is design? ......................................................................... 42
Planes of reference ...................................................................43
Questionnaire ............................................................................44
Sustainable Building
General, design, construction ...................................................46
Operation, demolition ................................................................47
Facility Management
Background ...............................................................................48
Methods ...:................................................................................49
Refurbishment
Conservation and alteration ...................................................... 50
Care of historic monuments ...................................................... 51
Listed building protection .......................................................... 52
Recording of old buildings ......................................................... 53
Conversion ................................................................................54
Design and Construction
Management
Public building and planning law ............................................... 56
Private building law, VOB, HOAI ............................................... 57
Work phases ............................................................................. 58
Measures of building use .......................................................... 63
Setback areas ...........................................................................64
Construction costs .................................................................... 65
Contents
BUILDING COMPONENTS
Foundations
Building excavations .................................................................. 66
Foundations ...............................................................................69
Tanking, basement drainage ..................................................... 71
Repair ........................................................................................73
Walls
Natural stone masonry .............................................................. 74
Brick and block masonry ........................................................... 75
Composite construction ............................................................. 78
Repair ........................................................................................79
Floor Slabs
Slab construction ....................................................................... 80
Refurbishment ...........................................................................81
Concrete repair ......................................................................... 82
Floors ........................................................................................ 83
Roofs
Roof shapes ..............................................................................85
Pitched roofs .............................................................................86
Flat roofs ...................................................................................91
Windows
Arrangement .............................................................................96
Requirements ............................................................................97
Design types .............................................................................98 c
Thermal insulation ..................................................................... 99
Sound insulation ...................................................................... 100
Cleaning buildings .................................................................. 101
Loft windows ........................................................................... 102
Skylights and dome rooflights ................................................. 103
Glass
Basics ......................................................................................104
Insulated glazing ..................................................................... 105
Security and noise control glass ............................................. 107
Optically variable glass ........................................................... 108
Cast glass ............................................................................... 108
Glass doors ............................................................................. 108
Profiled glass .......................................................................... 109
Glass blocks ............................................................................ 110
Fire protection glazing ..............................................................111
Curtain walling ......................................................................... 112
Doors
Arrangement ........................................................................... 113
Constructional details .............................................................. 114
Special doors .......................................................................... 115
Garage/industrial doors ........................................................... 116
Lock suites .............................................................................. 117
Security of buildings and grounds ........................................... 118
Stairs
Principles ................................................................................ 120
Regulations ............................................................................. 121
Construction ............................................................................ 122
Ramps, spiral stairs ................................................................ 123
Access and escape ladders .................................................... 125
Escalators
For shops and offices .............................................................. 126
Moving Walkways
For shops and offices .............................................................. 127
Lifts
Principles ................................................................................128
Control equipment ................................................................... 129
Passenger lifts for residential buildings ................................... 130
vii

Passenger lifts for offices, hotels, banks ................................. 131 Playgrounds
Small goods lifts ...................................................................... 132 Playground equipment ............................................................ 190
Hydraulic lifts ........................................................................... 133
Special lifts .............................................................................. 134
Schools
General classrooms ................................................................ 191
Specialist classrooms .............................................................. 192
RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS Information and communal area ............................................. 193
Basics
Design basics .......................................................................... 135
House-building policy .............................................................. 136
Sanitary facilities, break and circulation area .......................... 194
Arrangement of classrooms, clusters ...................................... 195
Model room programmes for primary schools ........................ 196
Examples ................................................................................ 197
Housing Density
Parameters .............................................................................. 137
Universities and Colleges
Lecture theatres ...................................................................... 198
Orientation Examples of lecture theatres ...................................................200
Layout of buildings .................................................................. 138 Seating and projection ............................................................ 201
Access
Detached and terraced development ...................................... 139
Seminar and service rooms ....................................................202
Laboratories ............................................................................203
Deck access ............................................................................ 140
Stepped houses ...................................................................... 141 CULTURAL VENUES
Vertical access ........................................................................ 142
Museums and Art Galleries
Floor Plans General ...................................................................................207
Houses ....................................................................................143
Flats ........................................................................................145
Display rooms .........................................................................208
Theatres
Rooms Historical review ......................................................................209
Access ..................................................................................... 146
Kitchens .................................................................................. 149
Typology ..................................................................................210
Auditorium ............................................................................... 211
Living areas ............................................................................. 154
Bathrooms ............................................................................... 160
Subsidiary rooms .................................................................... 162
Garages and carports ............................................................. 166
Seating ....................................................................................212
Stage .......................................................................................213
Subsidiary rooms ....................................................................215
Workshops and staff rooms ....................................................216
Rehearsal and public rooms ...................................................217
ACCOMMODATION Modernisation and extension ..................................................218
Student Residences Concert Halls
General design notes .............................................................. 167 Origins, variants ......................................................................219
Elderly People's Accommodation
Technical requirements, organ, orchestra ............................... 220
Acoustics .................................................................................221
Retirement flats ....................................................................... 168
Nursing and care homes ......................................................... 169 Cinemas
Examples ................................................................................ 170 Projection ................................................................................222
Auditorium ...............................................................................223
Hotels
Basics ...................................................................................... 171
Rooms ..................................................................................... 172
Multiplex cinemas ...................................................................224
Multiplex cinemas, examples ..................................................225
Drive-in cinemas .....................................................................226
Examples ................................................................................ 173
Circus
Catering
Restaurants ............................................................................. 174
Stationary ................................................................................227
Dining rooms, serving ............................................................. 176 Zoos
Fast food outlets ..................................................................... 177 Basics .....................................................................................228
Restaurant kitchens ................................................................ 178 Keeping animals ..................................................................... 229
Large kitchens ......................................................................... 181 Enclosures ..............................................................................230
Examples of large kitchens ..................................................... 183
Youth Hostels ADMINISTRATION AND OFFICES
General design notes .............................................................. 184
Office Buildings
Holiday/Weekend Cabins Structures ................................................................................231
General design notes .............................................................. 185 Tendencies/criteria ..................................................................232
Motels
General design notes .............................................................. 186
Typology until 1980 ................................................................. 233
Typology since 1980 ...............................................................234
Space requirement ................................................................. 235
Camping Computer workstations ........................................................... 236
General design notes .............................................................. 187 Archives ..................................................................................237
Additional areas ...................................................................... 238
EDUCATION AND RESEARCH
Children's Daycare
Room typology ........................................................................ 239
Grid ..........................................................................................240
Access ....................................................................................241
Access and building layouts .................................................... 188 Building services ..................................................................... 242
Rooms, outdoor areas ............................................................ 189 Construction ............................................................................ 243
viii

High-Rise Buildings Operational areas ....................................................................296
Basics ......................................................................................244 Outpatient area ....................................................................... 297
Construction ............................................................................245 Outpatient medical centre- example ...................................... 298
Requirements .......................................................................... 246 Examination and treatment .....................................................299
Libraries
Basics .....................................................................................247
Fittings ....................................................................................249
Space requirement .................................................................250
Care ........................................................................................305
Administration, social services ................................................ 312
Supply and waste disposal ...................................................... 313
Technical supply ......................................................................316
Scientific libraries .................................................................... 251
Archives ..................................................................................252 SPORT AND LEISURE
Banks Stadiums
Banks ......................................................................................253 Overview ................................................................................. 318
Spectator stands ..................................................................... 319
RETAIL Sports Facilities
Retail Outlets
Guidelines and typologies ....................................................... 254
Retail regulations ....................................................................255
Entrances and shop windows ................................................. 256
Checkout and waiting zones ................................................... 257
Waiting zones - examples ......................................................258
Routeing, escalators ............................................................... 259
Fittings -dimensions ..............................................................260
Food shops ............................................................................. 261
Self-service shops .................................................................. 262
Playing areas ..........................................................................320
Athletics ................................................................................... 323
Tennis ...................................................................................... 327
Miniature golf ..........................................................................329
Golf courses ............................................................................331
Water sport, marinas ............................................................... 333
Water sport, rowing and canoeing .......................................... 339
Equestrian sport ..................................................................... 341
Ski jumping .............................................................................343
Ice rinks ...................................................................................344
Roller skating rinks .................................................................. 345
INDUSTRY AND TRADE
Speed roller skating, skateboarding ........................................ 346
Cycle-cross, BMX ................................................................... 347
Industry Shooting ranges ......................................................................348
Basics .....................................................................................263
Shed construction ................................................................... 265
Sports Halls
Dimensions ............................................................................. 350
Multi-storey industrial buildings ............................................... 266
Transport .................................................................................267
Warehousing ...........................................................................268
Layout, construction ................................................................ 352
Equipment ............................................................................... 353
Stands ..................................................................................... 354
Subsidiary rooms ....................................................................270
Examples ................................................................................273
Examples ................................................................................355
Judo ........................................................................................356
Workshops Wrestling .................................................................................356
Joinery ....................................................................................274
Carpenter's shop .....................................................................275
Metalwork ...............................................................................276
Weight-lifting ...........................................................................356
Boxing ..................................................................................... 356
Badminton ...............................................................................356
Vehicle repairs ......................................................................... 277
Bakery .....................................................................................278
Meat processing plant .............................................................279
Other trades ............................................................................280
Squash ....................................................................................357
Table tennis .............................................................................357
Billiards ...................................................................................357
Condition, fitness .................................................................... 358
Laundry ...................................................................................281
Fire station .............................................................................. 283
Climbing halls ..........................................................................360
Bowling alleys ......................................................................... 361
Swimming Pools
RELIGIOUS BUILDINGS Indoor swimming pools ........................................................... 362
Christian Churches
Liturgical elements ..................................................................285
Furnishing, vestry ....................................................................286
Outdoor pools .........................................................................367
Indoor/outdoor pools ............................................................... 368
Private pools ........................................................................... 371
Bell towers ..............................................................................287 Spa
Synagogues
Sauna/small sauna/wellness .................................................. 372
General design notes ..............................................................288 Amusement Arcades
Mosques
Amusement arcades ............................................................... 375
General design notes ..............................................................289
TRANSPORT
HEALTH Roads
Doctors' Practices
Single and group practices .....................................................290
Street spaces ..........................................................................376
Types of road .......................................................................... 377
Motorways ..............................................................................378
Hospitals Traffic space ........................................................................... 379
General, modular grid .............................................................291 Inter-urban roads .................................................................... 380
Building design ........................................................................ 293 Intersections ............................................................................381
Examples ................................................................................294 Footpaths and cycle ways ...................................................... 382
Corridors, doors, stairs, lifts ....................................................295 Bicycle traffic/storage ............................................................. 383
ix

Traffic calming .........................................................................385
Noise protection ...................................................................... 386
Parking Facilities
Vehicles ................................................................................... 387
Vehicles turning ....................................................................... 389
Parking spaces .......................................................................390
Multi-storey car parks .............................................................. 392
Ramps .....................................................................................393
Multi-storey car park regulations ............................................. 394
Parking systems ...................................................................... 395
Vehicles- trucks ..................................................................... 397
Trucks - parking and turning ................................................... 398
Service areas ..........................................................................399
Petrol stations .........................................................................400
Car wash .................................................................................402
Public Transport
Conditions, means of transport ...............................................403
Stops and stations ..................................................................404
Traffic spaces .........................................................................405
Bus stations ............................................................................406
Railways
Tracks ......................................................................................408
Typical Continental European structure -
gauges and clearances ...........................................................410
UK structure- gauges and clearances ................................... 411
Freight Transport ....................................................................413
Freight transport .....................................................................413
Stations ...................................................................................414
Station buildings ......................................................................415
Platforms .................................................................................416
Platform furniture ....................................................................417
Aviation
Basics .....................................................................................418
Airports ...................................................................................419
Runways .................................................................................420
Terminals ................................................................................421
Terminal and apron .................................................................422
Aeroplanes .............................................................................. 423
EXTERNAL WORKS
Cemeteries
Morgue and crematorium ........................................................424
Graves, cemetery chapel ........................................................ 425
Cemeteries .............................................................................. 426
Landscape Architecture
Design aspects and concepts .................................................426
Earthworks
Soi1 ..........................................................................................428
Garden Enclosures
Walls and fences .....................................................................430
Pergola and Trellis
Pergolas .................................................................................. 432
Trellises ...................................................................................433
Examples of plants .................................................................434
Paths, Paving, Steps
Design aspects .......................................................................435
Drainage
Rainwater management ..........................................................436
Vegetation
Plants ......................................................................................437
Plants and lawns .....................................................................438
Biological Engineering
Supporting slopes and riverbanks ..........................................439
X
Greenhouses
Greenhouses ..........................................................................441
Ponds and Pools
Garden pond ...........................................................................442
Natural swimming pool ...........................................................443
Water plants for natural swimming pool .................................. 444
External Works - Example
Federal Environment Agency ..................................................445
AGRICULTURE
FARMYARDS
Basics .....................................................................................446
Space requirements ................................................................447
Machinery................................................................................448
Fodder storage ........................................................................449
Dung and drainage .................................................................450
Climate in animal housing .......................................................451
Animal Husbandry
Housing poultry .......................................................................452
Keeping small animals ............................................................453
Sheep housing ........................................................................454
Laying hens ............................................................................455
Pig keeping .............................................................................456
Dairy farming ...........................................................................457
Finishing beef cattle ................................................................458
Keeping horses ....................................................................... 459
Supply and Disposal
Loading yards .........................................................................461
Loading ramps, bridges, lifting platforms ................................ 462
Rubbish chute systems ...........................................................463
Rubbish collection rooms ........................................................464
Emergency power rooms ........................................................465
BUILDING SERVICES
Renewable Energy
Overview .................................................................................466
Solar energy ............................................................................ 467
Bioenergy ................................................................................468
Geothermal energy, heat pumps ............................................. 469
CHP, block heating and power,
fuel cells ..................................................................................470
Building Physics
Thermal insulation ...................................................................471
Sound insulation ......................................................................477
Room acoustics ......................................................................482
Lightning protection .................................................................485
Daylight
Physical basics .......................................................................488
Position of the sun ..................................................................489
Insolation .................................................................................490
Shadow ...................................................................................493
Radiation energy .....................................................................494
Window lighting .......................................................................495
Rooflighting .............................................................................497
Quality criteria .........................................................................498
Directing sunlight ....................................................................499
Sun shading ............................................................................500
Lighting
Artificial lighting ....................................................................... 501
Lamps .....................................................................................502
Types of lighting ......................................................................505
Lighting layout ......................................................................... 506
Quality criteria ......................................................................... 507
Illuminance .............................................................................508

Fluorescent tubes ................................................................... 509 Heating ....................................................................................532
Workplace Guideline 'Artificial lighting' (excerpt) .................... 510 Small sewage treatment plants ............................................... 536
Fire Protection Chimneys and Ventilation Shafts
Basics ....................................................................................: 511 Chimneys ................................................................................537
Classification ...........................................................................512 Open fireplaces ....................................................................... 538
Fire compartment walls ........................................................... 513 Ventilation shafts ..................................................................... 539
Building components ............................................................... 514
Fire-resistant glazing ............................................................... 516
References ............................................................................. 540
Fire-resistant door sets ........................................................... 517 BS and DIN Standards ........................................................ 548
Fire fighting installations ......................................................... 518
Smoke and heat extractor systems ........................................ 519
Sprinkler systems .................................................................... 520
Other extinguishing systems ................................................... 521
Conversion of Units
Weights and measures ........................................................... 555
Conversion tables ................................................................... 560
Domestic Installation
INDEX ..................................................................................... 575
Drainage .................................................................................522
Ventilation ...............................................................................528
xi

The 'Neufert' continues to be the most comprehensive, yet
compact, first source of information on the design of buildings.
Just as the daily office grind of the architect proceeds in many
small steps and a few long strides, the sustained progress of
the 'Neufert' is characterised not only by meticulous attention to
standards and regulations, whose omnipresence in construction
is undeniable, but also by reflection of the great issues of our
time as they affect building project design. These important
matters undoubtedly include concern for our environment and the
absolute demand for sustainability in architecture. Sustainable
building has many aspects, to be weighted differently according
to the design brief.
The team working with Professor Johannes Kister has set out,
right through the book, to emphasise new sustainability standards
and perspectives using the criteria 'objective information' and
'topicality', which is presumably how Ernst Neufert would have
approached the task. We hope that this new edition, which
continues the redesign commenced in the previous one, will
further consolidate the Foundation's reliable and exhaustive
reference volume on building design.
Neufert Foundation, March 2009
xii
Foreword
The new German edition has once again been produced at the
same location that was formative for Neufert's development
as the office manager for Walter Gropius- the Bauhaus in
Dessau. The decision to return to the roots here seems to have
been the right one, because the previous edition was greeted
positively by architects, students, lecturers and other interested
parties. The concepts in this edition have been developed
further by Nicole Delmes, nee Neufert, and lngo Neufert. My
thanks are due to them both, for the trust and understanding
they have shown, which made our collaboration straightforward
and enjoyable. Also, I would especially like to thank Mathias
Brockhaus, Matthias Lohmann and Patricia Merkel, a team that
works in an exceptionally professional manner, the students of
the Hochschule Anhalt- Fanjuan Kong, Tobias Schwarzwald
and Mandy Wagenknecht- and the external consultants, whose
valuable advice and reliable collaboration made an essential
contribution to the success of the project.
Dessau, March 2009
External consultants:
Prof. Dr. Dirk Bohne
Karl-Heinz Breuer
Paul Coral!
Thomas Ehrenberg
Olaf Gersmeier
Lydia Haack, John Hiipfner
Karl-Josef Heinrichs
Prof. Alfred Jacoby
Stefan Jackel, Tobias Micke
and Andreas Kotlan
Dr. Jiirg Junhold
LOr Meyer-Bassin
Hans-Peter MOhlethaler
Prof. Dr. Gunther Nogge
Marcellus Puhlemann
Hermann Schnell
Finn Stoll
Wolfgang Thiede
Carsten Thiemann
Heiko Uelze
Prof. Susanne Weber
Carola Wunderlich
Johannes Kister
Building services
Basics
Fire protection
Filling stations and service
areas
Design and construction
management
Filling stations and car wash
Building physics
Synagogues
External works
Zoos
Theatre
Restaurants
Zoos
Design and construction
management
Facility management
Administration
Health
Railways
Catering
Lighting
Air transport

This handbook developed from the notes made for my lectures at
the Bauhochschule in Weimar. They derive from measurements,
experience and understanding gained from practice and research
in the human sphere, necessary for the design of buildings, but
also keeping an eye open for new opportunities and demands.
On the one hand we stand on the shoulders of our forebears but,
on the other, everything is fluid and we are children of our time with
our gaze towards the future, though the outlook of each individual
is often different. This results from differences in education and
training, the influence of the environment, personal predisposition
and the relevant degree of internally driven self-development.
Whether the 'fixed opinion' of today is absolutely correct remains
to be seen, however, because it is only valid at the time of
formation. Experience shows that fairer judgement develops
with time than is possible immediately, since we do not have the
necessary detachment for breadth of vision. This makes clear
what reservations need to be imposed on teaching to prevent
heresy. All teaching remains subjective and determined by its
time and environment, despite all efforts to achieve truth and
objectivity and all intentions to critically examine our favourite
opinions. The danger of heresy can be avoided if the teaching
also makes clear that it is not an end product but rather serves,
and is subject to, all that is vital, upcoming and unfolding
This will then provide for our students the attitude meant by
Nietzsche when he said, 'Only those who change themselves
remain associated with me.'
The essential feature of such teaching of continuous progress,
the servant of development, is that there are no ready recipes,
no 'canned wisdom', but rather only building blocks, components
or corners requiring the addition of combination, construction,
composition and harmony.
Confucius put it like this more than 2500 years ago: 'I give my
students a corner and they will have to find the other three
themselves!' Born architects, or those who yearn to build, will
keep their ears and eyes closed when a solution to a task is
prescribed, because born architects are full of their ideas and
ideals, and only need the elements in order to set to work and
make something of them!
Those who have found faith in themselves, an insight into
connectivity, the play of forces, materials, colours, dimensions,
who can absorb the reality and the appearance of a building,
study its effect, investigate it critically and rebuild it in the mind,
are on the only true path to the great satisfaction offered by
active creation. This view of life should help them on their way. It
Preface
should liberate them from all teachings, when it comes down to
it even from this one, and lead them to their own creative work.
It should provide initial assistance: run- everyone must build for
themselves.
The architectural forms of our time are the result of the same
process, which our predecessors underwent in order to produce
their splendid temples, cathedrals and palaces. They had
no models other than their own imaginations and intentions,
ideas and ideals, with which they neared their aspirations. The
commission formulated along these lines was enough to enliven
concepts, which took solid form in line with the technological
possibilities of the time and local conditions, and only bore a
remote similarity to what had gone before. These new buildings
could be technically much better and deliver more because of
improvement in the state of technology. They could, however, also
be compared artistically to similar structures from the past.
If we compare an industrial building of today- light, roomy, with
good dimensions and slimmer, lightweight construction -with a
factory from the 18th century or a workshop of the 15th century,
then the advantages of our modern buildings will be apparent
even to the most blinkered conservationist. This means that,
whenever construction projects serve a genuine requirement of
our time, work can be expected from energetic contemporary
architects that will bear comparison to, or even overshadow, the
best of old buildings.
A lively-minded university should offer primarily a view of our time
and a look to the future, glancing back only to the extent that this
is advisable or unavoidable. This was the advice of one of the
greatest of our profession, Fritz Schumacher, when he warned
a young student in his architecture lectures against getting too
lost in art history issues while researching the past. Being led
astray by a doctorate into learned byways could be at the cost of
the energy required to meet the more varied requirements of the
profession.
In contrast to this, it is better just to hand students the elements
of architecture, as is done in this Architects' Data, where I
have attempted to reduce the building blocks of design to the
essentials, to schematise and even to abstract in order to make
imitation difficult and force students to produce form and content
from within themselves. Their various design ideas will be
coordinated anyway to a certain extent by current fashion, that
idiosyncratic feeling of community which characterises mankind's
joint efforts at a particular time and finds a durable and visible
expression in contemporary style.
Ernst Neufert
xiii

ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS
Abbreviation Meaning Abbreviation Meaning ABBREVIATIONS
AND SYMBOLS
AEG General Railway Law UIC International Union of Railways
AFP Agricultural Investment Support Programme VDE Association of German Electrical Engineers
ArbStattR Workplace Guidelines VOl Association of German Engineers
ArbStattV Workplace Regulations VdS Loss Prevention (fire and security testing institute)
BauGB Building Law VkVO Retail Regulations
BGB German Civil Code VOB Contract Regulations for Building Works
BGR Association of Commercial Accident Insurance VStattVO Places of Assembly Regulations
Companies Wh withers height (horse)
BlmSchG Federal Prevention of Emissions Law WSG Water Protection Law
BOStrab Construction and Operation of Trams Regulation ZH Indicates Guidelines of BGR (Association of
BS(I) British Standards (Institute) Commercial Accident Insurance Companies)
CEN Committee for European Normalisation ZVEI Central Association of Electrical and Electronics
CHP combined heat and power Industries
CIE International Lighting Commission
CPM Critical Path Method Unit, Abbreviation Greek Alphabet
DB Deutsche Bahn - German Railways 1012 10 em 12 mm (superscript A a (a) Alpha
DEHOGA German Hotel and Inn Association
DFS German Air Traffic Control
number= mm) B p (b) Beta
DiBt German Institute for Building Technology
English inch r y (g) Gamma
DIN German Institute for Standardisation
English foot 11. 0 (d) Delta
ON normal diameter
H or h height or high E E (e) Epsilon
EBO Construction and Operation of Railways Regulation
Worw width or wide z s (z) Zeta
EEG Renewable Energy Law
h hour H l1 (e) Eta
min minute e 1'} (th) Theta
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
second I (i) Iota
EN European (standard)
s l
EnEV Energy Saving Regulation
12° degrees in Celsius (C) K K (k) Kappa
J joule, energy A 'A (I) Lambda
FEA Federal Environment Agency
N newton, force M ~ (m) Mu
FEU 40-foot equivalent unit (container)
Pa pascal, pressure N v (n) Nu
FFL finished floor level
2° 3' 4" 2 degrees, 3 min, 3 (x) Xi
FIS International Ski Federation X
FGSV Research Company for Roads and Traffic
4 s. 360-degree division 0 0 (o) Omicron
% per cent, hundredth n TT (p) Pi
GEFMA German Facility Management Association
%o per thousand, thousandth p p (r) Rho
GIF Company for Property Industry Research
0 diameter L ()' (s) Sigma
GUV Guidelines of the German Association of
I per (e.g. t/m =tonne perm) T 't: (t) Tau
Accident Insurers (health and safety) y u (y) Upsilon
HeizAniV Heating Plant Regulation
 (ph) Phi
HGV heavy goods vehicle
X 'I' (ch) Chi
HOAI Fee Regulations for Architects and Engineers
'¥ v (ps) Psi
HWR auxiliary inverter
0 greater than I= 1
KfW 'Reconstruction' Subsidy Bank ;s equal or greater than II= 2
KFZ vehicle < less than Ill= 3
LBO state building regulation ~ less than or equal IV= 4
LC liquid crystal ~ sum of V= 5
LED llight emitting diode <I angle VI= 6
LIDC luminous intensity distribution curve sin sine VII= 7
LiTG German Technical Light Association cos cosine VIII= 8
LPZ lightning protection zone tan tangent IX= 9
LU large animal unit (500 kg live weight) ctg cotangent X= 10
MBO model building regulation (basis for LBO) equal XV= 15
MPM Metra Potential Method
* not equal C= 100
MTA medical/technical assistant approximately CL= 150
MVZ outpatient medical centre infinity CC= 200
ODP operating department practitioner parallel CCC= 300
OPNV public transport X times, multiplied by CD= 400
PKW passenger car I divided by D= 500
RAL German quality assurance mark j_ right-angled DC= 600
RAS-L (-EWI-Q) Road Construction Guidelines - Road Layout v volume DCC= 700
(Drainage I Cross-section) m solid angle DCCC= 800
SchBauR School Building Guidelines --1 square root of CM = 900
StLB Standard Book of Bill Items - congruent M = 1000
StVo Street Traffic Regulations 11. triangle MCMLX= 1960
suv sports utility vehicle It same direction, parallel
TEU 20-foot equivalent unit (container) n opposite directions, parallel
1

UNITS
Sl Units
Sl units- Systeme International d'Unites
The international system of units: the most commonly used system
of measurement and units in science. Basic units, which are not
derived from any other.
Quantily Basic unit Symbol Definition based on Sl units included
name in definition
1 length metre m wavelength of krypton -
radiation
2 mass kilogram kg international prototype -
3 time second s period of caesium -
radiation
4 electrical current ampere A electrodynamic force kg, m, s
between two conductors
5 temperature kelvin K triple point of water -
(thenmodynamic
temperature)
6 luminous intensity candela cd radiation from freezing kg, s
platinum
7 amount ofsubstance mole mol molecular mass kg
0 Basic Sl units
a) Thermal insulation
Symbol Unit Description
t (°C, K) temperature
t (K) temperature difference
q (Wh) quantity of heat
),. (W/mK) thermal conductivity
),.' (W/mK) equivalent thermal conductivity
A (W/m2K) coefficient of thermal transmittance
a (W/m2K) coefficient of thermal transmission
u (W/m2K) coefficient of thermal transmittance
1/A (m2KIW) thermal insulation value
1/a (m2KIW) thermal transmission resistance
1/k (m2KIW) thermal transmittance resistance, 1/U
D' (m2K/Wxcm) thermal resistance per em
c (WhlkgK) specific thermal capacity
s (Wh/m3K) volumetric specific heat
p (1/K) coefficient of thermal expansion
a (mK) distance coefficient
p (Pa) pressure
P, (Pa) (partial) vapour pressure
g, (g) vapour quantity
g, (g) condensed water quantity
v (%) relative air humidity
~ H diffusion resistance coefficient
~xd (em) diffusion-equivalent air layer
A, (g/m2hPa) water vapour resistance factor
1/A0 (m2hPa/g) diffusion resistance
~),. (W/mK) layer factor
~A: (W/mK) layer factor of air layers
p (EikWh) cost of heat
b) Sound insulation
),. (m) wavelength
f (Hz) frequency
fgr (Hz) limit frequency
f, (Hz) resonance frequency
Edva (N/cm2) dynamic elasticity modulus
S' (N/cm3) dynamic stiffness
R (dB) sound reduction CONTENTS (airborne sound) in laboratory
Rm (dB) median airborne sound reduction
R' (dB) sound reduction CONTENTS with flanking transmission
(airborne sound)
LSM (dB) airborne sound insulation margin
Ln (dB) impact sound pressure level
V/M (dB) sound improvement due to one floor or ceiling layer
TSM (dB) impact sound reduction
a H degree of sound absorption
A (m2) equivalent sound-absorbing area
r (m) resonance radius
L (dB) sound level reduction
f) Physical symbols in the Sl system
2
UNITS
Sl Units
Prefixes and their Abbreviations are:
T (!era-) ~ 1012 (million million)
G (giga-) ~ 109 (thousand million)
M (mega-)~ 106 (million)
k (kilo-) 103 (thousand)
h (hekto-) ~ 100 (hundred)
da(deca-) ~ 10 (ten)
d (deci-) ~ 1/10 (tenth)
c (centi-) ~ 1/100
m (milli-) ~ 10"3
~ (micro-) ~ 10~
n (nano-) ~ 1o-12
p (pica-) ~ 10-12
f (femto-) ~ 1o-15
a (alto-) ~ 10-18
only one prefix may be used to describe a decimal multiple
C) Decimal multip1ers and dividers of units
hundredth
thousandth
millionth
Quantity to be measured Unit in the Sl system, compulsory Conversion
from 1978 factor
length m metre
area m2 square metre
volume m' cubic metre
mass kg kilogram
force N newton ~ 1 kg m/s2 9.8
pressure Pa pascal ~ 1 N/m2 133.3
bar bar~ 100,000 Pa 0.98
Pa ~ 100,000 N/m
temperature ·c degree Centigrade 1
K kelvin• 10
work (energy, heat Ws, J, Nm watt second =joule = newton metre 4186
quantity)
Wh watt hour~ 3.6 KJ 1.163
kWh kilowatt hour~ 103 Wh ~ 3.6 MJ 1.163
power (energy transfer, w watt 736
heat transfer) w watt
"compulsory from 1975
0 Conversion of basic units
1 mxm~1 m2 1 m x 1 s-1~ 1 m s-1(~ 1 m/s)
1 m x 1 s·2~ 1 ms-2(~ 1 m/s2)
1 kg x 1 m x 1 s-2~ 1 kg m s-2(~ 1 kg m/s-2)
1 kg x 1 m-3 ~ 1 kg m-3 (~ 1 kg/m3)
1 m x 1 m x 1 s-1~ 1 m2s-1 (~ 1 m2/s)
e Examples of 'derived Sl units' through combining basic units
coulomb 1 c 1As ohm 1 n
farad 1 F 1AsN pascal 1 Pa
henry 1 H 1 Vs/A siemens 1 s
1.163
1V/A
N/m2
1/D
hertz 1Hz 1 s-1~ (1/s) tesla 1T 1Wb/m2
joule 1 J 1 Nm~1 Ws volt 1V 1W/A
lumen 11m 1 cd sr watt 1W 1 J/s
lux 11x 11m/m2 weber 1Wb 1 Vs
newton 1 N 1 kg m/s2
For apparent electrical power, the watt may be described as volt ampere (VA),
idle electrical power as Var (ver).
Q Names and symbols for derived Sl units
1 N 21 s 21m2
~ 1 Nsm2
1 rad 21 s2
~ 1 rad s1 (~ 1 rad/s)
1A21s~1As~1C
1AsN~1 CN~1 F
8 Examples of Sl units derived through combining basic units with named derived
units
thermal resistance
thermal conductivity
coefficient of thermal transmittance
coefficient of thermal transmission
bulk density
calculation weight
compressive strength
1/A ~ 1 m2h K/kcal ~ 0.8598 m2K!W
l.~1 kcal/m h K ~1.163 W/m K
U ~ 1 kcal/m2h K ~ 1.163 Wfm2K
a ~ 1 kcal/m2h K
~1 kg/m3
~1 kp/m3
~ 1 kp/cm2
~ 1.163 W/m2K
~ 1 kg/m3
~0.01 kN/m3
~0.1 N/mm2
0 Conversion of table values to new units

Units of measurement in building
The international system of measurement with Sl units has been valid since 1 January 1978.
Measurement Symbol Sl unit Statutory unit Old unit
Name Symbol Name Symbol Name Symbol
normal angle a~y radian rad
round angle pia
right angle L
degree 0
minute 8
second (
gon or grad gon new degree 9
new minute a
new second cc
length I metre m micrometre ~m inch in
millimetre mm foot ft
centimetre em fathom fathom
decimetre dm mile mil
kilometre km sea mile sm
area, cross-sectional A,q square metre m2
area, area of plot are a
of land hectare ha
volume v cubic metre m'
litre I
normal volume v, normal cubic metre Nm3
cubic metre cbm
time, period, duration t second s
minute min
hour h
day d
year a
frequency f hertz Hz
duration of a cycle
angular frequency <p reciprocal second 11s
angular velocity <p radians per s rad/s
speed of revolutions n reciprocal second 1/s revolutions per sec/min r/s revs per sec/min r.p.s.
rim r.p.m
velocity v metre per second m/s kilometres per hour kmlh
knot kn
acceleration due to g metre per second m/s2
gal gal
gravity squared
mass: m kilogram kg
weight (on scales) gram g
tonne t
pound lb
metric hundredweight cwt (metric)
force F newton N
thrust G dyne dyn
pond p
kilopond kp
megapond Mp
kilogram force kg
tonne force t
mech. stress,
"
newton per square Nlm2 newton per square Nlmm2
strength metre millimetre kplcm2
kplmm
work, energy W,E joule J
kilowatt hour kWh
horsepower per hour h.p.lh
erg erg
heat quantity Q joule J calorie cal
torque M newton metre Nm kilopond metre kpm
bending moment Mb or joule J
power, p watt w
energy current horsepower h.p.
thermodynamic T kelvin K degree Kelvin "K
temperature degree Rankine
Centigrade iJ K degree Centigrade "C oR,"RK
temperature
temperature interval Mlor oc degree deg
and differential b.T
Fahrenheit IJF degree Fahrenheit "F
temperature
Reaumur !JR degree Reaumur "R
temperature
0 Sl units and statutory units (excerpt applicable to building)
Description
UNITS
Sl Units
1 rad = 1 mlm = 57.296" = 63.662 gon
1 pla=2rrrad
1L = Y. pia= (rrl2) rad
1" = 1LI90 = 1 plal360 = rrl180 rad
18=1°160
1( = 18160 = 1"13600
1 gon=1 g=1LI100=1 plal400=rrl200rad
1 c= 10-2 gon
1 cc= (10-2) c= 10-" gon
1 in =25.4 mm
1ft= 30.48 em
1 fathom= 1.8288 m
1 mile= 1609.344 m
1 sm= 1.852 km
1 a=102m2
1 ha=104 m2
11=1 dm3 =10·3 m3
1 Nm3 = 1 m3 in normal condition
1 min=60s
1 h = 60 min = 3600 s
1 d = 24 h = 86 400 s
1 a= 8765.8 h = 31.557 x 106 s
1 Hz= 1/s for the expression of frequencies in
dimensional equations
<p=2xf
<p=2xn
11s=tis=Uis
1 m/s = 3.6 kmlh
1kn = 1sm/h = 1.852 mph
1 gal= 1 cmls2= 1o·2 mls2
1 g=10"3 kg
1 t=1 Mg=103 kg
1 lb = 0.45359237 kg
1 cwt (metric)= 50 kg
1 N = 1 kglmls2= 1 Wslm = 1 Jim
1 dyn = 1 g cmls2
= 10·' N
1 p=9.80665x10.3 N
1 kp = 9.80665 N
1 Mp = 9806.65 N
1 kg = 9.80665 N
1 t = 9806.65 N
1 kp/cm2 = 0.0980665 Nlmm2
1 kpimm2 = 9.80665 N/mm2
1 J=1 Nm=1 Ws=107 erg
1 kWh = 3.6 x 106 J = 3.6 MJ
1 h.p. = 2.64780 X 106 J
1 erg= 10·7 J
1 ca1=4.1888 J= 1.163 x 10·3 Wh
1 kpm = 9.80665 J
1 W = 1 Jls = 1 N mls = 1 kg m2
1s3
1 h.p. = 0.73549675 kW
1"K=1 K
1°R=5/9K
!J= T- T0T0 =273.15 K
!J.!J =b.T, where:
1 K=1°C=1 degree
to be used in equations
IJF= 915 IJ+ 32=915 T -459.67
!JR = 415 !J, 1"R = 5/4 "C
3
STANDARDS
Sl units

DRAWINGS
Paper formats
Technical
drawings
Layout of
drawings
Construction
drawings
Construction
drawing symbols
Water supply and
drainage symbols
Electrical
installation
symbols
Security
installation
symbols
Gas installation
symbols
Drawing by hand
Computer-aided
drawing
BS EN ISO 216
BS 1467
DIN 476
DIN 821
DIN 4999
t-----x/2-
1--------- X - - j 1--------- X - - j
0-0 Basis of paper formats
Format Series A Series B Series C
0 841 X 1189 1000 X 1414 917 X 1297
1 594 X 841 707 X 1000 648 X 917
2 420x 594 500 X 707 485x 648
3 297x420 353 X 500 324x458
4 210 X 297 250 X 353 229 X 324
5 148x210 176 X 250 162 X 229
6 105 X 148 125 X 176 114x 162
7 74 X 105 88 X 125 81 X 114
8 52x74 62x88 57 X 81
9 37x52 44x62
10 26x37 31 x44
11 18 x26 22x31
12 13 X 18 15x22
8 Sheet sizes
Format Abbreviation mm
half length A4 %A4 105 X 297
quarter length A4 Y.A4 52 X 297
eighth length A7 Y.A7 9x 105
half length C4 Y, C4 114 X 324
etc.
e Strip formats
A4
(it Strip formats in A4
0 Loose-leaf binder
r----- 210 -----!
fj) Pads, carbonless duplicate books
Foot border
C) Bound and trimmed books
4
DRAWINGS
Paper Formats
Standardised formats provide a foundation for office furniture
design, which then determines the development of the floor plan.
Good knowledge of paper formats is therefore important for the
designer.
Paper formats have generally been standardised (apart from
in the USA) to conform to the internationally accepted {ISO)
series of paper sheet sizes {A,B,C,D). These were developed
on the basis of an area of 1 m2, divided according to the ratio
of the sides:
x:y=--12~0 lengthofsidex=0.841 m
xxy=1 length of side y = 1.189 m
The basic format (a rectangle with an area of 1 m2
and side
lengths as above) forms the basis for all the smaller sizes. The
A format series is produced by halving or doubling the basic
format ~ 0 + f). The additional series B and C are intended
for items in dependent paper sizes, e.g. envelopes, binders and
files~ 0.
The formats in the B series are the geometric mean dimensions of
the A series. The formats in the C series are the geometric mean
dimensions of the A and B series ~ 0.
Strip (orside margin) formats are made by dividing the main formats
lengthwise into halves, quarters and eighths (for envelopes, signs,
drawings etc.) ~ 0 + e.
File cards without tabs correspond exactly to the standard
formats. Tab cards are larger to allow for the tab, i.e. they have a
projection at the upper edge for classification.
Binders, files and folders are wider than the standard format
to provide space for the fixing mechanism. Widths should if
possible be selected from the possible dimensions from series
A, s, c~e.
Pads and carbonless duplicate books have precisely the standard
formats; if there is a standing perforated edge, then here the
sheets are smaller than the standard format~ e.
Bound and trimmed books have precisely the standard format.
If a further trim is necessary during binding, then the pages will
be slightly smaller than the standard format, and the cover will
project accordingly. The cover size must be at least the standard
format ~ (). The cover width is determined by the binding
process.
picas mm
type area width 39.51 40.5 167 171
type area height (without header/footer) 58.5 1 59 247 250
space between columns 1 5
max. width, double columns 39.5 167
max. width, single column 19 81
inside (gutter) margin, nominal 16 14
outer (side) margin, nominal 27 25
top (head) margin, nominal 20 19
bottom (foot) margin, nominal 30 28
~ Layouts and type area of the A4 standard format -> C!)

uncut drawing sheet,
depending on requirement,
is 2-3cm wider than
final trimmed original
drawing and print
a
box for written
details and
parts list
a
0 Standardised drawing
Sheet sizes
according to ISOAO ISOA1 ISOA2 ISOA3 ISOA4 ISOA5
ISO series A
Format: untrimmed
880 X 1230 625x 880 450x625 330 X 450 240 X 330 165 X 240
blank sheet (mm)
Format: trimmed
841 X 1189 594 X 841 420 X 594 297 x420 210 X 297 148 x210
finished sheet (m)
f) Sheet sizes
·-·-·-·-·-·:::;-!
cut-out ISO A2, A1, AO
i..:::.-·-·-·-·-·-·-·::::i
e ISOsizeA2;A1;AO
·-·-·-·m
0 ISOsizeA3
..<;:.""
~
'
I 0 ISOsizeA5
cut-out ISO A4
I
.1
I
I
Division for No. identical fields by sheet size
AO I A1 I A2 I A3 I A4
a 16 I 1~ I ~ I ~ I 4
b 12 4
"'"i• l box
T.,
'--· ~ 0 Field divisions (grid squares)
ISOA1
0 ISOsizeA4 ISOA2
e Folding schemes and dimensions
DRAWINGS
Technical Drawings
The use of standard drawing formats makes it easier for
architects to lay out drawings for discussion in the design office
or on the building site, and also facilitates posting and filing. The
trimmed, original drawing or print must therefore conform to the
formats of the ISO A series--> 0, 8-0.
The title block should be the following distance from the edge of
the drawing:
for formats AO-A3 10 mm
for formats A4-A6 5 mm
For small drawings, a filing margin of up to 25 mm can be used,
which reduces the usable area of the finished format. As an
exception, narrow formats can be made by adding together a
row of identical or adjacent shapes from the format range.
From normal roll widths, the following sizes can be used to provide
formats in the A series:
for drawing paper, tracing paper 1500, 1560 mm
(derived from these: 250, 1250, 660, 900 mm)
for print paper: 650, 900, 1200 mm.
If all the drawing formats up to AO are to be cut from a paper web,
a roll width of at least 900 mm will be necessary.
Drawings which are to be stored in A4 box files should be folded
as follows --> 0:
1. The title block must always be at the front, in the correct
position and clearly visible.
2. At the start of folding, a width of 21 em must always be folded
first (fold 1), ideally with the use of a 21 x 29.7 em template.
3. A triangle is folded into the drawing starting from c (fold 2) so
that on the completely folded drawing only the below left field
marked with a cross is punched or clamped.
4. The drawing is then folded parallel to side a to a width of
18.5 em, for which a template of 18.5 x 29.8 em is useful.
The last section is folded in half to adjust the sheet size,
bringing the title block to the front. Long narrow formats can be
correspondingly folded.
5. The resulting strip is folded from side b.
A piece of card of size A5 =14.8 x 21 em can be glued to the back
of the punched side to reinforce the edge. Any sheet size can be
folded by following the instructions above. If the drawing length
remaining after the folding of the first 21 em cannot be divided by
18.5 em into an even number 2, 4, 6, etc., then the remaining width
should be folded in the centre.
ISOAO
5
DRAWINGS
Paper formats
Technical
drawings
Layout of
drawings
Construction
drawings
Construction
drawing symbols
Water supply and
drainage symbols
Electrical
installation
symbols
Security
installalion
symbols
Gas installation
symbols
Drawing by hand
Computer-aided
drawing
BS EN ISO 128
BS 1192
BS EN ISO 4157
DIN 824

DRAWINGS
Paper formats
Technical
drawings
Layout of
drawings
Construction
drawings
Construction
drawing symbols
Water supply
and drainage
symbols
Electrical
installation
symbols
Security
installation
symbols
Gas installation
symbols
Drawing by hand
Computer-aided
drawing
BS EN ISO 9431
BS EN ISO
10209
BS EN ISO
14617
DIN 406
DIN 825
DIN 1356
south elevation east elevation north elevation west elevation
section
N
$
garden
writing
basement ground floor upper floor' layout
box
I I I I
m
~,.,Jee
~5
DRAWINGS
Layout of Drawings
A strip 5 em wide should be left blank at the left-
hand edge for binding or filing. The title block on
the right 0 should include:
1. Description of the type of drawing (sketch,
preliminary design, for construction etc.)
2. Category of building shown or type of drawing
(layout plan, ground plan, section, elevation,
diagram etc.)
3. Scale
4. If appropriate, details of dimensions.
Drawings for building permit applications (to the
building regulations authorities) should also include:
1. Name (signature) of the client
2. Name (signature) of the architect
foundations layout of joists roof truss layout site plan
3. If required, (signature) of the site manager
0 Suitable layout for a construction drawing
10 10 20 30 40
4. If required, (signature) of the contractor
5. Comments by the building regulations
authorities:
~~+H+H------~----+-----4------1
a) About inspection
b) About approval
f) Suitable layout for scale details
Scales --1 f)
If necessary, on back of sheet
Layout plans, floor plans etc. should show the
compass direction with a north pointer.
The main scale of the drawing should be shown in large letters in the title block and
in smaller letters for other scales; the latter should be repeated next to their respective
- diagrams. All objects should be drawn to scale; dimensions of parts which are not drawn
to scale should be underlined. Scales should be restricted to the following if at all possible:
for construction drawings 1:1, 1:5, 1:10, 1:20, 1:25, 1:50, 1:100, 1:200
C) Example of a standard dimensioned drawing of
an angled floor plan. The dimensions given are
structural dimensions without finishings
,.,.,.;.;.;.;.;.,.&:.;§;:,.,.,......
+2.75
sz
+2.69
y
in ground plans
G Marking of heights on sections and elevations
6
for site layouts 1:500, 1:1000, 1:2000, 1:2500, 1:5000, 1:10000, 1:25000.
Dimensioning
Dimensioning is indicating dimensions on a drawing.
Levels should be given on sections and plans or elevations. The signs+ or- before the
number refer to the difference from level ± 0.00 (generally the planned finished floor
level, on the ground floor in the entrance area, related to sea level). For parapets, the
structural height above the structural slab level may also be given.
If the height of wall openings, particularly for doors and windows, is to be given on
drawings in addition to their width, then the width measurement is given above the
dimension line and the height measurement is given below it. Rectangular cross-
sections can, as a simplification, be dimensioned by stating their side lengths as a
fraction, e.g. 12/16 (in section: width/height).
Round cross-sections have the diameter sign 0 before the measure: e.g. 0 12. Radii have
the capital letter R before the measure.
Dimensions and other markings --1 e
All dimensions are given in the unfinished structural condition (wall thicknesses). In
continental Europe, dimensions of less than 1 m on building drawings are generally
given in em, dimensions over 1 mare given in m or mm. (However, recently the trend has
been to give all dimensions in mm, which is standard practice in the UK.)
Sections on plans
On plans, vertical planes of one or more sections are shown as lines with short and long
dashes --1 p. 9 0, and the direction of viewing is also given. The entire line of the section
does not have to be shown, but if the plane of a section breaks, this does --1 e. If there is
more than one section, then each should be clearly labelled.
Room numbers are given in a circle.
Room areas, in m2
, are shown in a square or rectangle --1 e.
9 -<----- 6250 _,. -
e t--- 6250 --t :1'---
+ 3.12
f) f- ~~;~ - j f-

1 2 3 4 5 6
Line group
I II 1111) IV2l
Line weight Application Scale
;;;1:100 "'1:50
Line width (mm)
solid line (heavy) boundary of areas in section 0.5 0.5 1.0 1.0
solid line (medium) visible edges and visible outlines of 0.25 0.35 0.5 0.7
building elements, boundary of narrow
or small building elements in section
solid line (fine) dimension lines, extension lines, pointer 0.18 0.25 0.35 0.5
lines, walking lines, outlines of cut-outs,
simplified depictions
dashed line (medium)
---- hidden edges and hidden outlines of 0.25 0.35 0.5 0.7
building elements
chain dot line (heavy)
·-·-· indication of location of section planes 0.5 0.5 1.0 1.0
chain dot line (medium).--·--· axes and centre-lines 0.18 0.25 0.35 0.5
dotted line (fine) ....................... building elements in front of or over 0.25 0.35 0.5 0.7
section plane
dimensions text size 2.5 3.5 5.0 7.0
1l Line group I is only to be used when a drawing has been prepared with line group Ill, was reduced in the ratio of 2:1
and is to be worked on further. In this case, the text size 5.0 mm is to be selected for the drawing with line group Ill.
Line group I does not fulfil the requirements for microfilming.
2l Line group IV is to be used for construction drawings if a reduction from scale 1:50 to scale 1:100 is intended and the reduction
has to meetthe requirements for microfilming. The reduction can then be further worked on using widths in line group II.
If building drawings are manually or mechanically drawn with ink and standardised drawing equipment, then the line
widths according to the above should preferably be used. These widths are suitable for the usual application of common
reproduction methods.
0 Line types and thicknesses to be used in construction drawings
1 2 3 4
unit for dimensions dimensions
dimensions <1m, e.g. >1 m,e.g.
1 em 24 88.5 388.5
2 m and em 24 885 3.885
3 mm 240 885 3885
~~
188.5~~2624
236.5+=-----437.5
---674
NB Recent trend is to give all dimensions in mm,
standard practice in UK-; p. 6.
Dimensioning outside the drawing (scale
1:100, units~ em)
C) Units for dimensions
G Dimensioning of pillars and openings, e.g. scale 1:50 em, units= em
..;..,.
...
"'
"'
0
"'
0
w
0
0
m
<
<3
m
0
-----
-----
020B
DRAWINGS
Construction Drawings
Dimensioning consists of: dimension
figure, dimension line, extension line,
dimension arrow ~ e.
Dimension figures are normally
located above the relevant continuous
dimension line so that they can be read
from below or from the right when the
drawing is used~ f) + 0.
Dimension lines are shown as solid
lines~ 0. They are located parallel to
the length being dimensioned.
Extension lines: dimensions which
cannot be shown directly on the arrow
at the edge of an area, are relocated
outside with the aid of extension lines.
These are generally at right angles to the
dimension line and extend a little past it.
dimension figure
dimension line
extension line
I I _........-dimension arrow
-3.76~
==lJ
e Dimensioning terms
f) Pointer lines to notes
3E
---- ------m---- ---,M.---
I
I
I
I
I I
I
I I
I
I I
I I
I I C2
t I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I
I
I
t t
t
I
I
I
:
-~
t I
I I
I
I t
I
I I t
axis 01 02 01 2 3 4
field Oc Ob Oa a c
Ob1 Ob2
9 Dimensioning with coordinate~ e.g. scale 1:50 m, em, units em and mm e Axis-field grid
7
DRAWINGS
Paper formats
Technical
drawings
Layout of
drawings
Construction
drawings
Construction
drawing symbols
Water supply and
drainage symbols
Electrical
installation
symbols
Security
installation
symbols
Gas installation
symbols
Drawing by hand
Computer-aided
drawing
BS EN ISO 4157
DIN 1356

DRAWINGS
Paper formats
Technical
drawings
Layout of
drawings
Construction
drawings
Construction
drawing
symbols
Water supply and
drainage symbols
Electrical
installation
symbols
Security
installation
symbols
Gas installation
symbols
Drawing by hand
Computer-aided
drawing
BS EN ISO 4157
DIN 1356
Monochrome IColour To be used for
1111111llfllll""""""- light green grass
::IC.)C~)
tt~ ), 'l sepia peat dust and similar
~~ burnt sienna ground
.····· ... black/ white infilled earth
~ brown-red brick masonry in lime mortar
~ brown-red brick masonry in cement mortar
~ brown-red brick masonry in cement-lime mortar
~ brown-red porous brick masonry in cement mortar
hollow pot brick masonry in cement
~ brown-red
lime mortar
~ brown-red clinker block masonry in cement mortar
~ brown-red sand lime block masonry in lime mortar
~ brown-red alluvial stone masonry in lime mortar
~ brown-red stone masonry in mortar
~ brown-red natural stone masonry in cement mortar
~~J:?.'?~"o:
·. "· ·~'l!ili?"cf.
sepia gravel
~:~~~~'II;
Cf.'~I;O;.. c. grey black slag
:~~~·;~~j~)i~~~t~;tl~{ zinc yellow sand
0.7.#.##.;?:; ochre screed (gypsum)
t:"i:~?:·:;·~~~;{~H;~~~~ white plaster
11111111111111111111111
violet pre-cast concrete elements
~
z '/.~""""~ ,"zr ~ ,7
blue green reinforced concrete
~3~%Jf~~~?,~fi. olive green unreinforced concrete
T [J:j black metal
~ ~
brown timber in section
Uli!JilUI!lll! blue grey insulation materials
-- black and white sealants
grey existing building elements
0 Symbols and colours used on plans and sections
Layout plan
- - - - - - existing public road
Planned but not yet
existing roads
amExisting buildings
~Plannedbuildings
f: :: :: fTo special
fac1h!1es
~Park
t___,:,__j
I+++ICemetery
~ Pennanent
tttti:J allotment
~ Camping and rr=1
~ weekend site Q Sports field
~Swimming
~pool
lA! Children's
L£J playground
f) Symbols for building permit applications
8
DRAWINGS
Construction Drawing Symbols
Building element Opening
C ceiling BR break-through
Wwall G groove
Ffloor Dduct
FO foundation
8 Labelling of openings: examples
.0
ro
U.i
Description Label
slab breakthrough SBR
groove in slab (top) GS
groove in slab GS
(underneath)
floor slab breakthrough FSBR
(foundation= FO)
Dimensions
widthx
depth x
height
Dimensions
AxB
AxBxC
AxBxC
AxB
Location
u under
o over
Plan
I:ZH
f-A-1
1111111 ~
!111111 ~
L~:J~
1-A-l
Related to
Ttop
B bottom
UF unfinished floor
FF finished floor
Depiction
I
Elevation,
(section, view)
~
1-A-l
I-A-<
~c
~:c
1-A-l c
=
I-A-<
~{I)
£ C~-~~~~--~~~-+~~~~-t----------~
~ ~ floor slab duct FSD A x B x C
Q) -a floor slab groove FSG
~~
: Is
'II' I
HA
~I
~0
wall breakthrough WBR
(foundation= FO dashed
on basement plan)
wall groove(horizont~ WG
foundation = FO -> U
I 8
AxBxC
:·:·:·:·jzj(·:·:·: IB 1111111?
I-A-<
A) Under floor duct in section
B) Same on plan
~ %?3if//c:
/22'10:0 ~2'0
2ZWW w~
A) Pipe sleeve on elevation
B) Same on plan
Chimney on plan
Gas chimney on plan
e Presentation of openings, grooves and channels: examples
..
!1.1
II
1/1
ltl
't'
u
Closed in final state Remains open
e Grooves , apertures and breakthroughs in walls
cJ
rCJ:k
r=250
U=60
Natural monument (border with points) according to:
NSG =conservation area
LSG =landscape conseJVation area
GLB = Protected landscape element
§23 =under §23 HENatG protected habitat
GA = Population of particularly protected or threatened species
Tree protection
Tree with species,
trunk centre, crown
radius & trunk dia.
(Existing: full line,
planned: dot-dash line
Group of bushes to be partly removed
Existing: full line
Planned: dot-dash line
To be removed: crossed-out full line
Tree to be removed with
species, trunk centre,
crown radius & trunk dia.
Border of area to be built on, whose soil is considerably contaminated
with harmful substances.
Border of areas, whose soil is considerably contaminated with
harmful substances.
0 Symbols used in open spaces planning

a) Floor surfaces >
Without ) in m2 with
b) Ceiling surfaces deducti?n 2 figures after
c) Wall surfaces of openings decimal oint
d) Clear wmdow areas p
e) Clear door areas
f) Flooring types
g) Type of paint or cladding to walls
h) Type of paint or cladding to ceilings
0 Dimensions and other information, if required
sealing membrane (damp course)
• • 8 • • • vapour barrier
a a a a a a a a separating/plastic foil
- - - - - - oil paper
- · - · - · - · - · - · - · - - waterproofing membrane with fabric inlay
11 lllll/l1 1'
IIIII IIIII
waterproofing membrane with metal foil
inlay
intermediate layer, spot glued
1111111111111111111111111111111 fully glued layer
mastic
~ appliedgravellayer
primer coat, paint base
crr:r:IICJ:CIC:IC:II:JOTC:r:CII1CCTI1] sealing slurry
--:._-----=---------------=-- waterproof paint (e.g. 2-layer)
plaster lath/reinforcement
llllllillillllllillilllllllll impregnation
0 0 0 {) {) 0 filter mat
111111111111111111111111 tm drain mesh (plastic)
sw
standing water on ground/slope
surface water
e•ee emerging damp, mould, dirt etc.
•••••••••••••••••
~ penetratingdamp
~'% earth, undisturbed soil
f) Symbols for waterproofing, drainage, insulation, non-pressurised water etc.
xxxxxxxx
IVVVVJj
mlllMlll1llli~MM~
DRAWINGS
general insulation layer against heat
loss and noise
mineral wool insulation
glass fibre insulation
wood fibre insulation
peat fibre insulation
synthetic foam
cork
magnesite-bonded wood wool board
moom~~%lfm~1W?Ef1Bi~BI cement-bonded wood wool board
• • • • • • • •
• • • • • •
• • • • • • • •
·:·:·:·:·:·:·:
0 Symbols for insulation
gypsum building boards
plasterboards
9
DRAWINGS
Paper formats
Technical
drawings
Layout of
drawings
Construction
drawings
Construction
drawing symbols
Water supply and
drainage symbols
Electrical
installation
symbols
Security
installation
symbols
Gas installation
symbols
Drawing by hand
Computer-aided
drawing
BS EN ISO 4157
DIN 1356

DRAWINGS
Paper formats
Technical
drawings
Layout of
drawings
Construction
drawings
Construction
drawing
symbols
Water supply and
drainage symbols
Electrical
installation
symbols
Security
installation
symbols
Gas installation
symbols
Drawing by hand
Computer-aided
drawing
Windows set in reveals, scale 1:100
~,~ ~,i(l
~~ ~~
7.~=~(,-l-w-ith----'- '-wit-hou-t---.-E:"""III-.-.11! lllifj_8
_=
---
--- ---window niche
0 Single window opening inward gains f)
space and offers a place for the
Box window (B) opening inward,
double window, combined window
radiator
Sash window, scale 1:100
~~~
=lli!illm=m=lm=l11oo..,;_.-_-
__-__
-'-_ '------
e Single window
~
0 Single-leaf door without lintel
0) Rising
single-leaf door
~ Two-leaf revolving door
Sliding window, scale 1:100
~~~
""~""W""W""W""11""'
__
·_-_D-_-:--_-=_ - - -
Double window (D), box window,
combined window
'~!) Single-leaf door
pair, with lintel
e Pivoting door
Gi) Sliding door
@) Three-leaf revolving door
16 risers 16 risers
17.5/291 17.5/291
12 risers
18.5/25
m I I
-2.22 ±0.00 +2.80 +5.60
Cellar Ground floor Upper floor Attic
fi Stairs with one flight
Cellar Ground floor Attic
fi Stairs with two flights
10
~,i(l
0)<0
·=llilll1,--m_
___-_____ -
0 Single window opening outward
f) Single window (S)
4) Double-leaf
~
4D Without threshold
G) Double sliding door
@) Four-leaf revolving door
DRAWINGS
G Double window (D) opening
outward
e Double window (SD)
4l} Double-leaf door
m~m
WLJ u
e Threshold one side
~ Sliding door with lifting
mechanism
~ Folding partition
When drawing windows, the left side is always shown with wall
niche and the right side without ----1 0- e.
Revolving doors replace wind lobbies ----1 €D - fD and offer an
opening without draughts. Because revolving doors can cope
with relatively little through traffic, the door leaves can be folded at
peak times and pushed to the side.
The horizontal section through the stairwell on each floor's plan
is shown at about % storey height or 1 m above floor level. The
steps should be continuously numbered upwards and downwards
starting from ± 0.000. The number of steps below± are preceded
by a minus sign-. The numbers begin on the first step and exit on
the landing. The centre-line starts at the first step with a circle and
ends on arriving with an arrow (also in the cellar).

Living room
D
0
0
DO
IDI
II.__________JII
Clothes storage
I I I II I I
"1'1
11 I
EH+t*i I
D
table
85 x 85 x 78 ~ 4 places
130 x 80 x 78 ~ 6 places
round table
0 90 ~ 6 places
shaped table 70- 100
pull-out table 120 x 180
stool 0 45 x 50
armchair 70 x 85
couch 95 x 195
sofa 80 x 175
upright piano
60 X 140-160
grand pianos:
baby grand 155 x 114
salon grand 200 x 150
concert grand 275 x 160
television
sewing table 50 x 50-70
sewing machine 50 x 90
nappy changing
table 80 x 90
washing basket 40 x 60
chest 40 x 100-150
cupboard 60 x 120
hook spacing
15-20 em
hanging rail
clothes and linen
cupboard 50 x 100-180
desk
70 X 130 X 78
80 X 150 X 78
Bedroom
~
D
D
~
D
~
VN/t'
Bathroom
K oJI
0]
D
symbol symbol scale 1:50
scale 1:100
CJ
Kitchen
DJ[J]
bed
100 X 200
side table
50x70, 60x70
double bed
100 X 200
twin bed (French bed)
145 X 200
children's bed
70x140-170
clothes cupboard
60 X 120
bath
75 X 170,
85x185
small bath
70 X 105,
70 X 125
shower 80 x 80,
90 X 90, 75 X 90
washbasin 50 x 60,
60x70
2 washbasins
double washbasin
60 X 120, 60 X 140
vanity unit 45 x 30
we 38 x 70
urinal 35 x 30
bidet 38 x 60
urinal stand
sink 60 x 100
double sink 60 x 150
stepped sink
kitchen bucket sink
DRAWINGS
Stoves with fuel type
~
nrlL
A
Jcgjrul
floor cupboard
wall cupboard
ironing board
electric oven
dishwasher
refrigerator
chest freezer
solid fuel
oil
gas
electric
radiator
heating boiler with grate
gas-fired
oil-fired
waste disposal unit
waste chute
air supply and extraction
shaft
PTL ~ patient lift
GL ~ goods lift
PL ~ passenger lift
FL ~food lift (paternoster)
HL ~ hydraulic lift
11
DRAWINGS
Paper formats
Technical
drawings
Layout of
drawings
Construction
drawings
Construction
drawing
symbols
Water supply and
drainage symbols
Electrical
installation
symbols
Security
installation
symbols
Gas installation
symbols
Drawing by hand
Computer-aided
drawing

Drainage pipes and appliances DRAWINGS
Plan Elevation Description Water Supply and Drainage Symbols
I
I Water supply
i!l pressurised blackwater pipe is marked with DS
DRAWINGS -os-
I Elevation Description
Plan
Paper formats
I
~
Technical I
[Q] cellar drainage pump
drawings :5 pressurised rainwater pipe is marked with DR
Layout of --oR-- I
I
4
drawings
~
blackwater lifting system
Construction
drawings mixed water pipe
Construction
drawing symbols
/C ,1/ "==J bath
Water supply
jl
and drainage ventilation duct, direction given, e.g. starting and
symbols --- running upward c:::J shower tray
Electrical
installation
/
symbols
~ 0 vanity unit, hand washbasin
Security
installation
[a !
symbols 0 according to type stack, downpipe sitting washbasin
Gas installation
symbols
/
direction:
Drawing by hand a) a) passing through
v v urinal
Computer-aided b)
......-""'
b) starting and running downward
drawing c) c) coming from above and ending
~
d) a' d) starting and running upward
~
urinal with automatic flushing
BS EN 12056
DIN 1451
DIN 1986
t =
---r- change of material
(QJ ~ we, floor-mounted
1 ----! pipe end closed
6 v we, wall-mounted
77777777
f
CJ D slop sink
--E3- cleaning opening, round or rectangular
[IJ -o single sink
-EJ
I cleaning opening
[[l] CD double sink
t -am -am
~ change of nominal diameter dishwasher
125
1- odour trap
ill ill washing machine
CJ- c::::L_ outlet or drainage gutter without odour trap
~ ~ washer/dryer
D- Ci!- outlet or drainage gutter with odour trap
-crJ -crJ air conditioner
[]!]- [][;l- waste outlet with backflow device for faeces-free
wastewater
~
small wastewater wet riser pipe
--®- IIr fat separator
treatment plant, two-level
-®- ~ starch separator
Q1 small wastewater wet-dry riser pipe FNT
petrol interceptor (separator for volatile liquids)
treatment plant,
-®- -m- multi-level
-®-- Lir silt trap
-@ small wastewater dry riser pipe FT
treatment plant, multi-leve
-®- ~ acid separator
-(8)-- LBT heating oil separator (separator for volatile liquids)
()
small wastewater sprinkler pipe F SPR
treatment plant,
multi-level
D- Ci!- heating oil stop valve
H Sp H Sp
[]!]- [][;l-
heating oil stop valve with backflow preventer
-€) R
H Sp HSp soakaway shaft sprinkler system
--ao-- --ao-- backflow device for faeces-free wastewater
• hi
underfloor hydrant spray flooding system '"
'"
---cx::J- ---cx::J- backflow device for wastewater containing faeces ill
--e- _o_ shaft with open through-flow (shown with blackwater pipe)
•above-floor hydrant water spray system
H
---9- J:L shaft with closed through-flow
•fire fighting hose
connection pipe
12

Water supply (continued) DRAWINGS
water pipe E3
wall or slab opening with Water Supply and Drainage Symbols
marking of location of shut-
protecting sleeve and stopping
off or throttling valve end of pipe
l marking of location of X l bleed valve,
--{]E]-
water softener, DRAWINGS
supply valve
) detachable connection, emptying valve demineralisation plant Paper formats
general type ofconnection
v -[£[]-
Technical
can be simplified by use of wall battery
filter drawings
detachable connection
short code
0
Layout of
s screwed connection
4
pump drawings
non-detachable connection
T-RL threaded connection
free-standing Construction
with right-left thread
battery
'®l
drawings
F flange connection
Construction
~ hose c coupling
=t>-
!1 30m'/h 5! booster pump drawing symbols
mixer ! !
Water supply
1 apparatus without rotating
SK socket connection L·-·-·-·-·-·....1
and drainage
parts
CL clamped connection
symbols
& flushing cistern -@] washing machine
Electrical
apparatus with rotating
it-
installation
-o parts, display or registration
flange connection
symbols
instrument 6 showerhead ----[g] dishwasher
Security
installation
symbols
9
display or recording
-} screw connection, J, shower hose
----[!]
Gas installation
instrument threaded connection
washer/dryer symbols
z
Drawing by hand
-D-
self-closing valve
-w
Computer-aided
measuring instrument built
~
air conditioner drawing
into pipe
socket connection
~
pressure flusher
BS EN 12056
TWBO
drinking water pipe, cold,
{j-
§ flow gauge, through-flow DIN 1451
e.g. 0 80
gauge DIN 1986
coupling
t
pipe anti-vacuum
drinking water pipe, warm,
device and bleeder
~
TWW50-WD
e.g. 0 50
flow meter, water meter
+ type of connection can be
n pipe anti-vacuum
drinking water pipe,
simplified by use of device and bleeder
~
TWZ40 short code
calorimeter
circulation, e.g. 0 40 w welded connection
with dripping water
TW15 drinking water pipe, hose, s soldered connection
pipe
~ e.g. 015
G glued connection
II' y connection for measuring
T threaded connection
pipe ventilator instrument
marking of location for
SK socket connection
50 l 40 change of nominal diameter,
p pressed connection
~
,
+
pipe ventilator, thermometer
e.g. from 0 50 to 0 40 through-flow
~
as above but also as l><l shut-off valve, general
reducer fitting
t B
pressure gauge
pipe bleeder type ofgauge can be
marking of location for
indicated by use of short
ST ( cu change of material, f>l<l shut-off gate valve
I
1
1
1
code
e.g. from steel to copper
pipe interrupter l!.p differential pressure
crossing pipes (without -lSJ- shut-off flap valve
I gauge
pt pressure pulse
connection)
*
backflow preventer generator
l><l shut-off valve,
branch, one-sided through-flow valve
-.<1-- through-flow valve
[i]
logger
-+- branch, two-sided type of connection can be with backflow if required, mark type of
simplified by use of short preventer device with short code
0 riser pipe code
v through flow
p,P direction:
SO screw-down valve
z outlet valve with v volume
SS slanted seat valve
ventilator and T temperature
a) passing through threaded hose
.6.p pressure difference
d' b) starting and running T throttle valve
~
upward BP valve behind plaster
connection
p c) coming from below
~
--------- control cable
.P d) starting and running elbow valve
!
draw-off tap with
9
cf
downward
~
backflow preventer, fluid-driven
e) coming from above and three-way valve ventilator and
ending ~ threaded hose
'1
electrical separation,
®
float-driven
---ljf--
four-way valve
connection
isolation piece
r
l potential equalisation, [;:o::] through-flow valve H- pipe rupture valve, weight-driven
earthing type of connection can be
hose rupture valve
'
simplified by use of
spring-driven
n short code
y
expansion bend T tap cock
free outlet, system
T
B ball valve
separation manual
-J1J1r
length compensator, wave
I:ffJ
pipe compensator three-way tap ~ pipe disconnecter <¥> electricity-driven
---<==---
sealing bush compensator
@ 9 membrane-driven
four-way tap
~
safety valve,
pipeline fixed point
)CJ--
clamped tapping
spring-loaded
~
piston-driven
(e.g. at side)
sliding pipe fixing
ti elbow safety valve,
~
clamped tapping with
~
electromagnet-driven
~ pipe fall, pipe rise, e.g. 5% valve (e.g. top)
spring-loaded
wall or slab opening with IX1 pressure reducer, --[@]-
~
metering device container, non-pressure,
protecting sleeve pressure stopcock open, with overflow
13

DRAWINGS
Paper formats
Technical
drawings
Layout of
drawings
Construction
drawings
Construction
drawing symbols
Water supply and
drainage symbols
Electrical
installation
symbols
Security
installation
symbols
Gas installation
symbols
Drawing by hand
Computer-aided
drawing
BS EN 50110
DIN 18015
Electrical consumer appliances
14
electrical appliance, general
electric stove with three
rings
electric stove with built-in
coal oven
electric stove with oven for
baking
oven for roasting and baking
microwave cooker
infra red grill
warming plate
dishwasher
food processor
refrigerator, e.g. freezer
compartment, no. stars
freezer, no. stars
air conditioner
water heater, general
hot water storage cylinder
continuous-flow water
heater
fryer
fan
generator, general
motor, general
motor with statement of
protection type
hand dryer, hair dryer
washing machine
washer/dryer
infra red lamp
room heating, general
storage heater
electrically heated clear-
view screen
light fitting, general
multiple light fitting stating
-7(5 x 60 no. lamps and power, e.g.
five lamps at 60 W
0<
~
--7<
-¥
~
~
(X
C)
G)
CQ
~3
1----+---t----l
36W
adjustable light fitting
light fitting with switch
light fitting with current
bridge for lamp chains
light fitting, dimmable
panic light
emergency light
searchlight
light fitting with additional
emergency light
light fitting with two
separate filaments
light fitting for discharge
lamps with accessories
light fitting for discharge
lamps with details
light fitting for fluorescent
lamp, general
light band, e.g. three lamps
at36W
light band, e.g. two lamps at
2x58W
Signal and radio devices
~'.'.I
B
ill
-{Z]
~
~
-!]]
-M
~~'
motion detector, e.g. with
safety circuit
vibration detector (safe
pendulum)
light beam detector, light
barrier
press-knob fire alarm
automatic fire alarm
police alarm
fire alarm with drive
fusible link alarm, automatic
automatic temperature
alarm
automatic extension fire
alarm
pass lock security systems
centre of fire alarm system
light beam alarm system,
automatic, e.g. photo cell
C9
G
0
~
fi
e
L8J
g
t§]
Q]
~
secondary clock
main clock
main clock with signal
amplifier, cable peak
denotes amplification
direction
telephone, general
multiple telephone
telephone, long-distance
telephone, semi-internal
telephone, internal
loudspeaker
radio
television
intercom, e.g. house or door
entry phone
two-way intercom, e.g.
house or door entry phone
telephone exchange,
general
door opener
alarm lamp, signal lamp,
light signal
bell button
call buttons with name
labels
microphone
earpiece
main distributor
(communications)
splitter, flush
splitter, surface-mounted
beeper or horn, general
beeper or horn stating
current type
house intercom
entry phone
DRAWINGS
Electrical Installation Symbols
ll
8
dJ
[ZJ
[1J
~
-§
9
tf?
LN
Si?
9
-0-
~0
~70
sound recorder
sound pick-up
magnetic tape recorder
call and switch off panel
meter
meter panel, e.g with a fuse
time clock, e.g. for switching
tariff
temperature detector
time relay, e.g. for stair
lighting
blink relay, blink switch
current impulse switch
sound frequency ripple
control relay
sound frequency cut-off
alarm clock, general
alarm clock, stating current
type
gong alarm clock
alarm clock for safety circuit
alarm clock with
run-down drive
motor alarm clock
alarm clock without automatic
cancel, continuously ringing
alarm clock
alarm clock with visual
alarm
buzzer
buzzer
siren, general
siren stating current type
siren stating frequency, e.g.
140Hz
siren with wailing tone, e.g.
varying between 150 and
270Hz

Electricity
direct current
~ A alternating current, general
~ 2 kHz stating the frequency
~ T technical alternating
current
direct current or alternating
current (universal current)
mixed current
sound frequency
alternating current
high frequency alternating
current
very high frequency
alternating current
Supporting points
in mast cables
cable, general
underground cable
support point, mast,
general
0 guyed mast
timber mast
roof stands, brackets,
tubular mast, general
e guyed mast
lattice mast, general
• guyed mast
reinforced concrete mast,
general
._ guyed mast
8
8
mast with foot
double mast
transverse H-mast or portal
mast
portal mast of lattice masts
lengthwise A-mast
support point with tension
anchor
support point with brace
mast with lamp
Cables and
cable connections
0
mm
/79 /H
mm
existing
under construction
planned
mobile cable
underground cable
overground cable, e.g.
mast-mounted
cable on porcelain isolators
(isolation bells)
cable on surface of plaster
cable plastered in
cable beneath plaster
0
(t)
(f)
(k)
isolated cable in
installation duct
isolated cable for dry
rooms, e.g. sheathed wire
isolated cable for wet
rooms, e.g. wet room
cable
cable for outdoor or
underground laying
Cables, marking, application
!
Cu 20 x 4
,s',SSS7$Wl
++++++
·X-X-X-X-X·
·0-0-0-0-0·
-1-1-1-1-1-
D
protection cable, e.g. for
earthing, neutralisation or
protection circuit (old)
signal cable
telephone cable
radio cable
cable with marking
simplified depiction
protective earth cable
(PE)
PEN cable
neutral cable
conductor rail
foreign cable
further markings, e.g.
telephone, night circuit,
blinking light cable,
emergency lighting cable
twisted cable, e.g. two-
wire
coaxial cable
rectangular hollow
cable, e.g. for very high
frequency
_ _ } cable running upward
I cable running downward
I
0
~IP54
r·-·-·..,
! !
t-·-·-·..J
@
1
~230/8V
cable running upward and
downward
cable connection
branch connection box,
depiction if necessary
socket
sealing end, end branch
high-voltage house
connection box, general
as above, stating
protection type
distribution
framing for devices,
e.g. housing, switching
cabinet, switching panel
earthing, general
connection point for
earth wire
mass, body
element, accumulator or
battery
transformer, e.g. doorbell
transformer
816~
5,-l
LJ
©
®
converter, general
rectifier, e.g.
alternating current mains
connection
rectifier, e.g. pole changer,
chopper
fuse, general
screw-in fuse, e.g. 1OA and
type Dll, three-pole
low-voltage high-
performance fuse, e.g. SOA
size 00
trip, e.g. 63A, three-pole
switch, make contact
earth leakage circuit
breaker, four-pole
cable protection switch,
e.g. 16A, three-pole
motor protection switch,
three-pole
excess current switch, e.g.
ballast switch
emergency off switch
star-delta switch
starter, rheosta~ e.g. with
five starting steps
button switch
light switch
switch with
indicator light
switch 1/1 (off switch,
single-pole)
two-pole)
three-pole)
switch 4/1 (group switch,
single-pole)
switch 5/1 (series switch,
single-pole)
switch 6/1 (two-way switch,
single-pole)
two-way switch as pull
switch
switch 7/1 (cross-switch,
single-pole)
time switch
dimmer
approach switch
contact switch
DRAWINGS
r.
A
J~
~
~
~
~
0
IT]
3~E
approach effect, general
contact effect, general
passive infra red motion
detector
time relay, e.g. for stair
lighting
current impulse switch
empty connection box
multiple socket
single earthed socket
as above but for three-
phase current
double earthed socket
socket with off switch
socket, lockable
depiction of vertical if
required
socket for isolating
transformer
electrical connection,
general
three-phase connection
smoke extraction
ventilator switch
smoke extraction press-
button alarm
fire alarm (press-button
alarm)
IT connection socket
broadband
communications system
telephone distributor
telephone socket
aerial socket
aerial splitter, e.g. twice
aerial distributor ,e.g.
twice
aerial amplifier
aerial socket (through
sockets)
aerial socket with end
resistance
15
DRAWINGS
Paper formats
Technical
drawings
Layout of
drawings
Construction
drawings
Construction
drawing symbols
Water supply and
drainage symbols
Electrical
installation
symbols
Security
installation
symbols
Gas installation
symbols
Drawing by hand
Computer-aided
drawing
BS EN 50110
DIN 18015

DRAWINGS
Paper formats
Technical
drawings
Layout of
drawings
Construction
drawings
Construction
drawing symbols
Water supply and
drainage symbols
Electrical
installation
symbols
Security
installation
symbols
Gas installation
symbols
Drawing by hand
Computer-aided
drawing
BS EN 50110
DIN 18015
Visual indicators
indicator light, general
blinking indicator light with
direction pointer
indicator light wilh
darkening switch
indicator light with glimmer
light
pointer indicator with
automatic return
automatic return, lit
automatic return, lit or
swinging
pointer indicator without
automatic return
pointer indicator without
automatic return, lit
indicator with filling device
recording indicator
meter
meter with indicator lamp
multiple detector
acknowledgement detector
Batteries
ITIIIIIIl
lil!l!;j 111
elemental battery
accumulator battery (four
cells)
-If--If-
If required
House
supply
conne~
ction
element, accumulator
16A1 =
i: ® *~4~
16A2 [ ~
' 16A3
' -@)
20
A4 WKitchen
{' ~
l' 16A5 m
16A6 [ @J
£.1iiii.T. __ .::__·-·-·-
i: *;o~
16A8 [ ~
i: 16A9
--'-""-"--![ [I] Utility room
Resetve
8 Circuit diagram
16
Lightning protection installations
ILT
-J-J-1-1-
t
0
• @
1 Q--
--1-t-
----ro-
building outline
gutter and downpipe
reinforced concrete with
connection
steel construction, metal
rails
metal covering
chimney
roof stands for electric
Jines
diaphragm tank, tank
snow guards
aerial
metal pipe
lightning conductor,
open
lightning conductor,
underground
lightning conductor, under
rbof and under plaster
terminal pole, flagpole
connection point to
pipes
separation point
pipe and rod earth terminal
earthing
sparking distance
closed sparking distance
excess voltage
discharge conductor
roof fixing
lift
water meter, gas meter
9 Electrical installation plan
DRAWINGS
No. (min.) of
No. Tvoe of aooliance Sockets1) Outlets Connected load 'kW
Uvin room and bedroom
f~J~:r~~;~~:~t~~~o 8 m2
8-12 m"2
12-20 m2
>20m"
Kitchen kitchenette AC 3-ohase
sockets,Jlghtlng
5 for kitchenette
6 for kitchen
7 ventilator/extractor hood
8 stove
9 refrigerator/freezer
10 dishwasher
11 waterheater
12 sockets,lighting
13 extractor fan
14 washing machine9)
15 heater
16 water heater
17 sockets, lighting
18 extractor fan
19
20
21
22
23
sockets, lighting
extractor fan
~::~~r7d~~~h!ne
ironino machine
Sockets, lighting
Bathroom
we
Utili room
Hall corridor
24 for length up to 2.5 m
25 over2.5 m
Outdoorsittin
26 sockets ll htinq
Storeroom >3 m2
27 !i hUng
Hobb room
1"1
28 sockets I! htin 3
Residential cellar and basement
29 sockets II ht!n 1
Commercial cellar and basement
Sockets, lighting
30 forusableareaupto20m2 117)
31 over20m2 117)
Cellar and basement assa e
32 fi htin
2'1
2'1
141
1
14),8)
1"1
1
1'1
0.2
3.5
2.0
3.3
2.0
3.3
3.3
2.1 3.3
8.0-14.0
4.5
4.0-6.0
7.5
4.0-6.0
7.5
1) Or jtmcl!on boxes for consumer devices <2 kW
2) Sockets next to beds are double sockets, which, arranged next to aerial sockets, are triple sockets. These multiple
sockets, are counted in the table as single sockets.
3) The worktops should be Ill with as little shadow and glare as possible.
4) If a single extract fan Is to be provided.
5) Unless hot water is provided by other means.
6) Of which one may be combined with the vanity unit light.
7) For bathrooms with 4 m2 usable area, one connection above the vanity unit Is sufficient.
~~ fn°[e~7d':~f.W~~~~~~~~~ut ~~~:~~~~~e swltch is via the general lighting, with a
time lag.
10) Unless a utility room Is provide:!or the appliances can be accommodated In another suitable room.
11) ForWCswith a vanity unit.
12) Unless accommodated in the bathroom or another suitable room.
13) Switchab!e from one location.
14) Switchab!e from two locations.
15) From 8m2 usable space.
j~~ ~~~:~~~~1ag~'~uWei:,"~~~~n~~~:f~~~~o:e~~~i1t~~-rating-l!ke partitions, e.g. wire mesh.
18) For passages >6 m long, one ouUetevery6 m of length begun.
0 Power supply to electrical appliances
Uvingarea(m2}
up to 50
50--75
75-100
100--125
over125
No. circuits for lighting and sockets
f) No. circuits by size of living area
r;-L:-:ivi-og_a_re-,a(-cm');:-r--;N-;-o-.
c.,-ircu--:;-its-;fo-r:;-llg-;ch!;-in-g-.,-;d-,o-,ck:-e:-1,-,
upto45 3
45-55 4
55-75 6
75-100 7
over 100 8
8 High level of equipment

DRAWINGS
Security Installation Symbols
Burglar alarm systems r:: 1!;1
~
'----'
DRAWINGS
Lo.J optical signal generator connection relay man Jock Paper formats
1 strike plate contact ------ Technical
sea ~
drawings
• opening contact
connection relay
l2J digital line coupler turnstile Layout of
drawings
r~
~
E]-r- revolving door
Construction
• magnetic contact remote switching device analog-digital converter drawings
I! ~ with line coupler signal Construction
~ vibration sensor
tx' 1~1 flow device drawing symbols
alarm searchlight <JOt> electrically unlocked door Water supply and
D :.J drainage symbols
• oscillation contact
ro' Electrical
Fire alarm systems display tableau ...... electrically opened door installation
+ L ..J
symbols
thread tension switch
[g st- Security
maximum heat detector overlight installation
.J1Jlj"'- foil L::_"::./~ operating panel symbols
D
Gas installation
*"
differential heat detector
D
II II protective grille symbols
breakthrough sensor housing Drawing by hand
[§;] ~ security escutcheon
Computer-aided
:::w:. pressure sensor/step mat optical smoke detector drawing
r .,
A glass breakage sensor
~ ionisation smoke detector L _j
monitored housing
~ long security handle plate
~
structure-borne sound A rv-, monitored distributor
I~
tilt and turn window
sensor
<~.,. infra red flame sensor L .J casement lock
$(> passive infrared sensor <"'.>..
CCTV surveillance systems 9 lock for four-sided key
1~ ultra violet flame sensor
r;_]
y TV camera
~ falling bolt lock
<}---<> light barrier
~
pressure sensor (sprinkler
occ:__ J TV camera with varifocal
activation)
~
<$
lens deadbolt lock
light sensor [3] manual alarm
~~
~ TV camera protective hinge bolts (dog bolts)
r6' ~
housing
L .J'
image detector connection relay
~
CJ:m) protective housing with roller shutter locking
<J~
microwave doppler motion
~t fire brigade key depot pan and tilt head
detector L:. J
r:__ }m) ~ folding shutter locking
TV camera with pan and
<l-- -I>
Control centres/accessories tilt head
microwave barrier
'f
luEMI attack and break-in alarm
~J
two-key lock system
TV camera with motion
~~
control centre detector
'I'
~ HF field alteration sensor lockable window handle
[3~
[]ill fire alarm control centre
rol
LF field alteration sensor
monitor
[} security strike plate
[ill access control centre
L!' 0 ·..J
~~ capacitive field alteration ~~ operating panel view cross-bolt lock, double
.... sensor
[ill CCTV surveillance control
L--=.../
selection device •=" bolt lock
centre
r· ::-,
§!---~ HF barrier
GJ monitor with video signal- ....-.- cellar grating security
[ill shop theft alarm control
rr~
ultrasound doppler motion centre L• • •..J dependent picture switching
v
detector cylinder lock
[}{I] intercom control centre Access control systems
II
~---~ ultrasound barrier
[]-
vertically sliding door lock
[ill door opener control centre pass reader
[31 banknote contact
~-
-·-~-·
fence
[2]
stand-alone reader with
converter additional code entry
[3] ·X-X-X-X• barbed wire fence
attack detector
0 ~
transmission system online reader
rl-, +++ solid fence, mesh
electromechanical
[6]
1..,; .J switchgear analog-digital converter
® roller shutter with closing
~-
pass reader with security
r?-, mental switchgear
~
additional code entry
@
L'.J mains rectifier
steel roller shutters
f"J'
~
stand-alone reader with
time clock switchgear [Illi-
L .J
accumulator battery - additional code entry
@ roller or concertina shutter
rx' light switch device [JJ automatic dialling and
bl
L: :.J announcement device data terminal with [QJ safe
[JJ
operating panel
rd' acoustic signal generator recording system handle
~ 0 •_j
Y5IT.
/!_- -:J' laminated safety glass
L: :..1
17

DRAWINGS
Paper formats
Technical
drawings
Layout of
drawings
Construction
drawings
Construction
drawing symbols
Water supply
symbols
Electrical
installation
symbols
Security
installation
symbols
Gas installation
symbols
Drawing by hand
Computer-aided
drawing
Gas installations
25
)(
exposed horizontal pipe
(stating nominal diameter)
concealed horizontal pipe
change of cross-section
gas pipe house entry
isolating piece
riser pipe
continuously rising pipe
downpipe
crossing of two pipes
without connection
crossing connection
branch location
---jRT cleaning T-piece
-+RK cleaning K-piece
jjj long-threaded connection
screwed connection
IJ flanged connection
~ welded connection
-txKJ-- shut-off tap
---{;::(K)-- shut-off gate valve
~ shut-offvalve
thermally activated shut-off
device
elbow valve
~ pressure regulator
~ gasmeter
[><Xl gas stove (four rings)
~
~ gas oven (four rings)
mgas refrigerator
18
~ gas heat pump
800 exhaust gas/flue pipe
(stating diameter)
exhaust gas systems
(stating dimensions), also for
exhaust gas flue/chimney
filter
gas room heater
continuous flow gas water
heater
combi gas water heater
gas storage water heater
~
rn'ln
gas room heater for external wall
connection (stating connection
capacity)
gas heating boiler
flexible hose
f) House supply connection at right
angles to front of building
9 Gas meter in cellar
t) House supply connection for water
and gas in one compartment 1 m
wide and 0.30 m deep
8 Gas pipe laid on undisturbed soil;
does not have to be frost-free
1 house introduction
combination
2 pressure regulator
B 3 shut-off
4gas meter
5 riser
6 gas supply line
7 branch line
8 devices connecting fitting
thennally activated device
9 gas equipment: stove,
water heater
1 power cable, local area
network management
2 steel service pipe
3 casing
4 pull out
5 shut off the main with
integrated insulating joints
6 boundary between gas valve
unit (GVU) and installer
7 pressure regulator
(!) Heating room ~35 kW
DRAWINGS
Gas Installation Symbols
Gas Heating Gas
appliance capacity volume flow
(kW) (m3/h)
gas water 8.8-28.1 1.14-3.62
heater
circulating 9.5-28.4 1.23-3.67
water heater
storage 5.1-13.9 0.70-1.91
water heater
heating 2.6-B0.3 0.34-7.79
stove/boiler
0 Connection specifications for gas
appliances
~ Introduction and
inclined feed tube
8 Flow-operated safety device
and flue gas flap valve
0 Gas meters on each storey
1A gas line installed free, gas lines can also be
laid outside the building, such as a gas heater
on the roof. A gas line needs to be frost-free.
2 Gas pipe laid under plaster.
3 Gas pipelines in shafls or channels have
to be loaded and ventilated. Openings
approximately 10 cm2• For suspended
ceilings, these openings are placed
diagonally.
e Laying gas pipes
1 Minimum size 1 m3/kW
2 Combustion air opening in
boiler output to ~50 kW cmZ
at ground level
3 Combustion air opening at
about 50 kW boiler capacities.
Cross-section of the opening
of 150 cm2
per kW + 2cm2,
the over 50 kW goes out.
Example: boiler output 65 kW
50kW+ 15 kW
150 cm2 + (15 x 2 = 30) cm2
=180 cm2

Q Sketching paper
G Reinforcing edges
0 Specialised T-square
4Ii) Drawing aids
G) Drawing aid
ISO
p.01 €
017mm
f) Sketching: construction engineering f) Cutting paper to size
grid
cone shape:
correct
e Drawing board
e Drawing aids
G French curves
0 Drafting machine
f) Good drawing practice
a
b
(D Aid for hatching 4D a) Clutch pencil (lead holder);
b) Correct way of holding pencil
DRAWINGS
Drawing by Hand
Designers use drawings and
diagrams to communicate in-
formation in a factual, un-
ambiguous and geometric form
that can be understood anywhere
in the world. Unlike painting,
construction drawing is a means
to an end, and this differentiates
diagrams/working drawings and
illustrations from artistic works.
A4 sketch pads with 0.5 em
squared graph paper are ideal
for freehand sketches to scale.
For more accurate sketches,
millimetre graph paper with thick
centimetre, faint 0.5 em and even
finer millimetre divisions should
be used -7 0. Different paper is
used for drawing and sketching
according to standard modular
coordinated construction and
engineering grids -7 f). Usetrac-
ing paperfor sketching with asoft
lead pencil. Suitable sheet sizes
for drawings can be cut straight
from a roll, single pages being
torn off using a T-square -7 8
or cut on its underside -7 e.
Construction drawings are done
in hard pencil or ink on clear, tear-
resistant tracing paper, bordered
with protected edges -7 e and
stored in drawers. Ink drawings
are made on transparent paper
and water-resistant paper is used
for paintings or diagrams. Fix
the paper on a simple drawing
board (designed for standard
formats) made of limewood or
poplar, using drawing pins with
conical points -7 E). First turn
over 2 em of the paper's edge
(later to be used as a filing edge-
see p. 4): this lifts the T-square a
little during drawing and prevents
the T-square from smudging the
work. (Forthe same reason, draw
from top to bottom!) The drawing
can be fixed with drafting tape
rather than drawing pins -7 e
(which means that the drawing
underlay can be made of plastic-
Cellon or a similar smooth
material). Drafting machines
are common in engineering
disciplines -7 0. In addition to
simple parallel rules, there are
also special versions with built-
in protractors for setting angles;
these are ruled with centimetre
and octametre divisions -7 0.
Other drawing aids feature
pocket scale sets, parallel scale
for hatching, division of lengths
-70.
19
DRAWINGS
Paper formats
Technical
drawings
Layout of
drawings
Construction
drawings
Construction
drawing symbols
Water supply and
drainage symbols
Electrical
installation
symbols
Security
installation
symbols
Gas installation
symbols
Drawing by
hand
Computer-aided
drawing
BS EN ISO 8560
BS 6750
DIN 4172

DRAWINGS
Paper formats
Technical
drawings
Layout of
drawings
Construction
drawings
Construction
drawing symbols
Water supply and
drainage symbols
Electrical
installation
symbols
Security
installation
symbols
Gas installation
symbols
Drawing by hand
Computer-aided
drawing
BS EN ISO
13567
ISO 13567
y
----¥ (X,y)
I
I
I
I
X
X
0 Cartesian coordinate system. All
points are defined through their x
and y coordinates. The zero point
can be set for each drawing or
related to world coordinates.
Polar coordinate system. All points
are defined through their distance I
from the zero point and the angle a
related to the x-axis.
Measurement system Abbr. 1 mm= 1 unit
point pt 2.8346 pt 0.3528 mm
inch in" 0.0394" 25.4 mm
8 Conversion factors for common computer units
Text layer
Dimensions layer
Furniture layer
Openings layer
Construction layer
Surround and title block layer
G Structuring of a CAD drawing by arranging groups of similar objects on their
own layers
w
Who-where-what naming of layers with variable field sizes (according to CadForum).
The layer names have suitable abbreviations containing 2 or 3 pieces of information,
each separated by an underscore. The content should be clear from the first
20 characters, because some CAD systems restrict the layer names to this length.
Special characters should be avoided in order to prevent exchange problems.
Who (1-5) =author
possible abbreviations for authors
Arch Architect
lArch Interior architect
LArch Landscape architect
Bing Building engineer
Ei Electrical engineer
St Structural engineer
HLS Heating/ventilation/sanitary
Geom Surveyor
What (13-20) =description
possible descriptions
axes
structure
openings
finishings
furniture
hatching
dimensioning
labelling
drawing outline
Where (7-11) =categorisation
possible categories
BS basement
GR ground floor
FL1 1st floor
EL_N north elevation
SEC_A section A-A
examples of layer names
Arch_GR_axes
Arch_GR_structure
Arch_GR_finishes
Arch_GR_hatching
on smaller projects, the
2nd category (facultative) can be
left out:
Geom_level curves
Arch_structure
Bing_openings
9 Example of naming layers with variable, understandable labels
20
Drawings
DRAWINGS
Computer-Aided Drawing
Drawings are always an abstraction of reality because they are
in two dimensions. The degree of abstraction depends on the
content and, above all, on the intended purpose of the drawing.
The lowest degree of abstraction is represented by perspectives,
collages and renderings, which attempt to come quite close to
reality. In order to produce the desired impression, it is particularly
important to leave some free rein for the fantasy of the viewer.
Diagrams can be used to explain functional interactions. Working
drawings contain all the required information about dimensions,
materials and arrangement of the object to be produced. In this
case, all details must be unambiguous and comprehensible for the
producer, and therefore have a high degree of abstraction.
In the age of computer-generated images, it still remains important
to have a command of the rules and regulations of traditional
drawing --+ pp. 39-40.
Computer-aided drawings
Drawing with a computer is very different from the classic
methods of drawing on paper. There are two basic principles:
raster graphics, in which every pixel of a drawing is saved (image
processing), and vector graphics, where the start, end and the
properties of a drawing element are saved (CAD). Because
the output appears on a monitor screen or plot, there are also
problems representing bodies and rooms in two dimensions.
Only very simple CAD programs work with two-dimensional
data models. More common are three-dimensional data models
(object-oriented programs), which produce the desired type of
illustration on output (monitor, plotting). The information required
for this is stored in a database in the computer. This enables the
elements of a drawing (line type, line thickness and colour) to be
linked to further information, which is not visible, e.g. which layer
they belong to, dependence on other objects, material properties,
manufacturing information, order numbers etc. These properties
can be exploited for the structuring of content or for further use
(e.g. tenders or cost estimation).
Volume modules permit further simulations. Structural, acoustic,
climatic or lighting investigations can make precise statements
about a building through the use of the appropriate software. 3D
scanners, CNC machines and 3D plotters also enable the input
and output of three-dimensional objects.
Data exchange
Because data is normally processed by a number of operators
(various specialist technicians and engineers), a unified,
understandable and clear system of organisation is important.
When selecting a CAD system or deciding the working methods,
it is important to know that all future processors of the data will
work with the same software, or which interfaces can be used to
exchange data. Exchange formats usually have a limited range
of structuring possibilities and therefore organisation categories,
which are not supported, will be lost or have to be recreated, with
the associated waste of time. The naming of layers is governed
by ISO 13567, which, however, uses cryptic abbreviations.
It seems more practical to use the more flexible and easily
understood naming system published by the specialist magazine
CadForum --7 0.

f--------1.07-----1 f-- 65-70-! >-25-30-l
0 Standard wheelchair, side elevation f) Front elevation, folded
7 7
H-66---+i
1---- 80 ------1
t) Plan
0 Wheelchair on slope
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
20
40
60
80
a
lfc
I
1
.'17
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y
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-t"'
'X.
I
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0
~
All
t
0
~
All
1
1----i;; 1.90----1
Q Space requirement for wheelchair
parking space and movement area
f---1.00-1.05----l
0 Onstairs
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
-
?
r--.r--b(
==~IH'
, II~
rc::: -1S
r-
~
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I
~
100 0
100 80 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
C!) Onaplan
t ::::
::::
;;; 1.50 :~:~
(9 Passage through one door
4Ii) From the side
T ~~{ ~t.., ,.,.,.,.,~~:
., ... ~1·:.
,.., .,. I :.
+ :·:_ + :~:
0 ....
0> _........ 1 :·:
All ....
.L 1-
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...
;;; 1.50 :::
..
4D Through two doors
ACCESSIBLE BUILDING
Dimensions for Wheelchair Users
General design basics
Building regulations cover the design, construction and furnishing
of housing, of accessible public buildings or parts of buildings,
of workplaces and their external spaces. These buildings must
be accessible for all people free of barriers. The users must be in
a position to be almost completely independent of outside help.
This applies notably to wheelchair users, the blind and visually
impaired, those with other disabilities, old people, children and
those of exceptionally short or tall stature.
Movement areas
Are those necessary for moving a wheelchair and are to be
designed according to the minimum space requirement of a
wheelchair user. The wheelchair --7 0 - 8 and the movement
area for the person --7 0- mprovide the modules for this. The
dimensions of the movement area are 0.90-1.80 m and may
overlap - except in front of lift doors. A depth and width of
at least 1.50 m should be provided in every room for turning.
(More information on movement areas is found on the following
pages.)
Q Computer workplace
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
a

~---
~---
,..._
-ll ] It
II r- ;-
-..... b
1'-l
1-r--'
IL
100 80 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
mFrom behind
4D With three doors
e Atawindow
,_____ <;150 -----1
4!) Minimum turning space
r ~
-t~;~
~It ~l
Kl--78--+-i;; 90-H
0 With four doors
21
ACCESSIBLE
BUILDING
DimensiQns
for wheelchair
users
Accessible public
buildings
Accessible
housing
BS 8300
DD266
DIN 18024
DIN 18025
MBO
see also: Lifts
pp. 128-134

ACCESSIBLE
BUILDING
Dimensions for
wheelchair users
Accessible
public buildings
Accessible
housing
BS 8300
DIN 18024
DIN 18025
MBO
see also: Lifts
128-134
I-- <!;1.50 ----1
T
0
"1
Ni
0
"!
Ni
1
I-- <!;1.50 ---1
0 Movement areas In front of hand-
operated side-hung doors
8 Ramp
15 15
H---- 1.20 --H
e Ramp in section
,_;;; 1.10-t
e Plan, with clear dimensions of the
lift car and movement area in front
of the doors
f-<;;95-j
.. ,~
. ,__
L=::t=:t=ll.i
L_(_j
f--Hso----j
0
"1
All
_l
0 Overlapping of movement areas in
sanitary facilities
22
1-- <!;1.90 ---l
f.-- ;;;1.90 ----;
f) Movement areas in front of hand-
operated sliding doors
f - - 95-1.35 ----l
0 Dimensions of corridors and
passages
,-,1
. "1
All
J
"'
I I
L-------1
f) Movement area in front of stairs
going up and down
l
I ~
I ;
JJ
f--ii;1.50---11
f) Movement area next to operated
facility
Movement areas must be:
ACCESSIBLE BUILDING
Accessible Public Buildings
min. 1.50 m wide and min. 1.50 m deep ...
in every room as a place to turn, at the start and end of rarnps,
in front of telephone boxes, public telephones, service counters,
passages, pay desks, checkpoints, post boxes, automatic service
machines, calling/speaking equipment.
min. 1.50 m wide ...
in corridors, main routes and next to stairs up and down.
min. 1.50 m deep ...
in front of therapy facilities (e.g. bath, couch), in front of wheelchair
parking places, next to the long side of the vehicle of a wheelchair
user in car parks ~ p. 23 41i).
alongside facilities which a wheelchair user has to approach from
the side, between the wheel kerbs of a ramp and next to operated
equipment.
in access ways next to cash desks and checkpoints and on side
routes.
Accessibility without steps
All levels of buildings designed in accordance with the principles
of accessibility must be accessible without steps, i.e. using a lift
or a ramp.
Lifts
Cars of lifts must have a min. clear width of 1.10 m and a clear
depth of 1.40 m. The movement area in front of the doors must
be as large as the floor area of the car, but min. 1.50 m wide and
1.50 m deep ~ 0. This area must not overlap with other traffic
routes and movement areas.
Ramps
May have a maximum slope of 6% ~ 0. If ramps are longer than
6 m, an intermediate landing of min. 1.50 m length is required.
The ramp and the intermediate landing are both to be provided
with 10 em high wheel kerbs and handrails (diameter 3-4.5 em)
at a height of 85 em. The clear ramp width must be min. 1.20 m.
Wheel kerbs and handrails must project 30 em horizontally into
the platform area. There must be no stairs down in the extension
of the ramp.
Stairs. The movement area next to the stairs going up and down
must be min. 1.50 m wide; the tread of the first step is not to be
included in the calculation of the movement area ~ f).
Doors
Clear passage width of doors ~0.90 m ~ 0 +f). Doors to toilets,
showers and changing rooms must open outward.
Sanitary facilities
At least one toilet must be provided for wheelchair users in all
sanitary facilities. The seat height should be 48 em ~ 8.
Corridors and meeting areas
Corridors and routes longer than 15 m must have a passing place
for two wheelchair users of at least 1.80 m width and depth.
Wheelchair parking place
A wheelchair parking place for each wheelchair user is to be
included in the design, preferably in the entrance area. Space
requirement and movement area ~ p. 21 0.

IT
.COD
-;;;.
TI
0 Movement area by shower;
alternative - bath
r--;;; 1.50 --I
1--;;; 95---+-35+--1
;;; 30
r---- ;;; 1.50 ----1
C) Overlapping of movement areas in
bathroom (with bath)
!---;;; 1.50--I
9 Movement area in a double-space
kitchen
I- 60-i ~ + i
36' 23'
Dimensions at the sink, stove and
refrigerator
f--;;; 1.50--;
Wheelchair user's
f.-;;; 1.20--1
Non-wheelchair user's
C) Space requirement at the long side
of a wheelchair user's and non-
wheelchair user's bed
1------;;; 1.50--l
Movement area in front of and
next to we and washbasin
1--- ;;; 1.50 -----i
0 Overlapping of movement areas in
bathroom (with shower)
1--;;; 1.50--1
T
0
"l
~
All
1
e Movement area in an L-layout
kitchen
e Dimensions in the kitchen
l
0
0
tti
J~I
.1.~
4I!) Space requirement in a garage
ACCESSIBLE BUILDING
Accessible Housing
Movement areas which must be:
min. 1.50 m wide and min. 1.50 m deep ..•
a turning place in every room (excepting small rooms, which the
wheelchair user can use by moving backwards and forwards), the
shower ---7 0 +e. in front of the we and vanity unit ---7 f)- e. in
an outside seating area, in front of lift shaft doors, at the start and
end of a ramp and in front of the intake of a rubbish chute.
min. 1.50 m deep .•.
in front of the long side of a wheelchair user's bed ---7 e. in front of
cupboards, in front of kitchen installations ---7 0-0, in front of the
access side of a bath ---7 0 +e. in front of a wheelchair parking
place and in front of the long side of a vehicle ---7 G).
between walls outside the house, next to steps going up and
down, where the tread of the uppermost step is not to be included
in the movement area.
along furniture which the wheelchair user approaches from the
side, along the access side of a non-wheelchair user's bed ---7 0,
between walls within the dwelling, next to operated equipment ---7
p. 22 e. between wheel kerbs of a ramp ---7 p. 22 e and on routes
within a house.
Accessibility without steps
All rooms belonging to a dwelling and the communal facilities of a
house must either be without steps, or have a lift ---7 p. 22 e. or be
accessible with a ramp ---7 p. 22 e. Door stops and thresholds at
the bottom of doors should be avoided, but if absolutely necessary
may not be higher than 2 em.
Wheelchair parking place
A wheelchair parking place is to be included in the design for
each wheelchair user, preferably located in the entrance area, for
transferring from street to indoor wheelchair. Space requirement
and movement area ---7 p. 22 e.
Bathroom
The bathroom is to be provided with a wheelchair-accessible
shower. The later installation of a bath should be possible near
the shower. The movement area to the right or left of the we must
be at least 95 em wide and 70 em deep. From one side of the we
towards the wall, or furniture, there must be a distance of min.
30 em ---7 f) - e. No bathroom doors may open inwards.
Kitchen
The main items of equipment items like the refrigerator, stove and
sink, plus the worktop, are to be arranged as close as possible
to each other. It must be possible for a wheelchair to pass under
the sink and worktop without limitation. For the sink, this means
that either a waste fitting behind the plaster or a flat fitting on
the surface is necessary. Shelf space must be accessible for the
wheelchair user and no tall units should be included in the design.
The horizontal reach area is about 60 em, and the vertical activity
range is 40-140 em. The optimum height of the worktop (approx.
75-90 em) should be discussed with the disabled person and
fixed at a height to suit the user ---7 0 + 0.
Car parking place
A weather-protected car parking place or garage is to be provided
for each dwelling. A movement area of 1.50 m depth should be
provided next to the long side of the car ---7 G).
23
ACCESSIBLE
BUILDING
Dimensions for
wheelchair users
Accessible public
buildings
Accessible
housing
BS 8300
DD266
DIN 18024
DIN 18025
MBO

ACCESSIBLE
BUILDING
Dimensions for
wheelchair users
Accessible public
buildings
Accessible
housing
BS 8300
00266
DIN 18024
DIN 18025
MBO
~~~~~9e shelf
letterbox
0 Deep entrance area with coat rack
8 Entrance lobby with double-leaf
door
0 Plan of open-air seating area
1--<:; 3.75-----1
~~r----~o)
I I
!_ _____ :
D
1__0_
I I
I I
I I
I :
0
10
<d
l
f) Living room for 1-2 people
CD Accessible extension to two-family
house; ramp to overcome level
difference
24
r
0 Transverse layout of entrance area
J---3.10----l
~!I IJ[Jc II
J-1.40 -t-- 80 -+50-j40l
J-1.40-+B0-+--90-J
e Dining area layout for two or four
people
0
I
0
0
<d
1
Elevation of open-air seating
area
1----- 4.75 - - - j

§[i'~
D ~~
f5s!-- 2.oo-+- 1.80 ---t-1
f--- 4.75 ------j
T
0
10
,;
t
0
<q
_l_
e Living room with dining area for
4-5 people (23.75 m2)
4f) Installation of an accessible
vertical lift
6
"'
t
0
<0
..L
ACCESSIBLE BUILDING
Accessible Housing
Housing suitable for wheelchairs
Wheelchair users must be able to travel into all the rooms of a
dwelling, and into all rooms available to the residents of a house in
common, and to use all facilities. The wheelchair user must be in
a position to be mostly independent of outside help. This applies
notably to the blind and visually impaired, the deaf and hearing-
impaired, the physically disabled, old people, children and people
of exceptionally short or tall stature.
In order to turn 180°, a wheelchair user requires at least 1.50 m2
~ 0 + f). This space requirement determines the size of, and
movement area in, corridors, rooms, garages etc. In residential
apartment blocks, access through corridors or hallways is the most
frequent arrangement. In this case, angles and corners are to be
avoided as far as possible; a straight access corridor is suitable.
The minimum area of an entrance hall should be 1.50 x 1.50 m, and
an entrance lobby with a single-leaf door 1.70 x 1.60 m. A window
with a clear view from a parapet height of 60 em should be provided
in at least one living room of a dwelling. An entry phone at the flat or
house door is an important item of equipment for a blind resident.
Living area
Adequate freedom of movement for wheelchair users is important
in living rooms. There should also be room for at least two further
wheelchair users as visitors. For a living room with an eating area,
the minimum floor area should be: in a flat for one person 22 m2,
for 2-4 people 24 m2, for five people 26 m2 and for six people
28m2
; minimum room width 3.75 m (1-2 person household).
Open-air seating area
Every dwelling should be provided with an open-air seating area
such as a terrace, loggia or balcony with a min. size 4.5 m2• The
movement area must be min. 1.50 m wide and 1.50 m deep~ 0.
Additional living space
Additional living space should be provided for every wheelchair
user if required. The floor area of a flat is normally increased by
about 15 m2 by this requirement.
I
10
"'
,..:
1
Single-room flat for wheelchair user
(40--45 m2
)
G) Accessible flat for three people in a
block with two flats per floor
00
00
~Kitchen
Cii) Two-room flat (50--55 m')
0 Accessible flat for four people in a
block with three flats per floor

C=::J
Ll on<)
~. 0'---0
live
~
j <SChild
0
0 Flat in two-family house before
conversion --7 f)
zy, living room and 1 bedroom flat
before conversion ~ 0
0 One-room flat (40 m2)
Q Two-room flat (54 m')
41!) Four-room flat (11 0 m')
f) Flat in two-family house after
conversion for serious disability
Sal·
One living room and two bedroom
flat after conversion (for a visually
impaired child)
T II!!!!!!-·
Flat(60 m2)
ACCESSIBLE BUILDING
Accessible Housing
Accessible building
(§50 of MBO- Model Building Regulations- applied at state level)
(1) In buildings with more than two flats, the flats on one floor
must be accessible. In these flats, the living rooms and bedrooms,
one toilet, one bathroom and the kitchen or kitchenette must be
accessible with a wheelchair.
(2) Buildings which are publicly accessible, must in their parts
serving the general public be capable of being accessed and used,
according to their purpose, by disabled people, old people and
people with small children, without outside help. This requirement
applies notably to cultural, educational, sport, leisure and health
facilities, offices, administration buildings and courts, sales and
catering establishments, parking, garages and toilets.
(3) Buildings, according to (2), must be accessible through an
entrance with a clear opening width of at least 0.90 m without
steps. An adequate movement area must be available in front of
doors. Ramps may not have a slope of more than 6%, must be at
least 1.20 m wide and have a fixed handrail with a safe grip on both
sides. A landing is to be provided at the start and end of the ramp
and also an intermediate landing every 6 m. The landings must
have a length of at least 1.50 m. Stairs must have handrails on
both sides, which are to be continued past landings and window
openings and past the last steps. The stairs must have solid risers.
Corridors and entrance halls must be at least 1.50 m wide. One
toilet must also be suitable and accessible for wheelchair users;
this is to be indicated by a sign.
(4) Sections 1-3 do not apply if the installations can only be fulfilled
with unreasonable expense on account of difficult terrain conditions,
the installation of an otherwise unnecessary lift, unsuitable existing
buildings or the safety of disabled or old people.
1 person 2 people 3 people
living room 20.0 20.0 22.0
dining area 6.0 6.0 10.0
bedroom 16.0 24.0 16.0
child (1 bed) - - 14.0
bathroom 6.0 7.0 7.0
kitchen 8.0 9.0 9.0
corridor 5.0 6.0 6.0
storage room 1.0 1.0 1.5
storage (E-wheelchair) 6.0 6.0 6.0
spare room (washing machine) 1.0 1.0 1.0
living area 69.0 80.0 98.5
Guideline sizes for flats with one wheelchair user -living area in m2
[determination of requirements www.nullbarriere.de]
4D Three-room flat (95 m2
)
25
ACCESSIBLE
BUILDING
Dimensions for
wheelchair users
Accessible public
buildings
Accessible
housing
BS 8300
DD266
DIN 18024
DIN 18025
MBO

DIMENSIONAL
BASICS AND
RELATION-
SHIPS
Man as measure
and purpose
The universal
standard
Body
measurements
and space
requirements
Geometrical
relationships
Dimensions in
building
Throughout history human beings have created things to be of
service to them, using measurements relating to their bodies.
Until relatively recent times people's limbs were the basis for
all the units of measurement. Even today we can still have a
better idea of the size of an object if it is compared to humans or
their limbs: it was so many men high, so many ells (arm lengths)
long, so many feet wider or so many heads bigger. These are
expressions that we are born with: it could be said that their sizes
are in our nature. But the introduction of the metre brought all
that to an end.
We should therefore attempt to achieve the most precise and vivid
possible idea of this unit. Building clients do the same when they
measure out the rooms of their properties in order to envisage
the dimensions shown on the drawings. Anyone who intends to
learn how to build should start by visualising the size of rooms
and objects as clearly as possible, and constantly practise, so
that every line they draw and every stated dimension of yet to be
designed furniture, rooms or buildings can appear as an image
before their eyes.
We do, however, immediately have an accurate idea of the scale
of an object when we see a person beside it, whether in the
flesh or as an illustration. It is a poor reflection on our times
that our trade and professional journals only too often depict
rooms or buildings without any people in them. Such pictures
can often create a false impression of the scale of a building and
it is often astonishing how different they look in reality - mostly
much smaller. This contributes to the frequent lack of cohesive
relationships between buildings, because their designers have
worked to various arbitrary scales and not to the only proper
scale, human beings.
If this is to be changed, then architects and designers
must be shown where these haphazard dimensions, mostly
accepted without thought, originated. They must understand the
relationships of the size of the limbs of a healthy human being and
how much space a person occupies in various postures and in
movement. They must also be familiar with the dimensions of the
appliances, clothing etc. which people encounter every day, in
order to be able to determine the appropriate sizes for containers
and furniture. They must know how much space a person needs
between furniture in the kitchen, dining room, libraries etc. in
order to undertake the necessary reaching and working among
these fittings in comfort without squandering space. They must
know how furniture should be placed so that people can fulfil
their tasks or relax in the home, office or workshop. And, finally,
the architect and designer need to know the minimum practical
dimensions of spaces in which people move around on a daily
basis, like trains, trams, vehicles etc. These typically very
restricted minimum spaces give the designer fixed impressions,
which are then used, even if unintentionally, to derive dimensions
of other spaces.
The human being, however, is not just a living creature that needs
space. The emotional response is no less important. The way a
room is dimensioned, divided, painted, lit, entered and furnished
has great significance for the impression it makes. Starting from
all these considerations and insights, I set out in 1926 to collect,
in an organised way, the experience gained from a wide variety of
professional practice and teaching.
The present data book was developed from this work, starting from
DIMENSIONAL BASICS AND RELATIONSHIPS
Man as Measure and Purpose
dimensions of buildings and their constituent parts. This involved,
for the first time, the investigation, development and comparison
of many fundamental questions.
Current technical options have been included here to the
greatest possible extent. Account is taken of common
standards. Description is often reduced to the absolute
minimum and supplemented or even replaced with illustrations
wherever feasible. This should provide the creative architect
or designer, in methodically ordered, brief and coherent form,
the necessary information which would otherwise have to be
laboriously extracted from countless books or researched
circuitously by surveying existing buildings. Great value has
been placed on the restriction of the content to a digest of
the fundamental data and experience, with the inclusion of
completed buildings only where they seemed necessary as
general examples.
By and large, of course, each building commission is different and
(apart, of course, from adherence to relevant standards) should
be studied, approached and designed anew by the architect.
Completed projects can much too easily tempt us to imitate, or
at least establish conventions, which the architect entrusted with
a similar task can often escape only with difficulty. If, however,
as is intended here, creative architects are given only the tools,
then this compels independent thinking so that they weave all the
components of the current commission into their own imaginative
and unified construction.
Finally, the tools presented here have not been collected more
or less randomly from some journal or other, but systematically
sought out in the literature as the data required for each building
task. They have been checked against well-known examples
of similar buildings and, where necessary, data has also been
acquired through models and experiments. This was always
with the intention of saving the practising architect or designer
the effort of these basic investigations, so that sufficient time and
leisure can be devoted to the important creative aspects of the
commission.
Ernst Neufert
the human being and providing the framework for assessing the O Leonardo da Vinci: Rules of Proportion
26

T
l: geometrical division of
length a by employing
the golden section
a
E
l
Man's dimensional relationships
The oldest known canon describing the dimensional relationships
of the human being was discovered in a burial chamber among the
pyramids near Memphis (about 3000 BcE). Certainly, since then,
scientists and artists have been engaged in trying to decipher
human proportional relationships. We know about the proportional
systems of the Egyptian pharaohs, of the time of Ptolemy, of the
ancient Greeks and Romans, and the Canon of Polykleitos, which
was long considered the standard, plus the work of the Middle
Ages and of Alberti, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo and, above
all, DOrer's world-famous advances.
In all these systems, the human body was measured according to
lengths of head, face or foot, which were than later sub-divided and
related to each other so that they were applicable in everyday life.
Even into our own times, the foot and the ell (arm's length) have
remained common measures. In particular, the details worked out by
DOrer became a common standard. He started from the height (h) of
a human being and expressed the sub-divisions as fractions:
1f2 h = the entire torso from the crotch upwards
114 h = leg length from ankle to knee, length from chin to navel
The Universal Standard
E
l:
l:
E
l:
l:
l:
E
l:
E
1fs h = foot length
1/s h = head length from hair parting to underside of chin, spacing
of nipples
1J1o h = face height and width (including ears), hand length to the
wrist,
1f12 h = face width at level of underside of nose, leg width (above
the ankle) etc.
The sub-divisions extend to 1f4o h.
In the last century, A. Zeising achieved greater clarity than
anyone on this subject with his investigations of the dimensional
relationships of man's proportions. He made exact measurements
and comparisons based on the golden section --> p. 33.
Unfortunately, this work did not earn appropriate recognition until
recently, when E. Moessel, an important researcher in this area,
endorsed Zeising's work with detailed examinations using his
methods.
From i 945, Le Corbusier also used, for all his projects, the sectional
relationships of the golden ratio, which he called 'Le Modular'. His
measures were human height = i .829 m; navel height = i .130 m
etc. --> p. 33.
27
DIMENSIONAL
BASICS AND
RELATION-
SHIPS
Man as measure
and purpose
The universal
standard
Body
measurements
and space
requirements
Geometrical
relationships
Dimensions in
building

DIMENSIONAL
BASICS AND
RELATION-
SHIPS
Man as measure
and purpose
The universal
standard
Body
measurements
and space
requirements
Geometrical
relationships
Dimensions in
building
0 Crawling
J----875---j
f) Bending over
f----875--l
C!) Dimensions: at the desk
J---660---l
i ~-1
' '
' I
I
e Working while standing
1--1250-----i
fli) Sitting on a mattress
28
~
l----750---
f) Sitting cross-legged
t------625-----j
Sitting (from
the front)
Body Measurements and Space Requirements
t-875------1 f---625-----j
0 Sitting (from the side) e Kneeling
!-----700-----1
e Squatting
}---875---j J----875------1 1----1125----l
e Standing leaning forward, 0 In movement
standing
(!) Outstretched arm (forwards) CD Outstretched arm (sideways)
f----875 ------1 l--900-1000---
mDimensions: at the dining table f) Dimensions: in a small easy chair
1----1250----1
Q Dimensions: in an armchair
0) Kneeling Gi) Sitting on a chair cg) Sitting on the floor
1------1875------1
~ Leaning against sloping backrest ~ Lying with raised back @) Lying

Body Measurements and Space Requirements
SPACE REQUIRED BETWEEN WALLS
l-375-i I-625 -l 1- 875 ---1
0 Between walls ("'10%
supplement for people moving)
1--- 1000 ---1 ~ 11so ------1
f) Two people next to each other
1--- 1700 ----1 1---- 2250 ~
8 Three people next to each other Q Four people next to each other
SPACE REQUIRED BY GROUPS
1- 1250 --1 1 - 1875 -----1
e Closely packed 0 Normal spacing
STEP LENGTHS
1 - 2000 ----1
Q Choir group
1-750 -+- 750 -1- 750 -l
4I!) Walking in step
1- 875 -t- 875 -+- 875 --1
CD Marching
SPACE REQUIRED FOR VARIOUS BODY POSTURES
f - 2125 -----1
e Longer periods of standing
1-- 1250 .__j f.-- 625 -l
@) Strolling
n
~
-
1-
I
-
)I
~ 2250 -------1
C) With back packs
'1'-
2000
G) Max. no. people per m2
: 6
(e.g. cable car)
I-- 1125 ---i f-- 1000 --1
0 Kneeling
1- 1125 ---1
0 Atthedesk
I- 875 -l I- 625 -I 1-- 875 --l 1- 1000 ---1 1-- 1750 ---I
~ Stretching
SPACE REQUIRED WITH HAND LUGGAGE
1- 800 --I
@) One
suitcase
I- 1000 --1 1--
e Two suitcases G) Two people with two
suitcases each
SPACE REQUIRED WITH WALKING STICK AND UMBRELLA
I- 875 --1
a> Handbag
I- 750--1 I-- 1125 --1
(D With walking @) With umbrella
stick
1--- 2375
@) Two people with umbrellas
29
DIMENSIONAL
BASICS AND
RELATION-
SHIPS
Man as measure
and purpose
The universal
standard
Body
measurements
and space
requirements
Geometrical
relationships
Dimensions in
building

DIMENSIONAL
BASICS AND
RELATIONSHIPS
Man as measure
and purpose
The universal
standard
Body
measurements
.and space
requirements
Geometrical
relationships
Dimensions in
building
fourth 3/4
third 4/5
minor third 5/6
0 Pythagorean rectangle includes all
interval proportions but excludes
the disharmonic seconds and
sevenths
a a b c p m X y
36"87' 3 4 5 53"13' 1 1 2
22"62' 5 12 13 67"38' 1 2 3
16°26' 7 24 25 73"74' 1 3 4
28°07' 8 15 17 61"93' 0.5 3 5
12°68' 9 40 41 77°32' 1 4 5
18°92' 12 35 37 71°08' 0.5 5 7
43°60' 20 21 29 46°40' 0.5 3 7
31"89' 28 45 53 58"11' 0.5 5 9
0 Number relationships from
Pythagorean equations (selection)
8 Equilateral triangle, hexagon
Q Pentagon: bisection of the radius
gives point B; an arc with centre B
and radius AB gives point C; distance
AC equals the side of a pentagon
CD Pentagon and golden section
30
f) Pythagorean triangle
0 Square
e 15-sided polygon
AC=~-!_=_1_
5 3 16
1----M m---l
f--M---+-m-1
f---M--t-m--l
1-rn--t--M--tm+-M-i
I I
1----m----------j
r-------M----~~
Cf} Decagon and golden section
Geometrical Relationships
There have been agreements about the dimensioning of buildings
since early times. The first specific statements date from the time
of Pythagoras, who started from the basis that the numerical
proportions found in acoustics must also be optically harmonic.
This led to the development of the Pythagorean rectangle --7 0,
which contains all the harmonic interval proportions but not the
two disharmonic intervals -the second and seventh.
Spatial measurements can be derived from these number
relationships. Pythagorean or diophantic equations produce
number groups f)- 0, which should be used for the width, height
and length of rooms:
a2 + b2 = c2
a= m (y2 -x2)
b=mx2xxxy
c=m(y2+x2)
Where x, y are whole numbers, x is less than y, m is the
magnification or reduction factor.
The geometric shapes named by Plato and Vitruvius are also of
critical importance: circle, triangle --7 e and square --7 0, from
which polygonal traverses can be constructed. Each halving then
gives further polygonal traverses. Other polygonal traverses (e.g.
heptagon --7 0, nonagon --7 Cli)) can be formed only by approximation
or by superimposition. For example, a 15-sided polygon --7 0 can be
constructed by superimposing an equilateral triangle onto a pentagon.
The pentagon --7 0 or pentagram has a natural relationship to the
golden section, as does the derived decagon, but in earlier times
its particular dimensional relationships were hardly ever used --7
p. 32 0-0.
Polygonal traverses are necessary for the design and construction
of so-called 'round' buildings.
The determination of the most important measurements- radius r,
chord c and height of a triangle h - is shown in --7 0- G) --7 p. 32.
Cl) Approximated heptagon: line BC
halves line AM at D. Distance BD Is
approx. i/7 of circumference
CD.Calculation of dimensions in a
polygonal traverse__, p. 34
Ci) Approximated nonagon: arc
centred on A with radius AB gives
point D on line AC. Arc centred
on C with radius CM gives point E
on arc BD. Distance DE Is approx.
1/9 of circumference
h=r.cosp
~=r. sin p
2
s=2·r·sinP
h =~. cotang p
2
4D Formula__, 0

~1/2
0 Right-angled Isosceles triangle:
can be used for quadrature
45.
/ !'A
'Av'2
v.
- v. v'2
v.
0 n/4 triangle (A. v. Drach)
0
1
V2
1
8
_.e
---...........
.......
' '
1:~2 rectangle
Relationship between square roots
Examples of non-rectangular
coordination -> p. 34 MERO space
frames: based on -./2 and-./3
f) Triangle (base= height)
Squares developed from the
octagon -> e -e
-17 =2.646
l---1 ----1
e Hierarchy of square roots
10
20
28
40
28
4li) Related numbers as
approximation of -./2 ('snail')
A right-angled isosceles triangle (two sides of equal length),
with a relationship of baseline to height of 2:1, can be used for
quadrature (the process of constructing a square of equal area
to a given shape) --+ 0. An isosceles triangle with the base and
height forming two sides of a square was used successfully by
the master cathedral builder Knauth to determine the dimensional
relationships of the cathedral in Strasbourg --+ 0.
The rr/4 triangle of A. v. Drach --+ 8 is rather more pointed than
that described above because its height is determined by the
point of the slewed square. It was used successfully by its inventor
for details and devices.
The investigations of L. R. Spitzenpfeil into a number of old
buildings have discovered octagonal relationships. These are
based on the so-called diagonal triangle, where the height of
the triangle is the diagonal of the square constructed over half
of the base --+ G - C). The sides of the rectangle formed from
the diagonal triangle--+ 0 have a ratio of 1:-./2, so all halving or
doubling of the rectangle produces the same ratio of 1:-./2. This
was used as the basis for the ISO A series paper formats --+ p. 4.
Geometrical progressions in this relationship are produced by the
hierarchies inside an octagon --+ e -e and the hierarchy of the
square roots of numbers 1-7--+ e.
The relationship between the square roots of whole numbers is
shown in --+ C). The factorisation procedure permits the application
of square roots for the installation of non-rectangular building
elements. Building from approximated values for square numbers,
Mengeringhausen developed the MERO space frame. The
principle is the so-called 'snail' --+ CD - 0. The imprecision of the
right angle is compensated by the screw connections of the rods at
the nodes. A different approximate calculation of the square roots of
whole numbers -.Jn for non-rectangular building elements is offered
by continued fractions (--+ p. 33) according to the formula:
G =-.Jn =1 + n -1 --+ 4!).
1+G
1 I
0.5 zkfa
0.6 51 7
0.58333 •.. 12117
0.56821 •.• 29 41
0.5857143 .•. 70 99
_;11
0.5857989 •.• 169 239
0.5857865 •.• v'2
CD Continued fractions of --12
1
1.5
1.4
1.41687 •••
1.41379 ...
1.4142657 •.•
1.4142011 ••.
1.4142135 .••
31
DIMENSIONAL
BASICS AND
RELATION-
SHIPS
Man as measure
and purpose
The universal
standard
Body
measurements
and space
requirements
Geometrical
relationships
Dimensions in
building

DIMENSIONAL
BASICS AND
RELATIONSHIPS
Man as measure
and purpose
The universal
standard
Body
measurements
and space
requirements
Geometrical
relationships
Dimensions in
building
0 Roman theatre (according to
Vitruvius)
C) Gable corner of a Doric temple:
dimensional relationships based on
the golden section
8 Golden section, buildings in Ostia
Antica
f) Plan of the entire quarter
"10
G) Japanese treasury
32
f) Greek theatre (according to
Vitruvius)
1 newest
cavea
2 oldest
cavea
3 orchestra
4 scenery
storage
5 side
gangway
6 retaining
wall
e Theatre in Epidaurus
y X y/x (~2 =1.4142... )
1 1 1
3 2 1.5
7 5 1.4
17 12 1.4166...
41 29 1.4137...
0 Dimensional relationships of the
golden section
e Floor mosaic in a house in Ostia
Antica
Rugen guildhall in ZOrich
The use of geometrical and dimensional relationships based on
the previous information was described by Vitruvius: according
to his investigations, the Roman theatre, for example, is based
on a triangle rotated four times -7 0, and the Greek theatre on
a square rotated three times -7 f). Both constructions result in a
dodecagon, which is recognisable on the stairs.
Moessel claims to have verified dimensional relationships
according to the golden ratio, although this is unlikely -7 0. The
only Greek theatre based on a pentagon is in Epidaurus -7 0. The
design principle of the golden (holy, divine) section (ratio, mean)
was applied in a Roman residential quarter excavated in Ostia
Antica, the ancient harbour of Rome -7 0 - 0. This principle is
based on the bisection of the diagonals of a square. If the points
at which the arcs (radius ..f2/2) intersect the sides of the square are
joined up, this produces a nine-part grid. Its centre is the square
of the golden section. The arc AB is with up to 0.65% deviation
the same length as the diagonal CD of the original halved square.
The golden section therefore represents an approximate method
for squaring the circle. The entire complex at Ostia, from layout to
fitting out details, was based on this ratio.
Palladia, in his four books on architecture, provides a geometrical
key based on the work of Pythagoras. He used the same spatial
relationships (circle, triangle, square etc.) and harmonies for his
buildings -7 0 - (!j).
Similar laws of proportion are also expressed in clear rules by the
ancient cultures of the East. The Indians with their 'Manasara',
the Chinese with their modulation according to the 'Toukou', and
above all the Japanese with their 'Kiwariho' methods created
building systems which ensure traditional development and offer
immense economic advantages -7 $.
0 Geometrical key to Palladia's villas
$ Pian of the BMW Administration
Building in Munich
41!) Palladia, Villa Pisani in Bagnolo
48-sided polygon developed from
a triangle -> 0)

B
A. C
1--~--l
0 Geometric construction of the
golden section
8 Continued fraction: golden section
Q Unlimited values
Major Minor
Relationship between square,
circle and triangle
2 parts
3 parts
5 parts
8 parts
13 parts
21 parts
34 parts
55 parts
89 parts
144parts
Values expressed in the metric system
Red series Blue series
Centimetre Metre Centimetre Metre
95280.7 952.80
58886.7 588.86 117773.5 1177.73
36394.0 363.94 72788.0 727.88
22492.7 224.92 44985.5 449.85
13901.3 139.01 27802.5 278.02
8591.4 85.91 17182.9 171.83
5309.8 53.10 10619.6 106.19
3281.6 32.81 6563.3 65.63
2028.2 20.28 4056.3 40.56
1253.5 12.53 2506.9 25.07
774.7 7.74 1549.4 15.49
478.8 4.79 957.6 9.57
295.9 2.96 591.8 5.92
182.9 1.83 365.8 3.66
113.0 1.13 226.0 2.26
69.8 0.70 139.7 1.40
43.2 0.43 86.3 0.86
26.7 0.26 53.4 0.53
16.5 0.16 33.0 0.33
10.2 0.10 20.4 0.20
6.8 0.06 7.8 0.08
2.4 0.02 4.8 0.04
1.5 0.01 3.0 0.03
0.9 1.8 0.01
0.6 1.1
etc. etc.
e Illustration of the values and sets of the Modular, according to Le Corbusier
The golden section
The 'golden section' means that a length I is divided so that the
ratio of the entire length to the larger part is the same as the ratio
of the larger part to the smaller part. The golden section of a length
can be determined either geometrically or by using a formula:
For the geometrical construction, the distance I (to be divided) is
drawn as a vertical AB and the horizontal line AC (= AB/2) as the
baseline of a right-angled triangle. The length of the baseline AC
is transferred using a compass with centre C onto the hypotenuse
BC of this triangle, thus dividing the hypotenuse into the parts
BD and DC. The distance BD is the major part M of the vertical
AB. This distance M is then transferred onto the vertical AB, thus
dividing AB into a major part (M) and a minor part (m) ~ 0.
Therefore:
major
major minor
The connection between the golden section and the proportions of
square, circle and triangle is shown in ~ f). The golden sectioning
of the distance can also be determined with the continued fraction
1
G=1 +-
G
This is the simplest infinite regular continued fraction ~ 8.
The Modulor
The architect Le Corbusier developed a theory of proportion
based on the golden section and the dimensions of the human
body. He marked out three intervals in the human body, which
formed what Fibonacci named a golden section series: between
the foot, the solar plexus, the head, the fingers of the raised
hand. Le Corbusier first assumed 1.75 m to be the average height
of a European, and divided this, according to the golden section,
into the dimensions i 08.2 - 66.8- 4i .45 - 25.4 em ~ e.
Because this last dimension is almost exactly i 0 in, Le Corbusier
found a connection with the English inch, but this did not apply to
the larger dimensions. Consequently he later altered his average
body height to 6 English feet(= i .828 m) and from there developed,
according to the golden section, the so-called red series upwards
and downwards ~ e. Because the steps in this series were too
large for practical use, he then developed an additional blue
series, starting from 2.26 m (fingertips of the raised hand), with
double the values in the red series ~ e. The values in the red and
blue series were then implemented by Le Corbusier as practical
measurements~ 0.
Q unit
double
extension of
shortening of
f) The Modular
A=i08
8=216
A=C=i75
8= D=83
e Proportional figure
33
DIMENSIONAL
BASICS AND
RELATION-
SHIPS
Man as measure
and purpose
The universal
standard
Body
measurements
and space
requirements
Geometrical
relationships
Dimensions in
building

DIMENSIONAL
BASICS AND
RELATION·
SHIPS
Man as measure
and purpose
The universal
standard
Body
measurements
and space
reqUirements
Geometrical
relationships
Dimensions in
building
BS 6Y50
BS EN ISO 8560
BS 2045
DIN 323
DIN 4172
stBndard dimensions: 250 x 126 x 62.5mm
nominal dimensions: 240 x 115 x 52mm
Q Nominal and standard size of continental European wall bricks
f) Modular structural dimensions (RR) and nominal dimensions (NM) for brickwork
Terms
Building preferred numbers are those for modular construction
dimensions and the individual, structural and finished dimensions
derived from them.
Modular dimensions are only theoretical dimensions, but are
the basis for the individual, structural and finished dimensions
used in practice. Structural dimensions or nominal dimensions (for
construction types with joints and wall finishes) are derived from
modular dimensions by deducting or adding the component for the
joint or the finish thickness. (Example: modular dimension for the
length of a brick=25 em; thickness ofthe vertical joint= 1 em; nominal
dimension for the length of the brick= 24 em; modular dimension for
the thickness of poured concrete walls= nominal dimension= 25 em).
Individual dimensions are dimensions (mostly small} for
units of structure or finishing such as joint thicknesses, plaster
thicknesses, door rebate sizes, wall projection sizes, tolerances.
Structural dimensions are of the unfinished structure, such as
masonry dimensions (without plaster thicknesses), structural slab
thicknesses, sizes of unplastered door and window openings.
Finished dimensions are for the finished building, such as clear
sizes of plastered rooms and openings, storage space dimensions,
floor-to-floor heights.
Nominal dimensions are the same as modular dimensions for
building types without joints. For building types with joints,
the nominal dimension is the modular dimension less the joint
thicknesses.
Small dimensions are 2.5 em and less. They can be selected from
the sizes: 2.5 em; 2 em; 1.6 em; 1.25 em; 1 em; 8 mm; 6.3 mm;
5 mm; 3.2 mm; 2.5 mm; 2 mm; 1.6 mm; 1.25 mm; 1 mm.
34
Dimensions in Building
Preferred numbers
Preferred numbers have been introduced for the standardised
sizing of machinery and technical devices. The starting point is
the continental unit of length the metre (-'> 40 in). The engineering
requirement for geometrical graduation made the purely decimal
division of the metre impractical. The geometrical 10-part preferred
number series is therefore: 1; 2; 4; 8; 16; 31.5; 63; 125; 250; 500;
1000. These are formed from the halving series (1000, 500, 250,
125) and the doubling series (1, 2, 4, 8, 16); the doubling number
32 was rounded down to 31.5 towards the exact value ofthe halving
number (31.25), and the halving number 62.5 was rounded up to 63.
The larger 5-part and the finer 20- and 40-part series fit in
accordingly with their intermediate numbers.
Preferred numbers offer many advantages for calculation:
products and quotients of any number of preferred numbers are
themselves preferred numbers, whole-number percentages of
preferred numbers are again preferred numbers, and doubled and
halved preferred numbers also remain preferred numbers.
Although there is scarcely a need for geometrical graduation in
building (considering the predominantly arithmetical addition of
similar elements like: blocks, joists, rafters, trusses, columns,
windows and similar) the so-called building preferred numbers
have been defined and laid down.
Brickwork dimensions in the UK differ: in the past large variations
in the size of fired clay products often led to critical problems
with bonding clay bricks. Now, BS 3921 provides one standard
for dimensioning -'> 0: coordinating size (225 x 112.5 x 75 mm,
including 10 mm in each direction for joints and tolerances), and the
relating work size (215 [2 headers plus 1 joint] x 102.5 x 65 mm).
Series preferred for the structure Series preferred for individual Series preferred for finishings
dimensions
a b c d e f
25
25
1¥ 25 25
5
2 4 TO
2.5
5 5
6% 7.5
8% 10 10
12% 12.5
1211, 15 15
16% 17.5
18% 20 20
22.5
25 25 25 25 25
27.5
31% 30 30
331;3 32.5%
35 35
37% 37Y., 37.5
41% 40 40
43% 42.5
45 45
50 50 50 50 50 50
52.5
56% 55 55
58% 57.5
60 60
62% 62% 62.5
65 65
66 68% 67.5
70 70
72.5
75 75 75 75 75 75
81Yi 80 80
83% 82.5
85 85
87% 87% 87.5
91% 90 90
93?::i 92.5
95 95
97.5
100 100 100 100 100 100
e Building preferred numbers
225 225 225 225 225
215 215
10
215
10 215
10
215
w
102.5w
102.5 ~f102.6w102.6 w
102.5w
102.6 w
102.6 w102.5w102.5w
I 112.5 I 112.5 I 112.5 I 112.5
1
112,5 I 112.5
1
112.6
1
112.6 I 112.5 I
0 Wall elevation illustrating brick sizes in the UK
g
2x5
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
10
h i
4x5 5x5
20
25
40
50
60
75
80
100 100
10 mm: joints
65 mm: actual
75 mm: format
102.6 mm: actual
112.5 mm: format
215 mm: actual
225 mm; format

z / /
v
/
v
/Y
v /
v
/ //X
fJ Coordinate system
e Coordinate line (intersection of two
planes)
0 Coordinate point (intersection of
three planes)
0 Non-modular zone
e Modular zone with laterally
connected, non-modular building
components
4Ii) Application example- sloping
roof
-
0 Coordinate plane
r~r
Boundary Ce!!e
Reference Reference
e Boundary reference, centre-line
reference
~~
---
0 Superimposed partial coordinate
systems
Storey height= 30 m
Flight length on plan 42 m
Selected:
16 risers 18.75/26.2 em
(assuming/em joints)
C) Pre-cast reinforced concrete stair
element
n9 ·M =
,;; (n3 - n6)· M
.» n1 · n =
(n1 - n9) • M
mCompensating measure on the
verticals
4f) Construction of a curving roof edge @) Modular polygon traverse--> 0
from regular polygon traverses (site
plan)
Dimensions in Building
Modular coordination in building
The modular system is a means of coordinating the dimensions
applicable to building work. The term 'coordination' is the key:
a modular building standard contains details of a design and
detailing system based on coordination as an aid in the design and
construction of buildings. It gives geometrical and dimensional
definitions for the spatial coordination of building components.
It also enables technical areas, which depend on each other
with regard to geometry and dimensions (e.g. building, electrical
engineering, transport) to be connected.
Geometrical considerations
A coordinate system is always object-specific. It is used to
coordinate building structures and components, and determine
their position and size. From these are derived nominal dimensions
of building components, plus joint and connection thicknesses
~ 0 - 0. A coordinate system consists of planes arranged at
right angles to each other, spaced according to the coordinate
measurements. Depending on the system, these can be of
different sizes and in all three dimensions.
Building components are normally arranged in one dimension
between two parallel coordinate planes so that they fill the
coordinate dimension, including the joint component and
also taking tolerances into account. A building component
is therefore defined in its extent, i.e. its size and position, in
one dimension. This is called boundary reference ~ e. In
other cases, it can be advantageous not to position a building
component between two planes but rather to have its centre-
line coincide with a coordinate plane. The component is thus
specified in one dimension, but only in terms of position. This
is called centre-line reference ~ e. A coordinate system can
be sub-divided into various sub-systems for different groups
of building elements (e.g. load-bearing structures, space-
demarcating components etc.) ~ ().
It has become apparent that not all individual components have
to be modular (e.g. each step in a staircase, windows, doors,
etc.), but only the building elements they are combined into (e.g.
staircases, fagade or partition elements etc.) ~ 0. For non-
modular building components which continue along or across
the whole building, a non-modular zone can be introduced,
which completely divides the coordinate system into two
sub-systems. The precondition is that the size of the building
component in the non-modular zone is already known at the
time when the coordinate system is set out, because the non-
modular zone can only have completely specified dimensions
~ 0. Further ways of arranging non-modular building
components are the so-called central position and edge position
in modular zones ~ e.
The units of the modular system are the basic module M =
100 mm and the multi-modules 3 M =300 mm, 6 M =600 mm
and 12 M = 1200 mm. There are also standardised non-modular
supplementary dimensions I = 25 mm, 50 mm and 75 mm for
fitting elements or overlapping connections ~ G). Combination
rules can be used to fit building components of various sizes into
a modular coordinate system.
Number groups (e.g. Pythagoras') or factorisation (e.g. continued
fractions) can be utilised to fit non-rectangular building
components into a modular coordinate ~ 6). The construction
of polygon traverses (e.g. triangle, square, pentagon and their
halves) can be used to design so-called 'round' building structures
~0-0.
35
DIMENSIONAL
BASICS AND
RELATION-
SHIPS
Man as measure
and purpose
The universal
standard
Body
measurements
and space
requirements
Geometrical
relationships
Dimensions in
building
BS EN ISO 8560
BS 6750
DIN 18000

BUILDING
BIOLOGY
Basics
Room climate
Electromagnetic
fields
Guidelines of the
Association of
German Building
Biologists VDB
e. V.
0 Building biology as the study of the holistic interaction between building and
resident
~
---... South I I
I I
I
I I
I l
I
--..1su/
f) Electromagnetic fields in and around a building
~io----~--------4-------------------------
15 20 30 35
' t Lu!uu!h!!!ll!hrl!!!l! I J I Rod responses
Groundwater running
8 Differences in electrical potential above a groundwater aquifer
electrical and magnetic low-frequency alternating electrical fields through
fields ('electro-smog,) connected power cables, electrical devices etc.
low-frequency alternating magnetic fields through
switched-on electrical devices etc.
high-frequency fields from mobile phone transmitters,
telephone etc.
static electricity from synthetic materials, wools etc.
static magnetic fields
building material heavy metals, toxins, radiation
measurements
air pollutants air pollution, toxins, gases, fine dust, allergens
noise/vibration
earth radiation and geopathogenic disturbance zones (e.g. underground
earth magnetic field watercourses and 'earth rays')
8 The extent of building biology measurements of the built environment (example)
36
BUILDING BIOLOGY
Basics
Building biology is a collective term for the study of the holistic
interaction between building and resident ---7 0 - f). Its
aim is to determine any deleterious effects for the human
organism through the consideration of physical, chemical and
microbiological conditions in interiors and, if appropriate, take
measures to relieve the causes (via 'healthy living'). The themes
of building biology partially overlap with other disciplines:
building ecology, whose main focus is the protection of nature
and environment in the construction and operation of buildings
and in the manufacture, processing and final disposal of building
materials, building physics and electrical engineering as well as
biology, chemistry and medicine.
The principles of building biology are especially suitable for
application in residential building but also in the construction of
schools, hospitals, kindergartens and offices.
The fact that the people today spend 90% of their lives inside
buildings and are surrounded to an increasing degree by
electromagnetic fields has increased public interest in building
biology in recent years. Meanwhile, 2-5% of the German
population now suffer complaints (e.g. headaches, insomnia,
tiredness and concentration problems) due to the presence of
building biological pollution of their homes and offices.
The investigation of a building therefore normally includes the
following areas:
- measurement of electric, magnetic and electromagnetic
fields from technical devices in the low- and high-frequency
ranges
- testing of building materials for toxins, heavy metals and
radiation
- testing of rooms' air quality for pollutants (toxins and gases,
fibres, fine dust and allergens)
- microbiological investigations of bacteria and mould formation,
and measurements of noise, vibration and light ---7 8.
Measurements related to radiaesthesia ('radiation sensitivity') can
also be carried out, in attempts to demonstrate geopathogenic
disturbance zones (e.g. underground watercourses and 'earth
rays') can be discovered using dowsing, pendulums and other
alternative scientific methods ----> e.
The term 'building biology' is not yet officially regulated in
Germany. This means that anyone can call themselves a building
biologist independent of their level of education and practical
experience. It is possible to discern two basic directions in the
field of building biology. Scientific-oriented building biology
attempts to use scientific methods to create healthy living and
working conditions. Measurements must be carried out using
scientifically recognised and reproducible methods, in order that
harmful effects in buildings can be reliably detected and remedied.
Alternative-oriented building biology assumes that the influences
affecting people have so far been recognised scientifically only
to a limited extent. The resulting measurements, and the theories
and threshold values they are based on are therefore disputed,
as there are sometimes no reliable methods for measuring such
threshold values.

Heat loss
(%)
Breathing
11%
Temperature
regulating measures
of the body
Blood circulation under
skin, heat transported
through veins
Evaporation
26% t:----:1-itt--!-- Sweat secretion,
cooling
Radiation
31%
Convection
32%
0 Heat output and temperature-regulating measures of the human body
28"c
:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:-:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:-:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:
f) Thermal comfort
p 30
.E 28
<t>"26
I"
~ 24
~22
E
~ 20
~ 18
'6
~ 16
:? 14
·o;
.2 12
0
§5 10
~
,----
/
I
1-. )
~Iter"""I~"
by 0
~oedler
Frank
2'1
" /
)'.9!
/
"l'qb
/
'Zo
I'-
I
/
/
/
I----
12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
Room air temp, -oLin oc
0 Thermal comfort zone (temperature
of surrounding surfaces and of air)
40
38
36
34
32
30
28
26
24
22
20
"l*lmf~rtaJiyw~rm

still
comfortable

'
com-
! fortabl

uncom-
fortably
cnlrl
12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
Room air temp, i in oc
Thermal comfort zone (ceiling and
room air temperature)
0 Thermal discomfort
/,
'/I
I
I I
-
uncomfortable I I
I 1/
v
/
comfortable uncom-
1fortfble
12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
Room air temp, l'J.L in oc
9 Thermal comfort zone (room
air movement and room air
temperature)
30
28
p 26
c
·-ll'24
i 22
1ii 20
1l 18
E
~ 16
0
.g 14
-
- 1--
- 1-
['-.,.
""'""'
com-
~able
still J>
~ortfble
f--uJcoJ--..._
f--fot1
1--
12
10
12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
Room air temp, dL in oc
f) Thermal comfort zone (floor and
room air temperature)
BUILDING BIOLOGY
Room Climate
Thermal comfort is experienced when the thermal circulation
regulated by the body is in balance, i.e. the body can regulate
warmth with as little effort as possible. This type of comfort is
experienced when the heat produced by the body corresponds to
the actual heat loss to the surroundings.
Temperature-regulating measures in the body
Warming: flow of blood through the skin, increase of blood
flow rate, vascular enlargement and muscle shivering. Cooling:
sweating.
Heat exchange between the body and the surroundings
Inner heat flow: heat flow from the inside of the body to the skin
depending on blood circulation. Outer heat flow: heat conduction
through the feet; convection (air speed, room air and temperature
difference between clothed and unclothed areas of the body);
radiation (temperature difference between the external area of the
body and the surroundings); evaporation, breathing (body surface,
vapour pressure difference between skin and surroundings) ---7 0.
Water content of the air Suitability for Sensation of breathing
(g/kg) breathing
0-5 very good light, fresh
5-8 good normal
8-10 satisfactory still bearable
10-20 increasingly bad heavy, muggy
20-25 already dangerous damp heat
over 25 unsuitable unbearable
41 water content of exhaled air 37"C (100 %)
over41 water condenses pulmonary alveoli
e Air humidity values for breathing air
Low radiation temperature. Recommendations for room
climatic conditions and temperature of air and surrounding
surfaces
In summer, 20-24°C is comfortable, in winter about 21°C (± 1°C).
The temperature of the surrounding surfaces should not differ
from the air temperature by more than 2-3°C. Alterations of the
air temperature can be compensated for to a certain extent by
alteration of the temperature of the surrounding surfaces (sinking
air temperature- rising surface temperature). If these temperatures
are too different, this causes excessive air movement. The critical
locations are above all the windows. Large heat transfers to the
floor through the feet should be avoided (floor temperature should
be greater than 1?"C). Hot feet and cold feet are experienced by
the sufferers and are not properties of the floor. The bare foot
feels heat/cold through the floor covering and its thickness, the
clothed foot through the floor covering and the temperature of
the floor. The surface temperature of the ceiling depends on the
room height. The temperatures perceived by people correspond
to approximately the average of the temperature of the air and that
of the surrounding surfaces.
Air and air movement. Air movement is experienced as draughts,
which in this case result in a local cooling of the body.
Air temperature and relative humidity. Relative humidity of
40-50% is thermally comfortable. If the humidity is less than 30%,
dust particles can fly.
Fresh air and air exchange: The ideal is controlled ventilation
rather than incidental or permanent ventilation. The C02 content
of the air must be replaced by oxygen. A C02 content of 0.10% by
volume should not be exceeded, which requires 2-3 air changes
per hour in living rooms and bedrooms. The fresh air required by a
person is about 32.0 m3/h. Air changes in living rooms: 0.4-0.8 x
room volume per person/h.
37
BUILDING
BIOLOGY
Basics
Room climate
Electromagnetic
fields

BUILDING
BIOLOGY
Basics
Room climate
Electromagnetic
fields
Federal
Emissions
Protection
Regulations
(BimSchV)
0 Induction of body currents as the main effect on the body of alternating
magnetic and electromagnetic fields
The 26th German Federal Emissions Protection Regulations
(BimSchV) lay down threshold values for electrical field
strength and magnetic flux density. These are, for the mains
supply frequency (50 Hz), 5 KV/m or 100 1-lT, and for railway power
supply (16 2/3 Hz) 10 KV/m or 300 1-lT.
Because of the state of scientific uncertainty about the
possible effects on health of low-frequency fields, the Federal
Office for Radiation Protection (BfS) recommends the following
precautionary measures:
Optimise cable runs and isolation of electrical installations to keep
the exposure of people as low as possible. Possible field sources
and devices should be completely switched off after use and not
left in 'standby' mode (this applies particularly to televisions and
hi-fi systems). Field sources in sleeping areas (e.g. mains radio-
alarm clocks) should be placed as far as possible from beds.
body current density (mA/ m =)
... damage clearly possible
additional heart contractions
ventricular fibrHiation
1000~--------------------------
danger to health possible
clear changes in excitability
of central nervous system
100~r-----------------~------
confirmed effects:
optical sensations
reports of accelerated bone healing
10--~------------------------
no confirmed effects
no verified reports of
individual discomfort
no confirmed biological effects
f) Biological effects of body current densities (SIS --> refs)
Device/appliance 3cm 30 em
telephone 6-2000 0.01-7
electric razor 15-1500 0.08-9
fluorescent lamp 40--400 0.5-2
microwave 73-200 4-8
television 2.5-50 0.04-2
computer 0.5-30 <0.01
refrigerator 0.5-1.7 0.01-0.25
100cm
0.01-3
0.01-3
0.02-0.25
0.25-0.6
0.01-0.04
0.01
0 Values of magnetic flux densities of household appliances, measured in ~T. at
various distances (SSK--> refs)
38
BUILDING BIOLOGY
Electromagnetic Fields
The use of technologies like power supply networks and
mobile telephones creates various electrical, magnetic and
electromagnetic fields in the human environment. These can
be described through their field strength, given in volt/metre
(V/m), their magnetic flux density, in tesla (T), their wavelength,
measured in metres (m) and their frequency, in hertz (Hz). This last
unit describes the number of cycles per second of the change
of polarity of the electrical current. There is a difference between
high- and low-frequency fields.
In contrast to ionising radiation (e.g. X-rays), the energy of these
fields is not sufficient to electrically charge- to ionise- atoms and
molecules. Nonetheless, these fields, above a certain strength,
have certain effects on health, and are sometimes described
as 'electrosmog'. The nature and extent of the harmfulness of
electrical, magnetic and electromagnetic stimulation for people
and environment implied by this term has been the central theme
of many building biology investigations.
Building biology effects
In everyday life, exposure is mostly from low-frequency electrical
and magnetic fields between 1 Hz and 100 kilohertz (kHz),
which are emitted from the power supply (50 Hz) and electrified
transport systems like railways (16 2/3 Hz). In the course of the
rapid development of mobile telephones, the population is also
increasingly subjected to high-frequency electromagnetic fields of
up to 300 gigahertz (gHz).
If an external electrical field acts on a person, then forces
act on charges in the body and result in 'body currents'. This
process is called influence. In the case of alternating fields, the
charge redistribution is constantly repeated at the frequency.
Above a certain threshold value, which varies from person to
person, electrical fields are perceived. In addition to direct
effect, there are also indirect effects of electrical fields, like
discharge currents and electrification. The causes of this are
charge differences between variously charged objects and the
affected person. These charge differences reach equilibrium
as soon as an electrically conducting contact is created by
touching ('shock').
In contrast to an alternating electrical field, an alternating
magnetic field directly causes currents inside the body as a result
of induction currents. The decisive parameter for the evaluation
of health effects is the density of these body currents, measured
in milliampere/square metre (mA/m2
).
Electrical currents also occur inside the body without external
fields. Nerves carry their signals by transporting electrical
impulses, the heart is electrically active (---) electrocardiogram)
and almost all metabolic processes include the movement
of charged particles (ions). These natural body currents have
densities in the range of 1-10 mA/m2• A threshold value of
2 mA/m2 has been established for the body current density
caused by fields.
Low-frequency electrical and magnetic fields are produced
by household appliances and electrical installations. In this
case, as with railway traction power and high-voltage cables,
the electrical and magnetic field strength reduces rapidly with
distance ---) 8. Electrical fields present outdoors are mostly
shielded by the external walls of buildings, but the shielding
of magnetic fields is not possible without great expense.
(Drawings and text from: www.bfs.de/elektro, abbreviated -
BfS---) refs).

The black circle looks from
a distance about 1/3
smaller than the white circle.
0 Black areas and objects appear
smaller than those of the same
size that are white; people wearing
black clothes seem slimmer, and
those wearing white fatter, than
they really are. This also applies
correspondingly to building elements
8 Spirals? The picture consists of
circles.
0 How many trees? Not one! There is
no connection between roots and
crowns.
same size same effect
f) If black and white areas are to
appear equally large, then the
latter have to be correspondingly
smaller. A light colour next to a
dark colour makes the latter seem
darker.
e The lower line is not shorter than
the upper- just an optical illusion.
0 Deceptive illustration infringing the
conventional rules of perspective.
i,··.·•.·•.
•••.•
•.•.
r
..•·"'"•················""'·••
..••.•""'•.•·.••.•••"'-••.t.rr_···"··------=·····=
.....{;··········•····························· --------1
r- ........,.,,,.,.,,,,,,2.5 a -
4D Dimensions in the vertical appear much more impressive than those in the
horizontal.
1111111111111111
111111111111111
••••••
••••••
••••••
C) Do you see grey circles between the
squares? Our brain 'thinks up' these
circles.
0 The vertical lines are actually parallel
in this 'Zollner figure' but seem to
converge due to the hatching.
!~ t
a b d
(D The colour and patterning of clothing
changes people's appearance.
Black makes people look thin --? a,
because black absorbs light.
People appear fatter if wearing
white --? b, because white scatters
light.
Vertical stripes increase height -7 c,
horizontal stripes increase width --? d.
DODD
DODD
DODD
DO
DD
Q[]
VISUAL PERCEPTION
The Eye
Q Deception of the senses: we think
we see a white square. In fact, the
outer lines are not there.
),_______;a:...___-<(
( b
)
Js#
B F C
e The lines a and b appear to be
of different lengths due to minor
attributes, and A-F and F-D also
appear to be different due to
inclusion in various figures. They
are all the same length.
Numbers given in
modules (units)
1211:1216 150
v
616
0 Walls which slant inward with
increasing height appear vertical,
and steps, cornices and friezes
when bowed correctly upwards
look horizontal (horizontal
curvature)
Quite apart from the architectural articulation (vertical, horizontal or mixed)--? CD.
the perception of scale can be altered just by the ratio of window openings to the
remaining area of wall, despite the building and storey heights being the same
(window bar layout can have a significant effect).
39
ViSUAL
PERCEPTION
The eye
The perception of
colour

VISUAL
PERCEPTION
The eye
The perception of
colour 0 A room with a low ceiling is
perceived 'at a glance' (still image)
0 The human field of view, with
steady head and moving eye, is
54" horizontally, 27" upwards,
1oo downwards.
if ~~TI
~
book ~~ o
LJ ~ '§ Lq ~
I je:!llery * j v~Vlll
box ~ o. 1
1------------- 3,30 -------'!
I - - - 4.00 ----1
9 Borderline distances
1
l
e Should, for example, text still be
legible at a distance E= 700 m,
the width d of the letters must
be "'700 m x tan 0"1' = 0.204 m
(--> Ol; the normal height h for many
fonts is5 x d=5 x 0.204= 1.02 m
~I
1---h-----;
Details
1 - - - - 2 h - - l
Overall appearance
r----------3h----------~
Overall view with surroundings
e The above distances are appropriate
for street widths, If the intention
40
is to permit an overview and the
observation of details.
f) A room with a high ceiling is
perceived through the eye
scanning upwards (scanned image)
T
0.014
1
0.80
~
e The field of vision ofthe fixed
normal eye covers 1o of the
perimeter, i.e. about the area of the
thumbnail of an outstretched hand
The eye makes precise distinctions
in only 0"1' of the perimeter= field
of detailed vision (readability). The
borderline distance E of the details
to be distinguished can therefore be
calculated according to the formula:
E = size of detail d
tan 0"1'
Minimum size d of the detail:
d =Ex tan 0"1'
0.65
;~
~:/
1--~=-''r-- 20.0-------1
0
0
1
0 The size of the still distinguishable
building elements can be
calculated easily using the normal
viewing distance and trigonometry
H9l
C1) Building elements intended
to be seen but located above
projections must be high enough
(a); single elements can present
larger surfaces to the eye through
slight deformations (b, c)
VISUAL PERCEPTION
The Eye
The activities of the eye can be divided into seeing and observing.
Seeing is primarily for our physical safety, but observation starts
where seeing stops, leading to the enjoyment of the 'pictures'
registered through seeing.
Images perceived by the eye differ according to whether the eye
remains still on an object or scans around it. The still image is
displayed in what approximates to a segment of a circle, whose
diameter is the same as the distance of the eye from the object
--> 0. Inside this 'field of view', the objects appear to the eye 'at a
glance'. The ideal still image appears balanced. Balance is the first
characteristic of architectural beauty. (Physiologists are working
on a theory of the sixth sense, the balance or static sense, which
is also supposed to explain the beauty we see in symmetrical,
harmonious objects and proportions --> pp. 30-33 or in elements
which are in balance.)
Outside this framework, the eye receives its impressions from
the scanned image. The scanning eye progresses along lines of
resistance, which it discovers going away from us in width or depth.
If these lines of resistance are found at even or repeating
distances, the eye perceives this as beat or rhythm, which results
in a stimulus similar to the ear receiving music ('Architecture,
frozen music', Neufert --> refs).
This effect also occurs in a closed room, via the still or scanned
image --> 0 - f). A room whose upper boundary (the ceiling) is
perceived by us in our still image provides a sense of security,
but on the other hand in long rooms also a depressed feeling.
If the ceiling is higher and the eye only sees it while scanning
upwards, then the room is perceived as free, exalted even, always
supposing that the wall spacing, and thus the overall proportions,
are in harmony.
It should not be forgotten here that the eye is subject to optical
illusions. It estimates the width more accurately than depths or
heights, which always seem larger. As is well known, a tower
seen from above seems much higher than from below --> p. 39 CE).
Vertical edges appear to overhang upwards and horizontal edges
appear curved in the middle; see also--> p. 39 0- (D.
When considering these matters, one should not fall into the
opposite way of thinking (exemplified by the Baroque) and, for
example, emphasise the perspective effect via inclined windows
and cornices (e.g. St Peter's, Rome) or even through cornices,
vaulting or similar painted in perspective.
The decisive factors for the measurement of dimensions are the
size of the field of view ...... 0, or the field of vision ...... e and,
for the exact distinction of details, the size of the field of detailed
vision (readability)--> 9-6. The distance of the latter determines
the size of the details to be distinguished. The Greeks worked to
precisely these principles and determined the size of the smallest
bead moulding under the cornice's corona, a different dimension
in each temple, so that, at an angular distance of 27°, it always
filled the field of detailed vision of 0°1' ...... o.
From this also arise the reading distances for books (which vary
according to the size of the letters), of audience seats from the
performance etc. (Maertens --> refs; see here the illustrations
developed from his writing --> 0 - 0).

red
green
0 Goethe's colour circle: basic colours-
red-blue-yellow; mixed colours: green-
orange-violet (= mixed colours of the
first rank, obtained by mixing the basic
colours)
violet
red
green
Heavy and light colours (not the same
as dark and light colours) -> f).
On addition to the darkness, the natural
red component is also decisive for the
impression of heaviness)
Rooms seem lower when the ceiling
is heavily coloured
Q Colourful end walls make long rooms
seem shorter
I
I
::11:::1m
'~
:o
C) Vertical stripes make walls seem
higher
active
passive
f) Dark and bright colours and their
effect on people
carmine
bluey
green
e The 12-segment colour circle
Colourful side walls seem to
extend the room upwards and
downwards
Colourful floors and ceilings make
rooms seem lower and wider
Horizontal stripes widen the wall
and the room seems lower
VISUAL PERCEPTION
Perception of Colour
Colours have a power over people. They can create feelings of
well-being, unease, activity or passivity. Paint schemes in factories,
offices or schools can improve or dull performance, in hospitals
can improve the health of the patients. The influence of colour on
people can take place indirectly through physiological effect, for
example making rooms appear wider or narrower, leading to an
oppressive or liberating feeling ~ 9 - (!!). Colour's influence is
also exercised directly through impulses produced by each colour
~ f) - 0. Orange has the strongest impulse power, followed by
yellow, red, green and purple. Blue, turquoise and violet (cold and
passive colours) have the lowest power.
Strongly impulsive colours are suitable only for small areas within
rooms, but non-impulsive colours can be used across extensive
stretches. Warm colours have an active effect, stimulating or even
exciting. Cold colours are passive, calming or spiritual. Green is
relaxing for the nerves.
The effect produced by colours also depends on their brightness
and location. Warm and light shades viewed overhead have a
mentally stimulating effect; at the side, warming and coming close;
below, relaxing and lifting. Warm and dark colours overhead exert
an enclosing and dignified influence; at the side, surrounding;
below, they offer secure grip and footing.
Cold and light colours viewed overhead are brightening and,
relaxing; at the side, they seem to lead away; below, they are
smooth and encourage walking. Cold and dark colours viewed
overhead are threatening; at the side, cold and sad; below,
burdensome and dragging down.
White is the colour of absolute purity, cleanliness and order. White
plays a major role in interior design, to separate and neutralise
other colour groups, then to structure them with light and vitality.
As the colour of order, white is used to denote areas in warehouses
and car parks, and for road markings.
white paper ..........
lime white ...........
lemon yellow
ivory
cream .......................
pure gold yellow .....
straw yellow .
.................... 84
..................... 80
............... 70
light ochre ............................
... =70
..... =70
.......... 60
............. 60
.. =60
pure chrome yellow
pure orange ...
light brown
pure beige
medium brown ...
salmon pink .
full scarlet red ....
vermilion red ........ .
carmine red .......
deep violet ..
light blue .......
deep sky blue ........
.............. 50
............ 25--30
. . ............. =25
...... =25
. =15
....... =40
....... 16
................... 20
10
.......... =5
........... 4D-50
................ 30
pure turquoise blue ............................ 15
grass green ...................................... =20
pastel green ..................................... = 50
silver grey .... = 35
lime plaster grey .............................. = 42
dry concrete grey ............................. = 32
plywood ........... .................. = 38
yellow brick ....... ................... = 32
red brick ..... ............. =18
dark brick ....... ........ = 10
Solnhofen slab ............... ........ =50
medium stone .. ...... 35
dry asphalt . ........... =20
wet asphalt . ......... =5
dark oak ......... ....... =18
light oak. . ....... =33
walnut ................ . ........ = 18
light spruce ........................... ...... =50
aluminium foil ..................... .......... 83
zinc plated steel ................................. 16
4D Brightness of surfaces. Values between theoretical white (1 00%) and absolute
black(O%)
Dark single elements in front of light
walls are powerfully emphasised
Ught elements in front of dark
walls seem even lighter
41
VISUAL
PERCEPTION
The eye
The perception
of colour

DESIGN
What is design?
Planes of
reference
Questionnaire
"(...)
The work starts with the production of a detailed building
programme by an experienced architect on the basis of the
questionnaire ..._. pp. 44 and 45.(...)
The sketch scheme is begun by drawing individual rooms of
the required areas as simple rectangles, to scale, grouped in
the desired relationships to each other(...) and to the compass
directions. During this stage, the building commission becomes
increasingly clear and a picture forms in the architect's eye.
Instead of starting on the drawings, however, on the basis of the
previous work establishing the building area, the final position
of the structure on the site should be determined. This is often
decided by exploring the compass direction, the wind direction,
possible access routes, the lie of the land, existing trees and the
neighbourhood. Unless the one correct location of the building
is obvious in advance, this will require many attempts to exhaust
the possibilities (...) and detailed discussions about the pros and
cons. These investigations will normally render decision-making
fairly quick, and the image of the future building gradually into
focus(...).
And now come the birth pains of the actual design stage, first
in the architect's imagination out of their deep immersion in the
organic and organisational issues raised by the commission and
the thoughts behind them. This creates a schematic idea in the
mind of the architect of the overall configuration of the building
and its spatial atmosphere, from which can be developed the
outline of its appearance in plan and elevation.
On the other hand, according to the architect's temperament, for
some a rapid sketch or an intricate scribble is the first product of
this birth process. The impetus of the first sketch can often be
squandered by unskilled helpers, however. The clarity of this image
in the mind normally increases with the experience and character
of the designer. Older, mature architects are often capable of
drawing the final design layout freehand to the precise scale and
in full detail. Some refined, mature works are produced in this way,
although they mostly lose the verve of earlier designs.
Once the preliminary design is completed (...) a rest period
of 3-14 days is advisable, as this allows detachment from it
and permits defects to become more obvious, but also offers
suggestions for their remedy, because such a waiting time removes
many preconceived notions, not least through discussions with
employees or the client.
Now the detailedprocessing ofthe design starts, the meetings with
the structural and services engineers, in short the determination
of the construction and the installations. After this (but mostly
in advance), the drawings are sent off to the building approval
authority, whose examination normally takes 3-6 months.
During this time, the costs are estimated and the works put out to
tender using ready-made forms, so that the tenders are available
when the building approval is granted, the contracts can be
awarded promptly and work can start. All the tasks described here
can keep the architect busy for 2-3 months (for a large detached
house) or 3-12 months (for a larger project such as a hospitalj,
depending on the circumstances.
It is not advisable to try to save money on design work, as more
time spent on careful preparation at this stage can quickly be
recouped during the building phase. In addition, the client saves
costs and interest."
Quoted from: Ernst Neufert, Architects' Data, 1st ed., p. 34
42
DESIGN
What is Design?
What is design?
How does design work and what differentiates 'building' from
'architecture'?
Reading the text by Ernst Neufert from the first edition of
'Architect's Data', opposite, it is still clear that he is talking
about the essential stages of the design process and describing
for the reader the human experience of the working method,
which we can understand via his encouraging but pretention-free
words.
Ernst Neufert's views of the influences driving the creative process
in architecture would certainly be different if he wrote them today.
In what way and to what purpose, we cannot know, considering
the developments in architectural theory in the last 20-30 years.
So the current generation is faced with the question, what should
be the fundamentals of design, in order to encourage an authentic
architectural form?
Design seems to be very easy, and at the same time very difficult,
with many influences. But it is always about space and its
construction through architectural elements: if a single space is
formed by its function, then a number of spaces require overall
organisation, a spatial theme. The architectural elements are
in accordance with the theme and mould the specific form and
the authenticity of style in its time. History shows that a building
commission is only fixed to a certain extent in its spatial style. A
building type often changes for reasons which do not always have
to do with function. A building can offer many uses, because it
more than just a 'glove' for the function - which is demonstrated
by the long lives of old buildings.
The essential drivers of change in typological characteristics are
more often pictorial ideas about the cultural significance of a
building, which result in alterations to the spatial and architectural
elements. Buildings with a great influence on architectural history
mostly have a very precisely emphasised spatial theme, which
determines the overall layout. Excellent and masterful can have
two different meanings in this case: Reduction in the complexity
of a commission to a single simple concept or a combination
of themes with great variety.
Design is never academic; works are the result of intuitive
processes, in which the entire sensual perception of their creator
plays a role. Nonetheless, they make use of an architectural
grammar, which is organised thematically rather than stylistically.
The architectural considerations determining a building
form a complex system of themes, which arise as knowingly
staged or work coincidentally to different extents, but at any
rate are inseparably intertwined. The basic elements of an
architectural language are to be displayed and implemented
according to an architectural grammar. The reference planes are
typology, topography and the architectural elements. Each
building relates to a location and a topographical situation.
These create and offer a topos. It is selected for a function and a
spatial typology, and architectural elements provide the stylistic
form.

0 Volumes in the structure
Bodily composed building elements,
which take plastic shape inside a
structure
0 Oncolumns
The volume of the structure frees
itself from underground to create
an especially impressive space
In-between.
f) Point on a surface
Point-type openings in a wall
4Ii) Wall panel and columns
Punctiform -striped- flat wall
element
D
4) Flatroof
Horizontal upper edge emphasises the
body of the building
f) Open and enclosed bodies
e
Free spaces and volumes are
inseparably connected to each
other. The spatial theme extends
from courtyard concepts to solitary
buildings
ll:a--..:.-1-----',1
Hollow
The structure creates a place
related to itself; the weight of
the volume sinks in.
Line on a surface
Horizontal or vertical ribbon
windows
Cut-outs
Cut-outs and deepened cavities
In the volume
(9 Roof as body
Pitched roof surfaces form a
geometrical body
8 Room plan/cavities in volumes
Single or a composed sequence of
interior rooms organise themselves
in their specific form within the
volume
0 Plateau
The plinth zone separates the
rising fagade from the street; the
topographical elevation liberates the
structure and creates a special place.
0 Structuring on a surface
Glass division and construction form
a network of lines, an independent
design element
4!} Projections
Plastic elements projecting from
the volume
Gi} Allover
Equal treatment of roof and wall
DESIGN
Planes of Reference
Typology
The typological structure of
a building grows out of the
function and also from the
construction and town planning
situation. It is three-dimensional
and therefore to be understood
as a spatial theme.
Topography
The theme of topography refers
to the unique location of the
building and develops from this
a town planning or landscape-
related statement. This statement
has a major influence on the
quality of the public space.
Architectural elements
The structural elements com-
posing a building are always to
be designed in keeping with the
overall appearance and follow
design principles just as much
as technical requirements and
utility criteria.
Fac,;ades/openings -+ 8 - Cl)
All opening elements form a
graphical structure on the sur-
face of the wall. A mixture and
combination of various struc-
tural principles can lead to an
over-loaded fac;:ade.
Plastic elements --1 ~ - 0
Functional components like
balconies and loggias, but also
columns, form three-dimen-
sional structures which model
the wall surface. The formation
of structuring for the entire wall
surface should not interfere with
these.
Roof --1 ~ - CD The closure of
the roof makes the building a
complete sculpture. Town plan-
ning context and architectural
concepts are decisive for the
selection of a type of roof.
43
DESIGN
What is design?
Planes of
reference
Questionnaire

DESIGN
What is design?
Planes of
reference
Questionnaire
DESIGN
Questionnaire
The design process is often rushed; projects are tendered and started with insufficient documents. So it has to be understood that the
'final' drawings and costs are available only when the building is almost complete. Explanations to clients will not help this situation; the
only answer is faster and better organised work by the architect, with adequate preparation in the office and on the site.
Every project demands similar information; detailed questionnaires and forms, which should already be to hand when the project is
commissioned, can help speed up progress. Variations will of course always be necessary but a long list of decisions is so generally
applicable that questionnaires can assist every building professional, even if only as an encouragement.
The following questionnaire forms just a part of the work-saving forms which an efficient architect's office should have available, along
with forms for cost estimates etc.
Briefing questionnaire
Commission no.:
Client:
Project:
Information collected by:
Copies to:
I. Information about the client
1. Company's outlook? Financial situation? Level of
employment? Total capital? Where was this information
obtained? Confidential!
2. How does the business seem to be conducted?
3. Who is our main contact? Who is their deputy? Who has
the final authority?
4. Has the client any special wishes regarding design?
5. What attitude do they have to art? Particularly with regard
to our way of working?
6. Which personal views/characteristics of the client should
be taken into account?
7. Who is likely to cause us difficulties? Why? With what
potential effects?
8. Is the client interested in later publication of their building?
9. Do the drawings have to be understandable by non-
experts?
1D. Who was the client's previous architect?
11. For what reason did the former architect not receive this
commission?
12. Is the client planning further buildings? Which? How large?
When? Have designs already been produced for these?
Is there a chance that we could obtain the commission?
What steps have been taken in this direction? With what
success?
II. Agreements on fees
1. On what agreement is the calculation of the fees based?
2. What approximate degree of finishing is to be assumed?
3. Should the project cost be estimated, is this the basis for
the fee calculation?
4. What is the estimated project cost?
5. Will we also be responsible for the finishing works?
6. Has a contract been signed or a written confirmation of
agreement?
Ill. People and firms involved in the project
44
1. With whom do we conduct preliminary discussions?
2. Who is responsible for what special areas of activity?
3. Who is responsible for checking the invoices?
4. What ordering and checking procedure will be used?
5. Will we have authority to award contracts directly in
the name of the client? Up to what value? Has the
authorisation been issued to us in writing?
6. Which contractors are recommended by the client? (Trade,
address, telephone, etc.)
7. Is a site manager required? Desired? Experienced or
junior? When? Permanent or temporary? For how long?
8. Is the client in agreement with our decisions about the
legal situation of the site manager?
9. Will the client make space available for the site office?
Equipment (telephone, computer, etc.)?
IV. General
1. If there is no enclosure, must a fence or hoarding be
installed? Can this be let for advertising? Should a
signboard be erected? What lettering should be on it?
2. Precise address of the project? Its later name?
3. Address of nearest railway station?
4. Address of nearest post office?
5. Is there a telephone connection at the site?
6. Working time on the site?
V. Construction
1. Who has drawn up the building schedule? Is it sufficiently
detailed? Will it have to be added to by us or others? Does
it have to be approved by the client before the start of
design work?
2. To which existing or future buildings does the building
have to relate? --+VIII, 9.
3. Which local or statutory regulations are applicable? Local
planning responsibility?
4. What has been written about this building in the specialist
press? What is in our collection of cuttings?
5. Where has a similar commission been carried out, with
excellent results?
6. Via whom is it possible to view it? Already notified?
VI. Basic design factors
1. What do the surroundings look like? Landscape? Existing
trees? Climate? Compass direction? Wind direction?
2. What is the form of the existing buildings? Of what building
materials are they? -7 VIII, 9.
3. Are photographs available of the surroundings of the new
project (stating where taken from)? Ordered?
4. What must the design also take into consideration?
5. Existing storey and building heights? Street frontages?
Building lines? Later streets? Trees (type, size)?
6. What later construction has to be taken into account now?
7. Is a general development plan desirable?
8. Are there local rules for the external appearance of new
buildings on this site?
9. Who will check the building application with regard to
aesthetic matters? What is their attitude? Is it advisable to
present a preliminary design for discussion?
1D. What office is responsible for complaints at a higher level?
What is the procedure? The duration of a complaint? What
is the attitude of this office?

Questionnaire (continued)
VII. Technical basics
1. What type of subsoil is found in the area?
2. Have site investigations been undertaken at the site? At
what locations? With what results?
3. What ground pressure can be assumed?
4. Normal groundwater level? High groundwater level?
Exceptionally high groundwater level?
5. Has the plot been built on previously? With what? How
many storeys? How deep was the cellar?
6. What type of foundations seem sensible?
7. What method of construction should be used for the building?
Cellar floor: Construction? Loading? From what?
Coverings? Protective coating? Measures to resist
groundwater?
Slab over cellar: Construction? Loading? From what?
Protective coating?
Ground floor slab: Material? Loading? From what?
Coverings?
Roof slab: Construction? Loading? From what?
Coverings? Protective coating?
What roof covering? Gutters? Downpipes inside oroutside?
8. What insulation types should be provided? Against noise?
Horizontal? Vertical? Against vibration? Against heat?
Horizontal? Vertical?
9. How should the columns be detailed? External walls?
Internal walls?
10. What type of stairs? Loading?
11. What windows? Steel? Timber? Aluminium? Type of
glass? Sound insulation or sun protection glass? Opening
inward or outward? Single-glazed, combined, double-
glazed windows? Sound insulation windows?
12. What doors? Steel linings? Plywood? Steel? With rubber
seals? Fire-resisting or fireproof? With door closers?
13. What type of heating? Fuel? Storage for what duration?
Oil heating? Electric heating?
14. What domestic water heating? What quantities are
required? When? At which locations? What is the chemical
cornposition ofthe drinking water? Provide water softener?
15. What type of ventilation? Air changes? In which rooms?
Smoke extraction?
16. What cooling? Ice supply?
17. What water supply? Diameter of the supply pipe?
Diameter of the hoses of the local fire brigade? Water
supply pressure? Does this vary widely? Details?
Water price per m3? Outside taps?
18. What drainage? Connection to sewers? Where? What
diameter does the main sewer have? Depth? Where does
drain water go to? Is percolation possible? Sensible?Allowed?
Own treatment plant? Will mechanical cleaning suffice or is
biological cleaning required? Rainwater collection?
19. What diameter gas supply? Efficiency? Price per m3
?
Discount for large consumers? Are there special
regulations about laying pipes? Venting?
20. What lighting? Electricity supply? Voltage? Possible
connections? Consumer limit? Price per kW for lighting?
Power? Off-peak price from, to? Discount for large
consumers? Transformer? High-voltage station? Own
power generation? Diesel, steam turbine, wind generator?
21. What telephone system?
22. What intercom? Entry phone? Light? Command system?
23. What type of lift? Special loadings? Floor or parapet
access? Speed? Machine roorn at top or bottom?
24. What other transport systems? Extent? Route?
Performance? Pneumatic tube?
DESIGN
Questionnaire
25. Waste chutes and waste disposal units? Where? How
large? For what waste? Waste incineration? Paper press?
26. Other.
VIII. Design documents
1. Has the land registry been viewed? Copy obtained? What
significance for the design?
2. Is there a plan of the town? Ordered? With details of
transport systems?
3. Is there a layout plan? Ordered? Officially approved?
4. Is there a level plan? Ordered?
5. Has the water supply plan been clarified?
6. Has the drainage plan been clarified?
7. Has the gas supply connection been determined on plan?
8. Has the electrical supply connection been determined on
plan? Confirmed by the utility supplier? Cable or masts?
9. Has the front of the neighbouring houses been surveyed?
Has the type of building been determined (general
development plan).
10. Has a benchmark been determined without problems and
fixed?
11. Is a building site set-up plan required?
12. Where does the building application have to be handed
in? How many copies? In what form? Paper size? Prints?
Blue? Red? On linen? How do the drawings have to be
coloured (plan regulations)?
13. What are the requirements for handing in structural
calculations? Who is accredited as a checking engineer?
Who could be considered? (Who is named by the building
authority?)
IX Tender documents
1. What is the distance of the site from a goods station?
2. Is there a siding to the building site? Normal gauge,
narrow gauge? What are the unloading possibilities?
3. How are the access routes? Site roads required?
4. What storage space is available for building materials?
Flat open spaces? Flat-roofed spaces? What height
relationship to the building? Can a number of contractors
work next to each other without problems?
5. Will any deliveries or works be undertaken by the client?
What? Building cleaning? Security? Gardening?
6. Is there a prospect of advance payment, cash payment?
Or what payment terms and financial distribution are to be
observed?
7. What building materials are usual locally? Particularly
cheap? Particularly expensive?
X Production deadlines for
1. Sketches for meetings with the employees?
2. Sketches for meetings with the client?
3. Preliminary design (scale) with estimate?
4. Design (scale)?
5. Cost estimate?
6. Handing in the building approval drawings with structural
calculations and any other verifications?
7. Forecast duration of the building approval procedure?
Appeal route? Possibilities of acceleration?
8. Construction drawings?
9. Start of tender period?
10. Tender deadline?
11. Contract award procedure? Construction schedule?
12. Start of construction?
13. Completion of structure?
14. Final completion (ready for moving in)?
15. Final invoice?
45
DESIGN
What is design?
Planes of
reference
Questionnaire

SUSTAINABLE
BUILDING
General, design,
construction
Operation
Demolition
investigation of the need for the is a new building necessary or could an existing
planned building building be suitable?
optimisation of the space layout of the space allocation programme for actual
allocation programme needs
optimisation of route relationships
checking and optimisation of the plot suitable for the building project?
plot situation supply situation, vehicle flows etc.
optimisation of the building design optimum usability and possible conversion (building
depths, structural system, access cores etc.)
design: typology, relationship of plan to fa9ade,
contemporary and original appearance etc.
thermal comfort for the users
long, useful service life durability, conversion possibilities, simple to renew
use of durable building materials longer life cycle, reduction of maintenance and
renewal cost
suitability and ageing characleristics of the
materials used
optimisation of building element to increase the usefulness, greater scope of use,
geometries better continued use and reuse
avoidance of composite materials better suitability for recycling and reuse, continued
and parts, which can only be use or reuse of used materials and parts
separated with difficulty
low content of damaging simpler continued use or reuse, simple disposal of
substances in building waste, protection of soil and groundwater
components and materials
controlled demolition when no separation of materials and mostly continued use or
further use is possible reuse of building materials and parts
0 Cascade of design principles (Federal Office for Building and Planning -; refs)
IFrom nature I
Energy'---,------,-----,--------,
To nature I
Heat, heat
reclamation
Waste
f) Energy and raw material circulation in buildings' phases of existence
ecological use on area
dimension use, scattering and mixing of mineral and energy raw materials
emissions in the form of undesirable release of solid, liquid or gaseous
substances, which could damage the biosphere or environment
waste products, which release pollutants and remove valuable resources
from the natural cycles
noise, dust and vibration
economic lifecycle costs of buildings
dimension rebuilding and maintenance costs in relation to initial investment
social creation and maintenance of jobs
dimension preservation of living space in accordance with needs, by age and size of
household
creation of a suitable residential environment
creation of cheap residential space, increasing the owner-occupier
percentage
networking of work, living and leisure in residential areas, 'healthy living'
inside and outside the home
e Evaluation of aspects of sustainability
0.2
0 Comparison of the relationship of area of building envelope to usable building
area per m2
(Schema SolarbOro, Dr. Peter Goretzki)
46
SUSTAINABLE BUILDING
General, Design, Construction
Sustainability
Since the agreement ofAgenda21 at the Rio de Janeiro Conference
for Environment and Development in 1992, sustainability has been
a central theme of national and international environmental policy.
Sustainable development has for years been considered the
best model for mankind to meet the challenges of the future.
'Sustainable development describes development in accord
with the needs of the current generation without endangering
opportunities for future generations to satisfy their own needs
and choose their own lifestyle .. .' (Brundtland Report, 1987). The
Federal Ministry of the Environment introduced management rules
for sustainable development in 1998 - Regeneration: renewable
natural resources may only be exploited in the long term within
their capability of regeneration; Substitution: non-renewable
resources may only be used to the extent that their use cannot
be replaced by other materials or energy sources; Adaptability:
the release of substances or energy may not be greater than the
adaptability of ecological systems.
Sustainable building
Building and the built environment can play a key role in our
future development. The construction and operation of buildings
is a basic strain on the environment which should be reduced as
far as possible. The construction and use of buildings consume
a considerable share of natural resources, energy and water but
construction according to sustainable principles works within an
economic, ecological and social context.
Sustainable building consists of a multitude of concepts and
measures, which have to be appropriate to the particular project.
The social and cultural effects of the project (function, design
and aesthetics, listed status etc.) are to be considered with equal
weighting.
Buildings are normally operated over a long time period, i.e.
savings or extra costs can be effective in the long term. The
intention is a minimisation of the use of resources and energy and
the least possible impairment of the natural ecological system
for all phases of the life cycle of a building (design, construction,
use, refurbishment, demolition). Instruments have been developed
with which the various materials, construction methods etc.
can be compared with each other and balanced according to
differentiated criteria.
Sustainable architecture
The quality of architecture, design and the planning of buildings
play a decisive role in the sustainability of a building. The cost of
constructing a building is always to be related to the (forecast)
duration of its use, and a longer service life often justifies more
expensive design and construction.
The average service life of a building is 50-100 years (2-3
generations), although many buildings which are still in use today
are much older. The cycles of renewal and modernisation are
therefore much longer term than for the building services. As a
result, a typologically flexibly usable structure is worth much more
for sustainability than ever could be the case with the building
services installation. The attention of the architect should therefore
concentrate on the design of the building as a composition of
structure and design.

Heating Domestic hot water
-optimum design of control and -checking if hot water is necessary
regulation -for the remaining hot water supply:
-consideration of incoming solar observation of the requirements for the
radiation through fayade-related zoning maintenance of hygiene regulations
of the heating system in the control concerning drinking water, rational
process. energy and water consumption,
-different regulation circuits for parts of optimisation of the system and
the building with different requirements operating costs
-extended regulation concepts for -investigate the possibilities of solar-
flexible room layouts assisted domestic water heating
-setting of the temperature per room and
prescription of time programme
0 Potential savings of heating energy
Lighting Heating, cooling Air conditioning Electrical devices
fullest exploitation energy-saving, reduction of energy-saving
of daylight independently air flows to the devices (normal
efficient lamps regulating absolute minimum operation and
electronic ballast for circulation pumps low pressure loss stand-by)
fluorescent lights constructional ductwork devices with off-
lighting controls measures for fans and motors of switch at the mains
economical lighting summer thennal high efficiency (if operationally
outlay for external protection possible)
areas cooling load
calculation for
necessary air-
conditioning
systems
f) Potential savings of electrical energy
ecological criteria environmental impact through treatment of building waste
transport impact
emission of health~impairing substances
emissions with global effects (ozone hole, acid rain,
greenhouse effect)
noise, dust emissions
use of land
use of new material
energy required for waste disposal
recognition and separation of polluted batches
waste materials and their disposal
saving of environmental transport required for new production
impact through emissions of hazardous substances
substitution of new use of land area
production processes use of regenerative and non-regenerative resources
minimisation of energy consumption for building material
production
waste materials from building materials production and
their disposal
effects of thermal calorific value of the building waste
exploitation
economic criteria regulations, their application and tightening
acceptance of products from the recycling of building waste
materials
necessary capacities
costs
technical criteria high-quality recycling
technical feasibility
e Evaluation of the waste disposal process
1. avoidance
reuse (e.g. steel joists, bricks etc.)
further use (e.g. pre-cast elements with new function)
2. exploitation
recycling e.g. crushing of concrete for aggregate
downcycling, e.g. calcium silicate blocks as fill material
thermal exploitation, e.g. timber
3. disposal
'
composting
landfill
0 Disposal routes (basics of recycling)
SUSTAINABLE BUILDING
Operation, Demolition
Many factors are decisive for the sustainability of architecture:
relationship of the design to the location and the building
purpose
contemporary and original appearance of the design
easily usable and effective structures
durability of construction and materials
suitability and ageing characteristics of the materials used
flexibility for changes of use
possibility of conversion if required
The intensive use of raw materials and energy in the erection of
buildings is normally connected with a long period of usefulness.
This phase ofthe life cycle of a building is therefore very significant.
A significant part of the use of energy and raw materials takes
place during the use of the building through the operation of
technical devices and installations. New buildings should always
be designed in accordance with the current state of technology
and existing buildings should be regularly checked to investigate
whether any updating (thermal insulation, building services etc.) is
possible or necessary in order to ensure energy-saving operation.
In addition to the durability and long life of the services installation,
mechanisms and methods of saving resources should be the
highest priority. Ideally, cycles should be set up to enable the
reuse of water and energy.
The aims are:
health and thermal comfort in the use phase
minimisation of the energy, operating and maintenance
costs, reduction of cleaning costs (partially self-cleaning:
e.g. fagades, roofs etc.)
minimisation of the servicing and maintenance cost
Rules and regulations:
Energy Saving Regulations (EnEV)
SIA 380/4 Electrical Energy in Building: Swiss Engineers and
Architects Association, Recommendations
'Verification of sufficient summer thermal protection' standards
'Building automation' standards
Heating systems regulations (HeizAniV)
Electric energy
CHP============~
Heat energy
Sand filter Biogas
(ventilated) system
Watering
Kitchen waste
Cooking gas
Fertilizer
(compost)
f) The application of cycles through the example of a residential building in
Freiburg-Vauban
Arch.: Common & Gies
47
SUSTAINABLE
BUILDING
General, design,
construction
Operation
Demolition
BS EN ISO
133YO
BS ISO 15686-5
DIN EN 15232
ASTM E917-05
DIN 276
DIN 4108-2
DIN EN ISO
13791
DIN EN ISO
13792
DIN EN 15232
DIN 18386

FACILITY
MANAGEMENT
Background
Methods
BS ISO 15686-5
PD 6079-4
DIN 276
DIN 277
DIN 18205
see also -7 Office
buildings
pp.231 fl.
~Architect~
Project manager Interior architect
I
Town planner Landscape architect
I
surveyor Acoustic designer
I
Facade designer Light designer
~ /
Structural ~ervices engineer
professional client trade and industry
50-100 trades
- CREM (corporate real estate management)
-technical project manager
-facility management
Client Architect Tradesmen
10 trades
renaissance
Client Master builder Site hut
3 trades
middle ages
User Man builds Self-build
early times
0 Product and producers- development since the beginning of culture
/
Development ///
(-:~,,..~/~~//
Operation ManJlgement Design
.,-:1~///~,;,,~
ci' <+~· and build
f) The life-cycle assessment of a building
Costs
100%
50%
.......__
--------------------
48
CD Concept phase
® Design phase
@ Building phase
@ Operation phase
@
- Cumulative costs
- - ... Influence on costs
Possibilities tor project development to influence building costs
time
FACILITY MANAGEMENT
Background
Client - responsibility and duties
The client, or commissioner, as the actual decision-maker about
its characteristics, bears an essential part of the responsibility for
the quality and sustainability of a planned building.
The architect has a central role as the consulting expert, who
directs and coordinates all the specialists involved in the design
and construction process in a single-minded intention to meet the
formulated project aims. In relation to the client, the architect has
a role which combines typical expert duties, like exercising their
power of persuasion regarding innovative design and construction
solutions, with the disciplines of a modern service provider, for
example transparency and ensuring the reliability of completion
dates and cost estimate.
Considering the oversupply of property since the start of the 21st
century and the resulting aggressive competition for building
purchasers and tenants, it seems advisable to look in detail into
the economic requirements of the typical client.
Clients may be owner-occupiers or investors:
The owner-occupier or owner-operator is mainly concerned
with a reasonable relationship between function and an
appropriate image for their company, on the one hand, and
cost, on the other.
The investor is, in contrast, interested in letting or selling with
the greatest possible success under current market conditions.
These demand different development, design and construction
processes, which, especially in the US and UK, have achieved a
high degree of professionalism and success that has motivated
investment.
Complex requirements for buildings
The expression 'added value' comes from thefield ofproduction and
has increasingly been adopted in the property management field.
It includes a complex combination of quantitative and qualitative
parameters:
actually achievable rents, disregarding tax or political effects
complete and comprehensible costs over the entire life cycle of
the building
practical conversion possibilities laid out in use scenarios
planned long term, with all relevant consequences, particularly
disturbance-free operation.
Life-cycle assessment
The modern approach in architectural design is typified by the
holistic consideration of all phases of the lifetime of a building,
called the life-cycle or whole life assessment ~ f). This means
that all relevant functional, aesthetic, cost, scheduling and
organisational features are systematically categorised for each
phase. Of particular importance is the transfer of experience
gained during the operation phase to the start of the life cycle
of later projects. The result is to transform the planned building
into an asset supported by comprehensive responsibility, which
can normally continue to be used and maintained after its original
purpose has expired.
Project development and programme production
The initial work phase, in which the room and function programmes
are developed for an owner-operator, is of course of great
significance in the architectural life cycle. When the client is an
investor, typical tenant scenarios will be developed ~ 0. Careful
programming of rooms and functions can result in a considerable
increase in the value of a building project:
functional improvement of typical working and communication
processes (the primary or core processes) in the building
reduction of the space consumed to fulfil functions through
appropriate compression of use

-Costs
Investment, operating
maintenance
conversion
- Impairment
Downtimes
Emissions, stress
- Resources/ consumption
Environment
-Value
Yield, sale
Identity
-Comfort
Ambience, service
Quality
-Use
Function, ergonomics
Flexibility
Q Factors which can be influenced and controlled by facility management
Technical Commercial Infrastructure Space
-Energy -Budget -Catering -Occupation
-HQV -Controlling -Cleaning -Tenants
-IT - Benchmarking -Gate/security - Renovation
-Security - Purchasing - External works -Furnishing
-Materials snow & ice -Project
transport -Telephone management
-Automation exchange
-Car parking
-Caretaker
-Further
services
Operating Principles
Flow Principle- Pooling of Resources- Optimization of Processes
f) The four columns of facility management
Interaction
- Moderation/
mediation
- Specification
Visualisation
- Information design
- Presentation techniques
Scheduling
-Barcharts
-Flow chart
Organisation
-Organisation diagrams
- Space organisation
0 Methods of facility management
FACILITY MANAGEMENT
Methods
A new professional discipline
A facility manager is the description for the professional manager
of an entire building operation. They undertake all the tasks of
the client which can be delegated to specialists. This profession
arrived from the USA at the end of the 20th century and has
developed very positively in recent years, against the trend for most
property-related professions. Its origins were in the planning of the
occupation of space (property management). Facility management
(FM) developed from related professions like those of architects,
building services engineers or infrastructure service providers.
The consistent implementation of FM can save up to 30% in
comparison with traditional forms of building management for the
same user requirements. Because the operating costs amount to
about 80% of the total costs for the entire life-cycle, FM is qutckly
becoming established as the key profession for the sustainable
implementation of architecture ---7 0. A range of national and
international facility management associations, such as GEFMA,
IFMA and BIFM, produce guidelines for facility managers.
The main principle of FM is the combination and optimisation of
the many services concerned with a building and its users, which
normally already exist but are scattered in their organisation. The
architect provides the essential roots for successful FM, is thus
the most important partner of a facility manager and also has the
best qualifications to take over the tasks of this discipline.
Structural and service aspects
FM is based on a four-column model ---7 f). These columns list the
technical fields involved, ordered according to their qualification
background. These are very heterogeneous, which means that the
facility manager has to be a generalist, who typically comes from
one specialisation and controls the others. Utilising the wide range
of thinking skills included in FM, the facility manager has to be
able to provide the users and owners of property with an all-round
consulting interface, covering complex specialist issues in an
understandable fashion and managing decisions under pressure.
A further special feature of the job description is, similar to the
architect, the varied extent of functions, from strategic and
intellectual to operative and practical, and thus the requirement to
be qualified to work with very diverse partners. This places above-
average moderating, management and personal capabilities at the
top of the requirement list. Ethical and philosophical qualities like
authenticity and integrity are also important qualifications for the
sustainable control of complex buildings.
Management methods
The working methods relevant in FM do not normally come from
the building industry, but from technical sectors such as the car
industry and aviation. Only the building databases that form the
foundation of all planning and operational processes and the as-
built building drawings, which can be activated to illustrate various
aspects (CAFM = computer-assisted facility management) are
closely derived from modern architectural, drawing, tendering and
room schedule tools ---7 f).
For the purposes of facility management planning and decision-
making, various management methods from the industries named
above are used:
examination of alternatives and scenarios with total-cost
assessment
complex quality and risk management
psychology-based moderation/mediation
'information design', the graphically descriptive illustration of
abstract, multi-faceted and complex information.
49
FACILITY
MANAGEMENT
Background
Methods
BS 8536
BS EN 15221
DIN 18960
DIN 32736
GEFMA 100
GEFMA 130

REFURBISH-
MENT
Conservation
and alteration
Care of historic
monuments
Listed building
protection
Recording of old
buildings
Conversion
BS 7913
BS 8221
DIN 31051
Average life expectancy of building elements
Up to 10 years
lime-washed fa<;ade
window paint, external
wallpaper
Up to 80 years
textile flooring
surface treatment of floors
pumps
Up to 20 years
felt roof covering
mineral paints
awnings
plastic external elements
plastic-based emulsion paint
double glazing
silicon seals and joints
linoleum and PVC floor coverings
taps and valves
external render
fair-faced concrete
roof construction of:
-nailed trusses
- laminated timber trusses
roof tiles
stairs, indoor, softwood
doors
timber, aluminium windows
external windowsills:
-concrete
-natural stone
unbonded screed
bonded screed
stone/ceramic floor coverings
sanitary appliances, porcelain
drainpipes
measurement and control equipment
electrical devices Over 80 years
heating boilers
air-conditioning plant
Up to 40 years
external render
pointing to facing brickwork
plastic windows
window ironmongery
fibre cement roof covering
zinc gutters
external wall insulation system
floating screed
heating pipes and radiators
water installations
electrical installations
lifts
massive construction of:
-brick
-calcium silicate blocks
-concrete
steel construction
fa9ade cladding of:
-glass
-stone
timber with constructional weather
protection
external stainless steel elements
roof construction of:
-solid timber
-steel
slate roofing
internal windowsills:
-stone
-hardwood
external windowsills, hard brick
0 The life expectancy of building elements can be affected by the quality of
construction and maintenance. Maintenance costs can be reduced if elements
liable to wear out are easily accessible.
Measure definition costs treatment under approval
tax deductibility HOAI requirement
grant eligibility
Maintenance inspection operating costs increase of fee no
service for phase 8 up
maintenance to 50%
improvement
Modernisation improvement of investment, increase of possibly
serviceability measures fee by up to
perhaps grant- 20--30%
aided
Rebuilding change of use investment increase of yes
fee by up to
20-30%
Extension new building investment increase of yes
work connected fee by up to
to existing 20--30%
f) Classification of works to existing buildings according to HOAI, and effects
Conservation
-simple preservation and maintenance of the existing material of a historic monument
or listed building with its historic defects and traces.
Restoration
- purposeful recreation and making visible of aesthetic and historic assets. The priority
is the production of a historic condition; deleterious and concealing additions may
be removed. Layers from other periods can be covered or destroyed in favour of a
uniform appearance.
Reconstruction
-recreation of a destroyed building. if no existing structure is present, then this is not
the care of an old building but new building.
Anastylose ~rebuilding of a building from available original elements
Translocation =relocation of an existing building.
8 Classification of works to existing buildings, in light of listed building issues
50
REFURBISHMENT
Conservation and Alteration
Once buildings have been built, they continue to require care
and maintenance. Building and finishing elements have differing
lifetime expectations according to their function, use and
maintenance. The scale of operations from maintenance, repair,
replacement or conversion is blurred """' 0.
Projects involving work on existing buildings should be split into
measures under the categories listed below. In addition to advice
about the need for approvals, this enables the client to clearly
divide the required investment into items which can be grant-aided
and those which can be forwarded to tenants. It also enables the
architect to correctly assign fee supplements """' f).
Many of the measures for which the term renovation is used
stem from construction law but are relevant only in the context
of municipal building. As the term is not differentiated regarding
building costs and contracts, it should not be applied.
The following measures are differentiated in HOAI, which governs
the fees of German architects:
Maintenance:
- measures for the preservation of the required condition of a
building.
Repair:
measures to recreate the required condition of a building for
its intended use, but not including rebuilding or modernisation.
The definition in the standard is the "preservation or recreation
of the functional condition".
Modernisation:
building measures which lead to the sustainable improvement
of the serviceability of a building without altering the function,
such as the improvement of lighting, sound insulation, access
(lifts, disability access) and the energy exploitation.
Rebuilding:
rebuilding works are changes of the design of an existing
property with considerable intervention in construction or
existing structure.
Extensions:
- additions to an existing building, extending it upwards or
sideways.
Recreation:
new construction of destroyed buildings on existing building or
site elements. This counts as a new building if a new design is
required.
Conversion:
describes changes to the type of use of a building. Because
this normally leads to different requirements under building
regulations, conversion works require building permission
like a new building! Conversion includes a change of trade
(e.g. from a shop to a restaurant) and also the fitting out of an
existing unoccupied attic for residential purposes.
Project preparation
It should be noted for all work on existing buildings that the
HOAI is primarily intended for new building and rebuilding, where
the requirements are clear in advance. The framework for the
determination offees according to the HOAI is not adequate for the
production of a resilient design with varied uses and their effects
on cost and listed building protection. The appropriate preliminary
investigations (measurement and the surveying of defects), and
the ensuing use concepts and variants with cost breakdown,
should therefore always be agreed as 'special services' or, better,
as the production of an expert report before starting design work,
in order to give the client 'design security' before the start of the
project. The absence of such design foundations is one of the
main reasons for exploding costs in refurbishment work.

Mine
Goethe's garden house
Town plan of Karlsruhe
Artistic significance
Building as
- individual work of art
-typical example of a style
Technical/scientific significance
Building as example
-of special construct!on1 or first use
- particular craftsmanship
-unaltered original condition of typical
construction
Historic significance
Building as site of
- important historic event
-the career of important personalities
(birth, residence, death)
Urban planning significance
Building as part of:
- a planned layout
-a historically developed town plan
- a typical village structure
0 Criteria for the evaluation of historic building substance
Conservation Restoration
Point of view historical, documentation, artistic, aesthetic, related to
structure-related form and function
What to be protected structure- original structure impression- visual
with all historic alterations as impression I artistic idea as
a medium of the historic and a medium of the building
building quality quality
Aim of historic preservation of the structure making the original condition
monument protection in the condition in which clear and visible, including its
it has survived. History recreation
remains visible.
Types of measures preservation through recreation- repair and
conservation- continual if necessary demolition
building checks. Immediate to recreate the original
repair of any damage by the condition
original methods
Recreation of destroyed not allowed, or at most rebuilding as a recreation
buildings in the form of anastylose of the original condition
(rebuilding using original according to archive sources
material)
Contemporary ... problematic, because ... problematic, because this
extensions and the continuation of would make statements in
alterations history is included in the competition with the original
conservation approach, but structure.
is scarcely possible without
the destruction of historic
building structure.
Criticism only understandable obscuration of the historical
by experts. Disfigured development. Destruction
buildings will be preserved. of later historically valuable
Changes of use, rebuilding additions. If the sources
and modernisation are are insufficient, there is a
permissible as part of the danger of historical invention.
historical development, Frequent conflict: which
under stringent conditions historical state should be
(no destruction of historic chosen for preservation and
building structure) but made visible?
scarcely practical.
f) Restoration and conservation principles: various positions and consequences
REFURBISHMENT
Care of Historic Monuments
The care of historic monuments encompasses all measures to
preserve such cultural assets in their original substance. The
purpose is the preservation, for the benefit of present and future
generations, of historic structure that is considered valuable, in
order to preserve cultural memory, which can bestow identity and
also sustainability in the form of a cultural resource. An important
principle was formulated in the Venice Charter of 1964. Listed
historic buildings can normally be preserved only in connection
with a practical use. This makes it necessary to find a compromise
between conservation and alteration.
Statutory protection of historic monuments
The purposes of the statutory protection of historic monuments
include their recognition, recording (drawing up inventories),
preservation and publicising. Scientific background research,
the preservation and furthering of traditional craft skills, expert
consulting for clients and contractors, and public relations work in
the form of publications, exhibitions and conferences are further
tasks of authorities responsible for the care of historic monuments.
All historic buildings and monuments which are placed under
protection are entered in the official lists. An individual justification
for the listed status must be produced for every building. The
evaluation criteria are based on the cultural, historical, town
planning, scientific, technical or ethnological significance of a
historic building ---> 0. According to locally applicable law, lists of
historic monuments can be constitutive or declarative ---t p. 52 8
The determination as to which aspects of the value as a monument
are most important leads to the contrasting approaches of the
preservation of the current state or the recreation of the original
state of a historic monument. ---t 0
The restoration approach has the aim of the recreation of a certain
historical condition of the building (e.g. the Bauhausmeisterhii.user
in Dessau). This can, however, remove the traces of history. When
building elements are reconstructed, there is a danger that, if the
documentation is insufficient, the original is falsely interpreted. The
preservation of the current state (conservation approach) leaves
the course of history visible, but takes into account that this may
obscure the original appearance (e.g. the Rathaus, Esslingen).
Both approaches have their justification but tend to be put forward
dogmatically. They should, however, always be discussed and
decided for each individual case, because they have important
consequences for the treatment of the historic building. It can be
argued that the conservation approach will permit modern additions
and rebuilding as the continuation of historical development, but
this produces the dilemma that any work involves the destruction
of historic building structure.
Historic monuments in the ground
Archaeological monuments serve to protect the signs of human
history in the ground (archaeological sites). In contrast to historic
buildings, not only known but also unknown sites are placed
under protection. They should if possible remain in the ground as
an 'archive', because any investigation or excavation would mean
their destruction and they would be denied improved methods
of investigation in the future. If preservation is not possible, then
the responsible party has to pay for recovery and documentation
(archaeological excavation). This duty also covers remains
discovered in the course of building work.
51
REFURBISH-
MENT
Conservation and
alteration
Care of historic
monuments
Listed building
protection
Recording of old
buildings
Conversion

REFURBISH-
MENT
Conservation and
alteration
Care of historic
monuments
Listed building
protection
Recording of old
buildings
Conversion
Historic building authorities
"Higher authority for the protection of
ancient monuments"
"Lower authority for the protection of
ancient monumentsn
Expert conservation office in most
federal states state monument
conservation office
Monument protection office
authorised to implement the historic
monument law is the lower authority,
which is mostly integrated into
building control.
Science
Research
Lectures
Publications
Documentation
Consulting
Rights and duties
Building technology
Possible grants
Evaluation of value as monument
Keeping lists of monuments
Approval
Checking applications
r:=--.:::--------;;~;;:;~-k.U"" Reasonableness check
Co;:~!t~s~advice ~:tirl ~i~<~!~~~::~t
l...El~-"'-'4'1""1·"'fl""
.... Rejection
~======~
Subsidies
Grants
Implementation
Monitoring
Certificates for tax write-off
Implementation of conditions
Implementation of protection
measures to monuments
Care of monuments Protection of monuments
0 Principles of the division of responsibilities regarding listed building protection
and the care of historic buildings. The individual tasks can vary according to
state.
Basis of protection Effects
Single listed building historic buildings protection structure and appearance
law are protected and a permit is
required for any alterations or
interventions.
Conservation area situation directly next to a only the external appearance
Protection of an listed building, or location in a is protected, not the structure.
ensemble conservation area laid down Alterations to the appearance
in a by-law (based on the may have to be discussed and
historic buildings protection approved.
law)
Preservation by-law location in an area defined in protection is based on
a by-law (based on planning planning concerns, but not the
law) character or appearance.
f) Difference and effects of various legal protection measures
Constitutive Declarative
Hamburg, Nordrhein- all other German states
Westfalen, Rheinland-Pfalz,
Schleswig-Holstein
Historic building entered in an official dwells in the building as
property document, which leads to property and is dependent on
listing. an entry in a list.
Incorporation into formal process, which serves has no legal consequences
historic buildings list as the basis for the application and only serves for scientific
of the historic buildings law. information. Owner does not
Owner must be informed of have to be informed.
entry.
Result legal security for the owner listing status can be obtained
but higher expense for on enquiry to the responsible
authorities and citizens authority.
8 Legal consequences of the types of statutory lists of historic buildings
52
REFURBISHMENT
Listed Building Protection
The listing of buildings is the legal basis for the state to influence the
treatment of historic structures. In Germany, the listing of buildings
is part of the cultural sovereignty of the states and is regulated
by state Jaws for the protection of historic buildings. These Jaws
have equal status alongside the other Jaws governing building. If
a conflict arises, then each individual case is balanced against
the other(s). Conflicts often derive from fire safety requirements
and between the free market exploitation of property and the duty
of the owner to preserve a building. Because legally all interests
have equal weight, the state requires decisions in accordance
with the aims of historic building preservation through information,
advice and financial support (grants, depreciation schemes and
tax reductions).
Types of listed building protection
For a single building, the material condition and the direct
surroundings are protected. Any alterations to the structure,
appearance or use require approval. Because the surroundings
are also protected, alterations to neighbouring buildings which
impair the impression of the historic building can also require an
approval.
The protection of historic buildings in Germany does not
differentiate value or categories. There is only an indirect grading
of the character of protection through the protection applied to the
surroundings of historic buildings and the intention of preserving
entire areas or parts of a town in their particular character. The
protection of buildings in this case applies only to the external
appearance. Conservation areas, the protection of ensembles
or local preservation orders are decided by towns and councils
as by-laws. The procedure can be very different according to
the origin, whether from historic building protection or planning
laws. When work is to be undertaken in such areas, this should be
discussed and a permit may have to be obtained before starting
any alteration to the external appearance of a building or also to
the landscape, even if the intended work itself does not require a
building permit. -1 f)
Because of the scope of discretion and the different attitudes of
the various authorities, discussions should be opened with the
people responsible as soon as possible before undertaking work
to listed buildings, in order to work out a reasonable and tolerable
solution.
Protection of existing use
The principle of existing use is intended to prevent new
regulations or Jaws making existing uses impermissible. This
applies to buildings, or their use, which would not obtain
approval under current regulations, but formerly would have
been approved or suitable for approval. Buildings which were
never in need of approval are not protected under this principle!
The age of a building in this case is immaterial. Buildings with
protected existing use may be maintained and also modernised,
but the work must preserve their identity. In the case of a change
of use, replacement of building structure or other alterations in
need of approval, this protection no longer applies, in which
case the building must be adapted to modern standards. If
this is not done, the authorities can order its demolition. It is
important to open discussions at the earliest feasible stage with
the responsible authority for historic buildings or the building
controller in order to clarify whether and to what extent the
protection of existing use applies. Exemptions can be applied for
as part of the approval process under listed building legislation,
but in order to provide certainty for design work this should be
applied for and agreed in advance.

1----------------------1
: Existing building :
1 structure 1
External sources
I I
I I
: Building inspection 1
1 Building measurement :
Archive research
Literature
: Room schedule : Historic building
regulations
Files
: Dendrochronology :
1 Paint, plaster & 1
: mortar analysis :
I I
I I
I I
: BUILDING RESEARCH
I
I
I
I
I
Knowledge and information
L-------------- ------~ L------- -------------~
Estimation of building costs
of private interests
Client
Evaluation of historic quality
in public interest of society
Monuments Authority
0 Building research and documentation give the client a sound basis for design
and costs and the evaluation criteria for protection and grant aid under historic
building legislation
f) Survey of an existing building:
measurement sheet
t) Survey of an existing building:
as-built plan, sketch
I
II
Ill
IV
v
Survey of an existing building:
as-built elevation
Survey of an existing building:
as-built floor plan, structure
Scale
1:100 schematic recording of the building type and the pian
structure for layout plans, approximate calculation of
floor areas, analysis of use- sufficient for works which
do not alter the structure
1:50 almost precise survey of the geometry, relation of the
precision ± 10 em vertical position of the floors, illustration of the load-
bearing structure
1:50 exact measurement, including historical deformation,
precision ± 2.5 em as basis for restoration, construction drawings and
scientific investigations
1:25-1:10 exact measurement, including historical deformation,
precision ± 2-0.5 em for building with stringent scientific and technical
construction requirements
1:25-1:1 exact measurement, including historical deformation,
precision ± 2-0.1 em for archaeology and building research for particularly
demanding buildings
Measurement precision stages. I and II can be extended up to stage V for
difficult historic building projects and scientific investigations.
Surveying an existing building
REFURBISHMENT
Recording of Old Buildings
With the implementation of rebuilding works, documentation
of the existing building in the form of drawings and text is an
important base for planning. The surveying and investigation of
an existing building should ideally be undertaken before decisions
are made about construction measures and future use, because
only substantiated knowledge about the building structure and
potential costs can lead to a sensible solution.
Drawings of the existing building and a room schedule should
be produced by the architect on site even if old drawings
are available, because this enables an understanding of the
defects and the condition of the building at an early stage. The
investigations should be carried out with as little damage as
possible, but if intrusions into the structure are required, they
should be agreed with the client and the historic buildings
authority and be performed by experts (restorers, building
research consultants).
Drawings of the existing building
The depiction and the precision of the drawings showing the
existing building and its condition depend on the aims of the
intended work. ~ 0 There is a difference between the precision
of measurement and the precision of the drawings. The precision
of measurement does not depend only on the measuring
instruments used but on the system of measurement and any
resulting imprecision (out-of-parallel, adding errors). In precision
stages I and II ~ 0, the measured dimensions are normally more
precise than can be shown on the drawing.
The drawings produced in this way serve as the basis for defect
mapping, plans of building age and documentation of finds
and are then processed further for design, listing of works and
construction drawings.
Text description of the existing building
A general building description should contain all the significant
information about the building. This includes details abollt the
plot, property relationships, planning conditions, building use,
data for financing, tenants and rent income, age of the building,
historical building phases, historical design elements, building
materials, standards of equipment, building services, structure,
constructional properties and other features.
A room schedule should record each room in text and graphics
(sketches, drawings and photos), describing necessary measures
and work that has already been carried out. The rooms should
be numbered on each floor, starting from the entrance hall and
proceeding clockwise. The floor number should be legible from
the key (e.g. G05 for a room on the ground floor or 1.08 for a room
on the first floor).
Building research
Information about each phase of building development, the
methods used and later interference with the structure are not
only useful for the evaluation of historic quality ~ p. 51 0, but
also for sound preliminary design and cost estimation. Some
investigations can be undertaken by the architect, e.g. research in
the appropriate archives (building authority, town archive etc.), but
other tasks will require the appointment of specialists (restorers,
conservators, scientific investigations of building materials, colour
research, dendrochronology, C14 method, analyses of paint,
plaster and mortar). The results can not only give pointers to the
age and possible problems arising from earlier rebuilding, but
also enable the selection of compatible building materials and
enable a precise description of items in the bill of quantities and
specification. ~ 0
53
REFURBISH-
MENT
Conservation and
alteration
Care of historic
monuments
Listed building
protection
Recording of
old buildings
Conversion

REFURBISH-
MENT
Conservation and
alteration
Care of historic O
monuments As-built plan of an office block from 1965
Listed building
protection
Recording of old
buildings
Conversion
f) Conversion of the office block into flats with a floor area of 60-200 m2 each
C) Conversion of a former warehouse Into a residential and office building. New favade design
0 As-built floor plan
9 Variant with flats e Variant with office use
54
REFURBISHMENT
Conversion
Concrete construction
The preservation of historically
valuable building structure is
only one aspect of work with old
buildings. The conversion and
further use of existing buildings
is also a contribution to sustain-
ability. A large proportion of the
office and industrial buildings of
the last hundred years no longer
meet current requirements. The
most important foundation for
the decision as to whether these
buildings, mostly constructed
in reinforced concrete, are suit-
able for use is the analysis and
checking of the structural sys-
tem. This should ideally be un-
dertaken by an experienced
engineer before the design work
starts, because it is an important
factor in determining whether
the building structure is appro-
priate for further use.
Building archives and knowl-
edge of historic building regu-
lations are helpful in addition to
investigation on site, because
non-destructive testing of con-
crete construction is hardly
possible.
Together with the structural
requirements, building phys-
ics stipulations also have to be
complied with. Updating work
is made necessary by the in-
creased concrete covering re-
quired for fire protection and
the more stringent regulations
about thermal insulation (EnEV).
The necessary cost of this can
be more easily estimated.
Arch.: Kister Scheithauer Gross

0 The existing structural system with
slabs as continuous beams on the
internal and external walls.
C) Upgrading of the existing hollow pot
floor would have been possible only
at great expense.
External fa9ade insulation system:
fa9ade structuring is lost and cold
bridging is hard to avoid.
Section
Upper level
Lower level
f) Conversion of an office building to flats. The main wing was extended to the
garden side, and new slabs and a new load-bearing structure enable varied floor
layouts.
8 The original hollow pot floor was replaced with a reinforced concrete slab,
supported on thermally insulating bearings on the external wall to avoid cold
bridging.
Thermal insulation: external render,
calcium silicate boards inside. The
optical effect of the structuring
elements is weakened.
Thermal insulation: Internal plaster,
fagade remains unaltered, internal
walls are tied with insulation cages
in order to avoid cold bridge.
Conversion of a factory to flats. A greened inner courtyard with gallery access splits the
building depth. A special exemption allows ceiling heights of 2.30 m, below the normal
minimum. Buntgarnwerke Leipzig Arch: Fuchshuber and Partner
REFURBISHMENT
Conversion
Upgrading of masonry
buildings
Conversions count as new
building and require building
permission. The floor slabs
cannot normally comply with
the requirements for sound,
thermal and fire insulation and
thus have to be upgraded.
Impact sound insulation, fire
protection construction and
the structural strengthening
required for additional loading
reduce the clear ceiling
height considerably. In an
example of the conversion
of an office building to high-
quality apartments, the slabs
were designed as continuous
beams over the internal walls.
The only solution in this case
was the complete exchange of
the internal slabs. The use of
thermally separated bearings
enables internal thermal
insulation without cold bridges
and does not impair the
external elevation -7 0 - 0.
Conversions require com-
promise. For a listed factory
hall with a large building depth
and a 5 m ceiling height,
the insertion of an internal
courtyard and reduction of the
height of the less important
rooms of the maisonettes was
approved -7 e.
55
REFURBISH-
MENT
Conservation and
alteration
Care of historic
monuments
Listed building
protection
Recording of old
buildings
Conversion

DESIGN AND
CONSTRUC-
TION MANAGE-
MENT
Legal basis
Work phases
Measures of
building use
Setback areas
Construction
costs
MBO
LBO
General provisions scope of application, terms, general requirements § 1-3
The plot and its building on plots §4
building development access and exit routes § 5
setback areas, spacings § 6
division of plots § 7
non-built areas, play areas § 8
Buildings design § 9
advertising, vending machines § 10
general requirements for construction § 11-16
building products, types § 17-25
walls, floor slabs, roofs § 26-32
escape routes, openings, fencing § 33-38
building services § 39-46
use-related requirements § 47--{;1
Parties involved In basic duties §52
building client § 53
designer § 54
contractor § 55
site manager §56
Building control structure, responsibilities, tasks § 57-58
authorities, approval requirement, exemption § 59-62
administrative
procedures
approval procedure § 63-77
building supervision measures § 78-80
official supervision § 81-82
easements § 83
Summary offences summary offences, legal regulations, transitional § 84-87
and final provisions
0 Structure of the MBO (model building regulations, at state level), general
provisions (overview)
Green area
Park
Type of building use;
general residential area
Building line
Type of building use
2 full storeys, plot
coverage ratio 0.4--> p.63
7~7--17L_T--T~- Building type; open, only
single houses permissible
'<-?L--.7--7"+-- Building line
~f--T-;;.L---T-;;.L---T"'-7L--r'-.j-- Limit of validity
f) Decisions in development plans according to the building law code and
the land use regulation (example)
56
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT
Public Planning and Building Law
Building law code
This federal law contains the most important regulations about
public building law and planning law. It provides local councils
in particular with the instruments and procedure for controlling
land use in their areas by applying their statutory planning
authority. The most important instrument is town planning. It
regulates the permissibility of new building in unzoned urban
areas and outside built-up areas and the organisation of land use
(reallocation). The 'special town planning law' includes mainly
provisions concerning refurbishment and development projects
and town remodelling.
Land use regulation
This controls the land use to be laid down in zoning plans. It
is divided into the sections nature of building use (e.g. general
residential area, industrial area), measures of building use (e.g.
floor area ratio, plot coverage ratio, full storeys -> p. 63), type
of building (e.g. open, closed) and buildable plot area (e.g.
boundaries, building lines).
Planning drawings regulation
This Jays down the uniform illustration of decisions on zoning
plans.
Regional planning law
This federal law contains provisions about the basics and
problems of regional planning and the regional planning
responsibilities of the federal states. The basics of the law are put
into practice through the state development plans, development
programmes and regional plans. Aims laid down at this level have
to be complied with at all lower levels. The Jaw prescribes regional
planning procedures.
State building regulations
This legislation, passed by the states, controls building regulations.
These cover requirements for building and properties, and serve
to reduce risk. They include, for example, provisions about
setback areas, fire protection, rescue routes and building approval
procedures.
Land-use planning
The building law code differentiates between preparatory land-use
planning (land use plan) and binding zoning plans (development
plan and project development plan). All zoning plans are
produced under a fixed procedure, including the participation
of the public, and public agencies and authorities. With the
land use plan, the intended land use is displayed for an entire
council area. The plan is binding on authorities, which means
that it has to be complied with at lower levels. The development
plan is then produced from the land use plan and regulates as an
ordinance the control of building for an entire council area, with
a catalogue of possible provisions. The project development
plan is a special form for a defined project. The promoter of the
project undertakes in an implementation contract to complete the
building commission within a certain time frame and, partially or
completely, to bear the design and development costs.

Works contract according
to BGB possibly specified
as building contract
according to VOB
Project
Architectural service contract
(=works contract according
toBGB)
Services and fees according
toHOAI
Authority to act
Power of attorney for client
0 Principal legal relationships between the parties involved in a building contract
%fee Work phase No.
3 collection basic information 1
c
7 preliminary design 2
"'
'iii
Q)
11 design 3
0
6 building permit application 4
25 detailed design 5
c
0
10 preparation for tendering 6
~
~ 4 collaboration in tendering 7
c 31 supervision of works 8
0
()
3 supervision of snagging and documentation 9
f) Services performed In each work phase, HOAI (-->refs)
BGB works contract
§ 632 payment
§ 632a stage payments
§ 633 defects
§ 634 rights of the employer in case
of defect
§ 634a limitation of defect claims
§ 635 supplementary performance
(with § 634 No. 1)
§ 636 particular provisions for damages
(with § § 634 No.4, 280, 281,
283, 311a) particular provisions for
termination (with § § 634 No. 3, 323,
326 Section 5)
§ 637 self-remedy of defects
(with § 634 No. 2)
§ 638 price reduction (with § 634 No. 3)
§ 639 exclusion of liability
§ 640 acceptance
§ 641 payment due date
§ 641 a certificate of completion
§ 642 duties of the employer
§ 643 termination by contractor
§ 644 transfer of risk
§ 645 responsibilities of the employer
§ 646 completion instead of acceptance
§ 647 contractor's lien rights
§ 648 building works security mortgage
§ 648a collateral of the employer
(tradesman collateral)
§ 649 right of termination by employer
§ 650 cost estimate
§ 651 application of commercial law
VOB/8
§ 2 payment
§ 14 invoicing
§ 15 day works
§ 16 payment (No. 1)
§ 4 construction (No. 7)
§ 13 defect claims (No. 3, 5, 6)
§ 17 security
§ 13 defect claims
§ 13 defect claims (No. 4, 5)
§ 13 defect claims (No.5 section 1)
§ 4 construction (No. 7)
§ 8 termination by the employer
(No.5)
§ 13 defect rights (No.7)
-not included
§ 13 defect rights (No. 5 section 2)
§ 13 defect rights (No. 6)
§ 13 defect rights (No.3)
§ 12 acceptance
§ 16 payment
-not included
§ 4 construction
§ 9 termination by contractor
§ -note§12No.6
§ 7 sharing of risk
§ 12 acceptance
- not included
-not included
-not included
§ 8 termination by the employer
-note in§ 2
- not part of VOB
f) Comparison of BGB works contract law and the corresponding provisions in
the VOB (according to: Boisseree, Mantscheff, Baubetriebslehre 1, p. 53 --> refs)
Private Building Law
Legal relationships
The legal relationships between parties involved in a building
project are normally classified as works contracts under the
German civil code (BGB), or as building contracts under the
contract award procedure and contract regulations for building
works (VOB) ~ 0.
The essence of a building contract is to produce a contractually
determined result, in this case the construction of a building.
In contrast to this, the subject of a service contract (BGB) is
the work as such or working.
HOAI
HOAI (Fee Regulations for Architects and Engineers - Germany)
controls the invoicing of fees for the services of architects and
engineers. The fee is based on the fee zone to which a building
project has been assigned, the chargeable costs (according to
the fee table) and the work phases undertaken by the architect
or engineer, to each of which a percentage of the total fee is
assigned (services performed in each phase~ f)). In each of the
work phases, there is a differentiation between basic services,
which are always performed as part of the proper performance
of the service, and special services, which are separately
ordered and invoiced to fulfil particular requirements (e.g. building
remeasurement) ~ p. 58 ff.
HOAI is undergoing revision at the moment. Its scope of
application is to be restricted to smaller projects through the
lowering of the final values in the fee table, and the removal
of work phases 6-9 and the consulting services. Furthermore,
the fees should in the future be determined on the basis of
building costs agreed in advance.
VOB
The VOB (contract award procedure and contract regulations for
building works) is neither law nor legal regulation but represents
freely agreed contract rights, which amend or add to the
provisions of the BGB, from whose provisions it varies in essential
areas (practical completion, defect claims, payment)~ e. Federal
authorities and many public clients are obliged to apply the VOB
in the tendering and contract award procedure of building works.
The VOB is laid out as follows:
Part A contains guidelines for the layout and composition of tender
documents, contract award procedures and building contracts.
Part B contains the general conditions of contract for the
construction of building works, as laid out ~ e.
Part C contains, categorised according to trades, general
technical contract conditions, according to the following uniform
system:
0. Notes for the production of bills of quantities and
specifications
(an aid for clear and exhaustive tendering)
1. Scope of application (terms, definition of trades,
differentiation from other trades)
2. Materials I building elements (definition of the quality
conditions for the materials and building elements to be used
according to DIN standards
3. Construction (definition of the standards for construction with
reference to current DIN standards)
4. Ancillary work I extra work (differentiation of ancillary work
(without extra payment) and extra work)
5. Invoicing (invoicing regulations, units, remeasurement,
deductions etc.)
57
DESIGN AND
CONSTRUC-
TION MANAGE-
MENT
Legal basis
Work phases
Measures of
building use
Setback areas
Construction
costs
BS 1600
BS 6079
BS 7000-4
ISO 22263
DIN 1960/1
DIN 18299-
18386
DIN 18421
DIN 18451
BGB
HOAI
VOB

DESIGN AND
CONSTRUC-
TION MANAGE-
MENT
Legal basis
Work phases
Measures of
building use
Setback areas
Construction
costs
BS ISO 15686-5
ASTM E917-05
DIN 276
see also: HOAI
p. 57
Subsidiary rooms
0 Consideration of the location of the house on the plot: building development
proposal
f) Development of the design from the building development proposal
Architectural services and fees are contained in the respective
guidelines for each country I professional body, e.g. in Germany
HOAI (Fee Regulations for Architects and Engineers), which
has broadly the same structure as the Royal Institute of British
Architects (RIBA) Architects' Plan of Work.
Collection of basic information
(HOAI, work phase 1 -7 refs)
Basic services:
1. Clarification of the task
2. Consulting concerning extent of services required
3. Assistance with decisions in the selection of specialist
engineers
4. Summary of the results
Special services:
• Recording of the existing condition
• Analysis of the location
• Production of a room or function schedule
• Investigation of the environmental impact or relevance
Preliminary design
Basic services:
1. Basic analysis
2. Discussion of the aims (constraints, conflicts)
3. Production of a design-related catalogue of aims
4. Production of a design concept with alternatives (for the same
requirements) in the form of drawings and descriptions
5. Integration of the services of other involved experts
6. Clarification and explanation of the essential interactions and
conditions (e.g. town planning, construction, building services)
7. Preliminary negotiations with authorities and other technical
experts about the suitability for approval
8. Cost estimate according to DIN 276 or the local calculation
regulation
9. Summary of all results
58
Work Phases
Special services:
• Collaboration in obtaining credit
• Preliminary inquiry about building permission
• Preparation of diagrams on special techniques
• Preparation of a time and organisation schedule
• Additional design work for building optimisation (e.g. reduction
ofenergy consumption) to a greaterextent than the requirements
oflegal regulations and standards
Design
Basic services:
1. Working through the design concept from work phase 2, using
the contributions of the other specialist parties
2. Description of the building work
3. Drawings showing the overall design in the form of fully
worked-through design drawings
4. Negotiation with authorities and other specialist parties about
the suitability for approval
5. Cost calculation according to DIN 276 or the local calculation
regulation
6. Cost control through the comparison of cost estimate and cost
calculation
7. Summary of all results
Special services:
• Investigation of concept variants and their (cost-related)
evaluation
• Calculation of cost-effectiveness
• Cost calculation with quantity framework or building element
catalogue
• Processing particular measures for the optimisation of the
building from work phase 2

0 Building permit process (outline)
Building permission (MBO)
The construction, alteration or change of use of buildings always
requires approval from the building supervision authorities.
There are, however, exemptions for certain buildings. These are
essentially:
Approval-free building projects (e.g. single-storey building
with a gross floor area up to 10 m2 and garages up to 30 m2
with average wall heights of up to 3 m (except outside built-up
areas ~ p. 55); retaining walls and fencing up to 2 m high,
the alteration of load-bearing and bracing building elements in
buildings of classes 1 and 2; cladding of external walls (except
to high-rise buildings); pergolas, entrance porches and facilities
which require approval under other regulations, such as power
stations and traffic-related buildings, in which case the authority
responsible for the appropriate legal regulations undertakes the
role of building control.
In connection with a building notification procedure, approval is
also not required for the construction and alteration of buildings
of low height which fully correspond to the decisions of a legally
binding building development plan, whose utility supply and
access is ensured. This applies unless the council demands an
application under the simplified building permission procedure
within a certain deadline or applies for an interim prohibition.
The simplified building approval process is applicable for the
construction and alteration of buildings of classes 1-3 within the
scope of validity of a legally binding building development plan,
if the proposed building corresponds to the decisions in the
building development plan to the full extent and the utility supply
and access are ensured. In this case, the building control authority
only checks the compliance with the regulations of the German
building law code concerning general permissibility.
Outline building permission
In advance of the building approval application, a preliminary
decision can be obtained from the building control authority about
individual (critical) questions concerning the building approval
appiication by making a preliminary enquiry, in order to simplify
further processing of the building approval application. Outline
building permission is legally binding and valid for one year; the
period can be prolonged on application.
Work Phases
Building permit application
(HOAI, work phase 4 ~ refs)
Basic services:
1. Production of the application documents required for
permission or approval in accordance with official regulations,
including any application for exceptions and exemptions,
making use of the contributions of other specialists involved in
the design and including any negotiations necessary with the
authorities.
2. Handing in these documents.
3. Completion and adaptation of design documents, descriptions
and calculations making use of the contributions of other
specialists involved in the design.
4. (For external works and extensions forming rooms) checking
whether permits are necessary, obtaining of permissions and
approvals.
Special services:
• Collaboration in the obtaining of approval from neighbours,
production of documents for special testing procedures, expert
and organisational support of the client in protest procedures,
legal actions etc.
• Alteration of the application documents resulting from
circumstances for which the appointed party is not responsible.
Building permit application and application documents
The building approval application contains the following details:
1. Name and address of the client
2. Name and address of the architect
3. Description of the proposed building measure
4. Description of the plot (street, house number, plot number etc.)
5. Utility supply and access
6. Details of already granted permits
7. All documents required for evaluation
(layout plan, building drawings, building description, verification of
structural safety and other technical verifications)
All appended documents must be signed by the client, the
architect and other specialist parties.
The building approval application is to be handed in to the
responsible council in writing, which will then forward it with
their comments to the responsible building control authority.
This authority will request comments from all further responsible
authorities (fire service, care of historic buildings, etc.) and the
owners of neighbouring properties.
Building permit issue
After the completion of checking, the applicant receives the written
building permit together with copies of the approved documents
(possibly with conditions).
A partial building permit can be issued for single building elements
or stages (e.g. excavation) before the issue of the final building
permit.
The building permit and partial building permit lapse if building
work is not started within one year of their issue or the works are
interrupted for more than one year. This period can be prolonged
on application.
Building supervision by the authorities
The MBO provides for supervision during the building phase.
This can be limited to spot checks and essentially consists of
the acceptance of the structure (testing of the construction for
structural safety, sound and thermal insulation, fire safety) and
final acceptance. After the final acceptance certificate has been
issued, the building can be used.
59
DESIGN AND
CONSTRUC-
TION MANAGE-
MENT
Legal basis
Work phases
Measures of
building use
Setback areas
Construction
costs
MBO
see also: HOAI
p. 57

DESIGN AND
CONSTRUC-
TION MANAGE-
MENT
Legal basis
Work phases
Measures of
building use
Setback areas
Construction
costs
see also: HOAI
p. 57
0 Dimensioned drawing for construction, scale 1:50 (reduced excerpt)
Honeycomb grating ---¥.-iib---,ffi'::l£*1--'~
Steel angle frame ----t-'*:----"'fl:WH--~
30/30/4 in concrete
rimB15
1.5 em cement rendier-t-_,;;:1-':---~W~I
~~t,
0
~o~~~g~o~ r --+--'MI>':--~:o//-l
2cmcemoentrondle~t-~~c--;~~
f) Detail drawing of cellar light shaft, scale 1:20 (reduced)
Means I instruments for construction design
Construction drawings -1 0, with all the details and dimensions
required for construction (scale 1:50).
Detailed drawings -1 f) supplement construction drawings for
certain sections of the building works (scale 1:20/1 0/5/1).
Special drawings are intended for the requirements of particular
specialist areas (e.g. reinforced concrete, steel or timber
construction etc.) and only if necessary show building elements
not directly relevant to this specialist area (scale 1:50, depending
on subject).
Room schedules -1 8 contain complete details about
dimensions (length, height, floor area, volume) of the room or
part of the building, materials (e.g. wall finishes, floor finishes
etc.), equipment (e.g. heating, sanitary, ventilation, electrical
installations etc.) in the form of tables. These are in some cases
the basis for a performance specification. Room schedules and
construction drawings can be linked with appropriate software
for tendering, contract award procedure and invoicing.
Work Phases
Detailed design
(HOAI, work phase 5-1 refs)
Basic services:
1. Working through the results of work phases 3 and 4
(staged processing of information and presenting solutions)
-taking into account town planning, design, functional,
technical, building physics, economical, energy-related (e.g.
rational consumption of energy), biological and ecological
requirements- and making use of the contributions of other
specialist parties, until the design is ready for construction.
2. Drawings showing the building with all details required for
construction, i.e. the final, complete working drawings, details
and construction drawings.
3. For extensions which form rooms: detailed drawings of the
rooms and sequence of rooms at scale 1:25 to 1:1, with the
required textual details and material descriptions.
4. Development of the basis for the other specialist parties
involved in the design and integration of their contributions until
the design is ready for construction.
5. Continuation of the detailed design during the construction of
the building.
Special services:
• Setting up a detailed description of the proposed works as a
building schedule, to be the basis of a works specification with
a performance specification.*!
• Setting up a detailed description of the proposed works as a
room schedule, to be the basis of a works specification with a
performance specification.*)
• Checking the working drawings produced by contracting
companies on the basis of the works specification with
performance specification for compliance with the design.*)
• Setting up detailed models. Checking and approving the
drawings of third parties who are not specialists in the design
team for compliance with the construction drawings (forexample
workshop drawings from companies, location and foundation
drawings from machine suppliers), as long as the services apply
to facilities which are not included in the chargeable costs.
*)This special service becomes wholly or partly a basic service if the works
are specified through a performance specification. In this case, the
corresponding basic services in this work phase are omitted.
A2 room description 82 room dimensions 84 service connections for B5 values
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 3 6
Prov. User Area Height Volume Temp. Vent. Light Remarks
room no. Use Type Type Type
f;n3-
Heating Ventilation Sanitary Elec. Comms. ransport
A B e {depij ~ r,;;-- "e /h IX (addresses)
w 104 hall N 6.92 L 2.47 N 14.87 - - 1- sw TS 20 1 AS aerial connection socket
eL Sl eL ceiling light
WVT SSO power socket
w 204 bathroom/ N 3.47 L 2.475 N 8.588 eH ZWE BA WB - 24 7 TF potential equalisation
we SWswitch
WB so Sl sink
we TF 1e entry phone
SO socket
w 304 kitchen N 6.09 L 2.47 N 15.04 eH MV Sl sw - 20 4 TS telephone socket
so BAbathtub
SWL WB washbasin
sso WL wall light without SO
eL SWL ditto with switch
w 404 loggia N 1.69 L 2.363 N 4.000 eH MV - - - - we we
w 504 liv./din. N 19.77 L 2.47 N 48.63 sw AS 21 1 FB fuseboard
so eH central heating
eL MV mechanical ventilation
w 604 se!V, rm. F 0.36 L 2.475 N 0.891 - - - -
e Room schedule (short form): A2 room description
60

Tender documents
contents of tender
covering letter technical content legal content +
(request to (1) bill of quantities (2) special contract award
tender) conditions
+
(4) additional technical
application
(3) additional contract
conditions
regulations conditions
(5) general technical (6) general contract
regulations terms
Building contract
0 Tender documents required and their collection to form a building contract (VOB)
Tender and contract
The contract award procedure aims to create a contract structure
which will guarantee that the plans of a project are carried out
within the framework of civil law with its accompanying regulations
(---7 p. 57). The contract can be awarded when tenders have been
received for defined tender documents (specifications, contract
conditions and letter stating the possibilities of seeing the tender
documents, location and date of the opening deadline, additional
costs deadline, binding deadline etc.).
The priced tender documents and signature of the bidder or their
authorised representative constitute an offer, and if these are
accepted and the contract awarded, they become, unaltered, the
building contract ---7 0.
Building contracts (and thus also tender documents) should
comprehensively and completely remove any differences of
opinion between the contract parties in advance and clearly
regulate the duties on each side.
The specification of the works is therefore the basis for the
later building contract. This consists either of bill of quantities or
performance specification and building specification:
Bills of quantities ---7 f) are listings of the individual items
(description of a part of the works according to type, quality,
quantity, dimensions with an item number) and can be structured
by batch (building stage, building phase/production phase) or title
(trade-related).
Performance specifications are functional descriptions of the
essential design, technical and economic requirements of the
completed work. In contrast to bills of quantities, they do not have
a detailed listing of individual items.
The bills of quantities are normally supplemented by preliminaries
in the form of general and general technical contract
conditions (= VOB/B or VOB/C), additional and additional
technical contract conditions from clients who regularly
award building works (e.g. German Railways, State of Berlin)
and special contract conditions, which regulate conditions for
special cases.
Software is almost always used for the production of bills of
quantities today, because this field is ideal for computerisation
due to the linking of tender data with detailed design. The
Standard Book of Bill Items (StLB} for the building industry helps
with the production of bills of quantities with standard text building
blocks for individual items, which are assigned to the appropriate
areas of work (these approximate to trades according to VOB/C).
Model bills of quantities for the production of bills are similar to
standard books. They include possible text blocks (texts are created
by deleting) and are generally very extensive. Manufacturer's
model bills of quantities for the production of bills offer additional
information and are useful for particular constructional solutions.
Work Phases
Preparation of I collaboration in tendering
HOAI 15, work phases 6 + 7 ---7 refs)
Basic services:
1. Determination and listing of quantities as a basis for
production of the works specification, making use of the
contributions of other design specialists.
2. Production of the works specification and bills of quantities,
by areas of work.
3. Approval and coordination of the works specifications
produced by other design specialists.
4. Collection of tender documents for all areas of work.
5. Obtaining of tenders.
6. Checking and assessment of tenders, including the
production of a price comparison list, by work sections.
7. Checking and collation of the services of specialists
collaborating in the tendering process.
8. Negotiations with bidders.
9. Cost forecast according to DIN 276 from the unit or lump sum
prices of the tenders.
10. Collaboration in the awarding of the contract.
Special services:
• Production ofworkspecifications with performancespecification,
making use of building schedules I room schedules.*)
• Production of alternative work specifications for distinct areas
of work.
• Production of comparative cost outlines, with evaluation of the
contributions of other specialists.
• Checking and assessing the tenders from the works specification
with performance specification, including price comparison
list.*!
• Production, checking and assessment of price comparison lists
for special requirements.
*I see note p. 60
Item Quantity Description Unit price Total price
Example 1 -quantities and unit prices outside the text
2.02 105.0 m2 construct ground slab of in-situ concrete
B 25, d = 15 em incl. formwork. The surfaces
are to be formed with falls to gullies.
for 1 m2 35.70 3748.50
disadvantages: a) extensive space required for text
b) no details about unit price components
c) unit price not in words
Example 2- unit price inside the text
2.02 105.0 m2 construct ground slab of in-situ concrete B 25, d = 15 em incl.
formwork. The surfaces are to be formed with falls to gullies.
wages: € 24.60
material: € 11.10
other: €-.- for 1m2 35.70 3748.50
unit price in words: thirty five 70/100
disadvantages: quantity and unit price not on one line
Example 3- unit price and quantity inside the text and on one line
2.02 construct ground slab of in-situ concrete B 25, d = 15 em incl.
formwork. The surfaces are to be formed with falls to gullies.
105m2
W/M/0: € 24.60/€ 11.10/€ -.-
unit price in words: thirty five 70/100 35.70 3748.50
advantages: a) extensive space saving
b) quantity x unit price= total price in one line
f) Bill of quantities (example)
61
OESIGNAND
CONSTRUC-
TION MANAGE-
MENT
Legal basis
Work phases
Measures of
building use
Setback areas
Construction
costs
BS ISO 15686-5
ASTM E917-05
DIN 276
see also: HOAI
p. 57
VOB p. 57

DESIGN
AND CON-
STRUCTION
MANAGEMENT
Legal basis
Work phases
Measures of
building use
Setback areas
Construction
costs
BS ISO 15686-5
ASTM E917-05
DIN 276
see also: HOAI
p. 57
No. Activity week 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
11 Preliminary design
-
12 Design ~~
13 Approvals application ~
14 Building permission
•...
15 Detailed design
•~
16 Tendering structure ~
•
17 Tendering finishings _Ill..•
21 Preliminary structural design
•~
22 Structural design
•...
23 Working drawings
•~·
31 Work preparation _1111,
32 Structural frame works
33 Finishing works
0 Building schedule as bar chart
f) Network diagram; example: forward arrow method I Critical Path Method (CPM)
Techniques of work scheduling
Bar charts ---7 0 show the work activities vertically and the
relevant construction time horizontally in a coordinate system. The
duration of each activity is shown by the length of the relevant bar.
Following activities are shown below each other. Bar charts are
widely used in construction because they are simple and easy to
understand. However, the interdependencies of activities (critical
paths) and working directions can scarcely be shown.
Line diagrams (time-distance diagrams) show a linear graph of
the relationship between work time and distance (or work quantity)
in a coordinate system. The speed of work (the slope of the line)
and the critical spacings of individual work activities (mutual
hindrance) can be made clear. Line diagrams are mainly used
for construction processes with a pronounced direction of work
(roads, tunnels etc.).
Network diagrams ---7 f) are used for the analysis, planning and
control of complex construction sequences with consideration of
as many parameters as possible. The sequence of work is divided
into part activities or events, which are shown as nodes (Metra
Potential Method (MPM), event node method/ Program Evaluation
and Review Technique (PERT)) or arrows (Critical Path Method
(CPM)), with nodes shown as starting and finishing events. Nodes
thus indicates important process or event parameters.
62
Work Phases
Supervision and support of construction
(HOAI, work phases 8 + 9 ---7 refs)
Basic services:
1. Supervision of the construction of the works for compliance
with the building permit, the construction drawings and the
specifications, as well as the generally recognised qualities of
workmanship and applicable regulations.
2. Monitoring of the construction of load-bearing structures with
a low degree of difficulty for compliance with the structural
safety certificate.
3. Coordination of the parties involved in supervision of the
works.
4. Supervision and correction of the details of prefabricated
elements.
5. Production and monitoring of a construction time plan (bar
chart).
6. Keeping a building site diary.
7. Joint measuring up of work with the contracting firms.
8. Acceptance of building works in collaboration with other
design and supervision specialists and identification of
defects.
9. Checking invoices.
10. Final cost statement according to DIN 276 or the local
calculation regulation.
11. Application to authorities for grants, with follow-up.
12. Handing over the building, including collection and issue of
required documents.
13. Listing of guarantee periods.
14. Monitoring of the remediation of defects identified at
acceptance.
15. Cost control through the checking of works invoices from
contracting firms and comparison with the contract prices and
cost estimate.
16. Inspection of the works to identify defects before the expiry of
the guarantee periods applicable to the relevant contractors.
17. Monitoring of the remediation of defects occurring within the
guarantee period, but at the latest before five years since the
acceptance of the building works.
18. Collaboration in the release of securities.
19. Systematic collection of the drawings and calculation results
for the building.
Special services:
• Set up, monitor and update a payment plan.
• Set up, monitor and update comparative progress, cost or
capacity schedules.
• Activity as responsible construction manager, to the extent that
this exceeds the basic services of workphase 8 according to the
relevant state regulation.
• Production ofas-built drawings.
• Production of equipment and materials lists.
• Production of maintenance and care instructions.
• Building security.
• Building administration.
• Building visits after handover.
• Supervision ofmaintenance and care.
• Preparation of payment material for a project file.
• Enquiries and cost calculations for standard cost evaluations.
• Checking the building and operating cost-use analysis

built area
Plot coverage ratio (PCR) ~ plot area
total storey area
Floor area ratio (FAR) ~ plot area
built volume
Building mass number (BMN) ~ plot area
0 Measures of building use
Housing area regulations____. p. 136
Full storey (according to MBO):
Ceiling height over 2/3 of the
floor area min 2.30 m, slab
level min. +1.40 m.
Housing area regulations apply to calculations of residential
area according to the law to promote living space (includes
housing subsidies): the living area of a dwelling covers all rooms
which belong exclusively to the relevant dwelling, including
conservatories, swimming pools (if enclosed on all sides),
balconies, loggias, terraces, but not subsidiary rooms (cellars,
garages etc:), offices and rooms which do not comply with the
building regulations.
The floor area of a room is determined from the clear dimensions
between the building elements, from the outer face ofthe element's
cladding (which includes window and door claddings, skirting
boards, stoves, ovens, baths, built-in furniture, free-standing
installations, movable partitions). The floor area is measured in
completed rooms or from a suitable building drawing.
Floor areas are included in the calculation either completely (for
rooms and parts of rooms with a clear ceiling height of at least
2 m), or a half (for rooms and parts of rooms with a clear ceiling
height of at least 1 m and less than 2 m) or a quarter (balconies,
loggias, terraces etc.).
Calculation of commercial letting areas
The guidelines for the calculation of commercial letting areas,
issued by the Property Industry Research Company (GIF) creates
a uniform standard for the determination of leased commercial
and office space. The leased space is calculated from two types
of area:
1. Areas with exclusive right of use, individually listed in types
of area according to DIN 277: basement garage with number of
places (see above), indirectly usable areas (loggias, balconies,
atriums, areas with room heights between 1.50 m and 2.30 m.
2. Areas with communal right of use, individually listed as:
rooms for communal use (WCs/bathrooms, staff rooms, etc.) and
communal traffic areas (entrance halls, corridors, etc.).
The following do not belong to the letting area: stairs, lifts,
emergency exits, escape balconies, services rooms, shafts,
protection rooms, areas of columns, pillars and separate walls,
areas with a clear ceiling height of 1.50 m or less.
The relevant areas are measured at floor level between solid walls
(including skirtings and fittings built in on site (radiators etc.), and
room heights are measured between top of finished floor level and
underside of the (suspended) ceiling.
Measures of Building Use
Measures of building use ____. 0
The land use regulation specifies parameters for the measurement
of building use in planning law: the plot coverage ratio determines
the permissible ratio of built area on the plot (plan area of building
including garages, parking places and their access, subsidiary
areas. . . and underground facilities beneath the plot) and the
floor-area ratio (determines the permissible ratio of storey area
(external dimensions of all full floors, without subsidiary areas...,
balconies, loggias, terraces and structures which are permissible
inside setback areas) to the plot area.
The building mass number represents how many cubic metres
of building mass (external dimensions of the building facilities
from floor level of the lowest to the ceiling of the highest full
storey, including occupied rooms in the intermediate floors
with their stairwells, surrounding walls and slabs but without
subsidiary rooms..., balconies, loggias, terraces and structures
which are permissible inside the setback area under state law) are
permissible per square metre of plot area.
Gross floor area
Technical function area
f) Breal<down of floor areas (according to DIN 277-1)
Floor areas and volumes
DIN 277 contains parameters for the calculation of floor areas and
room volumes of buildings ____. f). All parameters are calculated
separately according to whether they belong to the following
categories:
a) roofed over and enclosed on all sides
b) roofed over but not enclosed on all sides
c) not roofed over
The gross floor area is the sum of the plan area of all levels
(without usable roof areas), measured between the external
dimensions of the surrounding building elements at floor height.
The constructional floor area is the sum of the plan area of all
surrounding building elements (walls, columns, pillars, chimneys,
non-accessible shafts, door openings, niches, apertures)
measured between the external dimensions at floor height. The
net floor area is the usable floor area between the building
elements (without door and window openings, cut-outs and
niches) measured at floor level. The net floor area is the sum of the
usable area (area which serves the building's intended purpose),
the technical function area (rooms for building services, such
as utility connection room, accessible shafts, etc.) and the traffic
area (e.g. stairwells, corridors, lift shafts, escape balconies etc.).
The gross built volume is the sum of the floor areas of all levels
multiplied by the relevant height (measured between top of floor
covering and top of floor covering of the next level, in the basement
from the underside of the constructional structural invert in the
roof to the top of the roof covering, without external stairs, light
wells, roof overhangs, dormer windows, chimneys, etc.). The net
built volume is the net floor area multiplied by the relevant clear
ceiling height.
63
DESIGN AND
CONSTRUC-
TION MANAGE-
MENT
Legal basis
Work phases
Measures of
building use
Setback areas
Construction
costs
BS7641
ISO 9836
ASTM C1407-98
DIN 277
see also: Land
use regulation
p. 56

DESIGN AND
CONSTRUC-
TION MANAGE-
MENT
Legal basis
Work phases
Measures of
building use
Setback areas
Construction
costs
MBO
LBO
0 Setback areas
e Overlapping of setback areas at
more than 75°
Depth of setback area =
(1/3 RH + WH) x 0.4
RH = roof height
WH =wall height
e Depth of the setback area
(WH + RP + 1/3 RH) x 0.4
RP = roof projection
WH =wall height
f) Building on the boundary
G Overlapping of setback areas with a
garden courtyard
(RH + WH) x 0.4
T
II IIIII ~.IQ:_
RH
t
WH
I
RH = roof height
WH =wall height
Q Depth of the setback area with a
roof pitch of more than 70"
L=max.1/3BW
8 Depth of the setback area with roof e Projecting building elements
projections (roof window)
f) Garages 4I!) Walls, fencing
64
Setback Areas
Setback areas are the spaces between buildings and their plot
boundaries.
1. Setback areas next to above-ground buildings have to be kept
free in front of the external walls of buildings___. 0- f). This
also applies to other facilities with effects similar to buildings,
which are opposite buildings and plot boundaries. Setback
areas are not required in front of external walls which are built
on plot boundaries, if they may be or must be built on the
boundary according to planning regulations ___. f).
2. Setback areas must be on the plot itself___. 0- f). They may
also lie on public traffic, green and water areas, but only to
their centre. Setback areas and spaces may wholly or partly
extend onto other plots, if it is certain according to public law
that they cannot be built on, though they may not be deducted
from the other plot's setback areas.
3. Setback areas may not overlap unless:
- the external walls are at an angle of more than 75° to each
other_. e
- they are external walls facing a garden courtyard in
dwellings of building classes 1 and 2 ___. e
- buildings and other built facilities are permissible in the
setback areas.
4. The depth of the setback area is measured according to wall
height___. 8- 0.This is measured at right angles to the wall.
Wall height means the dimension from ground level to upper
extent of the wall or to the intersection of the wall with the
roof covering ___.G. The height of roofs with a pitch of ~70° is
included to one third, ~70° fully with the wall height___. 0.The
same applies to roof projections___. 0.
5. The depth of setback areas differs in the various state building
regulations (LBO)). According to the model building regulations
(MBO), it is 0.4 x H, but at least 3 m (0.2 x H, min. 3 m for
commercial and industrial areas). In front of the outside walls of
building classes 1 and 2 with not more than three overground
storeys, 3 m depth is also sufficient. In some LBOs, there are
further exceptions (e.g. narrow side privilege).
6. Building elements projecting from the outside wall (cornices,
roof overhang) are not considered in the measurement of
setback areas ___.e. Projections remain unconsidered if they:
- take up altogether less than one third of the width of the
outside wall
- project by a max. 1.50 m in front of the outside wall
-stay at least 2 m distant from the opposing plot boundary
7. The following are permissible inside the setback area of a
building and do not have their own setback areas (even if they
are built on the plot boundary or on the building) ___. 0 - 4Ji):
- garages and buildings without occupied rooms or fireplaces
with an average wall height of up to 3 m and a total length
per plot boundary of 9 m ___. 0
- solar energy systems independent of the building with a
height of up to 3 m and a total length per plot boundary
of9 m
- retaining walls and closed fencing in commercial and
industrial areas, outside these areas with a height of up
to 2 m ___. 4Ji). The depth of setback areas opposite plot
boundaries but not stopping building may not altogether
exceed 15 m on the plot.

I L.ve--·
1""'
······
~
~
~
!'-----1------r-----I--t------t--t--
......
~ ~
c
~ ~
, - 0 c §
.. ·"' c
Ii "'
li .1] e>m
1
• c
E E
Ee>
~"'
E • aJ =. E
=ID ~ c
~~ C>C.
~
ro • g
"-m a_ :§ft E
5.
•
L
0
c________ l___ ~ l___
'----
0 Influence on the construction costs in the course of design and construction
Cost group
1st level 2nd level 3rd level Description
100 plot
200 site preparation and utility connections
300 construction
~ 012... - masonry
~ 012.111 - cored block internal wall
block type 12/1.6
mortar group: II
wall thickness: 11.5 em
400 building services
500 external works
600 finishing and artworks
700 ancillary costs, professional fees
f) Breakdown of costs, DIN 276
Cost estimate
The cost estimate is for the approximate determination of
construction costs. It is included in work phase 2 (preliminary
design). It is based on:
1. results of the preliminary design (if necessary as a sketch),
2. calculation of the quantities of reference units in the cost
groups
3. explanations and building description
4. details of plot, utility supply and access.
The cost estimate should contain the total costs according to
cost groups at the 1st level of cost breakdown and thus has at
least seven items of cost data. The required description should
correspond to the state of information of the preliminary design
Cost calculation
The cost calculation is defined as 'approximate determination'
of the construction costs. It is part of work phase 3 (preliminary
design). The basis for the cost calculation are:
1. complete design drawings and, if appropriate, details
2. calculation of the quantities of reference units in the cost
groups
3. descriptions relevant for the calculation.
The cost calculation should determine the total costs according to
cost groups down to the 2nd level of cost breakdown and contain
40 individual items of cost data.
The building description should correspond to the differentiated
state of information of the preliminary design.
(Drawings and text from: Neddermann, slightly abbreviated --:>
refs)
Construction Costs
Influence over the building costs reduces very rapidly during
the course of design and construction. The parties involved in
the preparation of the project have the greatest influence over
the building costs, because decisions are made at this time
about the size, volume etc. of the project. In the further course
of construction, costs can be influenced only to a decreasing
degree. The flow of money behaves the other way around; it is still
very small in the preparation phase and increases in steps --:> 0.
Efficient cost control should therefore always attempt to apply
the brakes during the work phases of a project; control as part of
works planning (material selection, etc.) normally has, by way of
contrast, no noticeable success.
HOAI requirements
HOAI obliges the architect to produce four determinations of cost
during the course of design and construction: cost estimate, cost
calculation, cost forecast, final cost statement). These cost
determinations are basic services --:> pp. 58-62. They are regarded
as basic services with a special weighting, i.e. neglecting a cost
determination can have dire legal consequences in the case of a
dispute.
Basic rules of cost determination
The basic rules of cost determination are laid down in DIN 276.
This classifies the building costs into seven cost groups and three
(cost) levels--:> f). Each cost determination must be structured in
the same way and consist of defined building blocks:
1. Statements about the cost in all cost groups
2. Building description
3. Cost situation at the time of the determination
4. Details of VAT
5. Date of the cost determination
6. Reference to the relevant design work
Cost forecast
The cost forecast is the most precise determination of the building
costs, taking place in work phase 7 (collaboration in tendering).
The cost forecast is based on:
1. complete construction drawings, details, etc.
2. structural verifications, thermal insulation calculations etc.
3. calculations of quantities of reference units in the cost groups
or bill items
4. building description with explanations of construction
5. listing of tenders, awards and already accrued costs
As the last cost determination before the start of construction,
this has particular significance. The cost forecast should include
the total cost according to cost groups down to the 3rd level
of cost breakdown and contain 218 individual cost data. The
building description belonging to the cost forecast corresponds
to the state of design and has the highest degree of detail in the
course of the design work. The purpose of the cost forecast is to
produce a document before the start of construction based on
tenders, awards, already accrued costs and, if necessary, extra
calculations, because this is the only possibility of cost control
and correction.
Final cost statement
The final cost statement serves to record the actual costs accrued
for purposes of comparison and documentation. The final .c.ost
is based on: 1. checked invoices, 2. remeasurement quantities,
3. explanations. In the final cost statement, the total costs should
be classified down to the 2nd level of cost breakdown.
65
DESIGN AND
CONSTRUC-
TION MANAGE-
MENT
Legal basis
Work phases
Measures of
building use
Setback areas
Construction
costs
BS ISO 15686-5
ASTM E917-05
DIN 276
see also: HOAI
p. 57

FOUNDATIONS
Building
excavations 0 Official site plan
Foundations
Tanking
Basement
drainage
Repair
peg
working
area
<;50
0 Building (basement) excavation
0 House In the excavation
v
embankment
profile
f) Profile boards
CJ) Surveying the building site
66
*-·- -·
-·-.- datum point
f) Site plan with building's dimensions
neighbour
_.-·- road
e Planned house set out on the lot
level
setting board, mostly 3m long;
intermediate levels measured
with a scaled rod
e Spirit level
e Profile boards
FOUNDATIONS
Building Excavations
Setting out
Before the start of groundworks, the planned building is set out
on the plot by a publicly appointed surveyor working from the
official site plan in the building permit documents. The intended
excavation for the building (basement) is marked out with pegs
~ 0 - 0. To secure the points that have been set out, profile
boards ~ e are set up, set back from the planned top of the
excavation's batter (sloped bank). After the excavation, string
lines are stretched between the profiles to mark the corners of
the building again. The intersections of the string lines are then
plumbed down to mark the external corners of the building.
The levels also have to be set out. These are based on benchmarks
in the surroundings. Geometric surveying measures the difference
in height of a horizontally set up level from a benchmark with a
levelling staff held vertically ~ 0. Intermediate levels can be
obtained with a long spirit level, normally a 3 m long light metal
rail with built-in bubble, and a measuring stick~ 0. Hydrostatic
levelling uses a water level, a flexible hose filled with water. This
has glass cylinders at each end calibrated in mm, and can be used
to transfer levels between points without visual contact because
the water in the tube finds the same level at each end.
setting out
survey rod
on the site
boundary
short building line
{string below)
line
··'···,;._. ~ightrail
···~:-~.; ~-- .------- --
. :·
·, ·....:·.~
fi) How the profile boards are used to set out the building --> 0
levelling
instrument
excavation for planned building
finished ground
floor level ±0.00

Profile-
Prop
'
hso~
Plumb
line
0 Building excavation with working
space and battered side
No load
Formwork
Wa~
+~so+
f) Building excavation with working
space and support
surlace of terrain
,.
C) Battered side to building excavation with banks to catch slipping material
Q Shotcrete applied to slope 0 Steel beam support with concrete
filling
0 Sheet pile wall with earth anchors 0 Wall support with round timbers
e Vertical support with trench planks
so!
€) Wall support with thick vertical
boards
FOUNDATIONS
Incorrect interpretation of the subsoil and groundwater conditions,
and the behaviour of the planned foundations, often lead to
technically and economically irreparable damage. This applies
particularly to lateral displacement of the soil under foundation
loading (load-bearing failure of the ground, slope failure),
where the foundations sink into the soil or are laterally displaced,
or settlement, through compression of the subsoil under the
foundations due to ground pressure and/or loads applied next to
the foundations. The results can be deformation or cracking in
masonry.
Soil investigation
If there is insufficient local experience about the properties,
extent, bedding and thickness of the soil strata on the site, a soil
investigation performed as early as possible by a geotechnical
specialist is essential. The specialist can obtain information
through trial pits (excavator or hand excavation), drilling
boreholes (auger/rotary/core drilling), with extraction of samples,
and probing (number and depth depending on the topography,
structure and particular investigation). The groundwater table is
measured with gauges in boreholes and regular measurement of
variations in level.
Soil investigations should provide data for the design and
construction of the building without technical or economic
problems:
-Soil samples are tested for grading, water content, consistency,
density, compressibility, shear strength and permeability. -
Probing provides continuous information about strength and
density for the investigated depth. - Groundwater samples
can be investigated for aggressiveness towards concrete.- The
results of the investigations are provided to the client as a site
investigation report.
Building excavations
Basement excavations are normally battered (with sloped banks)
--7 0. The following slope angle ~ can normally be assumed
without verification of the structural safety by calculation:
a) non-cohesive or soft, cohesive soils
b) stiff or semi-hard, cohesive soils
c) rock
13 ~450
13 ~60°
13 ~soo.
In order to provide protection against surface water, frost and
drying out, it is recommended to cover batter slopes with
protective foil, shotcrete or similar and also possibly to keep
water away from the top of the batter --7 0. If the excavation is
deep, it must be expected that parts of the slope will slide, even if
the angle is correct. Banks should therefore be provided to break
up the slope --7 8. If the ground will not stand up or the space
is limited, then the sides must be supported. This can be done
with thick, vertical planks tied with ground anchors or braced --7
0, steel profiles with a filling of round or squared timber --7 0 or
sheet steel piles --7 0. Difficult cases, where the support can
be integrated as a part of the later foundations, are constructed
with bored piles or diaphragm walls supported with bentonite. A
working space of ~50 em should be provided between the foot
of the batter or support construction --7 0 - f).
67
FOUNDATIONS
Building
excavations
Foundations
Tanking
Basement
drainage
Repair
BS 6031
BS EN 14199
BS 22475
DIN 1054
DIN 4123/4

FOUNDATIONS
Building
excavations
Foundations
Tanking
Basement
drainage
Repair
BS EN 1997
BS 8004
DIN 4123
Intended building~ ~~~o:===
Ground level j . ~~;~;~~
Initial excavation flm/1 !j . Cellar floor
t level
... ·-Uild9iSidB OifOUndation
I.?
Excavation limit . ~ I ',:·
after completion:: fill ',, ~
of underpinning .. j ~ .; lO
--1-- :: -rd
~roundwate( >:.~.~ :~ +~
~0.5 All
BUJ!drng excavatron 1- ; Underpinning
according to DIN 4124 {masonry, concrete
or reinforced
concrete)
0 Underpinning existing adjacent
structures
'/~=
I
Intended building r.'.1~=>0="'
Existing
~round level II building
Initial excavation i . Cellar floor
U1 ll~lt 1 level
'l':U Un~rslde of 1oundab : , ' Y /
__~.ci Groundwater
All ~0.5
.... ~
~rf- -
~ :stc~~=~~ctloni
tl ., r.
M ~.J
1 Following I
. _ construction '
~ ~:• stage
~ :~·;
~ } 1st
construct!on
stage
f) Foundations
0 Excavation below the water table- buoyancy of the structure
e Open dewatering
0 Groundwater control and lowering
68
FOUNDATIONS
Underpinning
If a new building is to be erected directly next to an existing
building with the underside of its foundations at a higher level,
then the existing foundations have to be underpinned to prevent
damage to the existing building through settlement or ground
failure.
Excavations, foundations and underpinning work next to existing
buildings should therefore be thoroughly and carefully designed,
prepared, planned and constructed in accordance with DIN 4123
--7 0- f).
A competent site manager must be present on the site during
the underpinning work.
Even work undertaken with careful planning and construction in
accordance with this standard cannot rule out slight deformation
of the existing building, according to condition and type of
construction.
Fine cracking and settlement of the underpinned building by
up to 5 mm is generally considered unavoidable. It is therefore
recommended to perform a survey of the existing building before
starting work, with the participation of all involved parties, to
determine its condition and survey reference levels and possibly
also deflection points.
Groundwater
If the bottom of the excavation is below the water table, then
special measures will be required:
This can be open dewatering, with the water being continuously
pumped out of sumps in the bottom, trenches and drains --7 e.
If the quantity of water is higher, then closed dewatering is
necessary --7 0: the groundwater is lowered using underwater
pumps (with a safety distance of about 50 em) under the base of
the excavation.
If the excavation is larger or deeper, however, there is a risk that
this lowering of the water table could impair the soil conditions
near the site (settlement of neighbouring buildings!) or the use
of public surface water drains could be forbidden. In this case,
the entire area of the bottom of the excavation will have to be
waterproofed.
To achieve this, the excavation is normally supported with a
continuous back-anchored sheet pile or diaphragm wall. Then
the excavation is dug down to floor level 'under water' and an
underwater concrete base designed to be safe from floating
is laid (if necessary, from a pontoon). After the concrete has
hardened, the water can be pumped out and any leaks grouted.
Alternatively, a soft gel base can be constructed by grouting the
subsoil with sodium silicate plus a chemical hardener additive to
produce a nearly waterproof layer.
The actual structure with external walls of watertight concrete
can be built in the basin produced in this way.
Without
side support
-dangerous
0 Trenches for drainage
Batter angle
according to
soil type
Trench with
partial
support

0 Pad foundations for a lightweight
building without cellar
f) Strip footings are the most
commonly used
0 Raft foundation with steel reinforcement e Pile grillage and caisson deep
foundations
3.0m
r--------1
0.5m
.---.-i
Wide foundations result in greater permissible stresses than narrow foundations
for the same ground pressure.
The overlapping of areas
loaded by adjacent
foundations brings the
danger of settlement or
cracking, an important
fact to remember for
new buildings next to
existing buildings.
Foundations on sandflll of
0.80 to 1.20 m thickness,
compacted in layers of 15 em
and soaked, can distribute
loading onto a wider area.
Foundations
next to a slope.
Pressure
distribution lines-
angle of slope of
the subsoil.
8 Simple strip footing of lean concrete e Widened, stepped foundations of
unreinforced concrete
FOUNDATIONS
Foundations
Foundations can be constructed as spread or shallow foundations
(pad foundations ---+ 0, strip footing ---+ f), ground-bearing
slab or raft ---+ 9) or deep foundations (piled foundations ---+ 0
---+ p. 70).
Spread foundations
Masonry foundations are technically feasible but seldom used
today on account of the high cost.
Unreinforced concrete foundations are used for smaller widths
and relatively small buildings.
Reinforced concrete foundations are used where the ground
pressure is higher orthe projection outside the wall is wider---+ 0-0
(reinforcement to resist the tension forces ---+ 0). Reinforced
concrete requires less thickness, weight and excavation depth than
unreinforced concrete. The detailing of foundations at expansion
joints and next to existing buildings or boundaries is shown in ---+ Ci).
Raft foundations ---+ ~ are used where the load-bearing capacity
of the subsoil is low or where pad foundations or strip footings are
insufficient to bear the load.
The foundation level must be at a frost-free depth, so that the
subsoil under it cannot move due to freezing and thawing.
According to DIN 1054, a depth of 0.80 m (for engineered
structures 1.0-1.5 m) counts as frost-free.
Improvement in the load-bearing capacity of the subsoil
a) Vibroflotation compaction: uses vibration to compact a
radius of 2.3-3 m; spacing of the vibration cores approx.
1.5 m. Settlement is topped up. The improvement depends on
the grading of the soil and its original bedding density.
b) Vibro stone columns: columns are formed by vibration of
aggregate of various grading without binder.
c) Stabilisation and compaction of the soil: Cement grouting
cannot be used for soils which are cohesive or aggressive to
cement. Grouting with chemicals (silica solution, potassium
chloride) produces immediate and permanent petrifaction, but
can be used only with soils containing quartz (gravel, loose
rock).
j~~
a) Foundation b) Foundation
~~
c) Construclion
wilh divided
invert slab
d) Foundation next
to existing
building
Q Foundation details at separation
and expansion joints
Widening foundations of unreinforced
concrete
thzzz})zzzzz9J
a) Raft of uniform depth
b) Rafl reinforced wilh beams
d) Reinforcement under columns
fii) Sections through raft
foundations
Still wider strip foundations
of reinforced concrete
69
FOUNDATIONS
Building
excavations
Foundations
Tanking
Basement
drainage
Repair
BS 8004
BS 22475
DIN 1054

FOUNDATIONS
Building
excavations
Foundations
Tanking
Basement
drainage
Repair
BS EN 12794
DIN EN 1536
·r~~
, ~ -~==:> ~
(a) ground retained in situ (b) rear anchored ln situ (c) in situ concrete or sheet
~~t~i~r~~ ~aireet piling ~~~~~~~~ ~ai~eet piling r~!~~t~~~~~"r~g wall built
:TJ7J:7
(d) concrete structure
against a retaining
wall
{e) gravity wall (f) retaining wall with
heel and toe
0 Building elements designed to resist active ground pressure
~6m
* determined by greatest bore depth
~ ?:.5·8
urn
f) Minimum depths for structural boring
- ii;3df--
~2d" ~1.10m
8 Bored piles (principle)
§
-6~
<00>
oc
!';::::
""'
0 ~
c.o
.. ·:: :·.:·j:·.:
•' .. ·.·.:
".
:!]~
.·....·.·.. ·.
e ·~· ·;;
e;;:;';d~tm+d
G Driven plies (principle)
·
...· .·..·. ·.
·:.~~;.'•:'
. . . . .0 .. · .
.·.· .· ·.. ~·.·
::'...:·.. *:,' .:
::.~'
~~7;20
. ',. : ··:
.. >. ·... : ~·
. ·=2dfl ... .
. . '•.
0 Required depth of load-bearing subsoil under bored plies (guideline values)
e Pressed concrete bored pile (Brechtel system)
70
FOUNDATIONS
Foundations
Deep foundations
Deep foundations are used where sufficiently load-bearing strata
only occur at a great depth under the planned building and thus
cannot be reached by shallow foundations.
They are normally constructed of reinforced concrete piles, which
transfer the loading from the building through the weak ground to
the load-bearing ground below. The design of piled foundations
is based on the permissible loading on the ground and the type,
properties, extent, density and thickness of the subsoil layers,
which have to be established by investigation boreholes and
probing if local experience cannot deliver sufficient certainty.
Basic terms
The force in the pile can be transferred to the stable ground by
skin friction, end-bearing or a combination of both (the type of
load transfer depends on the ground conditions and type of pile).
Standing pile foundations: load transfer is through the end of the
pile into load-bearing ground, additionally through skin friction.
Hanging pile foundations: the pile ends do not reach load-
bearing ground. Weakly load-bearing layers are compacted by the
driving of the pile.
Piles are categorised according to the method of load transfer
into: friction piles, which essentially transfer load into load-
bearing layers by skin friction between the pile surface and the
ground. End-bearing piles mainly transfer load into the ground
through pressure under the end, with skin friction being irrelevant.
The permissible force on the can be increased considerably by
making the end larger (under-reaming).
According to the location of the piles in the ground, they can be
ground piles, which are underground for their entire length, while
long piles (free-standing piles) are in the ground only for part of
their length and the upper part is free-standing, and therefore at
risk of buckling.
According to the method of installation, there are piles which
compact, displace or loosen the ground. Driven piles (driven with
a pile hammer), pressed piles (pressed in), bored piles (installed
in a bored hole), screwed piles (turned into the ground) and jetted
piles Qetted into the ground).
According to the type of loading, they can be: axially loaded
piles, tension piles (which are loaded in tension and transfer
the force in the pile into the ground through skin friction),
compression piles (which are loaded in compression and
transfer load through end pressure and skin friction) and piles
subject to bending (for example horizontally loaded large-
diameter bored piles).
According to the method of production and installation, piles
can be:
- precast piles, in prefabricated lengths or complete, which are
delivered to the site and driven into the ground, jetted, vibrated,
pressed, screwed or inserted into prepared holes.
- in-situ piles, which are concreted in a hole prepared in the
ground by boring, driving, pressing or vibrating.
- mixed foundation piles, which consist of a combination of
locally produced and prefabricated components.
In-situ piles have the advantage that their length can be determined
during construction, from the data recorded during driving or from
the inspection of the spoil from boring.

- - - - - - - - Vertical timber boarding (2.5 em)
Battens and counterbattens (5 em)
- - - - - - - - Wind proofing
- - - - - - - - Timber stud construction
with thermal insulation (12 em)
Floor construction (approx 20 em)
~~~~~~-- Horizontal waterproofing
Reinforced concrete floor slab (20 em)
Lean concrete (5 em)
Coarse gravel (30 em)
Geotextile
Seepage board
Reinforced concrete frost apron
117'~'74----+------- Vertical waterproofing
L•.UG'L:~:;L.::+------- Foundation trench
0 Plinth detail of a timber-framed building without cellar with open ground
transition in strongly permeable soil
111---+------ 2-layer external render (2 ern)
--+------Highly insulating masonry (36.5 em)
.,ii~~;--- Floor construction (approx 15 em)
Reinforced concrete floor slab (20 em)
~J:::=:=:=:=-- Insulation insert
H!'==-:=t------- Locating block
11---+------ Seepage board
:c;;:4LJ...,.Jiii~-- Floor construction (approx. 20 em)
Reinforced concrete base slab (20 em)
_____j~z:'Z~~~~~~~~= r:~~~~~g!~~ (5 em)
f) Plinth detail of a building with masonry cellar walls in weakly permeable or
cohesive soil
1~+11-1-+------- Air gap (min. 3 em)
Precast concrete element (4- 6 em),
4
'0ir~~-~-~-~-~-~-~-~-i----_-_-_ not water-absorbing, salt-resistant
1l Floor construction (15 em)
~~~~~,2--- Reinforced concrete floor slab (20 em)
~:t-------- Reinforced concrete external wall (20 em)
(waterproof concrete)
1-------- Internal plaster (1.5 em)
~14-7""',_________ External insulation (10 em)
Floor construction (approx. 20 em)
Reinforced concrete base slab (20 em)
Separating foil
Lean concrete (5 em)
0 Plinth detail of a building with cellar, ground floor at street level, construction as
a waterproof basin
FOUNDATIONS
Tanking, Basement Drainage
Waterproofing
External walls and slabs in contact with the ground must be
waterproofed against damp under external pressure. External
and internal walls in cellars and ground floors without cellars also
have to be protected with horizontal waterproofing against rising
damp.
This occurs as ground moisture (capillary, suction and residual
water in the ground, which can be carried against gravity by
capillary action) or seepage water, from precipitation and non-
standing, which is not under pressure (e.g. earth-covered cellar
roofs under courtyards), as well as water under pressure from
the outside or occasionally standing water (groundwater and
floodwater).
Waterproofing materials can be sheet material from the roll based
on bitumen, plastic or elastomer, metal bands, mastic asphalt or
thick plastic-modified bitumen coatings.
Vertical and horizontal waterproofing layers are to be brought
together and sealed so that no moisture bridges remain. They
must generally be continued 30 em above ground level. Protective
layers should also be provided in order to protect the waterproofing
until the assignment of the various types of waterproofing to the
various actions of water is shown in -+ 0.
Type of building Nature of water Installation Type of water
element situation action
walls and slabs in capillary water very permeable soil ground
contact with the residual water >10-"' m/s dampness and
ground above seepage water non-standing
the estimated low permeability seepage water
water table soil ,;10" m/s with
drainage
low permeability standing
soil ,;10" m/s seepage water
without drainage
(up to foundation
depth of 3 m below
ground level)
horizontal and precipitation used roof areas water without
sloping surfaces water (e.g. covered cellar pressure, high
in the ground seepage water roof) loading
walls and slabs in groundwater any type of soil, water under
contact with the flood water building and pressure from
ground below construction outside
the estimated
water table
Building elements In contact with the ground: water action, installation situation
and type of waterproofing
71
FOUNDATIONS
Building
excavations
Foundations
Tanking
Basement
drainage
Repair
BS 8000-4
BS 8102
BS EN 13967/9
DIN 4095
DIN 18195

FOUNDATIONS
Building
excavations
Foundations
Tanking
Basement
drainage
Repair
BS 8000-4
BS 8102
BS EN 13967/9
DIN 4095
DIN 18195
concrete bed
0 Building walls built against a slope must be well drained
1
fall;:;o.s%
positional plan
inspection l*
opening B pipe to main
drainage
f) Area drainage with seepage pipes and ring drainage, with a pumped sump
drainpipe
dia. 150mm
C) Cross-section A-B -> f)
water repellent
covering
base concrete
G Piped drainage with mixed filter
radius
0 Basement tanking against water
pressure
72
sand infill
0-4mm
coarse
gravel/rubble
existing ground
clay, sandy
32-63mm ~?~~~~~,~~~
~~~"~:S:.m dia. sand 7
perforations base concrete inflll
8 Piped drainage with staged filter
porous ground
ground level
radius
f) Basement tanking against water
pressure
FOUNDATIONS
Tanking, Basement Drainage
Basement drainage
The ground can be drained through a drainage layer and
drainage pipes in order to prevent the occurrence of water
under pressure against an external wall. The entire procedure
consists of drainage, inspection and flushing shaft and drainage
pipes -7 e.
Drainage pipe, ON 100, fall 0.5. Flushing and control pipe,
ON 300. Flushing, control and collector shaft, ON 1000. The
required nominal diameter for round drainage pipes and operating
roughness kb = 2 mm can be determined from -7 e. The flow
speed in the drainage pipe when full should not be less than
v =0.25 m/s. For areas over 2000 m2, full-area drainage should
be provided, through drainage pipes. The spacing of the individual
drainage pipes should be calculated, and if necessary inspection
shafts should also be provided -7 f).
The precondition for effective drainage is that the water runs away
into a sewer or stream even at the highest water level in the main
drainage channel. The best arrangement is a connection with free
fall into an open stream or rainwater sewer, to avoid the need for
pumping. If a pump is necessary, it must be protected against
water coming back from the sewer or stream by a suitable device
like a backflow preventer valve. This device must be accessible
and must be maintained. Water from drainage can also be
percolated into permeable subsoil, for example in a soakaway.
3.0
2.0
1.5
1.0
t
0.8
0.6
c
~ 0.4
0.3
0.2
D.1
0.05
li
// I
r----r--~·~·r-h/~~+k#-~~1~1-r-+~
~--~/
4;-++r+++*llr-~~~~~~~~
I! /I ! I
4 5 6 7 8 910 15 20 30 40 50
Flow rate Q (1/s)-
--Concrete land drains --- Corrugated plastic
drainpipe
e Design example for circular drainage pipes
Tanking
If there is water under pressure or it is not possible to divert
standing water through the provision of drainage, then the
building elements must be constructed of watertight concrete,
or a continuous waterproofing layer capable of resisting water
pressure must be applied to the invert and side walls. This can
consist of bituminous sheeting, metal waterproofing or plastic
foil. It must be resistant to aggressive water and must maintain its
effectiveness despite shrinkage, settlement and temperature-related
deformation -7 p. 71. Bentonite waterproofing is also possible.
Watertight concrete is today the generally preferred method of
resisting water under pressure. If the cellar floor and walls are
separated by a construction joint, this must be waterproofed with
a suitable waterstop or raised edge. The external surface of the
walls is also provided with a protective coating based on bitumen
or artificial resin as additional protection -7 e -f).

Missing
gutter
"-'~.-----.-..
::::·:·:·:·:·:·: Slope
.:::;:;:;:;:;:;:;:;:;:;:;:water
.:::::::::::::::::::::::::::
0 Frequent locations of defects ··:·:·:·:·:·.·:.;::::·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·::~ffttttt~~~1~~ing
Natural stone slabs
Old natural stone flooring of a
ground floor without cellar
Corner reinforcement with a metal
angle
Wind
Driving rain
Snow
Defective gutter,
Sloping ground
Surface water
Danger zone
foundation joint
Spring water
Tiles in reinforced
adhesive bed
Oil paper
Thermallnslulation
- rigid- 80 mm
Damp proof course
Blinding (sand)
Renewal of the floor with thermal
insulation and damp-proof layer on a
sub-concrete of lime mortar
e Corner of sill beam newly anchored
with coach bolts
Standing
water
e Main sources of damage from water 0 Main sources of damage from water
without pressure under pressure
Internal waterproofing of partially
inaccessible external walls
Water under
pressure
Drainage
Repair of foundations built in contact
with the earth
FOUNDATIONS
Repair
Most building defects are caused by damp. Rising damp from the
ground can be caused by missing or defective damp proofing over
the foundations or cellar, missing or silted drainage or defective
rainwater goods, resulting in surface water at the transition area
between ground and wall.
When a repair is undertaken, it also necessary to investigate
and remedy the cause of the moisture penetration. Missing or
damaged horizontal damp courses are laborious to replace,
and the work needs to be carried out very carefully because
the capillary transport of moisture must be interrupted. Building
elements, which are impossible to waterproof, or only at excessive
expense, can be coated using special plaster systems, which
enable the damp to evaporate. The efflorescence of mineral salts
resulting from evaporation can be absorbed for a long time, but
the durability of such remedial plasters is still considerably shorter
than plaster on a dry substrate.
Replacement of sill beam in two
stages
. saJJn or ,, : "~
=~ drilled ::, External:-;.;·
Ro~·:::,: · · ::: sealing :::·
"' t . Breathable -.; mostly :
Work1ng": plaster or ~ sufficient ·
space ~: hacked off ~/·:·
~~:)·:r:::.:::::.:::.:~:·:·:::f:.:::·:-r~~:*~~~~r
Full-area drainage
e Supplementary horizontal isolation
and waterproofing of a darnp cellar
Supplementary insertion of horizontal
waterproofing (wall separation)
~ Jettiedbeam
~:~~
J::::f/~/ ~
0
/
• with dowels
*cogged
Possible corner joints for timber
frame sill beams (tension and
compressive loading)
Injected damp-proofing
'U·
.,
1 • .; I
, , 1
.-I .JI-
.-1 I -..
--, ,_,.,
I, .'
JU~JH_tJ.t
' Shrinka~e of dry'
cohes1ve soli
under building
Building corner
falling out
..~~~~·:.. ··~~:~~~:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
/ /Needling
e Needling of a subsiding house
corner
73
FOUNDATIONS
Building
excavations
Foundations
Tanking
Basement
drainage
Repair

WALLS
Natural stone
masonry
Brick and block
masonry
Composite
construction
Repair
BS EN 771-6
BS EN 1745
BS EN 1996
DIN 1053
0 Dry stone walling I section
C) Rubble masonry
9 Irregularly coursed masonry
f) Ashlar masonry
C) Composite masonry showing the
structurally effective section
74
f) Cyclopean masonry of volcanic
stone
G Rubble masonry squared with a
hammer into courses
e Regularly coursed masonry
e Composite masonry
Ci) Stone cladding without structural
contribution
WALLS
Natural Stone Masonry
Natural stone walling can be categorised into rubble, cyclopean,
coursed, ashlar and composite.
Stone, which has a natural plane of cleavage, should be split and
laid according to the cleavage, e.g. ~ 0. e. 0. which looks
better and is also structurally sounder because the loading is then
mostly at right angles to the natural bedding. ·
The size of the individual blocks is of great importance. The block
length should not be more than four to five times the block height
and should not be less than the height (the stones should be
bonded well on all sides). Pure natural stone masonry must be
bonded in the entire cross-section in accordance with good trade
practice.
There should never be more than three joints meeting at the
front or rear surfaces of a block and no vertical joint should pass
through more than two courses. For structural reasons, a course
should be brought flat and level every ~1.5 m (spacing of scaffold
platforms).
Header and stretcher courses must alternate, or there must be
at least one header for every two stretchers in each course. The
depth (into the wall) of the headers must be at least 1% times the
course height but at least 30 em.
The depth (into the wall) of the stretchers must be about
equal to the course height. The vertical joints must be covered
by ;;::;10 em in coursed masonry and ;;::;15 em in ashlar
masonry ~ 0 + 0, and the largest blocks should be laid at the
corners ~ 0 - 0. Face surfaces should subsequently be fully
pointed, first scratching out a depth equal to the joint width. The
joints should be about 3 em thick according to roughness and
method of working. Lime or lime-cement mortar should be used,
as cement can discolour certain types of stone. In composite
masonry, the worked stone facing can be integrated into the load-
bearing cross-section ~ 0. Non-load-bearing stone cladding of
2.5-5 em thickness is fixed to the backing wall with anchors ~ Cli).
Stone type Compressive strength
(N/mm2)
limestone, travertine, volcanic tuff 20
weak sandstone (with clay binder) and similar 30
dense (strong) limestone and dolomite (incl. marble). 50
basalt lava and similar
quartzitic sandstone (with siliceous binder), graywacke 80
and similar
granite, syenite, diorite, quartz porphyry, black porphyry, 120
diabase and similar
C) Minimum compressive strengths of building stone
Grade Stone strength Basic values cr0
1) for mortar group
pst (N/mm2) I(MN/m2) II (MN/m2) !Ia (MN/m2
) III(MN/m2)
N1 ~20 0.2 0.5 0.8 1.2
i';50 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.4
N2 "'20 0.4 0.9 1.4 1.8
i';50 0.6 1.1 1.6 2.0
N3 "'20 0.5 1.5 2.0 2.5
i';50 0.7 2.0 2.5 3.5
"'100 1.0 2.5 3.0 4.0
N4 i';20 1.2 2.0 2.5 3.0
"'50 2.0 3.5 4.0 5.0
i';100 3.0 4.5 5.5 7.0
11Ifjoints are more than 40 mm thick, then the basic values cr0 are to be reduced by 20%.
@) Basic values 0'0 of the permissible compressive stresses for natural stone
masonry with normal mortar
Grade Basic category Joint height I Slope of bed Transfer
block length joint-tan a. factorn
N1 rubble masonry <0.25 <0.30 >0.50
N3 masonry hammered into ;:§0.20 ;:§0.15 i';0,65
courses
N3 coursed masonry "'0.13 "'0.10 >0.75
N4 ashlar masonry <0.07 <0.05 >0.85
48 Guideline values for the grading of natural stone masonry

0 Single-leaf plastered
C) Single-leaf with external thermal
insulation
0 Single-leaf with internal insulation
Two-leaf composite masonry with
internal plaster layer
e Faced cavity wall with air gap
f) Single-leaf faced
8 Single-leaf with thermal insulation
and weather protection
Tiled cladding on masonry with a
high thermal insulation value
e Faced cavity wall without air gap
4Ii) With/without air gap plastered
WALLS
Brick and Block Masonry
Building materials
Countless bricks and blocks are available for the production of
masonry walls in various forms, sizes and qualities ~ G).
The dimensions (formats) are normally multiples of the standard
format and thin format ~ 0.
Clay bricks and blocks Sand-lime blocks
solid brick solid and holed blocks
facing solid brick facing blocks
hard-burnt solid brick facing blocks
vertically cored block cored and hollow blocks
facing vertically cored block
vertically cored hard-burnt block
plan blocks (for thin mortar laying)
ceramic solid hard-burnt block
ceramic vertically cored hard-burnt
granulated slag aggregate concrete
blocks
block
aerated concrete blocks solid aerated concrete blocks
lightweight hollow concrete blocks concrete masonry units
CD Brick and block types
Description Length (em) Width (em) Height (em)
thin format TF 24 11.5 5.2
normal format NF 24 11.5 7.1
2 thin format 2TF 24 11.5 11.3
3 thin format 3TF 24 17.5 11.3
4!} DIN brick formats (excerpt)
External wall construction
Single-leaf external walls ~ 0- f) are unproblematic regarding
building physics, but on account of the high thermal insulation
requirements can only be built with materials with high thermal
insulation value (e.g. aerated blocks) and special thermally
insulated mortars and plasters. If the blocks used are susceptible
to frost damage, they have to be rendered or protected in other
ways. If the masonry is externally visible, then each course must
consist of at least two rows of blocks of the same height with a
continuous 20 mm thick longitudinal joint between them, and each
course staggered and mortared without voids.
Single-leaf walls with additional insulation layers ~ 8 - 0
(external, internal insulation ~ Building physics, p. 471 ff.) are
therefore a common alternative.
Cavity walls consist of an inner load-bearing wall and an outer
non-load-bearing weather protection facing (minimum thickness
90 mm). They can be built with an air gap, with air gap and thermal
insulation, with cavity-filling insulation and with intermediate
plaster layer ~ 0 - CD). The masonry leaves are connected with
ties of non-rusting steel. The width of the air gap should be min. 40
mm (max. 150 mm). Vertical expansion joints should be provided
in the external leaf and there should also be. ventilation openings
(e.g. open vertical joints) at the top and bottom, with the openings
at the bottom also serving to drain water p. 77 ~ e.
75
WALLS
Natural stone
masonry
Brick and block
masonry
Composite
construction
Repair
BS 8103-2
DIN 1053
see also:
Building physics
pp. 471ft.

WALLS
Natural stone
masonry
Brick and block
masonry
Composite
construction
Repair
BS 8103-2
DIN 1053
0 English bond
0 Stretcher bond with y, brick
displacement
e Flemish bond; one header, one
stretcher, alternate courses
One stretcher and one header
course, alternating with header
course
Cl) Stretcher bond with V.. brick
displacement, joints rising to the
right
G One header and one stretcher
alternating in courses with 1A brick
right and left
f) Cross bond
Q Stretcher bond with V.. brick
displacement
~ ~ 10
~ 0:l
~ 0:l
e One header, two stretchers,
alternate courses
~
Two stretcher and one header
course, alternating with header
course
~ Stretcher bond with V.. brick
right and lett
f) One header and one stretcher
alternating in courses, with Y2
brick displacement, joints rising
to the lett
@) Hole coursed into the masonry for ~ as --> @) (holey, x 'A brick)
light or ventilation (hole y, x y, brick)
76
WALLS
Bonding of masonry
In order to evenly transfer the loads acting on masonry and
ensure crack-free wall surfaces, bricks and blocks are normally
laid in regular courses and bonded. Masonry courses are named,
according to their method of integration into the bond, stretcher,
header or soldier courses:
Stretcher courses lie with their length along the face of the wall.
Header courses lie with their end in the face of the wall and are
bonded into the masonry by their length.
Masonry courses should continue horizontally through all walls
in a building. Vertical joints in adjacent courses must always
be overlapped, i.e. displaced relative to the adjacent course
by a certain dimension (at least 1,4 brick). In order to reduce the
proportion of joints, as many whole bricks as possible should be
used (in the currently prevalent single-leaf wall made of large-
format blocks, the joints are the thermal weak point and have to be
carried out in lightweight or thin mortar, or with the vertical joints
toothed ---) 0). The type and dimension of the displacement of the
vertical joints in adjacent courses leads to the basic pattern of the
various masonry bonds, in addition to the sequence of stretchers
and headers.
Course 1 !
! Course 2
& Modern masonry bonds
@]@][~][
JEJiciJEJ
, ,
, ,
, ,
, '
' '
, '
' '
f-...--1 Overlap
Modern masonry bonds are normally laid in stretcher bond ---) 8
as 'middle bond' with displacement of the vertical joint by
% brick in the next course or, alternatively, as 'English bond'
with displacement of the vertical joint by 1f3 brick in the next
course ---) 0, or with 'cross bond', alternating stretcher and
header courses ---) f).
There are many other bonds in classical bricklaying such as
'Flemish bond' ---) 0, or one header and three stretchers in each
course ---) 0 and other decorative bonds.
0 as--> @) (hole V.. x Y, brick) 0 as --> @) (hole 1 x V.. brlcl<)

0 Two-leaf wall with air gap and
insulation
Building element
f) Plinth connection
Conditions
Wall thickness Clear wall height
(<in em) (11 in em)
internal wall "'11
5
;o;24
;o;275
"'24 -
solid external wall i;;175
S24
;o;275
"'24 S12 t
load-bearing leaf ~11 5
of a cavity external wall ~175
and cavity party wall ;;;175
;o;275
S24
"'24 S12 t
Imposed load
(rrin kN/m2)
~5
~3
~5
C) Conditions for the application of the simplified calculation procedure for building
heights ;o;20 m (DIN 1053-1 --> refs)
Load-bearing walls
WALLS
Walls which have to bear more than their self-weight on one storey
are called load-bearing walls.
Bracing walls
Masonry can be secured by bracing walls and slabs below and
above (three-dimensional cell principle). Bracing walls are building
elements which work as deep beams to transfer horizontal loads
(e.g. wind loads).
Non-load-bearing walls
Walls which are only loaded by their self-weight and are not used
for bracing against buckling are called non-load-bearing.
Cut-outs and chases
Cut-outs and chases can either be chased out mechanically
or formed in bond by the bricklayer. Their details can require
structural verification under certain circumstances --'> e.
Perimeter tie
Perimeter ties are required for the transfer of horizontal forces
over all external and transverse walls in buildings with more than
two full storeys or more than 18 m length and walls with many
or large openings under the floor slab. These are normally made
of reinforced concrete and constructed together with columns
and massive floor slabs. A simplified verification procedure can
be used under certain circumstances for the design of masonry
construction --7 e.
Horizontal and inclined chases Vertical chases and cut-outs, carried out later
Vertical chases and cut-outs in bonded masonry (em)
Wall carried out later (em) (em)
thickness Chase length Distance of
Chase
Residual
(em) Unlimited S1.25 m Chase depth Chase width chase or cut-out
Width
wall
Chase depth Chase depth from openings thickness
i;;115 - - ~1 ;o;10 - -
;;;175 - ~25 ~3 ;o;10 ~26 ~11 5
i;;24 ~15 ~25 ~3 ;o;15 "'11
5 ;o;385
"'11
5
i;;30 22 ~3 ~3 ;o;20 ~385 ;;;175
;:::;365
"'2 S3 S3 S20 ~385
"'24
G Penmissible size of chases and cut-outs In load-bearing walls (DIN 1053-1--> refs)
Crossing of reinforced aerated Q
concrete blockwork
Masonry of aerated concrete (hollow G)
blocks) with reinforced pumice
concrete lintel
Reinforced masonry door and
window lintels
Masonry of hollow blocks with cast
trough lintel
Glued aerated concrete blockwork,
1 mmjoints
Blocks with 5 em insulation layer
and mortar pockets
Minimum distance of chases and cut-outs
From openings To each other
;;;2 x chase width i;;chase width
or~24
Vertically cored clay bricks and
blocks laid or with poured mortar
Assembly blocks with insulation
and cavities for mortar filling
77
WALLS
Natural stone
masonry
Brick and block
masonry
Composite
construction
Repair
BS 8103-2
DIN 1053

WALLS
Natural stone
masonry
Brick and block
masonry
Composite
construction
Repair
see also: Glass
pp. 104ft.
Building physics
pp.471 ff.
0 Two-layer concrete
e Two leaves of aerated concrete
Timber
-Plaster board
0.23
W/(m2
·K)
0 Low-energy wall (Heckmann Okohaus)
reed
insulation
board
f) Stud framing with lightweight clay
elements
C) Timber framing with lightweight clay
blocks
78
f) Concrete with external thermal
insulation system
synthetic resin
render
Q Masonry with external thermal
insulation system
Gypsum
plaster
0.11-0.19
W/(m2
·K)
Q Masonry with external cladding
wind
barrier
cavity
ventilation
e Timber framing (insulation
between the posts)
4Ii} Laminated timber sections for
log house construction
WALLS
Composite Construction
Reinforced concrete walls --> 0 - f)
Reinforced concrete walls can be concreted on site or pre-cast.
Solid concrete walls can be used as external walls only with
an additional thermal insulation layer. This can be as an external
thermal insulation system --> 0 or as a multi-leaf construction
(analogous to p. 75) with core insulation and possibly back-
ventilation. Two-layer reinforced concrete walls --> 0 with
core insulation are used particularly as large-format external wall
elements.
Timber-framed walls --> 0 - 41!)
The oldest form of timber walling is log cabin construction
with the round logs or beams laid on top of one another and
cogged at the corners --> 41!). Timber-framed walling (with the
panels filled in with various materials) is economical and the
most common method, with vertical loads being transferred
through the studs. A variant of timber framing is the erection of
framed panels, which are prefabricated with thermal insulation.
When timber-framed walls are to be used, provide sufficient
roof overhang and design cladding in the splash area to be
easily replaced.
mFramed construction with non-
load-bearing masonry panels
Column----....,.-:~
Floor
construction
Concrete
slab ---tt--,
Fixing
G) Curtain wall of multi-layer fagade
elements
Non-load-bearing external walls
0 Curtain wall with back-ventilated
fagade
CD Curtain wall as double fagade
Light and often prefabricated panels are frequently used for non-
load-bearing external walls (e.g. for framed buildings) --> G». The
advantage is the low loading on the edges of the slabs, rapid
assembly and simpler replacement later.
Curtain walls --> 0 - tD can be made of light, prefabricated
metal-glass construction in the form of fat;,:ade panels of metal
or plastic, multi-layer fat;,:ade elements complete with windows
and parapets or pre-cast concrete elements. The most
common elements are fixed to the slabs (or framed columns)
with fixing brackets or anchors and can be combined to form
any size of wall.

Q Panel infilling (left to right) of
loam on stakes (wattle and daub),
with rubble masonry and with
hard-burnt bricks
Mineral render
Calcium silicate
insulation board 60 mm
Adhesive
Full brick 52 mm
Lime plaster
Foam rubber strips
A inside
0 New infilling of mineral Insulation
panels and brick: timber framing
visible on both sides
A
Wooden shingles
Battens 24/48 mm
Ventilation layer
Thermal insulation 40 mm
Old lime render
Straw daub on willow
Wattle with oakstakes
Internal plaster (lime)
inside
External insulation with highly diffusible
material behind ventilated cladding=
constructional timber protection: timber
framing visible on the inside
A
bad well H;;;1s
f) Avoidance of dragged transitions
when repairing loam infilling
Silicate render 15 mm
Mesh
Wood-wool board 20 mr
Mineral fibre insulation
batt80 mm
Wood-wool board 25 mr
Mesh (not metallic)
Lime plaster
A inside
e Lightweight infilling (no thermal
storage possible!): timber framing
visible on both sides
Mineral render
Wood-wool board 25 mm
Mineral fibre insulation
batts 2 x40 mm
Battens 24/48 mm
Plaster board or
wood-wool boards
Plaster on reed mats
inside
New infilling with good thermal
Insulation: timber framing clad on
the inside without damp barrier!
The original structure of natural stone tiles
on aconcrete base and masonry parapet
was solid. To preserve the external view and
insert large-scale French windows affecting
the inside view, the windows and parapet
were replaced with casement windows with
natural stone parapet elements.
The design used natural stone slabs
on self-supporting sub-structure and
upgraded with interjacent thermal
insulation, without changing much the
proportions of the profile.
inside
L.____.J/
Existing situation: natural stone
cladding to concrete structure
Arch.: Kister Scheithauer Gross, Cologne
inside
f---a---1
Improvement in thermal insulation
while mostly preserving the outline
and proportions which determine
the fa9ade
WALLS
Repair
External walls
Defects to external walls are caused by natural weathering, poor
maintenance and often also incorrectly carried out repairs and
modernisation attempts. When modernisation or conversion work
is undertaken, walls have to be upgraded to meet current energy
and structural requirements.
Timber framing
A main characteristic of timber-framed houses is the separation of
the load-bearing timber construction from the non-load-bearing
panels between (the panels should always be fitted so they
receive no loading). Timber construction was originally carried
out without metal fixings and can normally be repaired without
the use of steel or iron parts (water condensation on metal parts
can damage the timber, which in Germany is often softwood). The
original infilling of the panels is usually facing brick or a clay daub
--7 0 - f). The timber functions and the appearance of joints at
the contact between timber and panel is unavoidable. Triangular
strips or grooves in the timber are used to fix the panel infilling
and prevent draughts. Constructional timber protection (wide roof
overhang, full-surface render or ventilated cladding) can avoid
damage due to water penetrating from outside. Waterproof paints
and permanently elastic mastic also stop water from infiltrating
but are one of the main causes of damage to timber framing!
Loam panels should always be preserved and damaged ones
repaired. There is still no other panel infilling material available that
is as good as loam --7 0 + 0 in terms of good trade practice,
building physics and building biology. It also counters fungal and
insect attack. Brick infilling has a stiffening effect, which acts
against the structural principles of timber framing, and lightweight
infilling has no thermal storage capacity.
Natural stone and stucco fagades
The energy performance of solid walls with structured fac;:ades of
natural stone or stucco is often improved by internal insulation --7
p. 55 0. When natural stone cladding is replaced, insulation can
be installed behind the stone fac;:ade. The stone facing panels must
be fixed to an independent support structure while maintaining the
outline and proportions of the fac;:ade. If the expense of insulation
to EnEV standards is too high (i.e. economically unreasonable),
an exemption from certain requirements can be agreed with the
responsible authority. When installing external insulation, attention
should be paid to whether the extra projection infringes any
boundary or building line --7 0 +e.
Aim
1
4a
4b
Sa
Sb
So
Element Measure Residential Zones of non-
according to buildings and residential
zones in other buildings
buildings with with indoor
temperatures temperatures
>19°C from 12to
<19°C
max. of heat transmission coefficients
Urn., (Wim2 X K)
external walls No.1 a tod 0.24 0.35
ceilings, roofs and No. 4.1 0.24 0.35
roof pitches
flat roofs No.4.2 0.20 0.35
roofs and walls No.5 a, b, d 0.30 no requirement
next to unheated and e
rooms or earth
floor construction No. So 0.50 no requirement
slabs with outside No.5 a toe 0.24 0.35
air below
Maximum heat transmission coefficients with new installation, replacement or
conversion of building elements, in existing buildings, EnEV 2009 (windows and
doors-> p. 99)
79
WALLS
Natural stone
masonry
Brick and block
masonry
Composite
construction
Repair

FLOOR SLABS
Slab
construction
Refurbishment
Concrete repair
Floors
BS EN 1168
BS EN 12058
DIN 1045
DIN 1055
see also: Building
physics
pp. 471 If.
Fire protection
pp. 511 If.
0 llmber joist floor
8 Timber joist floor with filling
Reinforcement
0 Hollow pot slab, fully mortared
C) Reinforced concrete composite
floor slab
41) Reinforced concrete beam slab
80
ft2;
~
60~1~ j_
f) Timber joist floor, exposed below
e Timber joist floor with aerated
concrete and additional insulation
(refurbishment)
0 Pre-stressed concrete core slabs
0 Aerated concrete floor slab
~ Composite slab
FLOOR SLABS
Slab Construction
Floor slabs separate storeys and have to fulfil sound insulation and
fire protection requirements in addition to their structural function.
In addition to the main building materials (natural/artificial stone,
concrete, steel, timber and lightweight concrete), slabs can
be divided by their structural system into vaulted (subject to
compression) and flat (subject to bending).
They can be built as slab or joist/beam constructions:
Slabs are flat structures loaded at right angles to their plane and
spanning in one or two directions with linear or point loading.
Common forms are solid reinforced concrete slabs --7 0 - CD, as
in-situ, pre-cast or partially prefabricated elements; hollow pot
slabs --7 0 with structurally connected clay pots forming cavities;
pre-stressed concrete cored planks --7 0, made out of welded
single elements; and composite slabs --7 m.
Joist constructions consist of single beams, mostly loaded in
bending.
In addition to timber joist floors --7 0 - G, solid beam slabs --7
0- e, tD, and steel joist slabs --7 0 can also be used.
For large spans and loads, there are double-T slabs --7 0 and
ribbed slabs, structurally optimised mixed constructions.
8 Slab with prefabricated component e Brick slab with beam elements
~~
$ Solid reinforced concrete slab
7-22{ ; ·
20
0 Steel joist floor with panel filling
f-..__ •
~1.20~
2.40~
4!} Double-T slab
e Old and new floor

Inserted boards
;~~n.batle~: . ~~
~- ~
derbeam [Plaster:ter
layer base
Floor construclion with
new inserted boards on battens
Improvement of sound and thermal
insulation with suspended ceiling
Sound-insulating floor construction
with poured asphalt screed
,_, -~~·-·
ijr%;2¢~
~LerfL:::~onfill
straw-loam filling
New floor covering, carpet on
boards+ impact sound insulation
Insulation at a limber
floor on cellar side
Sound insulation improvement
of a loam floor
[ Old timber beams only
carry ceiling 'tValuable
stucco ceiling
Insertion of a new steel beam lloor, the old
timber beams are retained with valuable
stucco ceiling
0 Various methods of upgrading timber joist floors
Floor boards on sand (existing)
~ ~~~~~~~~:mber
~...)l--'~ Cellarvault
~&Yff~ ~~os:~;~ortar
....":.: .... .-.·. ·.·....·.·:·.._.::;::bedding
P
.·'············ lnsulationlayer
Waterprooling
Cellar vault
f) Replacement of a boarded floor laid in sand
·::::::::::.;.;.;.;.;.;-~·::::::::.;.;:.;.;.;.;.;.;
Section ~
"mfo"'I!S!'m, '"' •d) """' rsnfts "!Ifill fuo,
:-:·:··::;.::.·.·:::.·::·:.;.;:;;;::.;:::·~·:::::·~··;;:~.::;:.·:
Side view
tldi:fui'SJ;
Section Side view
C) Strengthening weak parts of joists in the span
~:~~ed
Waterproofing
~~:~ concr~te
Waterproofing
Under floor
Floor beam
Plaster
Conventional ways of
waterproofing timber joist floors
in old buildings
JJLJ~·~~~
~-l!=b=_~
llles
Screed/mortar bed
Damp barrier
Dry screed
Difference beam
Drain pipe $ 100
Floor fill
Under floor
Under floor support -----++'
Ceiling plaster ------'
Ceiling beam ------'
Distortion of drain pipe under a
new floor
Floor slabs
FLOOR SLABS
Refurbishment
Load-bearing floor joists in old buildings used to be designed
empirically by the carpenter. The loads were mostly carried
on transverse joists spanning one or more longitudinal support
beams. In an old building book from 1900, a ratio of joist height
to width of 5:7 is given as a guideline for the determination of joist
size. The rule: half the room depth in decimetres =the joist height
in em. Because of this sizing, old timber joist floors often sag
considerably, though this does not compromise structural safety
as long as the permissible stresses are not exceeded.
Refurbishment possibilities ---> 0. Strengthen the timber joist
by adding a second. Improve the load distribution by inserting
additional floor joists or a steel beam ---> 0. Shorten the span by
inserting one or more additional support beams or a load-bearing
cross wall. Alterations to the load-bearing structure should always
be preceded by a precise survey of load-transferring and bracing
functions. In order to guarantee the load transfers, all connections
must be in firm contact.
Improvement in sound insulation can normally be achieved only
through an increase in the weight of the floor, so the floor will
probably have to be strengthened as well. Impact sound can be
reduced by separating the walking surface from the structure and
by using soft floor coverings---> 0.
If new building standards are to be achieved, it will normally
be necessary to change the entire floor structure ---> p. 55.
The installation of wet rooms above timber joist floors requires
particular attention because it will scarcely be possible to
check for penetration of water and damp damaging the
structure---> 0-0.
• Timber frame wall
• Vertical laths
at 3D em
• Impregnated
plasterboard
• Sealing filler
• Wall tiles in PC!
adhesive
• Permanently
elastic joints
• Floor tiles in adhesive
• Screed 4.5 em with
reinforcement
• Foil, welded and continued
min 5 em above FFL
Floor and wall details for wet
rooms in a timber-framed building
Wall and floor construction
for shower tray
~
Floor junction
at door theshold
e Important details In wet rooms
• Wall tiles in PCI adhesive
• New wall plaster
• Masonry
• Permanently elastic joint
• Floor tiles in waterproof
adhesive
• Reinforced screed 4.5 em
Floor and wall details for wet
rooms in a masonry building with
timber joist fioors
Pipe installation in two-layer partition
Airspace
Mineral fibre felt mat
Btud
Sound-insulating double-leaf wall
construction
81
FLOOR SLABS
Slab construction
Refurbishment
Concrete repair
Floors

FLOOR SLABS
Floating screed
Shotcrete (approx. 3 em) increases the
cover to the reinforcement and thus
improves fire and airborne sound insulation
/
/
Floating screed
Suspended ceilings must either provide
the entire fire rating (here F90) or they
may not be considered. Advantage: the
impact sound insulation is also improved
Carpet on bonded
screed with voids
Suspended F90 ceiling between the ribsin
low rooms. If bonded screed is used,
impact sound insulation can be improved
by carpeting
Slab construction
Refurbishment 0 Upgrading of concrete slabs In refurbishment or conversion of buildings
Concrete repair
Floors
BS 12617
BS 13395
BS 14629
etc.
DIN 1045
Evaluation criterion Testing method/equipment
presence of voids hammering with hammer or steel
rod, drag chain method
surface tension strength Herlon device, Schenk-Trebel
device etc.
compressive strength (non- Schmidt hammer
destructive)
crack widths measuring magnifying glass,
crack width ruler
alteration of crack widths crack marks, dial gauge,
inductive transducer
carbonisation phenolphthalein test on freshly
exposed substrate
presence of chlorides spraying of silver nitrate
(qualitative), Quantab process
(semi-quantitative)
concrete cover of reinforcement electromagnetic meters
corrosion activity potential field measurement
degree of rusting of calliper
reinforcement
f) Improvement of an external wall with composite
Insulation system
0 Methods of testing concrete quality (Kind-Barkansas -> refs)
Environmental Example of environmental conditions Concrete reinforcement Pre-tensioning
class (mm) reinforcement (mm)
Iii 0 Iii 0
1! "' ~
<!)
"' ~
.a c .a
<!)
"' "
<!)
"' "
(9 ii) () (9 ii) ()
1 interior of residential and office buildings (only applies
if no worse conditions were present for a significant 15 15 15 25 25 25
time during construction)
22a -rooms with high humidity (e.g. laundries)
-external building elements 20 15 15 30 25 25
-building elements in non-aggressive ground or water
2b -external building elements exposed to frost
- building elements in non-aggressive ground or water
with frost 25 20 20 35 30 30
- interior building elements with high humidity and
frost risk
3 -external building elements exposed to frost and
defrosting agents
40 35 35 50 45 45
4 also with frost - building elements in splash zone or dipping into
seawater, a part exposed to air 40 35 35 50 45 45
-building elements in salty air (directly on coast)
5 Sa weakly chemically aggressive environment (gaseous,
liquid, solid), aggressive industrial atmosphere
25 20 20 35 30 30
5b moderately chemically aggressive environment
(gaseous, liquid, solid)
30 25 25 40 35 35
5c strongly chemically aggressive environment (gaseous,
liquid, solid)
40 35 35 50 45 50
e Minimum cover to reinforcement (Association of German Cement Industry_, refs)
e New descriptions of concrete strength (Association of German Cement Industry-> refs)
82
FLOOR SLABS
Concrete Repair
Requirements
The existing condition must be
surveyed and damage analysed
before starting the repair of
concrete buildings. The following
points are particularly important:
Surfaces: damage through
insufficient cover to the rein-
forcement. The cause may be
the low requirements of earlier
guidelines and, often, inappro-
priate construction. Carboni-
sation (conversion of alkaline
concrete into acid through en-
vironmental effects) can lead to
corrosion of the reinforcement,
which results in spalling of the
concrete surface.
Joints: elastic joints should be
replaced after max. 10 years.
If this is not done, damage can
be caused to the structure by
penetrating water (e.g. frost
damage).
Building elements: if the walls
or slabs are too thin for the fire
protection and sound insulation
requirements, then additional
measures are necessary.
Building materials for concrete
replacement:
cement concrete and cement
mortar (CC)
plastic-modified cement con-
crete and cement mortar
(PCC)
reaction resin concrete and re-
action resin mortar (PC). Mor-
tar and concrete with artificial
resin additives are not suitable
for the improvement of fire
protection requirements!
The surfaces must be cleaned
and have the surface strength
specified for the relevant treat-
ment. Large areas of concrete
surface can be removed and the
reinforcement derusted by using
high-pressure water jetting. If it
is possible to provide sufficient
thickness of concrete cover,
then no further rust protection is
necessary for the reinforcement.
If only a thinner cover is possible,
then the reinforcement must
be protected against rust. In
this case, the requirements for
derusting are higher.

0
f)
Bonded screed
Vapour-permeable coating 2 mm
Bonded screed (for industrial
flooring), construction height
approx. 4 em, traffic load
10KN/m2
Parquet 25 mm
Cement screed 20-855, reinforced
PEfo110.1
Mineral wool 27/25
PS 30, 40mm
PEfoil0.1
PVC fall 0.5
Concrete slab
Floor construction for slabs between
living rooms: construction height
approx. 14.5 em, traffic load 2 KN/m2
Floor construction (underfloor heating)
for living rooms above cold areas:
construction height approx. 19 em,
traffic load 2 KN/m2
Floating screeds
Vapour-permeable coatlng 2 mm
/
//
Floor construction for above- e
ground office space: construction height
approx. 16 em, traffic load 5 KN/m2
Unbonded screed
Vapour-permeable coaling 2 mm
Cement screed 20-T55
PE foil 0.2
PE foil 0.2
Concrete slab
/ / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / :
/ / / / / / / / j / / / / / / / / / / / / / ,
Floor construction for subsidiary
rooms in basement: construction
height approx. 6 em, traffic load
2 KN/m2
as --> e but as dry screed:
construction height approx. 10.5 em,
traffic load 2 KN/m'
as --> e but without underfloor
heating: construction height approx.
17 em, traffic load 2 KN/m2
Vapour-permeable coating 2 mm
as--> f) but for higher loading:
construction height approx. 19 em,
traffic load 10 KN/m2
FLOOR SLABS
Floors
Floor construction
Floors are normally built up in many layers, consisting
of covering, screed (if necessary, with substructure),
separation, waterproofing and insulation layers. The nature,
arrangement and thickness of these layers is determined
by the requirements for thermal insulation, sound insulation
and waterproofing (against water penetrating from above).
Screeds can be constructed as bonded screed --7 0,
unbonded screed --7 f) or floating screed --7 f). Screed
can be based on cement, anhydrite or flowing anhydrite, or
poured asphalt. The load-bearing capacity of screed depends
on the thickness and quality of the material as well as the
load-bearing capacity of other layers (e.g. insulation). The
requirements for expansion joints also have to be observed.
Prefabricated parquet blocks
on support timbers
Wood-block paving (rustle type)
laid tight with surface treatment
(living areas)
Tongue and groove boards on
support timbers
Wood-block paving (heavy duty) laid
light on flat-floated base concrete
(Industrial building)
Prefabricated screed (dry screed) is becoming more common
as construction schedules become shorter. This can be made
of mechanically fixed, engineered wood boards (e.g. resin-
bonded boards), gypsum fibre board or gypsum plasterboard.
It is laid floating on insulation or dry leveller fill --7 8 or on
flooring sleepers.
Parquet and wood-block paving
Parquet is available in the form of parquet blocks, mosaic
parquet blocks, made-up panels and parquet strip --7 0- Cli).
The surface layer consists of oak, or another parquet timber,
in various grades.
Timber species for floorboards: softwood spruce/fir; for
tongued and grooved floorboards: Nordic spruce/fir, American
red pine and pitch pine.
Wood-block paving is also available as end-on paving (square
or round and laid on a sub-floor) --7 G) - $.
83
FLOOR SLABS
Slab construction
Refurbishment
Concrete repair
Floors
BS 8204
BS EN 13813
DIN 18560
see also: Building
physics pp.
471ft.
Fire protection
pp. 511ft.
Heating pp.
532 ff.

FLOOR SLABS
Slab construction
Refurbishment
Concrete repair
Floors
0 Irregular laying of natural stone
(crazy paving)
II~II~tllllml~11
8 Small mosaic squares 20/20,
33/33 mm
0 Mosaic squares 50/50, 69/69,
75/75 mm
f) Natural stone slabs in Roman
bonding
Q Small mosaic hexagons 25/39,
50/60 mm
(t Small mosaic, circular cut-out
35/35, 48/48 mm
f) Small mosaic, five-sided 45/32 mm G Small mosaic in Essen pattern
57/80 mm
C) Squares with smaller inserts,
weave pattern
Cli) Squares with smaller inserts
100/1 00, 50/50 mm
FLOOR SLABS
Floors
Floor coverings
Natural stone slabs: Limestone, slate and sandstone slabs can
be laid either with the natural roughness from splitting, or half or
fully sanded --7 0 - 8. Sawn slabs such as limestone (marble),
sandstone and all volcanic stone types can have any surface
treatment specified. The slabs are laid in a mortar bed or glued
to screed.
Mosaic flooring consists of various materials such as glass,
ceramic or natural stone and is laid in a mortar bed or glued --7
o-e.
Ceramic floor tiles: stoneware and mosaic floor tiles are made
of clay; they are sintered during the firing process so that they
absorb almost no water.
They are therefore frost-resistant, acid-resistant to a certain
degree and suffer little mechanical wear; but they are not resistant
to oil --7 0 - 4!).
~joint
M 3 296/296 M3
M2 197/197 M2
M1.5 147/147
M1 97 /97 M1
M0.5 48/48
i/4-1/8-1/16 divisions of a module
0 125 25 375 50 625 75
G) Squares with smaller inserts, @) Squares with double chessboard ~ Modular system for stoneware fl) Modular system for split tiles
displaced pattern pattern
-~~-~. ~
0 0 b k 0 @) Herringbone fD Weave pattern
11111 --~~~~~~~~~m ~ ;;;;i i1
Q Open basket
A ~ Herringbone with frieze ~ English with frieze
V Herringbone pattern '4:1 ~
l::ii:[:i[:I-I!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!IIIIIRI
0 . e 0 Ladder pattern
I!'"T'! ! ! ! Ifallll~
@) Burgundy pattern
G) English @j) Ship deck with frieze @) Cube with strip pattern ~ Cube pattern
84

min2%fall
0 Flatroof
8 Gabled roof
Q Half-hipped roof
Q Two single pitches
@) Wide dormer with sloping roof
8 Single-pitch (monopitch) roof
Junclion point
Ridge
G Hipped roof
e Mansard roof
«<!) Northlight or saw-tooth roof
4D Gabled dormer window
ROOFS
Roof Shapes
Roof shape and roof pitch: the selection of roofing material and
the detailing of the roof edges at the verge and eaves have a
decisive influence on the appearance of buildings. 0 - e show
the basic forms of roofs and roof projections.
Roof covering Pitch range Usually
accessible paved roof 2-4" 3-4"
wood cement roof 2.5-4" 3-4"
felt roof, gravel covered 3-30" 4-10"
felt roof, double 4-50" 6-12"
zinc roof, double standing seams 3-90" 5-30"
felt roof, single 8-15" 10-12"
steel sheeting roof 12-18" 15"
interlocking tile roof, 4 sides 18-50" 22-45"
shingle roof (canopy 90") 18-21" 19-20"
interlocking tile roof, normal 20-33" 22"
zinc and steel corrugated roof 18-35" 25"
fibre cement corrugated roof 5-90" 30"
artificial slate roof 20-90" 25-45"
slate roof, double decked 25-90" 30-50"
slate roof, normal 30-90" 45"
glass roof 30-45" 33"
clay tiles, double decked 30-60" y 45"
clay tiles on battens 35-60" 45"
clay tiles, pantiled 40-60" 45"
clay tiles, split stone 45-50" 45"
thatch 45-80" 60-70"
Cf) Roof pitches for various roof coverings
f) Barrel roof e Compound roof with central gutter
4D Four gabies f) Square hipped roof
6} Roof cut-out 0 Single pitched-roof dormers
85
ROOFS
Roof shapes
Pitched roofs
Flat roofs

ROOFS
Roof shapes
Pitched roofs
Flat roofs
~-------L--------~
0 Couple roof
0 Collarroof
.c
~ 45'
c.
b
0
a:
40'
f) Purlin roof
15-40
30--60
E
.5
-'
ffi
c.
(/)
10-20
10-20
Span
Q Couple or collar roof: economic limits, slope vs span. R =rafter length
0 Strutless purlin roof with centre hanger
+
0 Couple roof
f) Collar roof with loft conversion
86
ROOFS
Pitched Roofs
The roof forms the upper edge of a building and protects it
from rain and atmospheric influences (wind, cold, heat). A roof
consists of a supporting structure (roof frame, roof truss) and
roof covering. The design of the roof truss depends on material
(timber, steel, reinforced concrete), roof pitch, loading (self-
weight, traffic load, wind and snow load), etc. Roof trusses for
pitched roofs are traditionally divided into purlin roofs and couple
roofs. These vary according to the structural function of the
members --7 0- 0.
Purlin roof
The purlin roof is the simplest form of roof construction. The
rafters are supported by cross-beams called purlins, which are
either mounted directly onto the masonry (monopitch principle)
or form load-bundling support beams as part of a roof truss,
supported by various arrangements of posts. Purlin trusses in
relatively narrow houses mostly have a single row of posts in the
centre of the roof, but wider roofs have two rows of posts or more
--7 f).
There are various further forms of construction for wider span
roofs, like 'strutted purlin' --7 e and 'centre hanger' ---7 0.
+
e Strutted purlln roof
Cii) Collar roof with purlins

0 Couple roof with hangers and jointed rafters
f) Couple roof with jointed rafters, stiffened at three points
24-1.f I
H
7.5-12.5
Couple roof in timber framing with lifetime-guaranteed glued joints and 45°
inclined struts as twin supports; span ;:;:;:25 m
T -
eIcT
A
4350
4660
H·L 1
1-1 t---1
12-14 16
Waved web system
A= Single web beam
B =Double web bearr
{ftft============:::===::l~j C =Box beam
Couple roof with composite, corrugated web beams (waved web system); ratio
of profile height to span 1:15-1:20
Gable roof pitches of 6", 15" and 25"
Monopitch roof pitches of 6", 10" and 15°
Euro prefabricated truss and gang-nail system: depending on octametre sizes,
for flat roof, single-pitch and two--pitch roofs
ROOFS
Pitched Roofs
Couple roof
The couple roof is a structural system in which two rafters and
a ceiling joist (or the corresponding strips of a solid ceiling slab)
form a rigid triangle ---> p. 86 0.
The weight of the roof is transferred to the external walls without
loading the ceiling. This makes possible large roof spaces without
posts. The necessary joint to transfer tension at the junction of
rafter and ceiling joist traditionally leads to the characteristic
change of roof pitch in couple roofs, which is constructed with
a sprocket fixed at the top to the rafter and at the bottom to the
projecting end of the ceiling joist ---> p. 86 0 (modern couple roofs
with upstands at the edge of the solid ceiling slab 'rafter shoes')
can be constructed without this change of pitch ---> p. 86 6). Very
wide buildings (with rafter lengths of more than 4.5 m) lead to
uneconomical rafter sections; and in these cases they are braced
with a collar ---> p. 86 f). Collar roofs are suitable for buildings
up to 12m wide (rafter length up to 8 m, collar up to 4 m). Much
larger widths are possible with modern structures (e.g. latticed
beam .... e. composite, corrugated web beam - waved web
system ---> 0) or with gang-nail trusses ---> 0.
0 Mansard roof
A~~+
!!3%!! ~~
Bridle joint Ridge purlin
A~ , ,
,.~~, AT
A ~ ·~,.:· .
8 Butt joint with fishplate
~~
~~
t ___________ --------------' L
__________ ----- _________ J
(a) Falling diagonals with vertical posts (d) Rising and falling diagonals with vertical posts
~~
L_______________________ j [ _________________________J
(b) Rising diagonals with vertical posts (c) Rising and falling diagonals
e Timber truss forms and bracing
87
ROOFS
Roof shapes
Pitched roofs
Flat roofs

ROOFS
Roof shapes
Pitched roofs
Flat roofs
0 Reed thatch, load 0.70 KN/m2 f) Wood shingle roof, load 0.25 KN/m2
'Old German' slate roof, load 0.45- 0
0.50 KN/m2 -> 0 - 0
English slating with fibre cement
slates, load 0.45-G.50 KN/m2
Old German slating, roof pitch
••
0 ;;;25o fish scale slating
Sharp angle slating
~30°
English slating
~22°
f) CurVed-cut slating with solar
elements
88
Double-lap tiling ('beaver tail'),
heavy roof covering, load
0.60 KN/m2, 34-44 tiles/m2
Old German double slating, roof pitch
522°
Head
~f9
Foot
0 ~25a curved-cut slating
Maximum pitch of course~
Obtuse cut a= 37.5°
~~F--=- Normal cut a= 37"
Sharp cut a= 32.5°
Curved cut a. = 45°
a
Roof pitch a-e, any large circle d-b,
construct a vertical d-e; connect
point a-c parallel to the eaves:
c-b gives the minimum pitch of the
slatinq courses.
e Minimum angle of truss, e.g. 40°
Concrete tiles, 0.60-G.80 KN/m2,
pitch 18°
b
e
ROOFS
Pitched Roofs
Roof coverings
Reed thatching ---7 0: 1.2-1.4 m long, on battens, spacing
20-30 em, fixed with ends upwards in a thickness of ii;;28 em
(better 35-40 em). Lifetime in sunny districts 60--70 years, half that
in wet districts.
Wood shingle roof ---7 8: of oak, beech, larch, pine or, unusually,
spruce. The lifetime of wooden shingles depends on the quality
and treatment of the material, the intensity of precipitation and
the pitch of the roof. Rule of thumb: degrees of roof slope= years
of lifetime. Wooden shingles are suitable for covering all sorts of
roof.
Slate ---7 f) - 0 (at pitches of 15-90°) on ii;;24 mm thick boarding
made of 12 em wide planks. Sanded roofing felt (200 gauge)
protects against dust and wind. Lap ;;;;a em (better I 0 em). Various
types of slating are used for roof and wall covering in Germany:
'exclusive', 'Old German' and 'wild', as well as 'decorative slating'
(mostly template slates such as shingle, sharp angle, fish scale,
octagonal etc.)
Reasonably priced slating types: rectangular and curved-cut
template. Template slating is also suitable for artificial slate.
1 mono-pitch: edge tile,
corner tile right
2 eaves tile
3 mono-pitch roof tile
4 wall connecting tile
5 eaves: wall connecting,
corner tile right
6 wall connecting tile right
7 wall connecting tile left
8 lean-to roof: wall connecting,
corner tile left
9 ridge end tile left
10 ridge and hip tile
11 edge tile left
12 eaves edge tile left
13 ridge connecting edge tile,
corner tile left
14 ridge starting tile right
15 ridge edge connecting tile
corner tile right
16 ridge connecting tile
17 edge tile right
18 eaves edge corner tile right
1 2 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 11 13 14 15 16 17 18
CD Special tiles
Pantlle roof, lightweight, load
0.50 KN/m2
Interlocking clay tile roof, load
0.55 KN/m2

~
0 Corrugated cement fibre roofing
with shaped pieces for eaves
and ridge, load 0.20 kN/m2
10'
~~~~7'
3'
0'
.s: 10° slope with jointing/filling material
f) Minimum roof pitches-; 0 and
lap lengths
- - - - - 920 ______,
~·-----~
I I--- effective width 873 --------4
1- r~~~~t~g _ e~~~~d -I
profile 177/51
1000
®.~
~9o+-- effective width 910 --------4
I- r~~~~~g _ e~~~~d -i
profile 130/30
length (mm) 2500
width (mm) 1000
8 Corrugated cement fibre roofing sheets
double fold
standing seam
Metal sheet roof with welted joint
construction, load 0.25 KN/m2
-exposed width;
f----- 88 --------;
_ ..-fixing ~
_29___,1'------' ·~---
f) Steel pantile roofing, load
0.15 KN/m2
roof drainage
v LJ
semicircular rectangular
~
~
hanging
vertical
C) Possible shapes and locations
of gutter
8 Methods of fixing
1: Standing seam
2: Profiled sheets, steel roof tile,
trapezoid corrugated Iron
0 Minimum roof pitch for roof covering
of galvanised steel sheet
!-- 7.50 -f
m
length (mm) 9000 7500 4000 thickness 8,0
width (mm) 1000 1000 1000 weight 19kg/m
e Large elements for roof and wall
(Canaleta)
Zinc sheet DIN 9721
at least 0.7 mm
Gutter brackets: zinc-coated
strip steel
Galvanised strip steel DIN 1541
leaded
Gutter bracket: galvanised
strip steel
Semi-hard copper sheet DIN 1787
Gutter brackets: flat copper
Aluminum sheet cut in half DIN 1725
Gutter brackets: galvanised strip steel
Specification:
(example: semi-circular gutter 333 Zn
0.75 mm; with gutter bracket 333 St Zn)
4Ii) Materials
(Zn)
(St2)
(St2)
(St2)
(Cu)
(Cu)
(AI)
(St2)
ROOFS
Pitched Roofs
Roof coverings (continued)
Cement fibre roof ---7 0- 0 composed of corrugated sheets with
purlin spacing of 70-i 45 em for i .6 m sheets, of i.i 5 and i.i 75 m
for 2.50 m sheets; lapped i 50 or 200 mm.
Sheet metal roof ---70-0 ofzinc, titanium-zinc, copper, aluminium,
galvanised steel sheet etc. Many special shapes available for ridge,
eaves, edge etc. Copper sheeting is in commercially produced
sizes ---7 0. Copper has the highest elongation at break of any
metal sheeting and is therefore suitable for embossing, pressing,
stretching and compressing. The typical patina of copper roofing
is very popular. Combination with aluminium, titanium-zinc and
galvanised steel should be avoided, but with lead and high-grade
steel there is no problem. Copper roofs are impermeable to water
vapour and thus particularly suitable for cold roofs ---7 p. 90.
'beaver-tail' tiles and 'beaver-tail' concrete tiles
with underlay incl. underlay parts.............................................................
clay tiles, single or double lap ................................................................
extruded interlocking clay tiles...........................................................................
interlocking tiles, reform pantiles, interlocking pantiles, flat tiles .......................
interlocking tiles ...........................................................................................
Spanish tiles, concave tiles .............................................................................
pantiles .............................................................................................................
large-format pantiles (up to 10 per m2) ............................................ .
Spanish tiles without mortaring, 0.70 with mortaring ........................................
metal sheeting, aluminium roof (aluminium 0.7 mm thick) incl. boarding ..........
copper roof with double seams (copper sheet 0.6 mm thick) incl. boarding.....
kN/m2
0.60
0.80
0.60
0.55
0.55
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.90
0.25
0.30
double standing seam roof of galvanised seamed sheeting (0.63 mm thick)
including underlay and boarding ..............................................................
German slate roof on boarding incl. felt underlay and boarding
large format (360 mm x 280 mm) ...... ...................... ....................
small format (about 200 mm x 150 mm) .......
English slate roof incl. battens
on battens with double lap .......................................................................
on boarding and underlay incl. boarding..................................................
Old German slate roof on underlay and boarding ..........................
with double lap .........................................................................................
steel pantile roof (galvanised steel sheets)
on battens incl. battens ............................................................................
on boarding incl. underlay and boarding..................................................
corrugated steel roof (galvanised steel sheets) incl. fixings ..............................
zinc roof with cover strips of zinc sheet Incl. boarding..................................
0.30
0.50
0.45
0.45
0.55
0.50
0.60
0.15
0.30
0.25
0.30
Loads per 1 m2 pitched roof surface (without rafters, purlins or trusses, but
including battens). If mortar-pointed, add 0.1 kN/m2
•
~
1fz corrugation standard
supplied form rolls panels
length (m) 3Q-40 2.0
max. width (m) 0.6 (0.66) 1.0
thickness (mm) 0.1-2.0 0.2-2.0
specific wt {kg/dm3) 8.93 8.93
rolls panels H.OIH
T
1
@) Form and dimensions of rolled
copper material for strip and
sheet roofing
Roof area to Guideline Cut lengths
be drained size of for metal
with semi- gutters gutters
circular gutters
(m2) (mm0) (mm)
up to 25 70 200
25-40 80 200 (10-part)
40-60 90 250 (8-part)
60-90 125 285 (7-part)
90-125 150 333 (6-part)
125-175 400 (5-part) 400 (5-part)
175-275 200 500 (4-part)
Gutters should generally be installed
on a slope as greater flow speed helps
prevent blocking, corrosion and freezing.
Guttering supports normally consist of
galvanised steel strips, width 20-50 mm
and thickness 4-6 mm.
~ Guideline sizes for gutters
~
1 corrugation
~
11fz corrugations
roof depth profile ht
eaves/ridge 18-25mm 26-60mm
up to Bm 10' (17.4%) 5' (8.7%)
6-10m 13" (22.5%) 8" (13.9%)
1Q-15m 15' (25.9%) 10' (17.4%)
over 15m 17' (29.2%) 12' (20.8%)
I 8-10" !200mm with sealing of overlap
1Q-15' 150mm without sealing of overlap
over 16° 100mm without sealino of overlap
Q) Corrugated sheet metal roofing,
minimum roof pitch, side laps
Roof area to Guideline Cut lengths for
be drained size of metal pipes
with round downpipe
downpipes
(m') (mm0) (mm)
up to 20 50 167 (12-part)
20-50 60 200 (10-part)
50-90 70 250 (8-part)
60-100 80 285 (7-part)
90-120 100 333 (6-part)
100-180 125 400 (5-part)
180-250 150 500 (4-part)
250-375 175
325-500 200
Fixing with pipe clips (corrosion-protected),
whose inner diameter is that of the
downpipe. Minimum distance of downpipe
from the wall 20 mm. Pipe clip spacing 2 m.
CD Guideline sizes for downpipes
89
ROOFS
Roof shapes
Pitched roofs
Flat roofs

ROOFS
Roof shapes
Pitched roofs
Flat roofs
see also: Building
physics pp. 465 ff.
0 Cross-section through an Alpine f) Ice blockage problem
farmhouse with hay loft
0 Arrangement of thermal Insulation in roof spaces (cold roofs)
Vapour barrier
Underlay
Q Normal warm roof
Corrugated
Eternit roofing
9 Concrete roof with warm roof
construction
0 Cold roof: eaves detail, eaves soffit 8 Cold roof (monopitch): ridge detail,
with ventilation slots fascia board with ventilation slots
Cl) Cold roof: eaves detail with
exposed rafters
90
Ventilated ridge tile
Inner cladding
8 Cold roof: ridge detail
ROOFS
Pitched Roofs
Roof spaces
Spaces under pitched roofs were formerly used as naturally
ventilated 'hay lofts' for the storage of the harvest. The rooms
below were protected from cold by the stored produce -7 0.
Today, roof spaces are converted into habitable rooms. The
roof construction must comply with additional building physics
requirements.
Building methods
Thermally insulated roofs can be divided into ventilated and
non-ventilated construction. In addition to the ventilation space
between roof covering and underlay (or lower layer of roof),
which is required in both cases, ventilated roof construction
has an additional ventilation gap between underlay and thermal
insulation, to remove spray and condensate.
Ventilated roofs require additional rafter depth and work properly
only with a correctly installed vapour barrier and functioning roof
ventilation. Therefore the building industry commonly prefers
unventilated roof construction.
Standard build-up of layers
Roof coverings, battens -7 pp. 88-89
Underlay of plastic mesh-reinforced foil or vapour-permeable
plastic sheeting serves to carry away any spray water or snow
penetrating under the roof covering.
Roof boarding of tongue and groove boards with applied
waterproofing (e.g. welded bitumen sheeting) is installed instead
of underlay in conditions of severe exposure.
The air gap in ventilated roof construction serves as an additional
ventilation layer (e.g. to remove condensation). The necessary
ventilation cross-sections depend on the roof pitch.
Thermal insulation is generally in the form of mineral wool roll
material and is installed between and under the rafters or as
prefabricated insulation elements, sometimes with interlocking,
vapour barrier on the room side and battens fixed to the
rafters -7 Cli).
The vapour barrier is under the thermal insulation to prevent
condensation inside the roof construction. When the vapour
barrier is installed, it is important that all air flow between interior
and roof construction is prevented. Any penetration points, laps
and junctions with building elements must be carefully sealed.
Inner cladding is normally plasterboard on support construction
(pay attention to the possibility of cracks!).
a. Between the rafters (not ventilated)
c. Between the rafters (ventilated)
b. On the rafters (not ventilated) d. Between/under the rafters (ventilated)
4I!) Location of thermal insulation for pitched roots converted for storage

Boarding Roof construction
I Cross beam
I
I I
II Laminated II
Cross beam
timber truss
Profiled sheeting
l 1 l l
Steel profile girder . Roof
with buckling stiffeners Remforced concrete t r
r4ts.r5l?JE21k4
0 Flat roof structures (selection): slabs, trusses, beam grillages
f) Guyed structure: Fleetguard factory, Quimper Arch.: Rogers & Partner
1 Root covering
5 Centre piece
9 Cage ring
2 Insulation 3 Steel profiled sheeting 4 Raising piece
6 Wedge connection 7 Wedge 8 Purlin, rail
10 Grooved dowel pin 11 Wedge cheek 12 Horizontal tube
13 Diagonal tube
0 Upper and middle nodes of space frames (KEBA tube nodes)
8 Space frame with KEBA tube node connections (example), details -> 0
Ii
.c
;;
z
ROOFS
Flat Roofs
Flat roofs are defined as roofs with a slope of up to 5%. Flat roofs
without slope are possible as a special construction in exceptional
cases. Flat roofs should generally have a minimum slope of 2%.
On account of unavoidable flatness tolerances and deflection of
the construction, however, it is recommended to construct flat
roofs with a minimum slope of 5% (3°).
Construction
There are many different structural types for flat roofs. The basic
difference is between planar and linear structural systems:
Planar structures are based on flat elements spanning one or
two axes, with point or linear supports and loaded at right angles
to their plane (e.g. floor slabs, roof slabs, beam grillages, space
frames).
Linear structures are systems compns1ng parallel-laid beam
elements (e.g. full-web steel beams, trussed beams, cable-trussed
beams) and intermediate components not laid in the direction of
the beam (e.g. cross-beams with boarding) to transfer the roof
loading.
Both structural types are differentiated into various degrees of
resolution of the structural elements, in addition to the material:
Slabs~o
Flat roofs are mostly constructed as flat solid reinforced concrete
slabs. These are fire-resistant, not susceptible to damp and form
a stable structural system in combination with solid walls.Their
disadvantage lies in their high dead weight, wet installation and
poor thermal and sound insulation. Movement resulting from
thermal expansion, creep or shrinkage must be compensated with
additional insulation layers and appropriately detailed bearings
and joints.
Truss structures ~ 0- 8
Trusses are linear structures. Commercially available truss beams
can be made of timber, steel or pre-cast reinforced concrete
with intermediate elements of various materials. Longer spans
may involve: truss beams of squared timber or with steel struts,
laminated timber beams, box beams of plywood or laminated
timber, specially produced full-web girders with high web plates
and bracing against buckling, and castellated or lattice beams.
Additional guying and cable trussing can reduce the cross-section
of the beams, effecting light and delicate structures.
Beam grillages ~ 0 - 8
Beam grillages are planar structures made of wide-span beams
laid in both directions and crossing in a plane. They are normally
composed of prefabricated components (e.g. of laminated timber
beams with node plates or steel trusses) and are particularly
suitable for roofing over industrial sheds etc. If there are fire
protection requirements, then additional measures must be
undertaken to protect the structure.
Space frames~ 0 - 8
The space frame is a further development of the beam grillage.
Steel rods are connected with spherical nodes to form stiff three-
dimensional structures which require no additional stiffening.
91
ROOFS
Roof shapes
Pitched roofs
Flat roofs

ROOFS
Roof shapes
Pitched roofs
Flat roofs
BS 8298
BS EN 12730
DIN 18531
Flat Roof
Guidelines,
Central
Association of
German Roofers
see also: Building
physics pp.
471 If.
0 Parapet with artificial stone coping
8 Roof edge detail (terrace)
Pav'1ng slabs, laid
loose in gravel
Protection layer
Render-----fl I
Cover profile~
Clamping rail
Flashing
f) Wall connection
Outlet with
glued flange
Gravel trap
Raising piece
with glued flange
~2%
......
0 Drain detail with sealing connection
Waterproofing ~~:~ij~ij~~=i~~~~~
~~~~~:S~f;~~=y~
Thermal insulation -------1
Vapour barrier -======~~:t~~~~~~~~~*?
Compensation layer -
Reinforced concrete - - - - - - - - / .
slab
0 Terrace connection with extended grating
e Cold roof above reinforced
concrete slab
e Upside-down roof
92
8 Cold roof in timber construction
Waterproof concrete
Thermal·lnsulation
Gravel layer
C) Watertight concrete roof with
internal insulation
ROOFS
Flat Roofs
There are two methods of building a flat roof from the building
physics perspective:
Non-ventilated, single-layer construction ('warm roof'), in which
the load-bearing structure, vapour barrier, thermal insulation and
waterproofing (including intermediate layers) form a composite
element.
This can either be the conventional construction --> Cli), or an
'upside-down roof' --> e (waterproofing and vapour barrier are
applied as one layer directly onto the load-bearing construction
and the closed-cell insulation is loosely laid on top and secured
with a gravel layer), or a combination of both construction types
(e.g. a 'plus roof'), or with internal insulation--> 0.
Ventilated two-layer construction ('cold roof'), where there is a
ventilation layer between the waterproofing (and its sub-structure)
and the thermal insulation --> () - f). The advantage of this
arrangement (evaporation of condensation) is, however, effective
only if the through-ventilation is fully functional and a defect-free
vapour barrier is installed on the inner side of the construction.
Otherwise, the waterproofing acts as a wrongly positioned
vapour barrier, which can cause the roof construction to become
damp!
Surface protection (washed gravel15/32, d "" 50 mm
or paving slabs bedded in gravel, d= 30 mm)
~
~~~!~~!~~ Protection layer
Upper waterproofing layer of bitumen or polymer bitumen
sheeting (fully glued to the lower waterproofing layer)
Lower waterproofing layer of bitumen or polymer bitumen
(held in place by loading, mechanical fixing or partial or full gluelng)
Vapour pressure compensation layer (continuous air layer)
Thermal Insulation (material ace. DIN V 4108-10)
Structural slab or concrete forming taU
CD) Standard construction of a warm roof with heavy surface protection and
multi-layer waterproofing
Standard construction (warm roof) --> Cl!>
Surtace protection can either be heavy (gravel layer - depth
~5 em, slabs laid in a bed of stone chips, or an extensive green
roof) or lightweight (pre-applied gravel covering of bitumen
sheeting) to prevent the formation of bubbles, temperature
shocks, mechanical stress to the waterproofing or UV damage.
Protection layers (e.g. PVC protective sheeting, synthetic fleece,
rubber granulate protection mats, protection against penetrating
roots), waterproofing with many layers of bitumen sheeting and
polymer-bitumen sheeting (fully glued to each other) or a single
layer of plastic or elastomer waterproofing membrane. The
waterproofing can be held in place by a superimposed load,
mechanical fixing, or full or partial gluing.
Vapour pressure compensation layer: ribbed felt or holed
bitumen sheeting, to prevent bubble formation resulting from
evaporated residual dampness or the construction layers above.
Insulation is provided by thermal insulation boards (cork, rigid
foam, fibre insulation or foam glass), laid without joints or with all-
round interlock edges.
Separation/compensation layer: mostly loosely laid.
Load-bearing construction on a slope --> p. 91, with sliding bearings
on account of thermal expansion (consequent formation of a sliding
joint over the load-bearing walls and separation of internal wall and
slab. Glue Styrofoam strips to the underside of the slab in advance)

0 Roof gardens on rented housing: f) Roof garden in the form of a
'Pointer towards a new architecture' collection of plant containers on
balconies and roof terraces
]000000
C) The Hanging Gardens of Semiramis 0
in Babylon (6th century sc)
Lost green areas can be regained by
planting roofs
a 'conventional' roof
0 Overheated, dry urban air--> 0
f) Dust production and circulation
-->9
0 Sound reflections from 'hard
surfaces'~ G)
Cooler and moister air through
the energy consumption of plant
transpiration
Improvement of urban air through
the filtering and binding of dust and
the oxygen production of the plants
a 'green' roof
4Ii) Sound absorption by soft plant
surfaces
ROOFS
Flat Roofs
Roof planting
The Babylonians were constructing roof gardens and green
roofs as long ago as the 6th century sc. In Berlin around 1890,
farmhouses were covered with a layer of soil for fire protection
purposes, causing plants to grow. In the 20th century, during the
classic modernist period and with the introduction of flat roofs, the
almost forgotten green roof was rediscovered.
Properties of planted roofs
1. Insulation, due to the air layer within the plants and the
growing layer (corresponding to soil) with its roots, and also
through warmth from microbial processes
2. Sound insulation and thermal storage capacity
3. Improvement of the air in built-up areas
4. Improvement of the microclimate
5. Positive effect on urban rainwater drainage and landscape
water cycle
6. Building physics advantages: UV radiation and severe
temperature variations are prevented by the protective growing
and plant layer.
7. Dust retention
8. Design element/improved quality of life
9. Reclamation of green areas
:~:::::.C
·Yt/'i~:'.<~~!~~·/ greater and
faster surface
drainage
G,t Distribution of rainwater run-off-
paving->@
greater ~
evaporatio~~
).~·~~t::~.;~~Jf?i!'
plant and soil
evaporation
lower
surface
drainage
good ground
water
replenishment
Cf) Distribution of rainwater run-off-
unbuilt areas
The building of every house causes 0
the loss of open landscape --> G)
A large part of the lost green areas
could be reclaimed by planting roofs
D.:::-
1 water cycle
ground water
0 Natural water and nutrient cycle 0 Mental and physical value of green
areas
93
ROOFS
Roof shapes
Pitched roofs
Flat roofs

ROOFS
Roof shapes
Pitched roofs
Flat roofs
0 Intensive planting
8 Layer structure of a green roof
insulating mat
two root protection/
waterproof membranes
0 Zinco Floraterra roof greening
system
growth height> 250cm
build-up height fm 35cm
surface loading 3.7 kNfm2
water supply 170 lfm2
mulch layer- em
up to 250cm
19-3S em
1.9-3.7 kN/m2
80-170 l/m2
-em
7-23cm
12cm
f) Extensive planting
G Plant containers form an edging for
the green area
thermal insulation
vapour barrier
0 Zinco Floradrain roof greening
system
14cm
1.4 kN/m2
601/m2
-em
Scm
9cm
12cm
1.1 kN/m2
4SI/m2
1 em
4cm
?em
soil mixture 23cm
drainage layer 12cm
watering, by hand or
automatic
by hand or automatic by hand or automatic by hand
f) Various types of roof greening
94
ROOFS
Flat Roofs
Slopes for roof planting
The pitch of gabled roofs should not exceed 25° and flat roofs
should have a maximum slope of 2-3%.
Types of roof planting
Intensive: The roof becomes a residential garden with features
like pergolas and loggias. Constant care and maintenance are
required. Plants: lawn, shrubs, bushes, trees
Extensive: The planting is onto thin soil and requires the minimum
of care. Plants: moss, grass, herbs, shrubs, bushes
Mobile greening: Plants in containers can be used for the
greening of roof terraces, parapets and balconies.
Watering
Natural watering with rainwater: Water is backed up in the
drainage and growing layers.
Dammed watering: Rainwater is backed up in the drainage layer
and mechanically refilled when required.
Drip irrigation: Drip irrigation hoses in the drainage or growing
layers keep the plants watered through dry periods.
Sprinkler: Sprinkler equipment above the growing layer.
Plant feeding
Fertiliser can be applied to the growing layer or as an additive to
artificial watering.
Botanical name English name Height Month of
(colour offiowers) flowering
Saxifrage aizoon encrusted saxifrage (white-pink) S em VI
Sedum acre biting stonecrop (yellow) Bern VI-VII
Sedumalbum white stonecrop (white) Scm VI-VII
Sedum album 'Coral Carpet' white variety 5 em VI
Sedum album 'Laconicum' white variety 10cm VI
Sedum album 'Micranthum' white variety Scm VI-VII
Sedum album 'Murale' white variety Bern VI-VII
Sedum album 'Cioroticum' (light green) Scm VI-VII
Sedum hybr. autumn delight (yellow) 8 em VI-VII
Sedum f/oriferum Bailey's gold (gold) 10om VIII-IX
Sedum ref/exum, 'Elegant' rock stonecrop (yellow) 12cm VI-VII
Sedum sexangulare tasteless stonecrop (yellow) 5cm VI
Sedum 'White Tatra' bright yellow variety 5cm VI
Sedum spur. 'Superbum' sedurn S em VI-VII
Sempervivum arachno/deum cobweb houseleek (pink) 6cm VI-VII
e Proven plant species and varieties for extensive roof greening (selection)
12om
1.1S kN/m2
40Vm'
-em
?em
Scm
by hand
S-10 em
to em
0.9 kN/m2
30Vm'
1om
4cm
Scm
by hand
1 mulch layer
2 soil mixture
3filtermat
4 drainage layer
5 root protection membrane
6 separation and protection layers
7 roof sealing
Bsupporting construction

0 Warm roof--> f)
vegetation - -
growing layer
filter layer ~
drainage layer ==Jl
protective layer ;-L
root protect~on layer =it
separation layer
1
~
__,-waterproof membrane~
Lseparation layer J
-thermal insulation-
- - vapour barrier - -
lcompensating layer F
roof structure - -
f) Warm roof with greening
vegetation - -
growing layer I
filter layer =I
drainage layer ~~
protective layer ~l::
root protection layer ~
separation layer -ill=:
===c':~~~~;fp7:~~~~·.s ~
-supporting structureJ
air gap
W.~2~)(22~(2W -thermal insulation- WJ:}S()fll{)j~
l~~]ijjWjtlljfi§1l1~~!ii~J roof structure - - ilill@Ul~tii~@II~jii~
8 Gold roof--> 8 Q Gold roof with greening
vegetation--
growing layer--
filter layer--,_
drainage layer--
protective layer--
thermal insulation -
root protectlon layer~
Lwate~~~oa:t~~~~~::;=J
roof structure - -
0 Upside-down roof--> 0 0 Upside-down roof with greening
plants
(scree flora,
least expense
vegetation - -
growing layer--
filter layer - -
drainage layer--
- root protection layer --
ll slip/protective layer Jr
L waterproof membrane ..J
Greening of existing roof (if
constructionally and structurally
possible)
grass roof
(meadow grass)
beam~
additional Insulation
panelling
Greening on a sloping roof Greening of a steeply pitched roof
ROOFS
Flat Roofs
Planted roof: construction layers
Growing layer: expanded clay and expanded slate are used.
These offer structural stability, soil ventilation, water storage and
soil modelling. Functions: nutrient storage, soil reaction (pH value),
ventilation, water storage.
Filter layer: consisting of filter material, it hinders silting in the
drainage layer.
Drainage layer: prevents the plants from becoming waterlogged.
Material: woven mats, plastic boards, protective building materials.
Protection layer: protects during the building phase and against
point loading.
Root protection layer: the roots are retained in PVC/ECB and
EPDM sheeting.
Separation layer: separates the load-bearing construction from
the roof greening.
Examples -70 - Ci) show common layer structures for roof
greening. Before planting, check that the roof is in perfect
condition and that each layer can fulfil its function. Carefully
inspect the technical condition of the roof surface. Pitched roofs
can also be greened -7 0 - @, but this demands yet more
extensive constructional preparations to prevent slippage and soil
drying out.
filter material
strip turf (expanded clay/soil
mixture underneath)
G Eaves detail of a greened pitched @) Eaves detail-> $
roof
flagstones on sand bed
filter material
drainage element
root protecting film
t-- 32 __,
sealing r- 25 --1
41) Drainage inspection shaft
Transition from roadway to
intensive roof greening
0 Wall connection with shingle safety
strip
Transition from pathway to intensive
or extensive roof greening
95
ROOFS
Roof shapes
Pitched roofs
Flat roofs

WINDOWS
Arrangement
Requirements
Design types
Thermal
insulation
Sound insulation
Cleaning
buildings
Roof windows
Rooflights
BS 8206-2
DIN 5034
WINDOW ARRANGEMENT AND INTERIOR
0 Vertical window, floor-level
underfloor heating or radiators at
the side
e Bay window, plastic projection
ELEVATION
C) A scenic view and projecting
building elements
@) Kitchen
VISUAL PROTECTION
a/3
~
u
T
1.25
1
f) Horizontal window with single
opening light at the side, enclosed
window sill for heating/media duct
0 Full-length fixed glazing with parapet
handrail and ventilation flaps with
sound insulation boxes
Gi) Room with a view
0 Office (filing cabinet)
4f) Sufficient space in the corners for 4Il) Vertically hung panel blinds
curtains
96
8
8
Window composition: upper
window brings light deep into the
room, small window provides view
out and ventilation
Double glazing with accessible
space between (fagade as second
skin; conservatory glazing)
T
75
..l
0 Normal window height (table height)
fj Coatrack
~ Sliding cloth panels
T
T
WINDOWS
Arrangement
f',r--------------,,"'1
0 Rooflight for scattered light on
a wall
~
e Plastically modulated wall with
window flush with outer or
inner face
T
1.00
1
@) Office
e Rooflight, e.g. drawing office
fJD Venetian blinds of cloth or
plastic (darken the interior)

SUN PROTECTION
0 Internal venetian blind, heat builds
up behind the window (only glare
protection)
f) External louvred blind
Impact pane,
back-ventilated
External louvred blind with impact pane (shields external sun protection)
Awnings stop sunshine and
warmth. Distance from wall
prevents heat build-up
WINDOW SIZES
Markisolette- partly angled sun
blind
ornrnm
DD
DD
DO
DO
Fora 1.5m Fora 1.5 m Fora 1.5m Fora 1.5m
wall opening,
1 m
2
glass
wall opening,
0.92 m
2
glass
wall opening,
0.89 m
2
glass
wall opening,
0.87 m
2
glass
area remains area remains opening remains area remains
=66% ~61% =59% =58%
e Example of reduction in glass area with glazing bars
Glass area~ 1/10 of the floor area
Window width~ 1/10 (M + N + 0 + P)
Fora 1.5 m
wall opening,
0.84 m2
glass
area remains
=56%
f) Window sizes in industrial building e Window sizes for rooms over
3.5 m high
WINDOWS
Requirements
The window, as an element built into the wall, has essential
functions apart from just closing the opening. It controls the level
of natural lighting, the supply and extraction of air to and from
the room, and the view out for connection with the world. These
functions can also be fulfilled by separate elements: overhead
lights, ventilation flaps and shop windows, respectively.
The size and location of windows in rooms, in addition to the
requirements under building regulations and the rules for daylight
in interiors (see Daylight --t pp. 488 ff.), are determined above
all by architectural considerations. Their external impact has a
decisive influence on the appearance of the fagade. Important
factors are: the location in the wall, with internal windows
emphasising the wall depth and external windows allowing the
wall to present as a surface; the proportions of width to height;
the ratio of construction thickness to glass area (visible frame,
casements and possibly glazing bar widths); and the relationship
to other fagade elements (which is often neglected when
replacing windows).
In the interior, windows are responsible for light direction, which
is essential for the architectural effect of a room. Most decisive
is the location on plan, which may have to be supplemented
by sun shading equipment or light directing glass. The type of
opening determines the functional quality as a ventilation element.
How far do the casements open into the room? Is the window
sill still usable when the window is open? (Tilted windows are
not sufficient for through ventilation! They ensure only the slow
cooling of a room.) There may also be specific requirements for fire
protection or for resistance against break-in or damage. Resistance
classes --t pp. 107, 118. If the window serves as an escape route,
it must have a clear opening of at least 0.9 x 1.2 m and a sill height
of max. 1.2 m above floor level.
In the Netherlands, regulations stipulate the sizes of windows in
relation to the angle of incidence of the light.
Refurbishment
If windows are replaced by those with better thermal insulation,
then the installation demands particular attention. There is a
danger with improved windows that condensation may occur
at other less well-insulated locations (window reveals, outside
corners of rooms), which can lead to mould formation! In order not
to impair the appearance of the fagade and the entrance of light,
the dimensions of the panes should not be altered (pay attention
to frames, casements and glazing bar width --t 0).
Residential construction
The minimum requirement for structural window apertures in
occupied rooms is specified in the state building regulations and is
1/8 or 1/10 ofthe plan area of the room. Further design constraints
are the distance from buildings opposite (shadow formation) and
the requirements of the energy saving regulation EnEV. In order
to optimise the energy balance, the criteria for workrooms can be
applied.
Workrooms
The required window area can be roughly worked out using
the following rules. The total width of all visual connections
to the outside must be at least 1/1 0 of the total width of all
walls, according to workplace guidelines --t 0. Possible visual
connection to the outside should be at eye level (window sill
heights of 0.85 -1.25 m) --t p. 96 0 - 0. For workrooms more
than 3.5 m high, the glass area of the window must be at least
30% of the outside wall area --t e. For rooms with dimensions
corresponding to those of residential rooms, the minimum height
of the glass area is 1.3 m.
With the increasing use of existing sources of energy, the
optimisation of thermal losses and gains and the control of light
through windows merit a separate design prepared by experts.
97
WINDOWS
Arrangement
Requirements
Design types
Thermal
insulation
Sound insulation
Cleaning
buildings
Roof windows
Rooflights
see also: Daylight
pp. 488 ff.
(Directing
sunlight p. 499,
Sun shading
p. 500)

OPENING TYPES
t
WINDOWS
Arrangement
Requirements 0 Casement (outward and inward)
Design types
f) Centre pivot-hung casement
0 Vertically sliding window
Thermal
insulation REBATE TYPES
Sound insulation
Cleaning
buildings
Roof windows
Rooflights
S1
-~
~
~
~
~
~
~
0
0
~
"'
lli
0
0
g
"'
"'
Oj
0
"'
~
Opening inward with frame behind
recessed jamb
two sash windows
single sash windows
?O l21 75C ,875 100( 1125 '1250
~" 5X1 jsx3 j7x3
~X 5x<. l•x4 17x4 ! Bx4
l7x5 Bx5
SX< jsx6 j7x6 'BXB
v
5xl jsx7 7X7 ,Bx7 9x7
lt:
7xB ! BxB 9xB j10xB
jo:
lL
7X9 IBx9 9X9 j10x9
lo
lL
iX1• 7x1< jBx10 j9x10 j10x10
lo
~
5X1 jax11 9X11 lwx11
jo
~
9x12 l1ox12
~
l 9X16 lwx16
9x17 l1ox11
8
! 9x18 10x1B
8
1375
C) Guideline sizes for structural window openings
98
Opening outward with frame
behind recessed jamb
Plain jamb with rebated frame
three sash windows four sash windows
1500 1625 1750 1875 2000 2125 2250
J I I I I
The numbers above the images are Identification
numbers for the size. -
They are composed of multiples of unit.
-
125 mm for width and height: -
e.g.: Windowopening9x 11 ~(9x 125)x (11 x 125)
-
-1125 X 1375
12x7 13X7
12XB 13XB 14xB 16xB
12x9 13X9 14x9 16x9 17x9
12X10 13x10 14x10 16x1o 17x1o
13x11 14x11 17X11
Declarations:
~ Preferred sizes
D Sizes
El Sizes, preferably ribbon windows
@I Sizes, preferably for door windows
181 Sizes, preferably for basement windows
lla Sizes, preferably for laundry window
WINDOWS
Design Types
Q Sliding window
Plain jamb with wrap-
around window frame
«>-~~
outside "'~u Inside
RR
fii) Meeting type 1 (rebated inward
opening). RR ~structure
0~~ ~~c ~,~.,
lWHHH
lf&Wij "" ~JMM!
CD Meeting type 2 (rebated outward
opening)
"';01fiiiliH1
Ill=- ·-·
nmm~~
II RR
5
@) Meeting type 3 (no rebate)

Single window Double window as
combined window
0 Window forms according to type of casement
~
1 rm m
I ~ w
k!71
Double window as
box window
..
..
M
...
u
rrrrn
Window frame in Window frame in Window frame in
recessed jamb plain jamb all-round jamb
f) Window forms according to type of frame (left: outside, right: inside)
-
The best layout In
massive walls
outside
inside
E
outside
--
--
inside
With central insulation, in
the plane of the insulation
Windows finish with
inside face of wall
External, outside the
plane of insulation with
surrounding frame fixed
to load-bearing wall
11:
-
:::::::::::: -
......
. . . '''
' .. '.'
·.·.·.·.·.·.
::::::::::::__
Outside finish
with insulation
With sunshade
equipment and
impact pane
With sun protection
equipment In the
outer leaf
e Location of window in the wall (left: outside, right: inside)
Row No. full storeys in building Joint permeability class
1 up to 2 2
2 more than 2 3
e Joint permeability classes in external windows, French windows and roof
windows
WINDOWS
Thermal Insulation
Various forms of window according to type of casement --7
0 and type of frame --7 0 are shown opposite. The stringent
requirements for windows (thermal and sound insulation) result in
a multitude of window types and constructions. The location of
the window in the wall is a significant design feature of the fa9ade.
The arrangement of the insulation and any sun protection are also
important --7 0. An impact pane (external, no closing function)
serves, like double fa9ade systems, as wind protection for the
sun protection system and enables natural ventilation in strong
wind and rain. A staggered layout of window and insulation planes
should be avoided if possible, because it leads to expensive and
defect-prone insulation and weatherproofing construction. The
permissible dimensional tolerances for window and door openings
up to 3m long are max. 12 mm and, for elements up to 6 m, max.
16mm.
External windows and French windows of heated rooms must
be constructed with at least insulating or double glazing. The
thermal transmittance (U-value) of windows in new buildings
must, according to EnEV 2009, be determined together with
a survey of the whole building. Solar gains are included in the
calculation --7 p. 474 ff. For new installations, replacement and
renewal in existing buildings, the values according to --7 9 are
to be observed. In addition, windows, French windows and roof
windows have to comply with requirements for airtightness and
minimum air change --7 0.
Row Building element Residential buildings Zones of non-
and zones of residential buildings
non-residential with interior
buildings with interior temperatures
temperatures >19°C 12-19°C
Highest value of thermal transmittance Urn,1)
in W/(m2 x K)
2a external windows, 1.30 2) 1.90 2)
French windows
2b roof windows 1.40 2) 1.90 2)
2c glazing 1.10 3) no req'ment
2d curtain walls 1.40 41 1.90 4)
2e curtain walls 1.90 4) no req'ment
2f glass roofs 2.00 3) 2.70 3)
3a external windows, 2.00 2) 2.80 2)
French windows, roof
windows with special
glazing
3b special glazing 1.60 31 no req'ment
3c curtain walls with special 2.3 4) 3.0 41
glazing
1l Thermal transmittance of the building element, taking into account the new and existing
building layers.
2l Design value of the thermal transmittance of the window; this is to be taken from the technical
product specification or according to the known energy characteristics of the product
according to building regulations. This applies particularly to energy characteristics from
European technical approvals and from the regulations according to the building rules and
based on decisions contained in general approvals under the building regulations.
3) As 2) but regarding the glazing.
4l Thermal transmittance of the curtain walling; this is to be determined in accordance with the
generally recognised data relating to the technology.
0 The maximum values approach for single building elements is applicable only to
new buildings, and replacement or renewal in existing buildings, EnEV 2009
99
WINDOWS
Arrangement
Requirements
Design types
Thermal
insulation
Sound insulation
Cleaning
buildings
Roof windows
Rooflights
EnEV2009
see also: Glass
pp. 107 ff.,
Building physics
pp. 471 ff.,
Daylight
pp. 488 ff.

WINDOWS
Arrangement
Requirements
Design types
Thermal
insulation
Sound
insulation
Cleaning
buildings
Roof windows
Rooflights
BS EN ISO 140
BS 8233
BS EN ISO
15186
DIN 4109
see also: Glass
p. 107
0 Aluminium window with flush
casements
Aluminium window with thermally
separated profiles, up to 37 dB
Universal aluminium window, sun e
protection possible between panes,
upto47dB
Aluminium combined window,
thermally insulated, up to 47 dB
e Aluminium sliding window,
thermally insulated, up to 35 dB
0 Aluminium/wood window with
composite construction, up to 40 dB
f) Aluminium window with thermally e
separated profiles; narrow casement
Wooden box-type window with
sound-absorbing surround, up to
45 dB
is covered by frame, up to 40 dB
C) Plastic window with aluminium
frame facing, up to 42 dB
100
Cii) Plastic combined window, sun
protection possible between panes,
upto45 dB
WINDOWS
Sound Insulation
In order to improve the sound insulation of windows, a number of
glass layers are installed behind each other. To reduce the reciprocal
effect of resonance, different glass thicknesses are combined (e.g.
4/8 mm; 6/12 mm). The greater the distance between the panes,
the better is the sound insulation. Further improvements can be
gained from the separation of the frame and the sound-absorbing
construction of the resulting wrap-around window surround. Box-
type windows, even with only single glazing, have better sound
insulation values than double-glazed windows.
If the requirements for sound insulation are very high, then suitably
sound-insulated ventilation equipment must also be provided,
because the sound insulation is only effective with the windows
closed.
~'5 .£:5 - Qi
" ~..aU)<£:
a.
~~EE _Qilf§~
>
.?;- .!1
"0
cS:c--
tfJ~~~ ""
"' ~ ~ ~~ "' "'
0
~.{g~! ~~
0:: o.._._,_
residential road <10 0
residential road <35 0
(2-lane) 26-35 10-50 I
~10 Ill
residential feeder >100 0
road
36-100 I
(2-lane) 26-35 50-200 II
11-25 Ill
~10 IV
rural road 101-300
in village1> 101-300 I
(2-lane) 36-100 II
residential feeder 11-35 200-1000 Ill
road
"'10 IV
(2-lane) 0 ~50 25 (30)
urban road 101-300 Ill 51-55 25 (30)
main road 36-100 1000-3000 IV 56-<30 30 (35)
industrial areas >35 v Ill 61-<35 35 (40)
4- to 6-lane main 101-300 IV IV 66-70 40 (45)
roads v >70 45 (50)
motorway slip ~100 3000-5000 v
roads and
mot01ways
1) Outside built-up areas and for roads in industrial and
1l Values in brackets apply for
external walls and must also
be used for windows if they
comprise more than 60% of
external wall area.
commercial areas, the next noise level range applies
G} How loud is it?
Sound Sound
insulation insulation
class value (dB)
6 50
5 45-49
4 40-44
3 35-39
2 30-34
1 25-29
0 20-24
4!) Selection of the correct
sound insulation
Orientation notes on construction features of windows and
ventilation systems
box-type window with separated frames in reveals and
special sealing, wide spacing of panes and thick glazing
box-type window with special sealing, wide spacing of
panes and thick glazing; combined window with decoupled
casement frames, special sealing, spacing of panes over
about 100 mm and thick glazing
box-type windows with additional sealing and centre-seal
glazing; combined window with special sealing, spacing of
panes over about 60 mm and thick glazing
box-type window without additional sealing and with centre-
seal glass; combined window with additional sealing, normal
spacing of panes and thick glazing; double-glazed unit in
heavy multi-pane construction; 12 mm glass, non-opening or
in sealed window.
combined window with additional sealing and centre-seal
glazing; thick double-glazed unit, non-opening or in sealed
window; 6 mm glass, non-opening or in sealed window
combined window with additional sealing and centre-seal
glazing; thin double-glazed unit in window with additional sealing
unsealed single- or double-glazed window
G) Sound insulation classes of windows (excerpt from VOl guideline 2719)

Q Mobile safety cradle and safety belt f) Parallel travel safety ladders (for
three or four storeys)
:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:
e Cleaning of adjacent windows
l'
I
I I
II
I I
I!
0 Maintenance gangway
e One-person fagade cable lift
30m
25
20
'
15 I
I
I
G Work platform hoists
J
I
0 Shading shows acceptable cleaning
surface area
e Cleaning platform
Ci) Parallelogram jib action
•
I ..
I
WINDOWS
Cleaning Buildings
Fac;:ade hoists and mobile equipment
Safety belts with straps, safety cables or safety equipment
for working at height should be used as a protection against
falls---> 0
Fac;:ade hoists and mobile equipment (allowing access to fixed
glazing) for cleaning windows and fagades---> 0- G) are available
to carry out maintenance and repair work (thus saving the cost
of scaffolding). If fitted at the right time, they can also be used
to carry out minor building work (such as fixing blinds, installing
windows etc.). With slight modifications, fac;:ade hoists and access
equipment can be used as rescue apparatus in the event of a fire.
The options available include mobile suspended ladders mounted
on rails, trackless roof gantry equipment with a cradle, and a rail-
mounted roof gantry with a cradle and attached to the roof deck
or the balustrade, with curves and points.
Suspended light metal ladder equipment (for fagade access) ---> f)
consists of a suspended mobile ladder on rails. The width of the
ladder is 724 mm or 840 mm, and the total overall length is 25 m
maximum, depending on the shape of the building. The maximum
safe working load (S.W.L.) is 200 kg (i.e. two men and the
apparatus itself). Alternatives are available, such as maintenance
gangways---> 0 and cleaning balconies---> e.
Type of building External windows
offices every 3 months•
public offices 2weeks
shops outside, weekly
inside, every 2 weeks
shops (high street) outside, daily
inside, every week
hospitals 3 months
schools 3-4 months
hotels (first class) 2 weeks
factories (precision work) 4weeks
factories (heavy industry) 2 months
private houses 4-6 weeks
" ground floor windows must be cleaned more frequently
8 Intervals of time for window cleaning
J
With two independently
operated jibs
(
l 1
I l
'
I
I
L
I
I
Roof windows
every 12 months
3 months
6 months
3 months
6 months
12 months
3 months
3 months
6 months
m
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
.cl.l. _oil •
Gardemann system
101
WINDOWS
Arrangement
Requirements
Opening types
Thermal
protection
Noise protection
Cleaning
buildings
Loft windows
Rooflights

WINDOWS
Arrangement
Requirements
Opening types
Thermal
protection
Noise protection
Cleaning
buildings
Loft windows
Rooflights
see also: Dormer
windows p. 85
/E:JJ
1!!;;;;;1'
D
0 Pivoting window
e Sliding window, casement
door
Q Installation heights for loft windows
e With additional vertical window
e Installation variant, vertical
section
102
f) Top-hung window, sliding
C) Top-hung window with vertical
unit
1u85-
2.05
90-
110
_ --2u00
r"l·E-'---,..,..-Itr- 2.30
~
~-
90
~~~~
Q As dormer window; see p. 85
0 Horizontal section
WINDOWS
Loft Windows
The required quality of living is decisive for the determination of
window size in inhabited loft spaces. Building regulations require
a minimum window area of Va of the floor area for living rooms
--7 ((). Large windows make these rooms more comfortable. The
window widths in secondary rooms can be chosen according to
the distance between the rafters.
Generously wide windows in living rooms can be achieved
through the installation of rafter trimmers and additional rafters.
Steeper roofs need shorter windows, while flatter roofs require
longer windows.
Loft windows can be joined using flashing --7 G and can be
arranged horizontally or vertically in rows or window groups.
~
1
s4cm1 174cm 1 94cm ~
1
134cm 1
pivoting
window
pivoting
window
plastiC frame
double top-
hung/pivoting
window
escape window
vertical
window unit
4®
fii) Window sizes
window size 54/83
surface 0.21
area of light
admitted (m2)
floor area (m2) 2
54/103
0.28
2-3
64/103 74/103 74/123 74/144
0.36 0.44 0.55 0.66
3-4 4-5 6-7 9
$ Calculation of window size, in relation to floor area
144/123 114/144
0.93 1.12
11 13m2
@) Glass faQade with integrated loft windows and external perforated
134/144
1.36
metal screen Arch.: Kister Schelthauer Gross

~ ~T
d- ~30 J fan tb
with solid or ventilated curb
60x60 1.20 X2.40 1.80 X 2.40
80x80 1.25 X 2.50 1.80 X 2.70
90 x90 1.50 X 1.50 1,80 X 3.00
1.00 X 1.00 1.50 X 1.80 2.20 X 2.20
1.00 X 2.00 1.50 X 2.40 2.50 X 2.50
1.20x 1.20 1.80 X 1.80
1.20 X 1.80
round domes: 60, 90, 100, 120, 150, 180
220, 250cm dia.
0 'Normal' dome rooflight
B
A B A B
40 60x60 1.6 1.80 X 1.80
70 90 x90 1.7 2,00 X 2.00
80 1.00 X 1.00 2.20 2.00 X 2.20
1.00 1.20 X 1.20 2.30 2.50 X 2.50
1.30 1.50 X 1.50 2.40 2,70 X 2.70
C) Pyramid rooflight
j-1.50-6.50 --1
Q Continuous multiple barrel
skylights
0 Monitor rooflight with inclined
panes
50 X 1.00 1.00 X 1.00 1.20 X 1.50
50 X 1.50 1.00 X 1.50 1,20 X 2.40
60x60 1.00 X 2.00 1.50 X 1.50
50 X 90 1.00 X 2.50 1.50 X 3.00
90x90 1.00 X 3.00 1.80x 2.70
f) Dome rooflight with high curb
]11':....___ _ _~
A= B=
rooflight area roof opening
72x 1.20 x 1.08 1.25 X 1.25
72 X 2.45 X 2.30 1.25 X 2.50
75x1.16x76 1.50 X 1.50
Q North light dome
f----1.0-6.50----l
Q Continuous barrel skylight
0 Monitor rooflight with vertical
panes
angle of incidence
of sun's rays
t-- up to 1.50 ~25mm 96%-+ 4%-i
r----1.51-2.50 -----!30mm heat insulation in area of
1------- 2.51-3.60 ~~~=;~4~0~m~m~::"!sh~a~do~w~of~s:pun glass inlay
3.61-4.50 70 mm
4.51-6.50 90 mm
unit
41) Saw-tooth glass fibre-reinforced polyester skylight
WINDOWS
Skylights and Dome Rooflights
Domes, skylights, coffers, smoke vents and louvres, as fixed or
movable units, can be used for lighting and ventilation, and for
clearing smoke from rooms, halls, stair wells etc.
By positioning dome rooflights facing north sunshine and glare are
avoided -7 0. Glare from low sun can be avoided by the use of a
high curb -7 0 Dome rooflights used for ventilation should face
into the prevailing wind in order to utilise the extraction capacity of
the wind. The inlet aperture should be 20% smaller than the outlet
aperture. Forced ventilation, with an air flow of 150-1000 m3/h, can
be achieved by fitting a fan into the curb of a skylight -7 f). Dome
rooflights can also be used for access to the roof.
Attention should be given to the aerodynamic extraction surfaces
of smoke exhaust systems. Orientating each extraction unit at an
angle of 90° from the adjacent one will allow for wind coming from
all directions. Position to leeward/windward if pairs of extraction
fans are to be mounted in line with or against the direction of the
prevailing wind.
Smoke extraction vents are required for stairwells more than four
complete storeys high. Variable skylight aperture widths up to
5.50 m are available, as is a special version up to 7.50 m wide
which does not need extra support,
Skylight systems offer diffused room lighting which is free from
glare -7 G). North-facing saw-tooth skylights with spun glass fibre
inlays guarantee all the climatically important advantages of a full
workshop space -7 @).
f---- 5.0 ---1 1--- 5.0 ------1
Continuous double-pitched skylight e Continuous single-pitched skylight
1-----5.00-
1----2.00-4.00------j
G 60° saw-tooth north light 0 90° vertical saw-tooth north light
1--- :!;;; 1.50 ----1 25 mm
,___._ 1.51-3,00 --i30mm
>------ 3.01-4.00 40 mm
J--------- 4.01-5.50-----170mm
1------------- 5.51-7.50
0 Double-skinned rooflight units
90mm
unit
103
WINDOWS
Arrangement
Requirements
Opening types
Thermal
protection
Noise protection
Cleaning
buildings
Loft windows
Rooflighls
see also: Daylight
pp. 488ff.

GLASS
Basics
Insulated glazing
Security and
noise control
glass
Optically variable
glass
Cast glass
Profiled glass
Glass blocks
Fire protection
glass
Curtain walling
BS EN 410
BS 6262
DIN EN 410
+
+ +
0 Directional f) Dispersed
transmittance of
opal milk glasses,
alabaster etc.
C) Mixed transmittance
of ornamental
glasses, silk, light
opal glasses etc.
transmittance of
clear glasses with the
refraction of slanting
rays
Material Dispersion Thick- Reflec- Transmit- Absorb-
ness tion lance(%) ance
(mm) (%) (%)
clear glass none 2-4 6-8 90-92 2-4
mirror glass none 6-8 8 88 4
wire glass none 6-8 9 74 17
raw glass none 4--0 8 88 4
ornamental glass slight 3.2-5.9 7-24 57-90 3-21
clear glass, externally opaque slight 1.75-3.1 7-20 63-87 4-17
clear glass, internally opaque slight 1.76-3.1 6-16 77--09 3-11
porcelain good 3.0 72-77 2--0 20-21
marble, polished good 7.3-10 30-71 3--0 24-65
marble, soaked good 3-5 27-54 12-40 11-49
alabaster good 11.2- 49--07 17-30 14-21
cardboard, lightly soaked good 13.4 69 8 23
parchment, undyed good 48 42 10
parchment, light yellow soaked good 37 41 22
parchment, dark yellow good 36 14 50
silk, white nearly good 28-38 61-71 1
silk, coloured nearly good 1.1-2.8 6-24 13-54 27-80
laminate, tinted good 32-39 20-36 26-48
Light properties of transparent materials
Reflectivities-> p. 498 f), p. 507 0
100%~ g,
100o/~ r,
r,
~
u,
r,
ruv
u,
R,
The overall energy transmittance g refers to the wave length
range from 300 mm to 2500 mm. It is the sum of the radiation
allowed to pass directly through and the inward secondary heat
output (radiation and convection).
The statement of the light transmittance r, refers to the
wavelength range of visible light from 380 mm to 780 mm and is
weighted with the brightness sensitivity of the human eye.
The UV transmittance ruv for ultraviolet radiation is given for the
wavelength range from 280 mm to 380 mm.
The thermal transmittance U9 (DIN EN 673) of glazing is a
measure of how much energy is lost per second and per m2
with
a temperature difference of 1 kelvin. The lower this value is, the
less heat is lost. Coatings, gas filling and the width of the space
between the panes decisively influence the thermal transmittance
of glazing.
The colour rendering index Ra describes the colour rendering of
glazing. An Ra value of more than 90 denotes very good colour
rendering.
9 Technical data relating to light and energy
Compression zone
Tension zone
Compression zone
Tension +----j--+ Compression
The pane is heated to about 680°C,
Blowing with cold air cools the outer
layers more quickly so they harden.
Under further cooling, the hardened
edge zones prevent the core zone
from contracting. The outer zones are
compressed while a tension stress is
caused in the middle.
If bending forces now act on the pane,
this first has to relieve the existing
compression stresses before the material
has to accept tension stresses. This
measure can increase the bending
strength from about 24 N/mm2 of normal
float glass to 120 N/mm2.
0 Properties of pre-stressed panes of toughened or partially toughened glass
104
GLASS
Basics
Transparent, translucent building materials
For the determination of size, colour, window dimensions
and lighting of rooms, knowledge of the visual transmittance,
dispersion and reflection characteristics of glass materials are
important for their artistic and economic effect.
Light-reflecting materials are able to demonstrate directional,
completely dispersed or incompletely dispersed reflection and
transparent materials directional -+ 0, dispersed -+ f) and mixed
transmittance -+ e.
Note that frosted glasses, which are internally opaque (which is
preferable because they become less dirty), absorb less light than
externally opaque glasses.
Manufacture
Glass is drawn in a mechanical process and leaves the drawing
machine in a condition ready for use without further processing.
The glass is clear and translucent, colourless and of uniform
thickness. The surface is flat on both sides and fire-polished. The
basic composition of float glasses varies slightly due to the origin
of the raw materials used. This has practically no effect on the
physical properties. Colour values and visual and energy (heat)
transmittance can be exceptions. Tinted glasses are made with
the addition of various metallic oxides. The possible spectrum of
colours is very limited. A greater variety of colours and patterns
can be produced by enamel, which is applied to the surface
using a screen-printing process. These can only be applied to
toughened safety glass.
Glass panes which are inclined at more than 1oo from the vertical
are considered as roofing glass on account of the additional
loadings (self-weight, snow, wind and climatic loads) and are
subject to the 'Technical regulations for the use of glazing
with linear support' (TRLV) of the DIBt (German Institute for
Construction Technology).
Properties
Glass is physically a super-cooled liquid. It is a brittle material,
which can bear high compression stresses, but the tension
strength is only about 1/10 of the compressive strength. If the
limits of elasticity are exceeded by mechanical or thermal stresses,
it breaks. Normal glass then breaks into jagged pieces of various
sizes, which can be dangerous.
Different processes can be used to adapt the properties of glass
for the most varied requirements.
Tempering of the sheets produces a basic stress in the glass,
which increases its tension and bending strength -+ 0. If the glass
breaks, this pre-stress causes it to shatter into blunt fragments
(toughened safety glass). Coatings can be applied to change
the transmittance or the reflection of defined wavelengths (e.g.
thermally insulated glazing).
Two or more panes can be combined with an intermediate layer
to fulfil the most varied functions. Tear-resistant foils can prevent
glass splinters falling out (laminated glass-+ p. 106 0), and many
layers make glazing resistant to breaking. Printed intermediate
layers offer a range of colourful and graphic design possibilities.
Special fillings can hinder the transmittance of unwanted thermal
radiation (fire protection glazing-+ p. 111).

ItA
~j j~
i I
0 Insulated glazing can consist of two or three panes. The specific properties
can be Influenced by a multitude of combinations of coatings and composite
glasses.
(j)@ (j)@@@®®
Outside Inside Outside Inside Outside Inside
I Coating
(unfavourable on
side 2 or3)
Space
between panes
f) Description of the pane surfaces for the numbering of the position of coatings
Type of glass Glass Visual Light reflection Overall
thickness, transmittance to the outside energy (heat)
outer(mm) Tc(%) RlA(%) transmittance (%)
float glass 4 80 13 61
outer 6 79 13 59
THERMOPLUS--7S3 8 78 12 57
at pos. 3 10 77 12 56
0 Light and energy values of insulated glazing with various thicknesses of the
external pane and coating of the inner pane (position 3)
Inner pane: clear float glass pane with a thickness of 4 mm. (EnEV --7 refs)
Type of glass Glass Visual Light reflection Overall
thickness, transmittance to the outside energy (heat)
outer(mm) Tc(%) RlA(%) transmittance(%)
float glass® 4 80 14 59
outer 6 79 14 57
THERMOPLUS® S3 8 78 14 56
at pos. 2 10 78 14 55
9 Light and energy values of insulated glazing with various thicknesses of the
coated outer pane (pos. 2)
Inner pane- clear float glass pane with a thickness of 4 mm. (EnEV --7 refs)
~sz~(")
Q)
» c: g
Q)
~~ ~NE~~ 0
"'
u
1J ±!
c: Q) c:
~tn~~m E c:
:!)] c:"' Q)
""' "" ~
11
Glass type "'E lij'E' ~
g
"''" ~'" 0
~~
Q) c: Space between -<=
'"
0g Ol > -"
panes :::; ::J -<
T,(%) g(%) 12mm 14mm 16mm outside inside Tuv(%) AEa(%)
blue 50127 50 28 1.2 1.1 1.1 19 19 6 39
70/35 70 37 1.2 1.1 1.1 16 17 11 29
66133 66 36 1.2 1.1 1.1 16 18 11 32
brilliant 50/25 50 27 1.2 1.1 1.1 19 20 7 42
40122 40 23 1.2 1.1 1.1 20 22 7 44
30/17 30 19 1.2 1.1 1.1 26 17 6 47
neutral 70/40 71 43 1.3 1.2 1.1 10 11 18 31
silver 50/30 50 32 1.2 1.1 1.1 39 33 17 28
lnfrastop®- solar control insulating glass with argon filling. Construction
layers 6 (16) 4 mm. Technical and physical data under vertical radiation.
(EnEV --7 refs)
5
0
0
u
-C:
~.Q
(1):!:::::
c:'O
Q) c:
(9 ~
RA
95
97
94
92
91
88
95
94
GLASS
Insulated Glazing
Simple double glazing
Double-glazed units normally consist of two panes. These are
connected at the edge with an air-tight and gas-tight spacer.
A considerable improvement in the coefficient of thermal
conductivity (U-value) has been achieved through special
coating of the panes. Such thermally insulating and solar control
glazing has, since the introduction in Germany of the Insulation
Regulations in 1995 and the Energy Saving Regulations (EnEV)
in 2002, replaced uncoated glazing on account of its improved
coefficients of thermal conductivity. Only in isolated cases does
the calculation according to EnEV permit the use of normal
double-glazed units.
Current types of glass with their optical features and the current
construction physics properties and maximum sizes can be
taken from the information provided by the glass industry. The
combination with any kind of wire glass or tinted cast glass causes
stress in the glass in direct sunshine and can lead to breakages,
and so should be avoided. In addition, the glass dimensions and
the selection of the construction of the double glazing should take
into account all current standards, the technical regulations for the
use of glazing with linear support and secured against falling out,
glazing guidelines and workplace regulations. Only products with
general technical approval should be used.
Thermally insulating double-glazed units
Thermally insulating double-glazed units are neutral in appear-
ance and transparency, so that they look similar to simple dou-
ble-glazed units. The low coefficients of thermal conductivity
(U9-value) are achieved through a coating of precious metal in
position 3. Because the coatings applied to thermal insulation
glass show low emissivity, this is often described as low-E glaz-
ing. Filling with inert gas can produce a further improvement of
the coefficient of thermal conductivity. These units have high
visual and overall energy (heat) transmittance in order to make
the greatest possible part of the solar radiation available for pas-
sive energy gain. If the thermal insulation coating is applied to
position 2, then the overall energy passing through is reduced.
The visual impression can show slight differences, particularly if
units are directly next to each other.
Solar control glass
Solar control glass is characterised by high visual transmittance
at the same time as low overall energy transmittance. The passive
energy gain from incoming solar radiation is low. This is made
possible by a wafer-thin coating based on precious metal, which
is applied in the protection of the space between the panes. In
addition to its good solar control properties, solar control glass
fulfils all current requirements for high-quality insulated glazing.
Solar control units are normally labelled with a pair of values,
which show firstly the visual transmittance and secondly the
overall energy transmittance as percentages. Solar control units
can be delivered with various grades of colour and reflection as
seen from outside.
In order to select the optimal coloration of glass, sample panes
should be requested from the manufacturer of the solar control
glass. Absolute conformity of colour in the external elevation is not
practically possible to produce, particularly when replacements
are ordered. The mirror image of highly reflecting glazing can be
distorted by imperfections in flatness.
The view of colour from inside to outside is insignificantly falsified.
If the view is compared directly with the view through an open
window, a slight toning will be recognised. This toning can be
more apparent for some types of solar control glass.
105
GLASS
Basics
Insulated
glazing
Security and
noise control
glass
Optically variable
glass
Cast glass
Profiled glass
Glass blocks
Fire protection
glass
Curtain walling
EnEV2009

GLASS
Basics
Insulated
glazing
Security and
noise control
glass
Optically variable
glass
Cast glass
Profiled glass
Glass blocks
Fire protection
glass
Curtain walling
'I~HB BH0!"
~ A A C ~
one slanting edge trapezium parallelogram polygon
:!G!,,l~,I ,r~r ~,I
A A A f-------p;----i
polygon polygon polygon triangle
J~ Jr;l!IB
10 10
f-----L-..-; ~
right~angled triangle segmental arch
segment of a circle
cjGro--rE-t
B ®
90" 90" IF
1----A-----1
circle
rmin. I
10 em
@) B
90" 90'
1---A----l
polygon rounded corners rounded corners
0 Delivery shapes of model panes (examples)

The illustration shows schematically
the isotherms, that is lines of equal
temperature, for thermal insulation glass
with thermally optimised edge bonding in
comparison to a conventional spacer of
aluminium or steel.
It can be clearly seen that the isotherms
with the improved spacers lie closer to the
bottom of the glass, which shows that the
glass is warmer on the room side so that
less condensation will be created at the
edge of the double-glazed unit, or none
at all.
f) Heat fiow at the glass-frame transition for highly insulated
windows (EnEV--> refs)

Grid, fabric, spotted
foils, blinds Glazing
units with inserts
106

With transparent,
translucent, tinted
foils; stuck onto glass
Laminated safety
glass
Capillary system
between panes,
diffusing, low U9
-
values Transparent
thermal insulation
GLASS
Insulated Glazing
Model panes are described with sketches and dimensioned
according to the system in -7 0. For acute angles of less than
30°, at the top a blunt edge of at least 10 mm is required. Smaller
panes (:;;;60 em edge length) should be avoided because these
have a higher risk of breakage and the edge seal can tend to leak
due to the reduced elasticity of the panes.
Thermally improved spacers
The Energy Saving Regulations (EnEV) and more stringent
standards and guidelines have resulted in the increased
significance of thermally improved spacers. The thermal properties
of the spacers may be taken into account in the new verification
process under EnEV. This improvement is, however, not reflected
in the U9
-value, but 1Jf is additionally applied as lengthwise heat
transmittance and is thus reflected in the official verification.
This improved thermal insulation in the critical transition from
glass to window frame results in higher surface temperatures
on the room side than with the use of conventional aluminium
spacers. This results in less or even no condensation, which
always forms at the coldest point under unfavourable conditions,
like for example high air humidity -7 f). For windows with wooden
frames, the harmful effects of damp and the danger of mould are
reduced.
Light deflection and solar control in the space between the
panes
Various light deflection systems can be installed in the space
between the panes of insulated glazing -7 0. Rigid light control
elements use reflection and dispersion to allow diffused light into
the room and shield direct sunlight according to the position of the
sun, or direct it deep into the room. Sunshading blinds, which can
either be rotated or completely raised, are protected from dirt by
the location between the panes. They can be operated manually or
electrically. The panes of glass at each side must be of toughened
glass, because increased stresses could be caused by the heat.
The width of the space between the panes varies from 20 to
27 mm according to construction.
Thermal insulation between the panes
Transparent thermal insulation -7 0 enables high thermal
insulation values at the same time as high heat transmission
(heat trap). These systems diffuse the light passing through to
varying extents. Glass or plastic tubes can be used, installed at
right angles to the glass surface. They reflect the light further into
the inside of the room and hinder air movement when the gap
between the panes is large. Units with more panes, or filled with
foam particles, reflect more light externally. Transparent thermal
insulation elements need effective shading in summer. They are
mostly used for heat-storage walls.
Self-cleaning coating on the weather side
Various glass manufacturers offer self-cleaning coatings in position
1 (-7 p. 105) of insulated glazing. This coating results in a slight
alteration of the colour and also a slight influence on the visual and
energy values compared to standard. The coatings can be applied
to thermal insulation and solar control glazing and also on fagade
panels; it will be necessary to request further information from the
manufacturer. The manufacturer's cleaning instructions are to be
observed absolutely.

1. Weight of glass: the heavier the
glass pane, normally the higher
the acoustic insulation
Asymmetric glass build-up
2. The more elastic the pane (e.g.
resin~filled cast-in-place), norm-
ally the higher the acoustic
insulation
Cast-in-place
(CIP)
laminated
3. The thicknesses of the inner and
outer panes must be different;
the greater the difference,
normally the higher the acoustic
insulation
glass Inside
Outside
Gas filling
0 Improvement ofthe sound reduction properties of insulated glazing
c - motorway traffic
-rail traffic with medium or high speed
-jet aircraft, short distance away
-factories emitting mostly medium or high frequency noise
c,, -urban road traffic
- rail traffic at low speed
-propeller aircraft
-jet aircraft, far away
-disco music
-factories emitting mostly low and medium frequency noise
f) Adaptation terms C and C1
r for the sound reduction value Rw for particular noise
types. C100-5000 or c,, 100-5000 describe an extended frequency spectrum.
Rw c Cu Configuration Thickness Weight
Type (dB) c c,, 100-5000 100-5000 (mm) (mm) (kg/m2)
28/37 37 -2 -5 -1 -5 8(16)4 28 30
30/38 38 -2 -6 -1 -6 10(16)4 30 35
28/38 v 38 -2 -6 -1 -6 4(16)8VSG 28 30
30/38X 38 -2 -6 -1 -6 4(16)10VSG 30 35
30/38 v 38 -3 -7 -2 -7 6(16)8 VSG 30 35
29/39 L 39 -1 -5 0 -5 4(16)8,8 L 29 30
32/40V 40 -2 -6 -1 -6 6(16)10VSG 32 40
31/41 L 41 -3 -7 -2 -7 6(16)8,8 L 31 35
33/42 L 42 -3 -7 -2 -1 6(16)8,8 L 33 40
33/43 L 43 -3 -7 -2 -7 8(16)9,1 L 33 40
Sound reduction and adaptation terms for Phonstop® glasses. U9-values of
Phonstop® TH-SN 1.2 W/m2Kand Phonstop® TH S3 1.1 W/m2k(EnEV-> refs)
56 ···Note: The given thickness is the
:: nominal thickness of the armoured
:: ::.~~~~~-~~:.~~!~~~~~-!~-~-~~~:~:-~t~~e-~- :::: ::::
W M • ~ ~ ® " a ~ ~ 00 M M n M &
Pane thickness in mm
8 Comparison of light transmittance values of armoured glass with and without
white glass -> (EnEV-> refs)
Attack-resistant According to the
glazing, Break-in-resistant security guidelines
DIN 52290-3, DIN windows, doors, ofVdS Loss Health and safety
DIN 52290-4 EN 356 DIN VENV 1627 Prevention regulations
A1 P2A - - -
A2 P3A - - P3A
A3 P4A WK2 EH01 -
- P5A WK3 EH02 -
B1 P6B WK3-4 EH1* -
B2 P7B WK5 EH2• P7B
83 P8B WK6 EH3* -
*Certification by VdS is required.
Comparison table of security classes according to insurance regulations. This
table is only an overview: it must be possible to fulfil and verify the required
values.
GLASS
Security and Noise Control Glass
Noise reduction
All thermal insulation and solar control units can also fulfil noise
control functions, but need additional measures. These additional
measures can influence the visual transmittance, the g-value and
the Ug-value. These altered values have to be taken into account
in the verification under EnEV.
As examples, these additional measures are possible, according
to the required level of noise reduction: poured resin or heavy
glass fillings, composite glass with noise reduction foil etc. The
noise reduction values or sound transmission class for all glass
combinations are listed in the individual manufacturers' handbooks
and should be taken into account in the design. Only products
with the required test certificates should be used. For sound
reduction classes of windows ____. p. 100 0 and p. 386. In addition
to the evaluated sound reduction value Rw, spectrum adaptation
terms can be given, which are used to modify the Rw-value to the
subjective response of the ear to certain noise types____. f).
Security glazing
These requirements on glazing units lead to thick glass, which
causes a green coloration. This can be reduced by white glass.
Combination with thermal insulation and solar control glazing is
also possible.
Break-in resistance (private areas)
This is security glass for private clients, intended to dissuade an
opportunist criminal, through to high-quality break-in resistant
glazing according to the security guidelines of VdS Loss
Prevention. These requirements can be met by a composite
secure glazing unit consisting of at least two panes with a high-
strength plastic foil.
Resistance against manual attack (commercial use)
In these cases, the security effect can be provided only by a multi-
layer configuration with the use of various glass thicknesses and
plastic foil inserts.
If the security glazing is to be used and recognised by insurance
companies, VdS Loss Prevention's guidelines are to be complied
with, the break-in resistance classes being categorised as EH1,
EH2 or EH3.
Bullet-proof glass
The following 'BR' resistance classes are defined according to
European standards:
Class BR 1:
Class BR 2 (C1):
Class BR 3 (C2}:
Class BR 4 (C3):
Class BR 5:
Class BR 6 (C4}:
Class BR 7 (C5):
Class SG 1:
Class SG 2:
.22 rifle
9 mm pistol
.357 Magnum pistol
.44 Magnum pistol
5.56 x 45 rifle
7.62 rifle x 51 standard ammunition
7.62 rifle x 51 hard-core ammunition
shotgun calibre 12/70 (1 hit)
shotgun calibre 12/70 (3 hits)
These glasses can be produced with the grading 'splinter-free' (on
the inside).
Glazing for counters in banks etc. should comply with the regulations
of Accident Insurance for Administration. The technical solutions
from Accident Insurance Information (BGI} do not exclude other
solutions, which are just as safe.
Explosion resistance
Glazing was tested with maximum dimensions of 900 x 1100 mm
and fixed all round in a retaining construction. This must be
installed in accordance with the test certificate or the window unit
should be tested.
107
GLASS
Basics
Insulated glazing
Security and
noise control
glass
Optically variable
glass
Cast glass
Profiled glass
Glass blocks
Fire protection
glass
Curtain walling
BS EN 356
BS EN 1063
BS EN 1279
BS EN 12758
DIN EN 356
DIN EN ISO 717
DIN EN 1063
DIN EN 13123

GLASS
Basics
Insulated glazing
Security and
noise control
glass
Optically
variable glass
Cast glass
Profiled glass
Glass blocks
Fire protection
glass
Curtain walling

~ ® ®
~ Cast glass ornamental surtace etc.
® Cast glass profile
@ Cast glass with amorphous structures,
rough surtace, transparent, translucent
0 Light dispersion and light modifying effects of cast glasses
f) Single leaf Double door elements
DELODUR® Glass thickness Maximum size Thickness
(mm) (cmxcm) tolerance (mm)
blank, grey, bronze, optiwhite 10 244x 510 0.3
12 244 X 510 0.3
green 8 244x 510 0.3
10 244 x510 0.3
structure 200 master glasses 8 194x425 0.5
10 194 X 425 0.5
bamboo, chinchilla blank/bronze 8 175 X 425 0.5
C) Whole glass door elements (fanlights and side elements)- maximum sizes of
toughened panes that can be produced (EnEV--> refs)
Size in 1/1 G Size in 2/2 G Size in 3/3 G
(mmxmm) (mmxmm) (mmxmm)
outside door size 709 X 1972 834 X 1972 959 X 1972
standard 709 x2097 834x2097 959 X 2097
lining rebate size 716 X 1983 841 X 1983 966 X 1983
716 X 2108 841x2108 966x2108
structural size 750 x2000 875x 2000 1000 X 2000
750 X 2125 875x2125 1000 X 2125
G Glass doors: dimensions (EnEV--> refs)
108
GLASS
OPTICALLY VARIABLE GLASS
Double-glazed units whose transmission properties can be
altered are differentiated into switching and switchable units.
Switching units are conditioned during production so that they
react automatically to certain influences (e.g. thermotropic units).
The visual transmittance of switchable layers can be altered at
any time by changing the gas layer in between the panes or by
applying a voltage.
Thermotropic units
These composite units react with alterations of temperature
by changing from clear (transparent) to opaque (diffuse). This
is achieved with a mixture of two components with different
refraction properties, which align their structures differently
according to temperature, altering the refraction of the layer. The
alteration is reversible.
Electrochromatic units
The transmittance of these units can be altered by applying a
voltage to the reactive layer. For internal use, this can be achieved
with the use of liquid crystals in the space between the panes
(LC foils function reliably only between -40°C and +40°C). Other
systems make use of the property of some materials to alter their
visual transmittance and coloration with the absorption or release
of ions (by applying a voltage). These units are suitable for external
glazing.
CAST GLASS
Properties
Cast glass is produced mechanically by rolling certain surface
structures. It is not clear to look through. Cast glass is used for
applications where obscure glass is required (bathroom, WC) and
as a design element. Ornamental glass is available as white and
tinted, raw white glass, and white and tinted ornamental wired
glass. Wired glasses are no longer classified as safety glass, with
exceptions when used in overhead glazing.
Most cast glasses can be further processed to make toughened
glass, laminated safety glass and thermally insulated glazing
units. The structure is normally faced to the outside in order to
ensure a proper edge joint. If the glass is only lightly structured,
the structured side can be faced inwards in order to simplify
cleaning. Tinted cast glass cannot be used in combination with
tinted classes like float glass, toughened glass or laminated safety
glass, nor with coated glass with thermal insulation or solar control
functions.
GLASS DOORS
Whole glass doors
The dimensions of doors correspond to the dimensions of metal
door linings ~ 0. They can be installed in all the metal door
linings produced to DIN 18111 standard. The doors are made of
toughened glass panes. If violently smashed, the glass crumbles
into a network of small fragments, which more or less stay
loosely together. The normal glass thicknesses of 10 or 12 mm
comply with the structural requirements. Structured cast glass
and printable toughened float glass panes are available. Printable
laminated safety glass panes can also be supplied (the composite
glass foil is printed).
Whole glass door elements consist of one or more glass doors,
the side elements and the fanlight. Further possibilities are sliding,
folding, segmented arch, and round arch door elements. Various
tints and glass structures are available, and standard or special
sizes.

611
220
116
INP2 I I41 K22/41/6 711
218
117
232
250 lsr2 I I6o K22/60/7
6 6 232
INP26 !I41 K 25/41/6
711 248
117
262
319 lsr26 I I6o K25/60/7
6 6 262
INP3 II41 K32/41/6
7
317
331
7
486
K 50/416 I I6o K32/60/7
6 6 331
INP5 II41
NP/SP~ Reglit
498
K ~Profilit
0 Profiled glass - cross-sections
,------'l--, L___L_j
H ] 11
Height above I II Ill
ground level up to up to up to up to up to up to up to up to up to
clear opening Bm 20m 100m Bm 20m 100m am 20m 100m
glass type -> 0 L' L' L' L' L' L' L' L' L'
NP2 2.67 2.11 1.80 3.19 2.52 2.15 3.77 2.98 2.55
K 22/41/6
NP 26 2.53 2.00 1.70 3.02 2.39 2.03 3.57 2.82 2.41
K 25/41/6
NP 3 2.27 1.80 1.53 2.72 2.15 1.83 3.21 2.54 2.17
K 32/41/6
NP 5 1.88 1.49 1.27 2.25 1.78 1.52 2.66 2.11 1.80
K 50/41/6
SP 2 4.22 3.33 2.84 5.04 3.98 3.40 5.96 4.71 4.02
K22/60/7
SP26 3.99 3.16 2.69 4.77 3.77 3.22 5.65 4.46 3.81
K 25/60/7
K 32/60/7 3.59 2.84 2.42 4.29 3.39 2.89 5.08 4.02 3.43
f) Sheltered buildings (0.8-1.25 x g)
h/a- 0.25; - (1.5 x q) H/a~0.5; -(1.7 x q)
Height above ,-Y-, '---'-- c:b ,-Y-, '-'1-1 c:b
ground up to up to up to up to up to up to up to up to up to up to up to up to
level
clear openinQ
8m 20m
glass type-'> 0 L' L'
NP2 2.18 1.72
K 22/41/6
NP26 2.06 1.63
K25/41/6
NP3 1.85 1.47
K 32/41/6
NP5 1.54 1.22
K 50/41/6
SP2 3.44 2.72
K 22/60/7
SP26 3.26 2.58
K 25/60/7
K 32/60/7 2.93 2.32
8 Exposed buildings
light transmittance:
noise reduction
thermal insulation
G Physical data
100m
L'
1.47
1.39
1.25
1.04
2.32
2.20
1.98
8m 20m 100m
L' L' L'
3.08 2.44 2.08
2.92 2.31 1.97
2.62 2.07 1.77
2.17 1.72 1.47
4.87 3.85 3.28
4.61 3.64 3.11
4.15 3.28 2.80
single skin
double skin
single skin2
double skin
triple skin
single skin
double skin
8m
L'
2.05
1.94
1.74
1.44
3.23
3.06
2.76
20m 100m 8m 20m 100m
L' L' L' L' L'
1.62 1.38 2.90 2.29 1.95
1.53 1.31 2.74 2.17 1.85
1.38 1.17 2.46 1.95 1.66
1.14 0.97 2.04 1.61 1.38
2.56 2.18 4.57 3.62 3.08
2.42 2.06 4.33 3.42 2.92
2.18 1.86 3.90 3.08 2.63
L' o= length of glass sheets mmetres
up to 86%
up to 75%
up to 29 dB
upto41 dB
up to 55 dB
k~5.6W/m2K
NP U9
~ 2.8 W/m2K
SP U9 ~ 2.7 W/m2K
MMM
A~ single skin, flanges external
n rnn..-----:o~n
Filii!I
'~~
B = single skin, flanges internal
n 1 111--
c=single skin, flanges inward and outward
r rnr n H rL-- :::!!.u llj'L 1 J
D ~single skin, flanges alternating
w -w 'IF 11 lln
11
1MM
E-1 ~ double skin, alternating fonms
0 Installation possibilities
GLASS
Profiled Glass
Profiled glass is a cast glass produced with a U-shaped profile.
It is translucent with an ornamentation on the outside surface of
the profile, and conforms to the properties of cast glass. It has
low maintenance requirements. It is suitable for lift shafts and
roof glazing. Rooms using this glass for fenestration are rendered
glare free. Heat-absorbing glasses Reglit and Profilit 'Plus 1.7' are
coated with metallic oxides and attain aUg-value of 1.8 W/m2K.
Solar control glass (Type R, "Bernstein'; Type P, 'Antisol'), which
reflects and/or absorbs ultra-violet and infra-red radiation, can be
used to protect delicate goods from UV radiation. The transmission
of radiant energy into the room is reduced, as is the convection
from the glazing, whilst the light transmission is maintained.
For glazing subject to impacts, e.g. in of sports halls (ball throwing
safety), Reglit SP2 or Profilit K22/60/7 without wire reinforcement
should be used.
Regulit and Profilit are allowed as fire-glass with a fire resistance
class of G30. Normal and special profiles are also available with
longitudinal wires.
0; nu N tO JOint
double~glazed
I l
A! B= external dimension
tj
dlJ~ A~n~minaldimension+
H L offrame
[] u
single-glazed
C) Installation dimensions
{ )
a
0 Cwved forms
II I
H = external dimension
of frame (height)
L ~ glass length
.l ~I ~multiple of 25 mm
~-- J"~ n=numberofwidths
~2.5 determination of width
65(85) and height: overall
width B=nxA+5cm
height H ~ L+ 4 em
a) circular cutves with and
without straight extensions
b) double~sided cuJVes with
regular or variable curvature
diameter
c) conical curves
d) s-shaped curves
e) U~shaped or similar curves with
and without straight extensions
1160~340 I20.:;00
IUnfolded I
126 501
Q~I
s
e Sample configurations of the possibilities of bending ornamental glass
(dimensions in mm)
109
GLASS
Basics
Insulated glazing
Security and
noise control
glass
Optically variable
glass
Cast glass
Profiled glass
Glass blocks
Fire protection
glass
Curtain walling

GLASS
Basics
Insulated glazing
Security and
noise control
glass
Optically variable
glass
Cast glass
Profiled glass
Glass blocks
Fire protection
glass
Curtain walling
BS EN 1051
ISO 21690
DIN EN 1051
DIN 4102-3,
DIN 4242
A=n1·b+n2·a
B=A+2·C
H=A+C+d
n1 = number of blocks (b)
n2 = number of joints (a)
c = 8.5cm
d = 6.5cm
formula to calculate the minimum structural opening
0 Standard dimensions for glass block walls
1 slip joint
2 expansion joint,
e.g. rigid foam
3 flexible sealing
4 plaster
5 aluminium
windowsill
6 L section
7 anchor or peg
built onto a fayade with angle anchoring
plan
f) Examples of glass block wall construction
plan of corner detail
1 slip joint
2 expansion joint,
e.g. rigid foam
3 flexible sealing
4 plaster
5 aluminium
windowsill
6 U section
7 L section
8 anchor or peg
4
section
section
0 Installation with U-profiles and external thermal insulation
plan
1 slip joint
2 expansion joint,
e.g. rigid foam
3 flexible sealing
4 plaster
5 U section
6 anchor or peg
e Interior wall junction using U-profiles
110
section
GLASS
Glass Blocks
Glass blocks are hollow units which consist of two sections
melted and pressed together, thereby creating a sealed air cavity.
Both surfaces can be made smooth and transparent, or very
ornamental and almost opaque. Glass blocks can be obtained in
different sizes, coated on the inside or outside, uncoated, or made
of coloured glass. They can be used internally and externally, e.g.
transparent screen walls and room dividers (also in gymnastic or
sports halls), windows, lighting strips, balcony parapets and terrace
walls. Glass blocks are fire-resistant up to G60, G120 or F60 when
used as a cavity wall with a maximum uninterrupted area of 3.5 m2
,
and can be built either vertically or horizontally. They are used as
building elements, but cannot be load-bearing. Their properties:
good sound and thermal insulation; high light transmittance (up to
82%); transparent, translucent, diffusing and low-glare according
to decor; increased impact resistance. The thermal insulation
of a glass block wall: with cement mortar U9-value = 3.2 W/m2
K,
with lightweight mortar U9
= 2.9 W/m2 K, with special bricks up to
U9 =1.5 W/m2 K.
smallest radius R with glass thickness Scm
joints must be <1.0em wide
glass block
nominal size 11.5cm
_..,?
105cm min. radius
19cm nominal
-t block size
~
~ ~~5_.c_~_~i~_J;dJUs
c,. 1.5 emU 24.0cm nominal
block size
joint width
c"' 1.5cm
joint width
C>= 1.Bcm
joint width
c=2.3cm
e Minimum radii of glass block walls
- Dimensions mm Weight
kg
~ 115 X 115 X 60 1.0
E!ffi!m 146 X 146 X 98 1.8
6"x6"x8"
EHfim3 190 X 190 X 50 2.0
§lllml 190 X 190 X 80 2.3
tmm±l 190 X 190 X 100 2.8
Eimml 197x197x98 3.0
8"x8"x4"
IIHI 240x 115x80 2.1
m 240 x240x 80 3.9
fBim 300 X 300 X 100 7.0
Q Dimensions of glass blocks
Unreinforced glass block walls
200.0cm
95.0cm
65.0cm
Stock
mz
64
42
25
25
25
25
32
16
10
19.0cm
295.0cm
180.0cm
105.0cm
Stock
carton
10
8
14
10
8
8
10
5
4
24.0cm
370.0cm
215.0cm
135,0cm
Stock
range
1.000
512
504
360
288
288
500
250
128
Glass block walls that meet the requirements of ---7 f) may be built
without reinforcement and without specific structural verification.
Take note of DIN 4242 with regard to the structural reinforcement
of the edge strip.
Arrangement of joints Thickness (mm) Wall dimensions
Shorter Longer Wind load
side (m) side (m) (kN/m2)
Continuous ~80 "'1.5 ~1.5 "'0.8
Overlapped (bonded) "'6.0
f) Permissible limits for unreinforoed glass block walls

Glass brick Airborne sound Weighted Sound Rw Achievable with glass
format(mm) insulation sound insulation brick windows with wall
margin reduction R'w class structure:
190x190x80 -12dB 40 dB 6 50 dB double sk!n
240 X 240 X 80 -10 dB 42 dB 5 45-49 dB single skin
240x115x80 -7 dB 45dB 4 40-44 dB single skin
300 X300 X 100 -11 dB 41 dB 3 35-39 dB single skin
double-glazed -2 dB SO dB 2 30-34 dB single skln
wall, 1 25-29 dB single skin
240 X 240 X 80 0 25 dB single skin
0 Sound insulation of glass block
walls
f) Sound insulation classes, VDI
guideline 2719 for windows
Room type Guideline values for permissible external noise
level
Average noise level~ Average maximum level
1. domestic living rooms, guest daytime 30-40 dB (A) daytime 40-50 dB (A)
rooms in hotels, wards in night time 2Q-30 dB (A) night time 30-40 dB (A)
hospitals and sanatoria
2. school rooms, single private 30-40 dB (A) 4D-50 dB (A)
offiCes, scientific work rooms,
libraries, conference and lecture
rooms, doctors' surgeries and
operating theatres, churches,
auditoriums
3. multiple-use offices 35-45 dB (A) 45-55 dB (A)
4. open-plan offices, inns and 40-50 dB (A) 5Q-60 dB (A)
restaurants, shops, halls
5. entrance, waiting and departure 45-55 dB (A) 55-55 dB (A)
halls
6. opera houses, theatres, cinemas 25 dB (A) 35 dB (A)
7. recording studios observe special requirements
'eqUivalent maximum permitted constant level
e Permitted maximum sound levels for different categories of room, VDI guideline
2719
angle steel, 50 x 55 mm
length >100 mm, at least four per glazed area
2 allowable fire-resistant pegs and steel screws M 10
3 flat steel strips to fix the glass block wall (welded)
~ glass block
C) Installation details: fire-resistant glazing with glass blocks
4 15 6.5
II-+!
G30
sealing
4 15 6.5
11------H
G60
Q Glazing with fire resistance class 'G'
GLASS
GLASS BLOCKS
Sound reduction
Because of its weight, a glass block wall has particularly good
sound insulation properties:
1.00 kN/m2 for 80 mm glass blocks
1.25 kN/m2 for 100 mm glass blocks
1.42 kN/m2
for special BSH glass blocks.
To be effective, the surrounding building elements must have
at least the same sound reduction characteristics. Glass block
construction is the ideal solution in all cases where good reduction
is required. In areas where a high level of sound reduction is
necessary, economical solutions can be achieved by using glass
block walls to provide the daylight, while keeping ventilation
openings and windows. These can serve as secondary escape
routes if they conform to the minimum allowable size.
DIN 4109 should be complied with. The weighted sound reduction
measurement R'w is determined according to DIN 52210--+ 0:
Rw = airborne sound insulation margin +52 dB
Single-skin glass block construction fulfils the requirements of
sound insulation class 5--+ 0.
Glass blocks with steel reinforcement
The fire-resistant glazing of glass blocks can, like all other glass
block walls, be built with and without U-profiles, and all the
possible connections are in principle identical. Because of the
strong linear expansion in case of fire and the release of smoke,
glass block walls are bedded all round with mineral fibre. --+ 0.
Fire resistance classes up to G 120 or F 60 can be achieved,
depending on the construction and the manufacturer.
FIRE PROTECTION GLASS
Normal glass is of limited suitability for fire protection. In case of
fire, the action of heat on one side can cause float glass panes to
burst very quickly and large broken pieces to fall out, which can
result in the fire spreading. The required fire resistance classes for
exposed glazing will be laid down in the building permission. The
following fire resistance classes are defined:
G30,G60,G90,G120,G180
F30, F60, F90, F120, F180
T30,T60, T90, T120, T180
Fire resistance classes 'G' and 'F'
'G glasses' must prevent flames or combustion gases passing
through for a certain duration of fire (e.g. G30 = 30 minutes). There
must be an official technical approval for all 'G glazing', including
the installation details. Heat radiation may, however, be transmitted
by this glazing, which restricts the possible applications. Such
glazing is not permissible for emergency exits.
There are three possibilities for construction of G glazing:
Wired glass with spot-welded mesh
Elaborate special toughened glass combinations in composite
isolated glazing
Pre-stressed borosilicate glass, like Pyran.
F glazing has to prevent the transmission of heat radiation, in
addition to stopping smoke and fire. This is achieved by using
special composite glass panes with a gel layer, which foam or can
absorb energy through evaporation effects and can thus prevent
radiated heat passing through the pane. The pane and also its
connection to the framed construction and adjacent construction
elements all have to possess technical approval valid under
building regulations.
Construction fire protection can be evaluated only in combination
with the adjacent building elements (Fire Protection chapter --+
p. 511 ff.)
111
GLASS
Basics
Insulated glazing
Security and
noise control
glass
Optically variable
glass
Cast glass
Profiled glass
Glass blocks
Fire protection
glass
Curtain walling
PD 6512
BS EN 15254
DIN 4102

GLASS
Basics
Insulated glazing
Security and
noise control
glass
Optically variable
glass
Cast glass
Profiled glass
Glass blocks
Fire protection
glass
Curtain walling
0 Cold fagade with rear ventilation
and glass parapet cladding
(EnEV-> refs)
8 Curtain wall construction with
glass held In place by cover strip
Radar damping
/
f) Warm fagade without ventilation
but with glass parapet cladding
(EnEV-> refs)
G Flush glass curtain wall
Radar reflection damping is a requirement of German Air Traffic
Control (DFS), applying to the fa<;:ades of all larger buildings in
the vicinity of airports. The purpose is to suppress the reflection
of radar signals, which can occur from large fa<;:ade surfaces,
because these reflected signals can lead to false information on
the radar screens of air traffic controllers and thus endanger air
traffic.
Special coatings can be used to achieve high damping through
absorption and phase-delayed overlaying (interference) of the
radar signal hitting and being reflected from the insulated glazing.
Because of the particular requirements for insulated glazing,
the glass structure must be specifically calculated for every
application. Light and energy values are determined in each
case by the glass structure. The level of radar damping required
depends on many factors, including the size of the building and its
distance from and orientation to the radar equipment.
A radar report is generally to be commissioned for each building
from an accredited institute in orderto determine the required radar
damping. The glass manufacturers develop a glass structure and
this is then discussed with the institute. All other fa<;:ade surfaces
have to be investigated for this report as well, in order to take the
necessary measures into account for construction.
112
Cold fa9ades
GLASS
Curtain Walling
A cold fagade is a single skin curtain walling construction with a
ventilated cavity at the rear, width approx. 40 em, and single- or
double-glazed external cladding panels. Sufficient and controlled
heat dissipation must be guaranteed. The fagade panels can be
fixed all round, on two sides or at points according to official
standards and guidelines. Technical approval is required for panels
fixed at points, or a special-case approval has to be applied for.
The fa<;:ade panels can be fully colour-coated on the back or
partially printed by the screen-printing process. Special coatings
are available from the various manufacturers in order to achieve
colour matching with solar control glass. Samples are necessary
to ensure a correct colour match. All visible edges must be finely
ground and polished and non-visible edges must be ground.
Warm fa9ade without ventilation at rear
The warm fa<;:ade can consist of post and rail curtain walling or
storey-height curtain walling elements. In both cases, the non-
transparent parts or parapets have a glass panel. The construction
of the external panel can be, for example, an external fagade
panel with the necessary thermal insulation behind it, thickness
in accordance with EnEV, and an internal layer, which is sealed
against diffusion of water vapour, e.g. aluminium sheet.
Mixed forms can be constructed, if an additional glass layer is
set in front of the warm curtain wall in order to create a two-
dimensional appearance (see below). If the panel remains the layer
that drains water, then this is still a warm fagade.
Flush glass curtain wall
This structural glazing fagade is characterised by a uniform flat
appearance. A full-surface glass appearance is possible only if the
panes are glued to metal frames. The system used must possess
technical approval or special case approval. The structural sealing
must be carried out with a material (e.g. Dow Corning GmbH
Technical Approval No. Z-70. '1-75) that possesses general
technical approval valid under building regulations.
In Germany, all fagades over 8 min height must have an additional
mechanical fixing of the panes. All insulated glazing must have a
UV-resistant edge seal.
Curtain walling with fire-resistant glass
F fire-resistant glazing has only limited practicality for external
use, because the foaming fire-protection layer cannot be heated
over 50-60°C. This is only possible to guarantee for fagades
subject to direct sunshine if effective sun shading is provided and
guaranteed.
Sun screens
Sun screens are normally used as additional external transparent
sun shading layers. They consist of metallic oxide-coated
toughened glass panes. When installing sun screens, the coating
should always be on the weather side. Sun screens can, according
to official standards and guidelines, be fixed all round, on two
sides or at points. Technical approval is required for panels fixed
at points, or a special-case approval must be applied for.

0 Generally appropriate arrangement
lRight door
,.................;.
t:;:j Right door
[6 RO~
~ '"""'""'"'
Right lock
LO/RO = left/right opening
J
;
:::
:::
.....:::............. c:::z::.:z::::
f) Good door arrangement for use of
room
Left lock
Left door (
...;..................]
Left door J::;j
~........
Left lock
LC/RC = left/right closing
0 Arrangement of two corner
doors, opening into the same room
Right lock
Y~
·.
RC :;:
......::
double door, left-hand
G Door descriptions according to occupation of room and hinge direction. If the
door is looked at from the hinge side, the direction of the hinges determines the
descriptions of hinge and lock.
e Double swing door, single or
double leaf; walk through on the
right
~--y-1
balanced door F ~
m ~~
I~,.........;.;.;.;.;.;
I
I
~T sliding door with side-hung leaf
~ Jr................. ~Y'--E
space-saving door
;.;.;.;.;;.;.;.;.;.;.;..)~..;...;..;.;.;.;.;.;.;.
~,~b
four-leaf sliding door with
two side-hung leafs
'~wing
...;........] - - [...;.;.;....;.:.:.:.:.;...
sliding door closing into a wall cavity
,........;.;.;.;.;.;.;.;.
Minimum dimensions for disability- f)
friendly building and marked heights for
Centre-hung doors- single-leaf, e
eccentrically hung (bottom); centrally
hung 'butterfly' door, for passing on
Sliding door, sliding in front of wall
glass doors
the right (top).
I III J_;,
Storey-height
door without
threshold or lintel
Door without
threshold and
with lintel
Door with rebate
in floor and lintel
Door with threshold
and lintel
floor (with all-round
frame in flat jamb)
and lintel
Depiction of lintel and threshold on plan (in this case at 1:1 00). Height differences in the floor are shown by a continuous
line and lintels with a dashed line.
DOORS
Arrangement
Doors must be sensibly arranged
inside a building, because un-
favourably distributed or un-
necessary doors impair the use
of rooms, or cause difficulties,
and can lead to the loss of stor-
age places~ 0 +f).
Categories: Inward-opening
doors, which open into the
room; outward-opening doors,
which open out of the room;
doors normally open into the
room. Description of types of
door according to location and
purpose: opening direction, style
detail, door lining, construction of
door, type of rotation and opening.
Internal doors: Room doors,
entry doors of flats, cellar doors,
doors for bathroom, we and
subsidiary rooms.
External doors: House front
door, back door or yard door,
balcony and patio doors.
Special types like centre-hung
doors and balanced doors ~
0 require very little strength
to open, but the ironmongery
is elaborate and the danger of
accident at the hinge side has
to be taken into account. These
are suitable for through-doors in
corridors, entrance lobbies, etc.
The width of a door depends on
the intended use and the type of
room to be accessed. Minimum
clear width for walking through is
55 em. In residential buildings, the
clear opening width of doors is:
single-leaf doors
room doors approx. 80 em
bath, we approx. 70 em
entrance doors
to flats
front doors
double doors
room doors
front doors
min. 90 em
up to 115 em
approx 170 em
140-225 em
clear opening height of internal
doors
minimum
better
210 em
210-225 em
Sliding doors and revolving doors
are not permissible at emergency
exits, which they can block in
circumstances of danger.
113
DOORS
Arrangement
Construction
details
Special doors
Garage/industrial
doors
Locking systems
Security of
buildings
and grounds
BS 6375
DIN 107
see also:
Construction
drawing symbols
p. 10

DOORS
Arrangement
Coristruction
details
Special doors
Garage/industrial
doors
Locking systems
Security of
buildings
and grounds
BS 4787
BS 6375
BS 8213
BS EN 14220/1
BS EN 14351
DIN 4172
DIN 18100
DIN 18111
62 750 875 1000 1125 1250 1750 2000 2500
1
11!
~
2 3 4 5 I I
I I 0
I I 0
I I
0
"'
6 7 8 9
"'
"'
c;;
.. 0
w 0
"'
~ 0
"'
~"0
"'
~-
~E
·e.::
:=0
II tfor use
g
"'
oft rm 'door'
"'
0Preferred sizes shown in thick outline [j
rn Structural openings for
W these preferred sizes are,
The standards give the exact
measurements concerning
frames and door panels for
those sizes which are indicated
with a number -~o ®
as a rule, for double doors
0 Modular wall openings--> 0
Var. Standard Door dimensions
modular building
dimensions
Wall Outside Door panel
openings for door panel rebate width,
door width tolerance
±1 +2
0
1 875 1875 860 1860 834 1847
2 625 2000 610 1985 584 1972
3 750 2000 735 1985 709 1972
4 875 2000 860 1985 834 1972
5 1000 2000 985 1985 959 1972
6 750 2125 735 2110 709 2097
7 875 2125 860 2110 834 2097
8 1000 2125 985 2110 959 2097
9 1125 2125 1110 2110 1084 2097
f) Rebated doors and rebated linings
I
·!J f;amerebatesize
. I door panel size
Inominal standard building size
8 One-piece steel rebated door linings
lfi@.~l·~~:~l~~·:lze
.................
.I:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·I'
.................
ttitl1·~"""'""'
!
!·frame rebate size
j doorpanelslze
nominal standard
building size
Q Architrave frame
114
IJI frame rebate size
I
,doorpanelsize
nominal standard
1 building size
One-piece lining
Lining dimensions
Clear opening Clear opening
width, height,
tolerance tolerance
±1 0
-2
841 1858
591 1983
716 1983
841 1983
966 1983
716 2108
841 2108
966 2108
1091 2108
i Jl·trame rebate size
·~ doorpanelsize
nominal standard
building size
Shadow joint lining
DOORS
Construction Details
Standard dimensions
Dimensions of wall openings for doors~ 0 are standard modular
dimensions. If, in exceptional cases, different dimensions
are required then their modular dimensions should be whole
multiples of 125 mm (1 00 mm according to British Standards). A
wall opening with 875 mm width and 2000 mm height (modular
dimensions) can be described as: wall opening DIN 18100- 875 x
2000. In order to determine the door width, the frame detail has to
be taken into account in the calculation of the structural opening,
because some variants offer interesting creative possibilities of
reducing the clear opening width by more than standard cased
doors on account of the thickness of their construction ~ () - G.
Frame construction
In the specification of a classic frame construction, in addition to the
consideration of the differing constructional thicknesses (difference
between structural opening and clear pass-through dimension), the
different variants of rebated frame (UK) or rebated door and frame
(German) have to be taken into account, together with the location of
the door in the wall. For plain doors in rebated frames ~ €!), the quality
of construction is important, because inaccuracies in the frame or in
hanging the door will immediately be clearly visible. The joint between
frame and wall surface can only remain in order in the long term if a
shadow joint is specified, because otherwise the transition from wall to
door frame will become disarranged with the first redecoration at the
latest. Architraves can only solve this problem until the first redecoration.
600 700 800 soo
~"'"'1"'11"'1
HfluHolI o o·"
'O"'(I)NNNtul
«iaiS
~~~
~§e
IIL1r
""ill
1:::1m
co-ord dimensions
D
lll leaf dfmensfons (;nlemel doors)
~'"' dlmonslori• (o>lemo( doors)
0 Sizes of internal and external doors, UK, BS 4787-1
I' door panel size
nominal standard
building size
0 Width of a door with lining and
architraves
e Doorllning
4D) Jamb-mounted frame with plain door
panel
f) Height of a door with lining and
architraves
0 Door with recessed frame
mSteel door lining with integrated
plaster beads

0 Two-panel revolving door
~min )1.80
=="":=~normal 2.40
1 max 2.60
'
~
e Four panels, folded flat
f) Automatic hinged doors
------~
flat folding door
G) Folding door with side guides
A-B
1:3.5
rubber
,'"&
length
~
;:ii5.40
~';fmin I1.50
normal 2.10
~ax 2.20
f) Three panels
~min~1.80
sliding .:
door or :' normal 2.40
roller : t
lattice ·. max 2.60
shutter ':__·:===-===:;:
-~
e Door assembly pushed to side
e Automatic sliding doors
------M11
with pendulum arm
---
.;t:
$ Folding door with central guides
(harmonica door)
e Telescopic door
$ Corner sliding door, articulated
sliding gate
~normal 2.40
~min 11.80
~max 2.60
..........__.,.
e Four panels
0 Revolving door with additional
emergency exits
C!) Drop gate installation -->~
_____jiJl
roN~
~8.0
mAccordion door made of wooden
panels or flexible material
?o9.0
/
0 Roller partition
~1 . -- .,, • ~·~.
II
~::.,~lP
m[J____
~
Tension between
-----. elements of the
~~~~i;~sion floor+ ceiling
~~~~~----- _W_
e Variable sliding doors
DOORS
Special Doors
Revolving doors are made in
several different designs ""' 0
- (). Some are adjustable, e.g.
when the number of users is
large, particularly in the summer,
the panels can be folded into the
middle to allow people to go in
on one side and out on the other
simultaneously. Some designs
have panels which can be pushed
to the side if traffic is only in one
direction (e.g. when business
closes for the day) -7 e - e.
Actuating devices for automatic
doors can be controlled by
radar control, electric contact
mats ""' 0 - e or pneumatic
floor contacts. Unidirectional
or reflecting light barriers
controlling automatic sliding
doors, with six panels up to
8 m wide, are ideal for installa-
tion on emergency exits in office
blocks, public buildings, and
supermarkets. Air curtain doors
-7 ~ can be shut off at night by
a raised door -7 Ci).
Folding doors can act as room
dividers, guided from the side
""' ~. Concertina doors are
centrally hung ""' $ for closing
off wide openings. A revolving
movement can be combined
with a sliding movement.
Harmonica doors can be made
of plywood, artificial leather or
fabric -7 @. Telescopic doors
have several panels joined by
engagers. Externally guided
telescopic doors with external
guides are single-skinned""' @);
those with internal guides are
double-skinned -7 e.
Sliding partitions -7 0 + 0
make good room dividers
(sound insulation) but cannot be
installed without tools. Provide
room for the relatively bulky
partition package in the design!
Folding partitions folded from
above ""' 4D or horizontally
upwards -7 0 enable large
rooms to be partitioned.
4D Air curtain system --> Ci)
115
DOORS
Arrangement
Construction
details
Special doors
Garage/industrial
doors
Locking systems
Security of
buildings
and grounds

DOORS
Arrangement
Construction
details
Special doors
Garage/
industrial doors
Locking systems
Security of
buildings
and grounds
see also:
Fire protection
pp. 511 ff.
2.50
3.00
3.37
fi.OO
~:~~5320 m2 jlOj
2.25 81=
2.37
5
standard door §
2.75-3.00
0 Up and over door
~"'""""'""'""'"''''"'""'"'"'
5.00
C) Upward-folding door
Jl~
:::::~
a) lifting and folding
door
;.;.;.;.;.;.;.;.;.;.;.;.;.;.;.;.;.;.;.;.;.,...........................·
b) up and over door with c) up and over door with
spring balance mechanism counterweight
without roof Quide rails
f) Variants -. 0
8.00
H
:~·:::~
·::::::.
8 Sectional door 0 Telescopic lifting door
DOORS
(t Rollerdoor, shutter(steel and aluminium) f) Drop door
A x 8 max. 8.00 x 6.00
e Sliding door
Garage/Industrial Doors
Up and over doors ---7 0 can be
used for garages and similar:
sliding and/or folding doors,
with a spring counterbalance or
a counterbalance weight. They
may be single skin, double skin,
solid, partially glazed, fully glazed,
constructed of wood, plastic,
aluminium, or galvanised steel. The
largest drive-though dimensions
are 4.82 x 1.96 m. Max. panel
size is approx. 10 m2. Installation
is possible under a round or
segmental arch. Operation is
by door gear with radio control.
Also available are doors folding
upwards ---7 e, sectional doors
---7 0, telescopic lifting doors ---7 e
and roller doors ---7 e made of
aluminium, plus large single and
multi-skin doors for use in industrial
buildings, transport and workshops:
max. 18 m wide and 6 m high.
Doors can be operated by: pull
switches, light beams, induction
or wireless remote control contact
pads. There are rapid-opening
drive-through doors, flexible PVC
doors ---7 Q), with single layer, wear-
and impact-resistant clear PVC;
PVC is also used as strip curtain ---7
4D. Single and double panel T30-
T90 fire doors ---7 0 and sliding fire-
protection doors ---7 ~ can be fitted.
Movable fire-resistant wall closures
such as sliding, lifting or hinged
doors must function independently
of the electricity network and close
automatically in the case of fire
(Fischer-Riegel mechanism).
8 Folding door-; 4li>
...--
' ......
''t).,..: ...
~
G) Flexible rubber door
116
~-~1:-:·:·:·:-:·:·:·:·:1
~1.20-2.401
~>~
f--1.80- 3.60-i
~~-'-.....t·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:J
J--1.8o-3.60-j
~-~-/'-...._ ~
l-----2.40- 4.80-
~~-'-..... '-......~
f-----3.00- 6.00------j
«<!) Folding doors -; 0
(D Strip curtain
steel sliding doorT30-T90
T30: 5.00 X 4.00; T90: 8.50 X 3.50
h~12.00-l 35- 401-l-6.00-j
~ l
Do
·.
tJO
4D Sideways-opening sectional door 4!} Possible building layout-; CD
single leaf
A B
75 1.75
75 1.875
75 2.00
B 80 1.80
80 1.875
80 2.00
875 1.875
875 2.00
~ 1.00 1.875
1.00 2.00
1.00 2.125
double leaf
1.50 2.00
~:~ I
2.25 2.125
e Fire doors T30-T90
concealed counterbalance
weight A B
1.00 2.00
1.00 2.125
1.25 2.00
1.25 2.125
1.50 2.00
1.50 2.125
1.75 2.00
1.75 2.125
2.50 2.50
double leaf
z::::::::J
____
~
0 Sliding fire doors T30-T90

for high security requirements,
sensor and control must be
separated (control unit in
secure area). It must not be
possible to operate the control
by manipulating the sensor
(e.g. short circuit).
when the access control
is situated in a supervised
area, sensor and control can
be located in one building
element.
Electronic control unil decision
mechatronic lock cylinders
contain sensor and control
unit, with the task of the
actuator being undertaken
by the mechanical key or a
turning knob.
Door actuator
possible connection to
central monitoring system
0 Arrangement of the components of electronic locking systems, depending on
the security requirements. The systems can be operated either Independently
(offline) or In connection with a central monitoring system (online).
means of identification
electronic identification
Identification information is read by a sensor from the memory of the identification
medium and evaluated by a control system. The following systems vary according
to the type of transfer:
Passive
Active
Passive
Active
biometric identification
with contact
magnetic strips
- cheap, but can be copied easily
(small storage capacity, unencrypted data)
chip cards
+ encryption of the data is possible
larger storage capacity than with magnetic
cards
chip with battery in the key. Data are transmitted
on contact
+ mechatronic cylinder locks can operate without
their own battery
without contact
identification medium uses the transmission
energy of the querying transmitter for the answer
(e.g. RFID chips)
+ no independent power supply necessary
- results in a small range of max. 1 m
infrawred and radio transmitters
- independent power supply necessary
+range >1m
Individual characteristics of each person are recorded by a sensor for
identification and compared with a database. On account of the complexity of the
recognition system, real identification and verification are differentiated.
Identification
Verification
the user is recognised through stored biometric
data
- high computing time, because all reference
data have to be compared
user identifies themselves through a password
or an identification medium. The identity of the
person is checked against biometric data stored
in a database
+double system offers high security
rapid access to comparative biometric data
Keys are increasingly being supplemented or replaced by electronic and
biometric identification methods
Mechanical locking systems
DOORS
Locking Systems
Cylinder locks offer great security, because unlocking using tools
is almost impossible. Cylinders can be supplied as required with
extensions by multiples of 5 mm on either side to match the
particular door thickness.
Locking systems
When a locking system is designed and ordered, a diagram is
produced with the associated security certificate. Replacement
keys can be delivered only on production of this certificate.
Central locking systems
One key locks the entrance door to a flat and all general and also
central doors, e.g. yard, cellar, or front door. Suitable for blocks of
flats or houses on estates.
Hierarchical master key locking system
Master keys can lock many cylinders across the entire system.
The system can reflect the structure of access rights in a company.
Each cylinder has its own key pattern and can be locked only by
its own key and by any master keys also intended to open it. For
sensitive locations which should be considered in the building
design see ---7 e
Electronic access control systems
The main disadvantages of mechanical locking systems are the
impossibility of altering the lock hierarchy and the inconvenience
which results if a master key is lost (replacement of cylinders
is expensive). With electronic access systems, right of access
can be assigned or deleted at short notice without having
to replace building components. Mechatronic cylinders also
permit the upgrading of an existing locking systems without
wiring it. Elaborate electronic access control systems can
make possible the networking of personal identification, access
rights according to area and time, and also the recording of
working time ---7 0 + 0.
Code locks are also used in private buildings to permit access
to anyone who knows the number combination. ·Entitled people
like postmen, tradesmen, suppliers etc. can obtain access without
problems.
Emergency exits and panic doors
Since 2004, there have been various requirements for the
construction of ironmongery for emergency exits and panic
doors. These doors must be tested, approved and labelled as a
complete system.
Emergency exits are provided in buildings and areas which are
not open to the public and where people familiar with the location
understand the function of the escape doors.
Panic doors are used in buildings and areas which are open to
the public and in which people familiar with the location do not
understand the function of the escape doors.
filing cabinets, bath cubicles, letter boxes, access doors, at risk
emergency exits, wardrobes, cool rooms, furniture doors, tube
frame doors, roller doors, cupboard doors, desks, drawers,
changing cubicles
tift machinery rooms, lift switches, electrical rooms, garage at great risk
access doors, up and over garage doors, lattice grille gates,
heating room doors, fire-resistant cellar doors, fire-retarding
cellar doors, oil filling connections, distribution cabinets
office access doors, roof windows, turn and tilt windows, IT at very great risk
rooms, entrance doors, shutters, front doors, lifting doors, cellar
windows, fanlights, counters, entrance doors to flats
0 Risk of break-in according to use
117
DOORS
Arrangement
Construction
details
Special doors
Garage/industrial
doors
Locking
systems
Security of
buildings
and grounds
PAS 3621
PAS 10621
BS EN 12209
DIN 18252

DOORS
Arrangement
Construction
details
Special doors
Garage/industrial
doors
Locking systems
Security of
buildings and
grounds
PAS24
BS 8220
DIN 57100
DIN 57800
DIN 57804
opening contact
I • I
magnetic contact
'lock c;ntam I
pendulum contact
(also for
area monitoring)
~ attack alarm
electrical supply
rn-gy el~~~~~=l
E8 e~~~gp~~cy
acoustic alarm
c(j mains powe.r
alarm
rn1 elec;tronic
"'"'l s1ren
JD»)
ultrasonic
doppler
~-~
high-frequency
dopp<}.o;o_o:: I
infra-red alarm
0 Burglar alarm systems- components and function
section
monitoring
n::::n
ultrasonic
barrier
•C;o.
monitoring
by fields
~
capacitor
field chang
alarm
RC1 offers basic protection against casual offenders, who only attempt to
break in with physical strength- walking in, causing damage etc.
RC2 resists attempts to break in with simple tools (screwdriver, pliers,
wedges etc.). Doors of this class defeat 80% of all attempts to break in.
RC3 also resists criminals, who use crowbar or professional-quality
screwdriver.
RC4 also resists attempts even if the criminal uses hammer, axe, nail bar
and cordless drill.
RC5-6 security doors of classes RC 5 and 6 resist attack using heavy drills,
angle grinders and jig saws for a long period.
f) Resistance classes (RC) of building components,
Resistance Windows External doors Roller shutters
class
RC 1 - - ER 1
RC2 EF0/1 ET1 ER2
RC 3 EF2 ET2 ER 3
RC4 EF 3 ET3 ER4
RC 5 - - ER5
RC6 - - ER6
8 Correlation table for the old and new security classes. The assignment of
building components, which were evaluated according to old resistance classes,
to new resistance classes is not permissible.
118
DOORS
Security of Buildings and Grounds
The term 'security technology' covers all devices used for defence
against criminal danger to the body, life, or valuables. In reality, all
parts of a building can be penetrated, even those made of steel
and reinforced concrete. The need for security should be identified
by an in-depth study of vulnerable areas, with an estimate of costs
and benefits.
The police will advise on on the choice of security and monitoring
system equipment.
Mechanical protection devices are construction measures
which provide mechanical resistance to an intruder. These can
only be overcome by the use of force, which will leave physical
traces behind.
An important consideration is the effectiveness of this resistance.
Such measurements are necessary in blocks of flats at the
entrance doors, windows and cellar entrances; and in business
premises the display windows, entrances, other windows and
skylights. Mechanical protection devices include steel grilles,
either fixed or as roller grilles over the building's apertures and
ventilation openings, secure roller shutters, secure locks, chains
and light shafts. Wire and steel thread inserts in glass can retard
breaking in and acrylic and polycarbonate window panes offer
enhanced protection.
Electrical security devices will automatically set off an alarm if
any unauthorised entry to the protected premises or access to
monitored rooms is attempted. An important consideration is the
time taken from when the alarm is triggered until the arrival of
security staff or the police.
1. Burglar and attack alarm systems help to monitor and protect
people and property.
They cannot prevent intruders entering premises, but should
give the earliest possible warning of such an attempt. Optimum
security can therefore only be achieved by mechanical protection
and the sensible installation of burglar alarm systems. Surveillance
measures include surveillance of external envelope, of each
room, and of individual objects, plus case by case security and
emergency calls.
Fire alarm systems give an early warning of danger, and enable
direct calls for help in case of fire and/or recognise and report fire
at an early stage. Fire alarms serve to protect life and property.
2. Open-air surveillance systems monitor areas outside enclosed
rooms. They serve to protect a building against events in the
vicinity or in the surrounding open area, which normally extends
to cover the property boundary. They consist of mechanical and
construction, electronic detection and/or organisational/personnel
measures. Their purpose is legal definition, deterrence, prevention,
delay, early warning, detection of persons, vehicles, observation,
identification, sabotage attempts, spying.
Construction measures may feature building work, fences, ditches,
walls, barriers, gates, access control, lighting. Electrical work
may includes control centre, detectors, sensors, video/television,
access control systems, alarming of next level PO/telemetry
exchange/telephone dialler/radio. Organisational measures may
concern personnel, observation, supervision, security, security
guards, technical personnel, guard dogs, emergency call action
plan.

I • • • P- JlfU' miill ~ ~
+ [!1
+ ~
'"
Parts of building and
" ~ "
" )g g> c.
equipment to be
"
c:
" Q; 0>
1il E
ilo "' 0 0> ·c E c: c. .£0 E
"
~
tl "'tl
"' "'
protected
·~~
:mhl ~ -~N ~E·~ ~E :N
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oo-a.!9 ,.,.,
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..Ju 28 ~8 ~o
1--u C5Ero 2.2 C)~,£! lllc: 58 ~ ·c: 0
1--u o..ro (/)
front doors, external
doors
internal security doors
room doors12)
internal sliding doors121
up and over garage doors
windows with casements
glass doors, lifting doors
external glass sliding
doors
rooflight dorne
loft windows
glass block walls
display windows, large
fixed !ilazinq
heavy walls and ceilings
light walls and ceilings
loft ladder- retractable
individual objects121
-sculptures paintings
internal floor surfaces12)
safes12l
cupboards for
aoParatus12>
conduits, ventilation shafts,
service installations
burglar alarm e very suitable
0 still suitable
.2)
.2)
e'l
o'l
• 0
• • 0 .4)
• • 0 o'l
0 • • 0 o'l
• 0 e'l
• 0
• 0
• 07)
• 0 0
• 0
• 07) o'l
0
• • 0
• o71 o'l
0
• 0 ..)
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• • o'l
• •
1) vanous alarms to be used only With reservations (e.g. not on wired, laminated or toughened glass)
2) principally as a security device
3) If there Is rapid switching on this door
4) if only the internal security door is to be protected {see also door interlock with alarm)
5) designed for security traps
6) magnetic contact- special type for floor mounting
7) not to be used where it can be touched by hand, if panels are unstable or there are vibration sources nearby
8) there are rooflight domes with built-in alarm protection
9) note reservations concerning the weight of glass
10) individual protection Is recommended for very valuable furnishings or those with very valuable contents
11) capacitative fleld alarms are the recommended protection
12) and/or included in the room surveillance
Q Contact and area surveillance- appropriate use of burglar alarms
Feature
surveillance characteristics
preferred, direction of movement
covered
surveillance range per unit-
guidelines for range
surveillance of entire room
(over 80% of the room monitored)
typical application
pennissible
ambient
temperature
underooc
from oo to 50°C
over 50°C
are many sensors in one room
possible?
effects from neighbouring rooms
or adjacent road traffic
possible causes of false alarms
Ultrasound room
protection
•
ceiling mounted 90-110
m2, wall mounted approx.
40m2 upto9 m
guaranteed
- small to large rooms
-corridors
-surveillance of whole
and parts of rooms
Ultrasound doppler
according to device 30--50 m2
up to 14m
not guaranteed
- small to large rooms
- parts of rooms
- motion detection
permissible in some cases permissible in some cases
permissible permissible
not permissible not permissible
no problem with care
no problem no problem
-loud noises at -loud noises at ultrasound
ultrasound frequency frequency
-air heating near sensor -air heating
- strong air turbulence - air turbulence
-unstable walls -unstable walls
-moving objects, e.g. -moving objects, e.g. small
small animals animals
-disturbing influences near
sensor {increased sensitivity)
f) Room surveillance- the most important comparative features
~~)
High-frequency doppler Infra-red detector
~
~
according to device 150-200 according to device 60-80 m2
m2 up to 25m rooms up to 12m
corridors up to 60 m
not guaranteed guaranteed
-long, large rooms -small to large rooms
- parts of rooms -surveillance of whole rooms
- motion detection in large or parts of rooms
rooms - motion detectors
-also fire alarm
permissible not permissible
with care no problem
not recommended no problem
- ray deflection through - heat sources with rapid
reflection from metallic temperature alterations, e.g.
objects light bulbs, electric healing,
- ray passes through walls open fires in working area
and windows -direct, strong and changeable
-unstable walls or actions on the sensor
-moving objects, e.g. small -moving objects, e.g. small
animals, fans animals
-electromagnetic effects
DOORS
Security of Buildings
and Grounds
Security systems
(continued)
Symbols ~ p. 17
3. Goods security
systems, also called shop-
lifting prevention systems,
are electronic systems that
serve to prevent theft and
the unauthorised and illegal
removal of goods from a
controlled room or area in
normal daily use.
4. Access control systems:
electronic access control
works together with mech-
anical elements to permit
or refuse access to a
building, room or zone
through an identity check.
This is done by electroni-
cally testing the personal
identity or by checking
the authorisation on site.
Combination of an access
control with a time recor-
ding system is technically
possible. ~ p. 117
5. Remote control systems
enable data transmission/
exchange between two
remote locations over
public telephone, mobile
phone or Internet. They are
used for remote monito-
ring, measurement, control,
diagnosis, regulation and
remote querying of infor-
mation, data and condition
of one object in relation to
another.
6. Surveillance systems:
observation, control, recor-
ding of occurrences and
events using camera and
monitor, manually and/or
automatically, inside and
outside buildings, any time
of day or night and 365
days of the year.
7. Lift emergency system
can be used in passenger
lifts and goods lifts. Lift
emergency systems ensure
the safety of the users of
lifts and are mainly intended
to enable the rescue of
trapped people, who have
direct voice communication
with a constantly manned
emergency centre, respon-
sible for rescue.
119
DOORS
Arrangement
Construction
details
Special doors
Garage/industrial
doors
Locking systems
Security of
buildings
and grounds
PAS24
BS 8220
DIN 57100
DIN 57800
DIN 57804

STAIRS
Principles
Regulations
Construction
Ramps
Spiral stairs
Access and
escape ladders
Escalators
Moving walkways
BS 5395
BS 5578
DIN 18065
2.00
~
0 Standard stride of an adult on a
horizontal surface
·:····:·······
ships' stairs
(engine room stairs)
e Ladder-type stairs with handrail
0 Correctly superimposed stairs
save space
~1 :8
f) On a slope the stride is reduced:
a comfortable slope is 1:1Q-1:8
0 Good standard riser to tread ratio
17/29, stride 2 risers + 1 tread ~
approx. 62.5 em
8 Normal stairs 17/29, landing after 0 Stairs without a handrail
max. 18 steps for legally essential
stairs. Prestigious-style stairs can
climb up to a 4 m storey height
without a landing.
e If ratters and beams are arranged
in the direction of the stairs,
~
this saves space and expensive
trimmers
125
0 Covered entrances to cellars necks
and trapdoors are to be avoided;
but the arrangement shown here
has advantages and is safe
1.875
H
~35-40cm
lt------'1:'"'~----!H
:::
::
if
a::~/·. ,..-'-
f-
ARt.f-
'--- I-
For winding stairs, the (D
distance of the walking
line to the inner cheek is
35--40 em
effective flight width measured
!: from wall surface to inside edge
!! of handrail
:~ ... or between the handrails
~~ stairs must have a fixed handrail;
if stair width is greater than 4m,
there must also be a central
handrail; spiral staircases must
have a handrail on the outside
fl' Stairs: minimum width
120
:..................................·.·.·:
For straight stairs, the @)
distance of the walking
lineto the handrail is 55 em
II
~SO em
stairs in a family house
or inside flats: to loft
and basement
Stairs on which two
people can pass
II
:·
"width for three people
6aocm
in up to two-storey
dwellings
H ~ 1.25 m/150 people
II
61.0m
l1 in high-rise flats
·:
dwellings with more than
:: two storeys and other
buildings
'.~i.:l--:-la-rg_e_r-:f::-lig::,:=o;.:cw-,-id-:-t,--hs-:-fo_r___-Q
buildings containing more than
150 people
~ Measurement of usable passing width-; p. 121 f)- 8
STAIRS
Principles
Various calculations and dimen-
sional requirements for the con-
struction of stairs appear in national
building regulations and stan-
dards. In the UK, British Stand-
ards and the building regulations
should be consulted (see Approved
Document K). For workplaces, the
regulations of the relevant health
and safety body are to be observed.
According to German standards,
residential buildings with no more
than two flats must have a usable
stair width min. 0.80 m, 17/28 riser
to tread ratio, stairs not deemed by
building regulations to be legally
essential (as fire escape routes)
0.50 m, 21/21 but legally essential
stairs 1.00 m, 17/28, high-rise flats
1.25 m width. Stair width in public
buildings is calculated according
to the required evacuation time ---7
p. 318 (Stadiums).
Length of runs on legally essential
stairs is ~3 steps up to ~18
steps ---7 0, landing length = n
times length of stride + 1 depth of
tread (e.g. riser to tread 17/29 =
1 x 63 + 29 = 92 em or 2 x 63 +
29 = 1.55 m). Doors opening into
the stairwell must not obstruct
the stair width. The 18-step rule
is a 'should' regulation. For stairs
intended to be prestigious the
requirement to provide landings is
mitigated.
Storey Two flight One, two and
height stairs three flight
plus building
stairs
Flat (good) Flat (good)
pitch pitch
No. No.
steps Riser steps Riser
a b c f g
2250 - - 13 173.0
2500 14 178.5 15 166.6
2625 - - 15 175.0
2750 16 171.8 - -
3000 18 166.6 17 176.4
~ Storey height and stair risers
4f) Handrail heights, hand heights,
avoid ladder effect

1 Stairs
2 Cellar and attic stairs, which do not lead to occupied
rooms, and stairs which are not required under
building regulations (additional stairs) according to
Table 3, lines 2, 3 and 5.
3 Stairs required under building regulations, which
lead to occupied rooms, for residential buildings
with not more than two flats, according to Table 3,
line 1.
4 Stairs required under building regulations in other
buildings according to Table 3, line 4.
0 Incline for ramps, stairs and ladders
Row Type of building Type of stairs
residential stairs leadino to habitable rooms
1 Without limitation of the clear
opening section, e.g. the
underside of the stair flight above
2 Limitation of the clear opening
section at the side, e.g. through
the surface of the finished wall
(cladding)
3 .... e.g. to the inner edge of a
handrail on the wall side; side
mounted handrail spaced min.
5 em from the wall
f) Stairs: clearance profile
Usable Stair
stair width riser
Stair
tread
llmin) IIRl' IIT)3
80 20 23
r-J-
2 buildings with cellar stairs, which do not lead to habitable 80 21 21
~
not more than rooms
two storeys1 loft stairs, which do not lead to habitable rooms 50 21 21
4 other buildinos leoallv essential stairs 100 19 26
5 all buildings non-essential (additional) stairs 50 21 21
1. also excludes maisonette flats in buildings with more than two storeys
2. but not <14 em
3. but not >37 em= stipulation of the pitch riser/tread
4. for stairs with a tread <26 em, the overhang (o) must be at least so large that a total tread of
26 em (I+ o) is given
5. for stairs with a tread <24 em, the overhang must be at least so large that a total tread of
24 em (I+ o) is oiven
8 Stairs in buildings -limits of dimensions
(finished dimensions)
4 e.g. through the inner edge of
a balustrade or handrail on the
balustrade side
5 lower edge of the clear opening
section
6 Upper edge of the clear opening
section, e.g. to a ceiling slope
7 Lower edge (limitation) of the
clear opening section e.g.
through stair string or continuous
skirting at stair pitch
Max.
Type of building distance
-high-rise buildings 25m
-schools
-shoos
- enclosed and 30m
underground garages
-buildings where
people congregate
(from exit to stairwell)
- hosoitals
-buildings without 35m
special status,
according to LBO
- restaurants and
hotels
G Maximum distance of any
location in an Inhabitable
room from a stairwell deemed
legally essential by MBO (and
observe LBOI)
~.,..f:J>- ~L..~--
,1
I
: : image 0: 16 pitches 17/29, high
L--~ level2.75 m; maximum width 1.0 m
L___:
5.4m2
All stairs without landings, whatever the type, cover practically the same surface area; curving of the steps only varies the
distance between the bottom and top of the stairs. From the architectural point of view, therefore, only straight or curving stairs
should be used. The latter have the advantage that the bottom and top stairs at storey levels lie above one another
r
~~]
' '
I I
I I
Lo--..J
Stairs with landings cover the surface area
of single flight stairs+ the landing. Stairs
with landings are required in legally essential
stairways with a storey height of ;;;;2.75 m.
Landing width ;;;; stair width.
~r
fj Minimum space
required for furniture
transport
r~
For the carrying of
stretchers
For a spiral
staircase
STAIRS
Regulations
The experience of using
stairs and access routes is
very varied: from the creative
possibilities of the most
diverse residential stairs to an
elaborate outside staircase,
which one can stride up and
down. Climbing stairs takes
on average seven times the
energy input as walking on the
flat. From the physiological
point of view, the best use
of 'climbing effort' is at a
stair pitch of 30° and a ratio
of riser (r) to tread (t) of 17I
29. The pitch is determined
by the stride length of an
adult (approx. 59-65 em). In
order to determine a suitable
pitch with the lowest energy
requirement, this formula
applies: 2 r+ t = 59-65 em.
For determining the dimen-
sions and form of stairs,
their overall functional and
design purpose is just as
important as the relation-
ships described above. Not
just changing level is impor-
tant, but how the level is
changed. For outside stairs,
low steps are preferable, with
dimensions of 12 x 41 to 16
x 30 em. Stairs in offices or
emergency stairs should, in
contrast, make it possible to
change level quickly. All main
staircases must be enclosed
in a continuous stairwell,
which is designed and ar-
ranged so that, including its
access routes and exit to the
open air, it can safely be used
for escape. Exit width should
be ~ stair width.
Every location in inhabited
rooms and basements must
be ~35 m from the stairwell of
at least one legally essential
stairway or exit. If a number
of stairways are necessary,
then they should be arranged
so that the escape route is
as short as possible. Any
openings from stairwells
into cellars, uninhabited roof
spaces, workshops, shops,
storerooms, and similar must
be fitted with self-closing
doors with a fire resistance
rating of 30 minutes.
121
STAIRS
Principles
Regulations
Construction
Ramps
Spiral stairs
Access and
escape ladders
Escalators
Moving walkways
BS 5395
BS 5578
DIN 18065

STAIRS
Principles
Regulations
Construction
Ramps
Spiral stairs
Access and
escape ladders
Escalators
Moving walkways
BS 5395
BS 5578
DIN 18065
see also: Fire
protection pp.
511 ff.
b b
1 ~·:"~'''
.J ··:
........................:~~~::
..................:. better
~I)illi.
~30
>--< h
Overhan~
[.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,..,.,.,.,.,.,.,.l Steps without solid
riser should have
an overhang 6: 30 mm
$260 >~..I·fml
Overhang - >--~:;: h
(nosing) :;:
''''·::"ii'iii~'ir~~Ci'(f,) is
·: less than 260 mm, the
step should overhang i';30 mm
0 Step profile of a steep flight of stairs. Nosings are not allowed in publicly accessible buildings
=1 ~~~I~~ct! ~~
~~~ ~ ~II II 11 II ""'"'"""".~,~.,,,...
f) Handrail profiles Timber or steel profiles for steel balustrades balustrades with sections of clamps
I

I
Handrail at
the landing
l!
[
I

I I
Effect of construction principles (steps sit on or are housed in the strings) on the staircase geometry in achieving uniform
handrail heights
loft
r_t
·::............:::.................... ......................:::......:::
If there is too little space, an aluminium or
timber folding loft ladder may suffice
I Opening in floor I
~-_-_.:-_-_-_-_-_--
f) Space-saving stairs with
strings
122
220
198
176
1~
132
110
trap-door,
should be
fireproof
9 Flat roof access with folding steps
0 Alternating tread, staggered or
samba stairs of wood: section
through centre
Clear room Loft ladder
height size (em)
220-280 100 X 60 (70)
220-300 120 X 60 (70)
220-300 130 X 60 (70 + 80)
240-300 140 X 60 (70 + 80)
width of frame:
W=59; 69; 79 em
length of frame:
L= 120; 130; 140 em
height of frame:
H=25 em
e Telescopic loft ladders
~;••,.,.,.,..,.}s.a::··:·.·:::.·::·::::··:::::
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 11213
::::::::::.·::::::::::::::..:....
190
4!) Normal stairs (tread too short)
0 Plan of treads with a and
b "'20 em
STAIRS
Construction
Step profile
For stairs in buildings subject to
disability-friendly building rules,
steps may have no nosing! In
order to avoid ugly streaks of
rubbed-off shoe polish on the
risers of vertical stairs --7 0,
profiles with an undercut riser
are better, and this produces
more tread surface. For a
tread width <260 mm --7 0
(b), the step is to be undercut
~30 mm; this also applies to
open stairs without risers. A
human being requires the most
space at handrail height, and
considerably less at foot height.
The stair width here can be
made narrower in favour of a
larger stairwell.
Galleries, mezzanines, balco-
nies and circle seating in
theatres must have a protective
guard rail (height h), compulsory
from 1 m height difference:
drop <12m, h = 0.90 m
drop <12 m, h = 1.00 m for
workplaces and if the stairwell
is at least 20 em wide, also for
over 12m h.
drop >12m, h = 1.10 m
Loft ladders have a pitch of 45-
750. If, however, stairs of such a
pitch are required for operational
purposes, for example because
there is not enough space for a
normal flight, then alternating
tread (staggered or samba)
stairs may be chosen --7 e + ~.
The risers in an alternating tread
staircase should be a few as
possible, the riser height anyway
::;;20 em. The treads in this case
are measured (staggered) for the
tread axes a + b --7 ~ of the left
and right feet.
f--- Tread ----j
4) Tolerances in the positions
of the steps' leading edges.
Tolerances must, however,
still comply with the required
dimension limits

10:c~.;•:::::::o-:::!!J
section
0 Ramp with handrail and edge kerb
by setting the front edge of the
step at a tangent to the newel
post, the tread width is increased
G Treads of winding stairs
8 Formation of step
(!) Elevation of winding staircase
can be easily
managed
f) Stepped ramp
e Spiral staircase
.... 1~:
~J
insulating material
e Solid timber step
4D Planof4Ji)
use Wlo-way traffic impossible
still passable easy to pass
small furniture
can pass through
secondary rooms
basements, lofts
home bar, hobby room
bedrooms, sauna
swimming pool, laboratory
workshop, garden
gallery, small store
sales room
maisonette, boutique
office rooms, large storeroom
consulting/shop room
guest bedrooms
emergency stairs
main/'essential' domestic stairs
stairs dia. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0
"' 0 0
"' 0
"' 0
(nominal dimension) ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
flight width (mm)
~ :;: <0
"' <0
"' <0
"'
<0
"' r-- 0
"' "'
"' "' "' <0 <0 r-- r-- r--
beween the newel post and handrail
8 Stair with ramp
0 Steps In timber, steel, artificial
stone and natural stone
ailing
. steel sheet
Q PVC on cement screed
i
Stair suitable as access to
non-occupied rooms instead
of ladder, if the stair has to
be designed with 180° turn
due to restricted space
Cf) Space-saving spiral staircase
with staggered steps
wo-way traffic possible W/o-way traffic easy
easy to pass Ipassable with comfort
dismantled furniture Ifurniture can Jor heavy traffic
can pass through pass through
'--
-
r----
r--
r----
r--
r----
r--
r----
r----
r--
r----
0 0 0 0 0
r--
0 0 0
"' 0
"' "' 0
"' 0 0
~ ~ ~
0
;::; ;::; "' ~
"' "'
<0
"' 0 0
"' 0
"' "'
r--
"' "' "' r-- 0
"' "'
r-- <0 <0 r-- r-- <0 <0 m
from 10 em depth of tread
0) Determination of the minimum dimensions of spiral staircases of all types according to application
STAIRS
Ramps, Spiral Stairs
Pedestrians, wheelchair users
and people with prams or push-
chairs should be able to move
easily from one level to another.
Ramps 4 0 stepped ramp 4 f)
stair with ramp 4 e
gradient 4 0.
Winding and spiral staircases
These are permissible for a few
family houses as the 'staircase
required by building regulations
DIN i 8065' when there is
an approx. 210 em diameter
aperture in the floor (min. 80 em
flight width); for other buildings
from approx. 260 em (min. i .00 m
flight width). Spiral staircases
with less then 80 em of usable
flight width are permitted only
as 'legally non-essential stairs'.
They are suitable for cellars, lofts,
subsidiary rooms or if a primary
escape route is already provided.
Spiral staircases save space
and can be constructed with
adequate strength with a newel
post in the central axis 4 0- 0 .
The central axis can also be
cleared, which leads to an open
spiral staircase with a stairwell
4 4Ji) - 40- For spiral staircases,
the curve can be chosen freely
within the range laid down
by regulations. The tread is
measured at the walking line. In
the curved part of the walking
line, thetread is equal to the chord
resulting from the intersection of
the curved walking line with the
leading edge of the step_
41} Free-standing spiral staircase
6} Wall-supported spiral staircase
123
STAIRS
Principles
Regulations
Construction
Ramps
Spiral stairs
Access and
escape ladders
Escalators
Moving walkways
BS 5395-2
DIN 18065

Principles
Regulations
Construction
Ramps
Spiral stairs
Access and
escape ladders
Escalators
Moving walkways
BS 5395-2
DIN 18056
2.00
0
2.00
90
I I
90
20
Semi-winding staircase. Usable
width 90 em/tread 26.5 em
A
I Access
_..
e Spiral staircase landing types.
Landing access as wide as the
steps. Min. landing angle 60-72°
.·.·.·.·.·.·.·...........................·.·.·,;•,·,·.·.•:.·.·:.•:.·.·.-.............•.·.·.·...·.·:.·;.·.·.·,
Gallery
2.00
2.00
80
I I
80
20
f) Round spiral staircase. Usable
width 80 em/tread 24 em
Elevation
Plan
Handrail starts between first
and second steps. Comfortable
access to the stairs from the side
Gallery
f) Spiral staircase with ;;;so• landing e Spiral staircase with obliquely
angled landing
8
2.00
8o I I 8o I
20 Access width
t) Square shaped spiral staircase
0 Handrail starts at the leading
edge of the first step. Handrail
appears optically lower than
in->9
Gallery
0 Spiral staircase standing free in
the room with extended landing
41!) Arc division method for the construction of
angled steps, in this case for a 90° turning
staircase. Also applicable for a 180• turning
staircase
4D Proportional division method for the construction of angled
steps, in this case for a 180° turning staircase. Also applicable
for a 90° turning staircase.
124
STAIRS
Spiral Stairs
Although spiral staircases appear
generous, they should not be
installed where every last centimetre
of tread is important. Compare ---7 0
+ f), staircases in a 2 x 2 m niche.
Spiral staircases work best if they
lead to galleries or parapets ---7 0 -
0. The construction is really shown
to its full advantage in an open space.
Entrance landings have an angle of at
least 60° ---7 G. Starting the handrail
between the first and second steps
works more generously ---7 9 - e.
Spiral staircases are permissible
from 190 em in diameter as the sole
connecting stairs inside houses with
80 em usable walking width ---7 f) -
0. Uniform curving of winding steps
can be produced by geometrical
construction. In order to achieve
a regular curve of the steps, the
tolerances can be larger here.
Arc division method ---7 ~
1. Decide the walking line
2. Plot the steps onto the walking
line, starting with the corner tread
3. Plot the smallest width of the
corner tread and the edges of
the tread
4. Intersection B of the last straight
step with the staircase's axis
is the middle point of a circle
tangential to the convexity at A
5. Determine intersection 0' on the
circle and point 0
6. Divide the arc between 0 and the
last straight step into as many
equal lengths as there are steps
between these points
7. The division points on the inner
cheek provide the connection
points of the steps
Proportional division method ---7 4D
1. Decide the walking line
2. Plot the steps onto the walking line
3. With an even number of steps
and the upper and lower flights
of equal lengths: first plot the
middle tread symmetrically on
the axis of the staircase (in the
diagram, treads 8-9). If there
is an odd number of steps: first
place the middle step on the axis
of the stairs
4. Mark the narrowest width of
the narrowest step on the inner
cheek. Plot from the resulting
points from the steps' edge
through the walking line point.
5. Extend the edges of the steps to
their intersection A
6. Extend the last even step to the
axis of the staircase (point B)
7. Divide the line AB in the ratio
1:2:3:4... (as many divisions as
curved steps). This line division
can be applied to any axis
8. Leading edges ofthe curved
steps go through the points on
the walking line and the division
points on the axis ofthe staircase

0 Escape routes
0 Escape route with external platform
T
r
Q Escape with gangway
T
1.10
Single-run access ladder
E
:3:1
VII
:E
Cl
0 Escape balcony/platform
I
1.10
l
f) Escape ladder extension
.; ....
·a; r
~ '_
:§
'5 2.0
.0 t
II
~
·a;
~
c
:0
.s
0 .~·
;,;2.20~
;;;3.001-
.t-
1
. t-
' ·.. 1- ..
:;:::::::::;:;:;:;:;:;:;:::::::::::::::::::::
Cii) Stepped access ladder
room
I
;;;8.0
f) Roof window as escape route
0 Retractable access
e Platform with handrail
T
1.10
Changover
landing c •
I
;;;10.0
;;;10.o
~
STAIRS
Access and Escape Ladders
Ladder access points must
be located so that those in
danger can attract the attention
of people on public roads.
Emergency ladders are items
of building equipment which
can be used for the rescue
of occupants -> 0 - e + @.
Access ladders, also described
as vertical fixed ladders, are
required for climbing onto roofs,
chimneys, silos, containers,
tanks, machines, plant etc.
For buildings over 5 m high,
access ladders are required
to have back protection. Each
ladder run has a maximum
climbing height of i 0 m -> 0 -
CD. Hoop diameter 0.70 m.
Dimensions~ 0
Building Back Pairs
height (m) protection of wall
from/to (bp) fixings
3.0-4.0 - 3
4.0-5.0 - 3
5.0-6.0 BP 4
6.0-7.0 BP 4
7.0-8.0 BP 5
8.0-9.0 BP 5
9.0-10.0 BP 6
stepped construction -> Cli) + 0
1o.o-11.o I BP
jumps of 1 m each up to
19.a-2o.o 1
1
;;;10.0
>4.0 m
with back
BP
8
13
1~::IR~In§l~~~~"d
, ;;;8.0
Fixed access
ladder
@) Access ladder with transfer
platforms
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,;,,,,·,,,,;,,,,,,',,;;;,i:;:;,,;,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,J,,,,,,,,1
@) Emergency ladder
125
Principles
Regulations
Construction
Ramps
Spiral stairs
Access and
escape ladders
Escalators
Moving walkways
B84211
B8 5395
A8TM F21755
DIN 14094
DIN 18065
DIN 18799
DIN 24532

Escalators
Moving
Walkways
BS EN 115
BS 7801
DIN EN 115
ZH 1/484
1.1
foundation
drawing
opening in floor 6.20 m
possible provision for drain
-r"65r
,--------1
0 Section through escalator I foundation plan
transportation capacity
G XV
Q = 3600 x T x f (people/h)
where
Gp =people per step (1, 1.5, 2)
V= conveyor speed (mls)
l=tread (m)
f= 0.5-0.8 escalator utilisation factor
0 General calculation formula for
transport capacity
speed travel time for one
person
0.5 m/sec -18 sec
0.65 m/sec -14 sec
e Capacity data
~~~~~~~~~~4
~~~~~~~~~~7--~
...-"""' I
rr I
rr I
--- I
I
~
c--c--------, I]~
e Side guard detail
[=rrJJ::WH±f±FB J
111111111111 H
e Single flights end-to-end
126
step width 800 1000
A 8Q-820 1005-1020
B 1320-1420 1570-1620
c 1480 1680
capacity/h 7000-8000 8000-10000
people people
C) Dimensions and capacities of
escalators with 30" and 35" (27";
18") pttch. Step width --> f)
with a width sufficient for
1 person 2 people next to
each other
4000 8000
5000 1000
people/h transported
,_,., 111111111111 H I
L____________________J
f) Single flights parallel
C) Double flights crossing
FFL
J
32
opening
32
ESCALATORS
For Shops and Offices
~opening
1
ftl step width
I emergency stop button
emergency stop button
1'''"'" .....,.............
1!!::· ~I
L: .:J
3oll-Jao
0 Width of steps
In the UK, construction and operation of escalators is regulated by BS
EN 115: 'Safety rules for the construction and installation of escalators
and passenger conveyors'. In Germany, construction and operation
of escalators follow the 'Guidelines for escalators and moving
walkways', ZHI/484, issued by the Association of Commercial
Accident Insurers. (The German situation is described below.)
Escalators are utilised for the continuous transport of large
numbers of people (they do not count as stairs for the purposes of
building regulations) and, for example in department stores, have
a pitch of 30 or 35°. The 35° escalator is more economical because
it requires less space. For travel heights E:;6 m, the 30° escalator is
required . The transportation capacity is about the same for both
pitches. When installed as part of transport facilities, a pitch of
27-28° should be used if possible. The pitch is derived from a
gradient relationship of 16 x 30 em, a comfortable size for a step.
For the width of steps, there is a worldwide standard of 60 em
(I person without hand luggage, no longer permissible in Europe),
80 em (1-2 people) and 100 em (2 people) ~ 8 - 0. With a
I 00 em step width, people carrying loads have sufficient room for
movement. Provide sufficient queuing room at the bottom and top
of the escalator, E:;2.50 m deep.
In department stores, offices and administration buildings, trade
fair halls and airports, escalator speed is normally no higher than
0.5 m/s. In underground railway stations and public transport
facilities, 0.65 m/s is preferred.
The average distribution of upward traffic in department stores is:
fixed stairs 2%, passenger lifts 8%, escalators 90%. Approx. three
quarters of downward traffic uses the escalators. Although the
average shopping area for each escalator is 1500 m2 at present,
this should be lowered to an optimum of 500-700 m2•
Escalators in transport facilities. According to Bostrab
('Regulations on the construction and operation of trams'), there
are stringent requirements (function, construction, safety) for
pitches 27, 18 and 30°. Dimensions and capacities~ 0- f), 0
Length on plan ~ 0
For 30° pitch= 1.732 x storey height
For 35° pitch = 1.428 x storey height
Example: storey height 4.50 m and 30° pitch (35° is sometimes not
permissible abroad), length on plan: 1.732 x 4.5 =7.794. With the level
access and exit areas, this gives a length of approx. 9 m, therefore
about 20 people can stand on the escalator at the same time.

L---------------1
MOVING WALKWAYS
~
i1;650
~
f) Cross-section --> 0
£ -3-
-11
Tca1o
IE~- ·3-·t--·-· -
- ±310
type 80 100
A 800 1000
B 1420 1620
c 1500 1700
foundation drawing
0 Section through moving walkway with foundation plan
one way
double
scissors arrangement
crossover arrangement
converging arrangement
8 Arrangement 1
0f moving walkways
•
~~'""'"~"'"
9 One person with shopping trolley
80 em wide
e Two people, 1 m wide
The hourly capacity of a moving
walkway is calculated according
to the formula:
K X WX V X 3600
Q pers./h
0.25
where
w =transportation width (m)
v =velocity (m/s)
K = load factor
the load factor varies between 0.5 and
0.9 (average 0.7) according to the use.
The 0.25 in the denominator represents
a step area of 0.25 m2
/person.
with cleated belt
f) Section through moving walkway with rubber conveyor belt with cleated belt
rubber conveyor belt
e Plan-->0
with cleated belt
Cl) Diagrammatical section of a two-way moving walkway --> 4I!)
tensioning pulley drive
([!) Plan of a two-way moving walkway with horizontal turnaround --> 0
0 Dimensions --> 0-0
MOVING WALKWAYS FOR SHOPS AND OFFICES
(ACCORDING TO THE GUIDELINES FOR ESCALATORS
AND MOVING WALKWAYS)
Bostrab guidelines, DIN EN 115
Moving walkways, also called conveyors or travelators, are a
means of transporting pedestrians on the level or at a slight
gradient. The advantage of a moving walkway is that it can also
carry prams, wheelchairs, shopping trolleys, bicycles and bulky
luggage with little danger. At the design stage, the expected traffic
must be established carefully, so that the equipment can provide
optimal capacity. The transport capacity depends on the clear
width, travel speed and occupation density.
Capacities of 6000-12000 pers/h are possible. Maximum gradient
of moving walkways is 12o = 21%. Normal travel speeds are 0.5-
0.6 m/s horizontal; installations with gradients up to 4° are slightly
faster at 0.75 m/s. Short moving walkways are about 30 m long.
Long moving walkways can be built up to a length of 250 m. To
enable entry and access at the right time, it is good to design a
number of short moving walkways.
The advantage of two-directional moving walkways is that the
horizontal return route ofthe walking surface, -" 0-4I!), requires a lower
construction height of 180 mm, in contrast to -'t 0 - 0. This makes
two-way walkways more suitable for installation in existing buildings.
Values for the cotangent of the moving walkway gradient:
formula= cot x B x transport height
gradient in o 1oo 11 o
cot B 5.6713 5.1446
e.g. transport height 5 m, gradient 12°
12°
4.7046
average length= 4.7046 x 5 rn =(rounded) 23.52 rn
gradient 10° 11° 12°
d S X 5.6713 + 15480 Sx5.1446+14100 S X 4.7046 + 12950
g 6400 5900 5450
i H x 5.6713 + 3340 Hx5.1145+3150 H x 4.7046 + 2990
4D Moving walkway with transition curve at top --> 0
horizontal moving with with conveyor two-way
walkway cleated belt belt (rubber belt) moving walkway
usable width SW 800 + 1000 750 + 950 2x800+2x 1000
external width B 1370 + 1570 1370 + 1570 3700 +4200
construction flat construction e:;4o gradient
length of a section 12-16m -10m
support spacing according to structural requirements
possible practical 225m E:;300 m
length L
transport capacity 40 m/min 11000 people/h
@) Dimensions and capacities of horizontal moving walkways --> 0 - 9
127
ESCALATORS
MOVING
WALKWAYS
BS EN 115
BS 7801
DIN EN 115

LIFTS
Principles
Control Drive at top 2:1
Residential
buildings 0 Traction lifts
Public buildings
Small goods lifts
Hydraulic lifts
Special lifts
BS EN 81
BS ISO 4190
DD CEN/TS 81
DIN EN 81
DIN 15306
DIN 15309
(In the US
lifts are called
elevators.)
Direct drive
central 1-stage
f) Hydraulic lifts
A
Push piston
hanging 2:1
Top 1:1
Direct central
1-stage telescopic
B
Pull piston
hanging 1:1
C) Hydraulic lifts, special versions --;0 -f)
telescopic sliding
door
opening to one side:
shaft width = 1.5 x
clear passage width
+27 em "'1.60 m
centrally opening
sliding door: shaft
width =2 x clear
passage width +20 em
"'1.80 m suitable for
cars, which should be
emptied quickly
C) Relationship of door-opening type to shaft width
Top adjacent 1.1
Direct adjacent
1-stage
c
Pull piston
indirect 2:1
four-part telescopic
sliding door: shaft
width depends on the
type of drive
Bottom adjacent 1:1
D
Indirect adjacent
2:1
D
Indirect pull piston
with additional weight
~~~~
six-part telescopic sliding
door: suitable for cars
with wide openings e.g. in
hospitals and commercial
buildings
LIFTS
Principles
For all buildings, lifts should
normally be positioned at the
source of traffic flow. Provide
sufficient space for waiting and
queuing --+ p. 130 which must
not infringe on stairs. Carefully
plan the connection to the traffic
routes. There are two different
drive systems for lifts:
I. Traction sheave drive (for
cable lifts)--+ 0
2. Hydraulic lifts --+ f) - 0
Traction lifts: ideally have their
drives above the shaft. The
empty weight of the car and half
the live load are balanced by the
counterweight. Placing the drive
at the top or at the bottom next
to the shaft makes necessary
additional pulleys, resulting in
higher operating costs. The
machinery and control system
can be accommodated in a
separate machine room or, in the
case of lifts without a machine
room, placed in the shaft --+
p. 134.
With hydraulic lifts, a push
cylinder is mostly used --+ f) -
0. The lifting cylinder can be
arranged directly or indirectly.
The arrangement of a direct
cylinder inside a protective
tube under the ground is no
longer suitable because of the
requirements for the protection
of groundwater. The use of a
pull cylinder --+ 0 B-D can be
appropriate in some cases. A
pull cylinder in its basic form
balances a part of the weight
of the car. This has even more
effect with additional weights --+
0 D, because the pump motor
runs only when the load is lifted
by the cylinder, while downward
travel is enabled simply by
opening the valve, which requires
no energy and almost halves the
consumption.
[]
,Hi lflL]m
,_ 1-80-j f-S0-1 I-BO-{ 1-BO-j f-80-j
1-ao-1
l-1.10-l
f-- Shaft -i
width 1.60
0 Plans of lifts --;
p.130ff.
128
l--90-l
f-1.10--l
1-- Shaft -i
width 1.67
Wheelchair-suitable
i-B0-1 l--1.10-j l-1.10-j
l-1.10 -1 f-- Shaft -t+- Shaft --1
1-- Shaft -j width 14 width
width 1.60 1.60 1.60
Through-loading Double
l--1.10-l l--1.10-j l-1.10-j
1-- Shaft -it- Shaft --It- Shaft -I
width 12 width 12 width
1.60 1.60 1.60
Triple

0 Disability-friendly control panel at a height of 85-100 em above floor level or car floor
level in the central area of the lift car--> f). Ideally horizontal panels with buttons
about 3 x 3 em, with contrasting and raised labelling and acoustic signals
f) Disability-friendly control panel
Time to reach the destination
CD 5 shafts with conventional control
@ 5 shafts with destination selection control
@ 4 shafts with twin lifts
0 Efficiency of multi-car lifts for the same number
of shafts
Double-decker cars with a mechanism to
compensate for different storey heights
e Sensible transport of
passengers with a group of
three lifts with destination
selection control
Time to reach the destination
CD 4 shafts with conventional control
@ 2 shafts with twin lifts
@ 2 shafts with double-decker cars
Efficiency of multi-car lifts
with a reduced number
of shafts
Multi-car system: two
cars in one shaft (Thyssen
Krupp TWIN system)
LIFTS
Control Equipment
Single-button collective control
This control system saves calls and destination
instructions, but travels according to a car call to the
highest or lowest destination. Landing calls, however,
are taken into account only during downward travel, in
order to transport users to the main stop. This simple
form of control is mainly suitable for buildings with low lift
frequency and one main stop, like residential buildings or
multi-storey car parks.
Two-button collective control
This control system, dependent on direction and landing
calls, can also give the intended direction. The lift primarily
serves car calls, but stops in order to collect further
passengers in the travel direction. Two-button collective
control systems are particularly suitable where there is
frequent traffic at intermediate storeys, as in department
stores and office buildings. When there is a group of lifts,
the calls and destination instructions of all lifts can be
taken into account.
Destination floor control system
With a destination floor control system, the user has
to indicate the intended destination at a terminal, and
is then allotted a lift by the control system. The car will
normally have no selection buttons. For groups of lifts,
a destination floor control system enables significant
optimisation of the transport capacity. The user does not
have to differentiate between express and local lifts, and
not all lift access points have to be visible from the waiting
area. Special lifts, like double-decker and multi-car lifts,
can be integrated into groups of lifts. This control system
is suitable above all for high-rise buildings and those
where there are different security levels and passenger
selection is required, because the control system can
also provide access control through identification (card
reader, PIN code, etc.), for example among hotel guests,
personal areas and areas let to third parties -7 e.
Double-decker lifts
Two cars are fixed one above the other and thus always
serve different floors. This increases thetransport capacity,
particularly of express lifts, for the same shaft size. The
access level and the sky lobby have to be constructed
at two levels. If individual floors are to be visited, then
escalators can be provided at the access level to separate
the flow of users into odd and even numbered storey
destinations. Double-decker lifts are suitable for transport
to panorama and restaurant levels, or as express lifts to a
sky lobby in very high buildings -7 e.
Multi-car lifts
Two or more lifts travel - each equipped with their
own traction sheave drive and counterweight - above
and below each other in the same guide rails -7 f). A
destination selection control system records the intended
direction and destination of the user before they enter the
lift, and it then assigns the call to one of the cars and
ensures that the two cars do not obstruct each other -->
e. This system can achieve 30% more transport capacity
for the same number of shafts. Because the cars cannot
overtake in one shaft, travel from the lowest to the highest
stop is not possible without changing cars. Therefore,
multi-car systems should have at least one conventional
express lift -7 e- 0.
129
LIFTS
Principles
Control
Residential
buildings
Public buildings
Small goods lifts
Hydraulic lifts
Special lifts
BS EN 81
DO CEN/TS 81
BS ISO 4190
DIN 15306
DIN 15309
see also: Lifts in
high-rise
buildings p. 246

LIFTS
Principles
Control
Residential
buildings
Public buildings
Small goods lifts
Hydraulic lifts
Special lifts
BS EN 81
. BS 5655
DIN EN 81
DIN 15306
DIN 15309
I--C2---;
A
LUJ
I
I >-800--; !
I r------1100--l !
t-SB 1600--1
I I
I I
0 Plan of lift shaft---> 0 f) Waiting area in front of lift
1----- R ----;
access in this area
0 Machine room e Machine room: set of lifts
a.
J.
T
0
,.;
lr
1 ~ ffi I
[ill ·[~
~ .................
.·····
[fl]J
I
I
I
I
~=:T
9 Shaft and machine room e Shaft for hydraulic lift
<.D 1 x400kg
® 1x630kg
® 1x1DOOkg
@) 1x400kg+1x1oookg
® 1x630kg+1X1000kg
® 1x630kg+1x1000kg
(f) 2x630kg+1 x1000kg
@ 2X1000kg
® 3x1000kg
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
f) Requirements for transport in normal residential buildings
130
.......
i.Om/s
1.0m/s
1.0mls
1.0m/s
1.0m/s
i.Ornls
1.6m/s
1.6m/s
2.5rnfs
2.5rnfs
800
LIFTS
Passenger Lifts for Residential Buildings
Vertical transport in newbuild multi-storey buildings is mostly provided
by lifts. The guidelines given here are based on German standards.
In the UK, lift installation is covered by BS 5655, which includes
recommendations from CEN and ISO.
The architect normally appoints a specialist engineer for the design of
lifts. In larger multi-storey buildings, it is usual to locate the lifts at a
central pedestrian circulation point. Goods lifts should be arranged with
visible separation from passenger lifts, though their design should take
into account that they can also be used by passengers at peak times.
The following load capacities are laid down for passenger lifts in
residential buildings:
400 kg (small lift)
630 kg (medium lift)
1000 kg (large lift)
for passengers, who may be carrying loads
for passengers with prams or wheelchairs
suitable for the transport of stretchers,
coffins, furniture and wheelchairs ~ 0
The waiting area (lobby) in front of the lift shaft must be laid out and
designed so that:
- lift users entering and leaving the lift do not obstruct each other more
than necessary, even if carrying luggage
- the largest items to be transported by the lift (e.g. prams, wheelchairs,
stretchers, coffins, furniture) can be loaded and unloaded without risk
of injury to people or damage to the building or the lift, and causing
the least possible obstruction to other users.
Waiting area in front of a single lift:
- minimum usable depth between shaft door wall and opposing wall,
measured in the direction of the depth of the car, should equal the
car depth ~ f).
- minimum usable area should equal the product of lift car depth and
shaft width.
Waiting area in front of adjacent lifts:
- minimum usable depth between shaft door wall and opposing wall,
measured in the direction of the depth of the car, should equal the
depth of the deepest car.
load
capacity Kg 400 630 1000
nominal ~m/s 0.6311.00 1.60 0.63 1.00 1.60 2.50 0.63 1.0011.60
speed
shaft min. shaft width c mm
1600 + 1800 __, 0
min. shaft depth d mm 1600 2100 2600
2.50
min. pit depth p mm 140011500 1700 1400 1500 1700 2800 14oo 115oo 111oo 28oo
min. shaft head mm 3700 13800 4000 3700 3800 4000 5000 3700 3800 14000 5000
height q
door clear shaft door mm 800; min. 900
width c,
clear shaft door mm 2000
height s2
machine min. area of m2 8 10 10 12 14 12 14 15
room machinery
min. width of mm 2400 2400 2700 2700 3000 2700 2700 3000
machinery r
min. depth of s 3200 3200 3700 3700 3700 4208 4200 4200
machinery s mm
min. height of mm 2000 2200 2000 2200 2600 2000 2200 2600
machinery h
car clear car width a mm 1100
clear car depth b mm 950 1400 2100 I
clear car height k mm 2200
clear car access mm 800; min. 900
width c2
clear car access mm 2000
heightf2
permissible no. 5 8 13
I
passengers
e Structural, car and door dimensions---> 0 - 8

[§11{
~
0 Section of lift shaft
A
,•••••••,••:::••:,•::••:ouoouHo0
o
~ ll "1
~ II
=~ II
ll ~~J~t: ll
L:: _____ ~
access to power lift
motor room ln this area
8 Machine room
finished
floor level
FFL
................~~
FFL t-; "k
.................... ::[
....
..~.....'8TII
·1 t..................r··
0 Shaft for single lift
0 100 200 300
1400
1 2400 I
f) Bed lift
r---,
I I
... ___ .J
0 Common machine room for set
of lifts
suitable for
the disabled
~
1600kg
..L.....- ...
i{dA
~~
u~~
0 Overview of lifts --t 8-0
® 2 ll 1000 ltg 2.5 mit
(}) 3M 1000kg 2,5rNS
400 500 800
Transport capacity requirements for comfortable residential buildings with and
without office floors
LIFTS
Passenger Lifts for Offices, Banks,
Hotels, Hospitals
The building and its function dictate the basic type of lifts which
need to be provided. They serve as a means of vertical transport
for passengers and patients. Lifts are mechanical installations
which are required to have a long service life (anything from 25
to 40 years). They should therefore be planned in such a way that
even after 10 years they are still capable of meeting increased
demand. Alterations to installations that have been badly or too
cheaply planned can be expensive or even completely impossible.
During the planning stage the likely usage should be closely
examined. Lift sets normally form part of the main stairwell.
Analysis of use: types and definitions
Turnaround time is a calculated value indicating the time which a
lift requires to complete a cycle with a given type of traffic.
Average waiting time is the time between the button being pressed
and the arrival of the lift car:
cycle time (s)
number of lifts/set
Transportation capacity is the maximum achievable carrying
capacity (in passengers) within a five minute (300 s) period:
=300 (s) x car load (passengers)
cycle time (s) x no. of lifts
Transportation capacity expressed as per cent:
= 100 x transportation capacity
no. occupants in building
load capacity kg BOO 1000 1250
nominal speed m/s 0.63 1.0 1.6 2.5 0.63 1.0 1.6 2.5
min. shaft width c 1900 2400 (2600)
min. shaft depth d 2300 2300 (2600)
min. shaft pit depth p 1400 1500 1700 2800 1400 1700 2800
min. shaft head q 3800 14000 5000 4200 15200
height
shaft door width c 800; min. 900 1100
shaft door height f 2000 2100
min. area of machine m' 15 18 20
room
min. width of r 2500 2800 3200
machine room
min. depth of s 3700 4900 4900
machine room
min. height of h 2200 2800 2400 12800
machine room
car width a 1350 1500
car depth b 1400 1400
car height k 2200 2300
car door width e 800; min. 900 1100
car door height f 2000 2100
permissible no.
Ipassengers
10 13 (16)
1600
0.63 1.0 1.6 2.5
2600
2600
1400 1900 2800
4400 15400
1100
2100
25
3200
5500
2800
1950
1750
2300
1100
2100
21
e Passenger lifts are preferable for more than residential buildings (offices, banks,
hotels); lifts enable use with wheelchair
load capacity kg 1600 2000 2500
nominal speed m/s 0.63 1.0 1.6 2.5 0.63 1.o 1 1.6 1 2.5 1o.63l 1.o 1.6 2.5
min. shaft width c 2400 2700
min. shaft depth d 3000 3300
min. shaft pit depth p 1BOOl1700I1900 2800 1600 1700 1900 2800 1800 1900 2100 3000
min. shaft head height q 4400 5400 4400 5400 4800 15600
shaft door width c, 1300 1300 (1400)
shaft door height f 2100
min. area of machine m' 26
I
27
I
29
room
min. width of machine r 3200
I
3500
room
min. depth of machine s 5500
I
5800
room
min. height of machine h 2800
room
car width a 1400 1500 1800
car depth b 2400 2700
car height k 2300
car door width e,' 1300 1300 (1400)
car door height t, 2100
permissible 21
I
26
I
33
no.passengers
Dimensions in mm --) 0 - 0
Q Structural dimensions for bed lifts --7 0 -0
131
LIFTS
Principles
Control
Residential
buildings
Public buildings
Small goods lifts
Hydraulic lifts
Special lilts
BS EN 81
DIN EN 81
DIN 15306
DIN 15309

LIFTS
Principles
Control
Residential
buildings
Public buildings
Small goods
lifts
Hydraulic lifts
Special lifts
BS EN 81
DIN EN 81
DIN 15306
DIN 15309
mmmH~
CW·DW I cw.oW I 1 CW-DW I
sw I sw 1
sw
0 Small goods lift with f) With doors both
door only on one side
0 Corner doors
sides (pass-through)
.... .1......1.....J.
I I shaft
I I I pit
L----.._L_____j
~~~
' ~~:__
I I . I shaft
I 1 l pit
~~ -~~1----J
8 Small goods lift with floor-
level sliding doors
9 Small goods lift with floor-
level hinged door
0 Small goods lift with parapet and
vertical sliding door
Loading arrangement
payload Q kg
speed vm/s
car width =door width W=DW
car depth CD
car height= door height CH=DH
door width ofthe corner DW
doors
shaft width sw
shaft depth SD
shaft head height min. SHH
machine room door width
machine room door height
min. distance between 1.)
loading points
min. distance between 2.)
loading points
parapet height min., B
lowest stop only
f) Structural dimensions of
small goods lifts __, 0 -e
nrn+I
IUl
___
One side access and loading from both sides
100 300
0.45 0.3
400 500 600 700 800 800 800
400 500 600 700 800 1000 1000
800 1200 1200
- - - - - -
720 820 920 1020 1120 1120
5BO 6BO 7BO BBO 9BO 11BO 1180
1990 2590 2590
500 500 600 700 BOO BOO 800
600
1930 2730 2730
700 450
600 800 800
Goods lift with loading from
both sides (pass-through doors)
0 Goods lift with loading only one
side, and machine room
load capacity kg 630 1000 1600 2000 2500 3200
nominal speed m/s <-- 0.40 -- 0.63 -- 1.00 __,
car dimensions mm
cw 1100 1300 1500 1500 1800 2000
CD 1570 1870 2470 2870 2B70 3070
CH 2200 2200 2200 2200 2200 2200
door dimensions mm
DW 1100 1300 1500 1500 1BOO 2000
DH 2200 2200 2200 2200 2200 2200
shaft dimensions mm
sw 1BOO 2000 2200 2300 2600 2900
SD 1700 2000 2600 3000 3000 3200
SPH 0.4 and. 0.63 m/s 1200 1300 1300 1300 1300 1400
1.0 m/s 1300 1300 1600 1600 1800 1900
SHH 0.4 and 0.63 m/s 3700 3800 3900 4000 4100 4200
1.0 m/s 3BOO 3900 4200 4200 4400 4400
PHH 1900 1900 1900 2100 1900 1900
4I!) Structural dimensions oftraction sheave goods lifts --> 0 - 0
132
Corner access and corner access
with loadinQ from both sides
100
0.45
500 600 700 800 800
500 600 700 800 1000
800 1200
350 450 550 650 850
820 920 1020 1120 1120
6BO 7BO 880 9BO 11BO
2145 2745
500 600 700 800 800
600
1930 2730
700
600 BOO
so
$ Cross-section
-->0-0
LIFTS
Small Goods Lifts
Small goods lifts (also called dumb
waiters): payload ~300 kg; car
floor area ~1.0 m2; intended for
transporting light goods, documents,
food etc.; not for use by passengers.
The shaft framework is normally
made of steel sections set in the
shaft pit or on the floor, and clad on
all sides by non-flammable building
materials. ~ 0 - Q. Calculation of
the transport capacity of goods lifts
~ 0. The following formula is used
to estimate the time, in seconds, of
one transport cycle:
2 =constant factor for round trip
h = height of the lift, v = operating
speed (m/s), Lr = loading and
unloading time (s), H = number of
stops
t1 = time for acceleration and
deceleration (s)
t2 = time for closing and opening the
shaft doors: single doors 6 s, double
doors 10 s, vertical sliding doors in
small goods lifts about 3 s.
The transportation capacity C can
be calculated from the time for one
transport cycle, T, according to the
formula:
c= ___6:....:0___
time for a cycle (s)
60 . I .
=-= ... Journeys mm.
T
Structural requirements: The
machine room must be lockable,
have sufficient illumination and be
of a size to prevent accidents. Area
for the machinery must be G1.8 m
high. Food lifts in hospitals: lift shafts
must have washable smooth internal
walls. External press-button control
must be provided for calling and
despatching the lift to/from each
stopping point.
Goods lifts
Goods lifts are those intended
a) to transport goods or
b) passengers who are employed by
the operator of the lift.
Stopping precision
Goods lifts without travel delay ± 20-
40mm
Passenger and goods lifts with travel
delay ± 10-30 mm
Speed: 0.25-0.4 up to 0.63-1.0 m/s.

111
.
.
~J
~
rr'"· opening yv
I sw I
0 Shaftplan
Vertical section of shaft
Payload
shaft width
shaft depth
machine room dimensions approx.
9000
f)
10 )= '00
2000
:::· ···:::
::: :::l
::: 8 J ·:·
X :.:,; . ~J~~ ~.:;~. 5J
7kN lifting
ring above •:
~1-~.---J
~~-- m~W
~I SW I
2000
Shaft plan with machine room for
hydraulic lift
_g:; )= H+ttOOmr
8000
lillllmll"
:!: @i(l); I= ::;:;:
7000 -~ ill g )= l+ : .,
:
6000
Iill I= mn
D=
5000
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 H
height of lift lml
Diagram to determine the shaft head height SHH; shaft pit depth SPD; cylinder
shaft depth CSD; cylinders shaft diameter 0
Q;< 5000 kg Q * 10000 kq
sw - CW+500 CW+550
so = CD+ 150 loading from one side
CD+ 100 loading from both sides
width = 2000 2200
(other locations of the machine room at depth = 2600 2800
up to max. 5 m distance from the shaft are
possible, greater distance on request)
0 Technical data--> 0 -0
'Iiiii
lit ill
ti~_JII
L~--~Jj
•,:•oooonno••~•uo
height
load capacity kg
speed m/s
lift height max. m
car dimensions mm
door dimensions mm
shaft dimensions mm
-
w
D
H
w
H
w
D
SPH min.
SHH min.
2200
630 1000
0.30 0.18
0.47 0.28
6.0 7.0
1100 1300
1500 1700
2200 2200
1100 1300
2200 2200
1650 1900
1600 1800
1200 1400
3200 3200
1600
0.23
0.39
7.0
1500
2200
2200
1500
2200
2150
2300
1600
3200
2700
l'llllll::ll
ti ,,1111,: d
1iJjj II !Jt.! I
L--~ L __ ..J
LIFTS
Hydraulic Lifts
Hydraulic lifts meet the demand
for transporting heavy loads
economically up and down shorter
lift heights and are best used for
up to 12 m lift height. The machine
room can be located remotely
from the shaft itself.
Standardised direct-acting push
piston lifts can be used to lift
payloads of as much as 20 t up
to a max. height of 17 m -> 0
- 0, while indirect-acting push
piston lifts in standard operation
can lift max. 7 t to a max. 34 m.
The operating speed of hydraulic
lifts is between 0.2 and 0.8 m/s
(considerably slower than traction
sheave lifts!). A roof-mounted
machine room is not required.
Several variations in hydraulics
can be found-> 0- 0. The most
commonly used is the centrally
mounted ram -> 0 - 0. This
requires a bored hole. The ram
retraction control, regardless of
load, must be kept within ± 3 mm.
Height clearance of the lift doors is
min. 50-100 mm greater than for
other doors, so that a completely
level entry into the lift car is obtained.
Double swing doors, or hinged
sliding doors, can be fitted - either
hand-operated or fully automatic,
with a central or side opening.
load capacity kg 1600 2000 2500 3200
speed m/s 0.15 0.18 0.24 0.20
0.24 0.30 0.38 0.30
lift height max. m 6.0 7.0 7.0 7.0
car w 1500 1500 1800 2000
dimensions mm 0 2200 2700 2700 3500
H 2200 2200 2200 2200
door w 1500 1500 1800 2000
dimensions mm H 2200 2200 2200 2200
shaft w 2200 2200 2600 2800
dimensions mm 0 2300 2800 2800 3600
SPHmin. 1300 1300 1300 1300
SHHmin. 3450 3450 3450 3450
0 Rucksack arrangement 1:1 dimensions-> 0 f) Tandem arrangement 1:1 dimensions -> f)
load capacity kg 1600 2000 2500 3000
load capacity kg 630 1000 1600 speed mis 0.23 0.19 0.25 0.21
speed m/s 0.28 0.30 0.24 0.39 0.32 0.39 0.31
0.46 0.50 0.42 0.61 0.50 0.64 0.51
0.78 0.80 0.62 lift height max. m 13.0 14.0 16.0 18.0
lift height max. m 13.0 16.0 18.0 car w 1500 1500 1800 2000
car w 1100 1300 1500 dimensions mm 0 2200 2700 2700 3500
H 2200 2200 2200 2200
door w 1500 1500 1800 2000
dimensions mm H 2200 2200 2200 2200
shaft w 2300 2300 2600 2900
dimensions mm 0 2300 2800 2800 3600
dimensions mm 0 1500 1900 2200
H 2200 2200 2200
door w 1100 1300 1500
dimensions mm H 2200 2200 2200
shaft w 1650 1900 2150
dimensions mm 0 1600 2000 2300
SPH min. 1200 1400 1600 SPH min. 1300 1300 1300 1300
SHH 3200 3200 3200 SPP 3400 3550 3650 3650
fl) Rucksack arrangement 2:1 dimensions-> 0 Cl) Tandem arrangement 2:1 dimensions -> 0
133
LIFTS
Principles
Control
Residential
buildings
Public buildings
Small goods lifts
Hydraulic lifts
Special lifts
BS EN 81
BS 5655-10
BS 8486-2
PAS 32-2
DIN EN 81
DIN 15306
DIN 15309

LIFTS
Principles
Control
Residential
buildings
Public buildings
Small goods lifts
Hydraulic lifts
Special lifts
BS EN 81
DIN EN 81
DIN 15306
DIN 15309
I I
Balustrade
1st floor
I I
_J.---'---'-.LL.LL-'----'- Ground floor
Glazing
;:;:;::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::·;1:(:::::::::::::;:::
tDJ
Ground floor
-
0 Contact with moving parts must be prevented in glazed lifts: safety barrier
around shaft doors min. up to 3.5 m high and on the other sides min. 2.5 m,
with the distance to moving parts at least 0.5 m; with greater distances, the
height can be reduced.
I II ll
f) Load and goods lifts. Because passengers are not allowed to travel, the car
does not require doors. This results in a good relationship between shaft cross-
section and usable car area.
l;;;; 2.00+
r
3.65-3.85
i ········ i
1m .;y~·"'
~ 6;1.40
C) Traction lift with machine room
and pit
134
G Special construction without
machine room
LIFTS
Special Lifts
Glazed lifts
Glazed lifts offer a view and improve the users' feeling of safety.
They can be constructed either with glazed shafts (observing
fire resistance requirements) or as shaftless lifts (panoramic
lifts) --7 0. These can only be installed near buildings in which,
to prevent the spread of fire, no lift shafts are permitted. This
makes the inclusion of panoramic lifts into traffic calculations
difficult. The glazing must prevent the users touching moving
parts with the hand or with objects held in the hand. Glazed lifts
are non-standard constructions and require a special prototype
approval.
Goods and underfloor lifts (without passenger transport)
Lifts only intended for loads like rubbish bins or goods deliveries
can be installed inside a building or in front of it --7 f). Passenger
transport is not permissible with this type of lift. A machine room
is not normally necessary.
Underfloor lifts are controlled from the uppermost station. The
cover of the lift must be in the field of view of the operator.
Lifts with reduced shaft dimensions
In refurbishment projects, it is often a major inconvenience to
construct the parts of the shaft above and below the working
range. For such projects, there are special lifts, which require
less pit depth (min. approx. 80 mm) and shaft head heights (min.
approx. 2500 mm above the highest stop) --7 8 - 0. When lifts
are installed without machine rooms, special requirements have
to be considered for the shaft (ventilation, possible condensation
on the ceiling and fire protection measures). These requirements
can be taken from the information provided by the particular
manufacturer, because such lifts have to undergo a special
prototype approval.
Such special constructions also include lifts for disabled
people --7 0, which may be used only by the specified group.
Dead man's controls and similar measures make simple, space-
saving installations without pit and car doors permissible. Home
stairlifts enable those with impaired mobility to move easily
between floors (on straight or curved stairways) and across
landings. The requirements for such installations are provided
in BS 5776.
0 Special construction without
machine room and with
reduced pit depth
l
2.45
J
0 Lift for disabled people
These lifts are approved solely
for use by those with impaired
mobility.

06
00 12
18
0 Functional diagram dependent on dally routines (UN Studio --> refs)
t>
II Living room (Bed) room I L(Bed) room J I (Bed) room I I (Bed) room I
/ Workroom~(Bed) room (Bed) room Guest room I
I (Bed) room J
I J
·~
Q;
~ ~ Guest bathroom
Single-roan ~
:2 ~
1- 0 .c e
Wind lobby) B flat s ~
.c
&iH Bathroom J
s
Living room/Kitchen j J Living room } ,----- ,-----
,-----
w~~~
c
~ ~ § -~g
0
"iii E
Jl Box room J- c
~ 0 .0 ~0 ~e
~ ~ --{ Conservatory }- ::J ._ ~
1!
~ ~ _ _
'--
j( Uttllty area } ~
)
w
Jl Larder )-'-
Garden
Traditional spatial layout of room division 'from the single-room flat to the
palace'. Read backwards, a programme for the spatial expression of uses and
flexible uses of living space
room type
living room
dining corner/room
children's room
bedroom
main occupation time
sunlight desirable
mid-day to evening
morning to evening
mid-day to evening
night
early sunshine is desirable
.~
-.--
~
w
C) Periods of occupation and desirable sunlight in residential rooms
BASICS
Design Basics
Living in houses, originally the spatial realisation of basic
human needs, has developed in modern society into a complex
interaction of a multitude of influences subject to the most varied
requirements and individual quality standards.
The lifestyle, principles and pretensions of the (potential)
inhabitants come up against building regulations, political
subsidy ideas and their consequences for town planning and
also (underlying ideological) architectural predispositions about
location, type of building, development and ground plan.
Historical development
In the course of industrialisation and the movement of
population to urban areas, residential building developed into
a central task of the construction industry in the 19th century,
and on account of the world wars this was still the case during
the last century.
The planning preoccupations with privacy and prestige, which
originated in the feudal system and still apply as models and
cliches, have entered the awareness of a wide public. Prosperous
urban society expressed this by building villas and impressive
mansions. In parallel, much Victorian accommodation was built as
dense blocks in rental districts as a result of the massive (working
class) housing shortage and with the aim of maximising land use
and profit. ·
The architects of the modernist movement (and their successors)
developed opposing concepts to those of the 'stone' city. They
investigated the individual home, its lighting and orientation --+
e, the optimal (minimum) room size and functional layout--+ f)
and also rational and standardised methods of construction. The
results ranged from ambitious private houses to new 'fresh from
the drawing board' housing developments.
The present day: community and individual
Modern housing requires the separation in space and time of
individual and community interests within the house as well as
meeting the demand for privacy and publicity (or anonymity) in the
urban context--+ 0.
The increasing relaxation of traditional family lifestyles and, as a
result ofthe information age, the approaching end ofthe separation
of housing and workplace mean that the classic functional and
utilitarian procedures inside houses --+ f) have to be re-examined.
The established terms like living room or children's room often
have little validity.
The place of residence is understood to be a private space with
controlled and graduated access from the outside world. The
classic common and individual areas within a house are becoming
less significant in terms of area, and the 'multi-purpose room'
(living-working room, shared living space as in a flat etc.), which
occurs in both private and public housing, is developing into a
significant room type.
Room division and functional neutrality
The consequence of the individualisation of lifestyles could be
customised layouts with differentiated and often luxurious room
division, but it could also be a functionally neutral division of
space with qualitatively similar rooms suitable for flexible use by
families, flat sharers, 'multi-generation living' groups or living-and-
working models.
These considerations result in increased significance for the
neutrality of the developing decor.
135
BASICS
Design basics
House-building
policy

BASICS
Design basics
House-building
policy
The task of a century
Among the changes in society caused by industrialisation,
since the middle of the 19th century house building has
developed into a central activity of the construction industry.
Housing shortage and mass poverty became a decisive political
dimension, which still continued into the 20th century due to
the World Wars.
The regulation and encouragement of house building is
therefore an essential aspect of national construction policy.
Political instruments have been developed in the form of
planning laws and building regulations --1 p. 56, intended to
set minimum standards to protect privacy, avoid danger and
protect health.
Laws to subsidise housing construction and a repeatedly
modified system of financial grants and tax exemptions have
been set up to support private investment in rented and owner-
occupied housing (property incentives). In consideration of the
current over-supply of housing and increasing demands in the
market regarding area and quality, the subsidy laws have been
amended in recent years.
The essential subsidy instruments in Germany are: the Law
to Subsidise House Building; the state subsidy for house
building, laid down in the Law to Subsidise Social Housing
of 13/09/2001. The subsidising of house building includes
the new construction of flats with subsidised rents, the new
construction of owner-occupied housing, the purchase and
refurbishment of existing houses and the purchase of rights
of occupancy.
Housing subsidy is carried out at the state level: the extent of
grants, the size details of subsidised houses and application
conditions can therefore differ from state to state and are laid
down in the relevant housing subsidy regulations --1 0. The
target housing subsidy group are households whose income
does not exceed the level stipulated in the laws and regulations,
and also households with two or more children and households
with disabled members. The subsidy is in the form of loans at
preferential rates, grants, guarantees, housing entitlement
certificates and the provision of cheap building land.
Household size Maximum living area
1 person 50m2
for each further person
2 persons 60m2 belonging to the household, the
living area can be exceeded by
3 persons 75m2 max. 10m2.
4 persons 85m2
0 Limits on the living area in subsidised housing (example)
Owner-occupied House Allowance Law
This legislation provides for a limited period a subsidy from
taxation via a fixed annual allowance for the purchase of
owner-occupied flats and houses. The target group for this
allowance is households whose income does not exceed the
limits laid down in the law. On account of the current over-
supply of housing, the political justification for this law is often
questioned.
136
BASICS
House-building Policy
Housing area regulation
The 'Regulation for the calculation of the housing area' of
25/11/2003 is used to work out the area of houses and flats for
the purpose of the Law to Subsidise House Building. The area of
a house or flat includes the floor area of all rooms which belong
exclusively to the house or, in the case of a residential home the
areas intended for the sole use of the owner --1 f).
The floor area of a room is determined from the clearance space
between building components and starts from the face ofthe cladding
of the building component --1 0. The floor area is measured in the
completed room, or can be calculated from a suitable construction
drawing. Floor areas are calculated according to --1 0.
Living area includes: Living area does not include:
all rooms which belong solely to subsidiary rooms (cellars, store rooms,
the house, or are intended for the cellar replacement rooms, wash houses,
sole use of the occupants, including attic rooms, drying rooms, heating
conservatories, swimming pools, etc. rooms, garages), rooms which do not
(if enclosed on all sides), balconies, correspond to the requirements of
loggias and terraces planning law for the relevant use, offices
f) Rooms included in living area (housing area regulation, excerpt)
floor area of a room includes: floor area of a room does not include:
clear area (from face of cladding) chimneys, masonry cladding,
between building components, including claddings, pillars (from 1.5 m height and
the area of door and window frames, 0.1 m2
floor area), stairs and landings
skirtings, pennanently installed (from 3 steps). door niches, window
objects, free-standing installations, and wall niches (which do not reach to
built-in furniture, movable room dividers the floor or are at least 0.13 em deep),
8 Floor area of a room included in living area (housing area regulation, excerpt)
complete rooms and parts of rooms with a clear
height of at least 2 m
half rooms and parts of rooms with a clear
height of at least 1 m and less than
2 m, unheated and fully enclosed
conservatories, swimming pools etc.
normally a quarter. at the highest a half balconies, loggias, roof gardens and
terraces
e Inclusion of floor areas in the calculation
KfW Subsidy Bank
The KfW Subsidy Bank is a public body with its capital provided
by the Federal Republic of Germany and the states. The main
emphasis of its activity is the provision of favourable loans for the
encouragement of house building. The subsidies are in the form of
a subsidy programme with fixed aims. Currently (autumn 2008) the
following programmes are active:
KfW property programme
for the building or purchase of owner-occupied houses and flats.
Ecological building
for the construction of passive houses, KfW energy-saving
houses and the installation of renewable energy heating systems
Housing modernisation
for the modernisation and repair of residential buildings with
emphasis on the reduction of energy consumption
C02 building refurbishment plan
for single measures intended to reduce the energy consumption
of old buildings
Solar electricity production
to finance photovoltaic systems on residential buildings

J.,J.,J.I
J•J•J•J
DETACHED HOUSE (ESTATE)
plot
storeys
gross floor area
floor-area ratio
inhabitants/ha
350-450 m'
1-2 (+attic)
150-160
0.3-0.5
70-90
SEMI-DETACHED HOUSE
plot
storeys
gross floor area
floor-area ratio
inhabitants/ha
250-300 m'
1-2 (+attic)
150--160
0.5-0.6
115-135
LINKED/COURTYARD-GARDEN HOUSE
plot
storeys
gross floor area
floor-area ratio
inhabitants/ha
TERRACED HOUSE
plot
storeys
gross floor area
floor-area ratio
inhabitants/ha
STEPPED HOUSE
storeys
gross floor area
floor-area ratio
inhabitants/ha
200-250 m'
1-2 (+attic)
150-160
0.6-0.8
150-180
150-200m'
2-3 (+attic)
130-150
0.6-0.9
200-250
130 - 150/terrace
1.5-2.0
300-350
~-~~
~-~-r-r
TERRACED BUILDING
plot
storeys
gross floor area
floor-area ratio
inhabitants/ha
~625m
2
2-4 (+attic)
E;500
~0.8
;§400
BLOCK DEVELOPMENT
plot
storeys
gross floor area
floor-area ratio
inhabitants/ha
;§1550 m'
5 (+attic)
1250
E;0,8
400-450
NARROW HIGH-RISE
plot
storeys
gross floor area
floor-area ratio
inhabitants/ha
:1:;5000 m'
10
600/storey
1.2
approx. 450
SQUARE HIGH-RISE
plot
storeys
gross floor area
floor-area ratio
inhabitants/ha
e;1875 m'
10
225/storey
1.2
approx. 450
0 Town planning parameters of various house types (indicative)
HOUSING DENSITY
Parameters
The extent of residential development (urban housing density)
is an important measure in public land-use planning. The urban
housing density is laid down in the development (zoning) plans
of cities and councils and is the indirect result of the provisions
of planning law regarding the permissibility of building projects in
unplanned inner areas and in outer areas --7 p. 56. The essential
statutory parameters describing urban housing density are the
plot coverage ratio (the built area related to the plot area), and the
floor-area ratio (the total area of all floors related to the plot area),
as well as provisions regarding the number of full storeys and the
height of buildings --7 p. 63.
Urban housing density and house type
The urban housing density has a considerable influence on
the selection of house type, determines the type and extent of
development and specifies the land use of a housing development.
The urban housing densities of various types of housing (housing
density) are shown in --7 0, as described by the statutory
parameters. The average population density (inhabitants/m2) is
also shown for clarification. The density increases in a range from
free-standing detached houses, semi-detached houses, linked
and terraced houses to multi-storey residential buildings, block
developments and stand-alone blocks. Based on the required
plot area, dense terraced and block development achieves similar
densities to multi-storey stand-alone blocks.
Housing density and housing quality
The qualitative evaluation of housing density is complex and
depends on a multitude of factors. It cannot be estimated solely
from a plot or group of houses, but is also influenced by the
larger scale urban development conditions. The term quarter has
become established to describe an urban planning unit with its
own infrastructure (shopping, recreational provision, schools,
kindergartens and connections to local transport).
Further points of interest are the number of inhabitants for whom
the infrastructure is adequate and the accessibility (transport
provision and times). These parameters interact with the
requirement for housing space per inhabitant and other spatial
aspects concerning privacy and individuality as well as the long-
distance connections, distance from and relation to city centres,
plot prices, accessibility of workplaces etc.
Model calculations demonstrate that with a floor-area ratio of 0.8
(related to net building land) and development with, for example,
multi-storey blocks in rows, the result is quarters where 6500
inhabitants can live on a gross area of 75 ha (900 x 900 m). This
results in distances from supply facilities of not more than 500 m,
which can be reached on foot or by bicycle.
In contrast, with a floor-area ratio of 0.4 and development of
detached houses, 6500 inhabitants will live in a quarter with an
area of 235 ha (1500 x 1500 m), which is too far on foot (particularly
for elderly people) and too small for public transport, so that a car
has to be used for daily shopping. In terms of the supply of energy
in pipes or cables, it can be stated as a simplification that the cost
for a floor-area ratio of 0.4 is nearly double that for 0.8.
These considerations should make clear that the apparent
advantages of living in a green belt mean that large parts of our
country are scarcely habitable without using a car, which offers no
perspective for a sustainable use of land and energy (Bott, Haas
--7 refs)
137
HOUSING
DENSITY
Parameters

ORIENTATION
Layout of
buildings
N
utility room entrance
cool room cloakroom
larder toilet ~
wine cellar studio stables
~~riQ~;~~m kitchen laundry
staircase heating pantry ironing room
entrance hall, corridor garage washing up domestic work room
storage room shady place ~~~~~ig;ees
off1ce and workshop ~
cloakroom for tradesmen
drying room changing room
W (with ventilation) North solarium E
community rooms/: I ~portsroom, bath
music room
entrance hall, hall g r bedroom for professionals
ladies' room pia;rooo~m sick room
smoking room livin room guest room
library, playroom coniervatory breakfast room
terrace
veranda, loggia
garden
s
0 Optimal orientation of rooms
-r~-
••••
Village environment Group of houses
Estate
0 Detached housing
..II I L.
JCJ[
,, ar
Block
l/1111111111
111111111111
Cells
I I
I
·-..!
Naturally developed town
8 Housing in blocks
138
BuildinQ in the landscape
Courtyard
---
---
---
---
Rows
-
I
• ·-
Planned town
ORIENTATION
Layout of Buildings
Detached housing ---> 8 (detached and semi-detached houses
with boundary walls) offers the opportunity to orientate a building
in four (three) directions of the compass ---> 0 (although at the
expense of high development costs and low urban planning
density ---> p. 137).
The plots are mostly narrow and long, in order to reduce the road
frontage as much as possible. In this case, plots to the south
of the road are more favourable. This enables a north-facing
arrangement of the rooms next to the entrance to the road and
the arrangement of the living rooms and bedrooms away from the
road, with tranquillity and sunshine (east - south - west) and an
exit to and view of the garden.
If the plot is north of the road, then the house should be sited at
the back of the plot, despite the extra expense of a driveway, in
order to exploit the sunny front garden. Plots to the west and east
of a (north-south) road should place garden and living rooms on
the wind-protected east side (arrangement of the house to the
north of the plot), so that no neighbouring buildings shadow the
low east sun, as with an east-west road.
Exposure
Shadowing
Expansiveness,
closeness
· Shape ot'. ·
· the plot
Access
Relation of house to plot
Topography, vegetation
For housing in blocks---> 0 (built in blocks and rows), most of the
houses or flats will be orientated in two opposing directions with
different qualities (view, lighting, noise).
Traditional block development, with varied layouts and
orientations of the flats, the planning of the layout of each
flat should attempt to compensate for unfavourable lighting
conditions. In addition to the traditional functionally neutral
corridor floor plans, open, flowing and flexible floor plans can also
be used for such situations. The quality of life in block structures
results from the multitude of views out and through the street and
the inner courtyard, which can be emphasised in the design.
Compass direction is a central consideration of modern town
planning. An east-west orientated arrangement of rows with
green areas in between can achieve (at the cost of public space
and the risk of a certain monotony of appearance) uniform lighting
and orientation of as many flats as possible ---> e.

11/2+ D
I +D
0 Detached/semi-detached houses
11/2FD
f) Linked houses
8 Houses with courtyard garden
Q Terraced houses
A- main residence
e Town houses
IIISD
II+D
11/2+ D
11/2PD
I FD
Ill FD
B- granny
ACCESS
Detached and Terraced Development
The selection of a house type includes decisions about
development, access and utilities. This has an important effect
on the proportions and organisation of the plan and is also an
important cost factor.
Access is also the subject of a multitude of building regulations
because of its function as escape route ~ p. 511. The route to
the house or flat and the connection of the houses to each other
represent an important location for social interaction as an
immediate part of the surroundings of the inhabitants.
Access principles
The following forms of access can be differentiated according to
the principle of adding houses:
-detached house
- (horizontal) row: terraced house, passage access
- (vertical) stacking: access with lifts and stairs
1~1 lifl
Detached house Semi-detached house
Stepped houses Houses with courtyard garden
V Frontdoor
.,_ Main orientation
<1-- Subsidiary orientation
0 Access to single and rows of houses
Detached house and row access
The individually accessed, detached house standing on its own
plot is the prototype for the 'owner-occupied' house. It has a
prestigious level access from the road, which is reached through
an area at the front ('front garden'). It has direct access from each
storey to further private or semi-public open spaces (e.g. garden.
terrace, inner courtyard or roof garden) ~ f).
With row access, as with individual access, each residential unit,
as its 'own' terraced, linked or courtyard-garden house, is
accessed on the level from the road and has a direct exit into the
open air~ f)- 8. There is a direct relation between private and
public space. A sensible height is 2-3 storeys.
Town houses~ 0 also use this access principle for an upper floor
flat, which in this case has its own front door and stairs. Terraced
houses with good residential value offer the most economic form
of house with garden ~ p. 144.
139
ACCESS
Detached and
terraced access
Passage access
Stepped houses
Vertical access
MBO
see also: Fire
protection p. 511

ACCESS
Detached and
terraced access
Passage access
Stepped houses
Vertical access
MBO
Section
a Central access
b as maisonette
c as split-level
0 Internal passage access
41---::--2--1
a External deck
b as maisonette
._~--!>
._~--!>
c as split-level
f) External passage access
I
0
0
0
I
f--4.00-1
Plan
I :i: I i I
ltltltltltltltl
-tltltltltltl
~tlt~tlt~
:t:•:i:
-~1~1!1~1
.JIW.-
lower level upper level
C) Maisonette with external passage access
l-8.00----j
I
g
1
0 External passage access, living area as~ 0 Arch.: Kahn (Schneider --7 refs)
140
ACCESS
Passage Access
Deck access means that the individual storeys of a block of flats
are accessed along horizontal passages, which are connected to
each other and to the entrance by one or more internal, projecting
or free-standing fixed vertical structures (stair shafts, lifts). The
flats are organised along the passages singly, on two sides or on
three sides (with an internal function zone). The passages can be
arranged internally (internal passage ---1 0) or along an external
surface (external deck ---7 f)).
They have (with corresponding detailing) the appearance of a
semi-public street ---1 p. 139. The route of this 'street' directly in
front of a (for internal passages unlit) wall of the flat produces a
tendency to a one-sided orientation of the flat.
The variety of possibilities with this access type therefore results
from the layering of multi-storey and mezzanine residential units,
which offer the possibility, by building over the access passages,
of double-aspect living on two sides of the flat.
.........
I~ n I
j-10.0 ----1 ..
I
..
I
section
rmKDD
.o D
1 00~
0 Gallery access house, split-level flats Arch.: Hirsch
Internal passage
If the access passage is inside the building, this is called an
internal passage block ---1 0. With this solution, living on one level
leads to single-sided orientation. It is therefore better to divide
residential units over two or more storeys ---7 0 (b+c)
External passage
In an external passage building, the horizontal access is along one
long side of the structure ---1 f). The open passage is not without
problems under the climatic conditions in Central Europe, and in
addition it is normally practical to place only subsidiary rooms next
to the external passage ---1 0 (a).
Living spaces on only one level are therefore particularly
suitable for flats and studios --1 G. It is better if the residential
unit extends over two or more storeys ---7 8. If the floor levels
are staggered by just half a storey in height, this produces
favourable preconditions for the overlapping of functionality
and stratification ---1 0 (c). The range of possible variations is
therefore considerably extended if the residential units are not
the same width for the entire depth of the building, but rather
overlapped with the neighbouring unit.
Horizontal access to every second storey ---7 0 (b) permits
desirable arrangements of larger residential units on different
levels, combined with small units at the entrance level. Good
solutions also result from the alternating arrangement of the
external passage zones. Symmetrical stacking of maisonettes or
a corresponding arrangement of split-level flats makes it possible
to limit the number of horizontal access points.

0
~J~".
b
d
Possible one- and two-storey arrangements of stepped flats with the open-air
terraces wholly or partially recessed into the body of the building
',,
'',,,',,,',,,_...
_
............_..,....._...,..L__-,-J
', L--lJ~--~l.--~~==~7
',
',,
'•
f) Section -> 0
0 Stepped terrace house, floor plan
e Stepped terrace house
Arch.: Schmidt + Knecht
<D Living room
® Dining area
@ Kitchen
@) Children's room
@ Bedroom
® Kitchen
(J) Terrace
® Stairs
Arch.: stucky + Menli
ACCESS
Stepped Houses
Steeply sloping sites encourage the construction of stepped
buildings. These can be stepped on one or two sides ---7 0 + 0.
The terracing can be produced by setting back residential units of
similar depth or through the arrangement of varying depths of unit,
decreasing towards the top. The stacking angle (storey height to
terrace depth) mostly corresponds to an average slope of 8-40°.
This results in generous terraces as space for relaxing, working
or for children to play, like a ground-floor flat with garden, usually
facing south, protected from the inward look of strangers but with
an unobstructed view out. Planting the parapets enhances the
residential quality.
The advantages of large open-air terraces has and does also lead
to the construction of stepped houses on level sites, sometimes
built over large spaces. The resulting unlit rooms on the lower
floors are not, however, without problems.
Trough depths
If an open view of the downhill terrace is to be prevented, then
the necessary trough depth depends on the storey height and the
horizontal repeating dimension ---7 0. More favourable conditions
regarding the possible view are produced if the terrace is recessed
into the body of the building ---7 0.
a-x
(ha- ht)
Trough depth x = step a~
a x
a= step
ha = eye height
he = storey height
ht = trough height
x = trough depth
t =terrace depth
0 Relationship of the horizontal repeating dimension a and trough depth x
0 Section --> 0
0 'WohnhOgel' (Hill House), ground floor Arch.: Frey, Schroder, Schmidt
141
ACCESS
Detached and
terraced access
Passage access
Stepped houses
Vertical access
MBO

ACCESS
Detached and
terraced access
Passage access
Stepped houses
Vertical access
MBO
CD Living space
®Dining
@Kitchen
@Bedroom
@Bath
0 One flat per floor (town villa)
1--10-12----1 f---10-12-------l
f) Two flats per floor with plan variants (key-> 0)
1-flightstalr Corner solutions
0 Three flats per floor
l-12-154
i !
I
8 Four flats per floor
e Multiple flats per floor (point houses)
142
f---8--+
ACCESS
Vertical Access
Identical and similar flats are 'stacked' one above the other over
a number of storeys and accessed via a common stairway. One
or more flats can be connected at each floor. According to the
number of flats, this is called one, two, up to four (or multiple)
flats per floor access. The stairway in this case becomes a semi-
public part of the building ---+ p. 139.
One flat per floor ---+ 0
There is access to only one flat on each floor. This is relatively
uneconomic due to the high proportion of the total floor area taken
up for access, but can often give the feeling of living in a 'stacked
terrace'. The flats are also marketed as town villas. There is a
general limitation to four floors without a lift.
Two to four flats per floor ---+ f) - 0
Two flats per floor is the most common access method, with
balanced advantages of residential quality and value for money.
The arrangement allows various (and flexible) floor plan solutions
---7 e and offers good possibilities for adaptation in every compass
direction.
Three flats per floor offers a favourable combination of residential
quality and value for money. This layout is also suitable for corner
buildings ---+ 8. Flats with differing numbers of rooms can be
arranged on each floor (e.g. 2-, 3- and 4-room flats). Four flats
per floor offers an adequate combination of residential quality
and value for money if the floor plans are designed appropriately.
In particular the so-called point houses ---+ 0 + 0 enable
differentiated orientation of flats on each floor.
Lifts are required for residential buildings of more than five full
floors---+ p. 128. If a residential building is more than 22m above
ground level, then the provisions for high-rise buildings apply ---+
p. 244.
2 flats
per floor
0 Plan variants for vertical access
3flats
per floor
f) Free-standing building with four flats per floor (point house)
4flats
per floor

0 The 18th-century house
I
Ir kitchen
room
I r-··············1
;: .... ____..
- -
l:I
j l
i i
:................:
room
room
&
20
8 The atrium house
~---------------20--------------~
L
kitchen
1
10001 10°
0
1
0 0
y oo
C) The open plan
r----.~---------15------------__,
e The flowing floor plan
FLOOR PLANS
Houses
The plan of a house is the result of a multitude of influential factors.
In addition to the local conditions like plot layout and orientation,
the current building regulations and decisions made about access,
the design of many plans is determined by spatial ideas (in their
combined effects):
-the prestigious, extroverted idea of publicity~ e
- and the introverted idea of privacy~ 0
0 Publicity 0 Privacy
....
Entrance
f) Overlapping Arch.: Ungers
The '18th-century house'~ 0
The house was formerly developed as an axially laid out one- or
two-storey plan based on feudal precedents. The free-standing
building is lit on all sides and has an architecturally prestigious
entrance and garden side; the living rooms and bedrooms (and
to some extent service areas) have mostly similar floor areas and
are distributed around and connected to a hallway arranged along
the building axis.
The atrium house ~ f)
The atrium house is one of the classic urban house types. All the
rooms of the one- or partially two-storey building are arranged
round a private atrium, which also provides access and light.
Contact with the outside world is entirely on the street side. The
atrium plan is not fully practical for houses in Northern Europe
(access from the open air or many entrances) but is an extremely
popular model concept ~ f).
The open plan ~ 0
The open plan attempts to meld together the inside and outside
spaces as far as possible through an almost complete lack of solid
(unglazed) external walls. The aspects of privacy and publicity are
(supposedly) neutralised. Minimalist and often subtly adapted
fittings increase the contrast to a total view.
The flowing floor plan ~ 0
The flowing (also: organic) floor plan is developed from an analysis
of the functional relationships between the individual areas of the
plan and is often customised for a particular user group. This leads
to differentiated zones running into each other, with interesting
views without obstruction by neutral intermediate zones.
143
FLOOR PLANS
Houses
Flats

FLOOR PLANS
Houses
Flats
·r························································
.c:
'
--~--r
;
f) Detached, one-family house, ground and first floor plans (mirrored)
I
1
"'
l._
ist
floor
l------6 -------1
Ground
floor
ist
floor
I-----4---J
Ground
floor
f) Gallery access house, terraced house (minimum dimensions)
I
1
I
}
1----·7 -----j
Staggered and angled terraced houses
144
0
N
t----7-----j
0
,
8[]
...J
BW
Rr
8 Patio house
FLOOR PLANS
Houses
Detached, one-family house ~ 0
The detached, one-family house is the adaptation of the 'middle
class house' ~ p. 143 for private house building on new estates.
Plot sizes, infrastructure and setback rules are often intended for
this type.
Because of the limited road frontage of the plot, the original plan
is mostly rotated so that the entrance is at the side. The driveway
becomes a (garage) access. The building has light on all sides, and
the architectural pretensions of the original are often preserved
only as cliches. The division of the floor plan is simple and rational.
The common area with kitchen can extend over the entire depth of
the building and receive light on three sides. The central hallway
arrangement leads to an economic division of the first floor with
little area wasted for access.
The lack of semi-public external areas due to the proximity of
neighbouring houses is often seen as a fault with this house type
and is remedied by the users with improvised offsetting measures
(fences, pergolas, awnings, carports etc.).
e Detached and non-detached house types
Terraced house and gallery access ~ 0
Terraced houses often give the feeling of living in one's own
house. Attempts are therefore often made to produce the spatial
repertoire of a detached house ~ 0.
Building in a row restricts the possibilities for direct lighting to
two fagades so that, with economic building depths of up to
12 m and widths between 4 and 8 m, the existence of a badly
lit or dark middle zone containing the stairs, subsidiary rooms
and often also the dining area becomes unavoidable. This can
be countered with intruding communal areas receiving daylight
from both fagades, which enables the different qualities of the
two sides of the house (environment, compass point etc.) to be
experienced together.
The access gallery, if it is appropriately generous, produces
a transfer of the terraced house idea into blocks of flats. The
passage projecting on one side results in reduced lighting
there and makes less depth possible for the flats. It is therefore
common to provide transverse stairs when two-storey plans are
used.
Half-open external area ~ 8 - G
When angled and staggered terraces are built on rather more
generous plots, simple alterations of the floor plan geometry
can result in various protected private and semi-public external
areas for the same or similar plan area (and room layout).
This is often achieved by moving floor plan areas together~ 8
or by moving them apart and creating external areas ~ ().
Internal rooms can be oriented toward these external patio
areas.

r----------------1~19--------------~
0 Classic plan with two flats per floor and central corridor
"'
1
~i!~-n
~
r----------------1~19--------------~
f) Grouped room floor plan
"'
lr--------------1~19--------------~
0 Central function zone
I l0 ~J lEntrance '"
D ~' I
Room
I~ Kite-
All-purpose room hen
Room
~t
0
Balcony ll ggg I
r----------12----------~
G Centre as all-purpose room
Central corridor plan ---7 0
FLOOR PLANS
Flats
The central corridor plan is the classic floor plan of late 19th-
century urban apartment blocks. The rooms are arranged along
the two fac;:ades and are separated by the (load-bearing) middle
wall and the central corridor parallel to it. All rooms can be
accessed and used separately. Common and individual areas can
be arranged on opposing sides of the fac;:ade and related to the
particular qualities of the specific side of the building.
There is natural lighting to all living areas and, when the building is
deeper, the unlit central corridor can be widened into a central hall.
The central corridor style flat is accessed either axially or sideways
through a front zone. In the age of functionally neutral flats, the
central corridor plan is still a popular and functional type.
9 Typological development from central corridor to all-purpose room
Grouped room floor plan ---7 0
The idea of the grouped room floor plan developed at the start of
the 20th century and is based on the separation of areas inside
the apartment into two 'room groups': the living areas (living room,
kitchen and dining area) and the sleeping area (bedrooms and
bathrooms).
The characteristic feature of this type of grouped room layout
is the so-called 'slipper corridor', a minimised corridor which
combines the two bedrooms and the bathroom into one spatial
unit and is separated from the living areas by a door. The spatial
separation of the two room groups is intended to produce less
disturbance within the flat with its small floor area and minimal use
of space for access.
Central function zone ---7 f)
In buildings of greater depth, the central area of the flat can be
widened to form a zone of subsidiary space and the fac;:ades can be
completely used for living areas. Bathrooms with artificial lighting
(or lit indirectly from other areas of the flat), kitchens, cupboard
and storage areas can be placed here, and appropriate passages
and spaces provide the connection to the outside rooms.
Widened central corridor ---7 8
As an alternative to ---7 f) in free-standing point houses ---7 p. 142
G. the central area of the flat can be usefully widened to form an
(all-purpose) living room as the centre of the flat. The resulting
space serves both as living room and access and is lit indirectly
through the other rooms or directly through appropriate recesses
in the fac;:ade (e.g. recessed balconies).
The all-purpose room is typologically comparable to the atrium,
and ideally forms a functionally neutral communication (and play)
area. A definite functional (use) description is, however, often
difficult.
145
FLOOR PLANS
Houses
Flats

ROOMS
Access
Kitchens
Living areas
Bathrooms
Subsidiary rooms
Garages
BS EN 81
BS EN 15644
DIN 4109
DIN 18025
MBO
I
0
~
All
1
Canopy
''
'
Lighting
Doormat
l---i'::90--t
clearance
0
House
number
.• Light switch
: Bell button
_j Name plate
Letter box
0 Entrance door, minimum
dimensions
t--
=
t--
1---- ;;;1.25 --1
f) Entrance area, minimum
dimensions
1--- i'::1.50 -------1
e Section through entrance with roof G Seating, shelf lor shopping bags etc.
i-1 i
I
I
------------
1----- ;;;1.25----j
0 Roofed entrance
1---- ;;;1.50 -----1
0 Recessed entrance
1 - - - - - - - - >4.00---------j
8 Two entrances under a common projecting roof
1 - - - - - ;;;s.oo------l
e Semi-detached houses with common entrance area
146
ROOMS
Access
Entrance
The entrance is the face of a house, where visitors gain their
first impression. A multitude of functions have to be practically
arranged and appropriately designed -7 0. If the entrance is
into the open air, it should be protected from the prevailing wind
direction if possible. If weather conditions are unfavourable, a
lobby is also recommended to prevent wind blowing through -7
p. i 36 (if the entrance is into a stair shaft, then this can provide
wind protection).
According to the MBO, front doors of flats which are accessed
by lifts must have a clear opening width of 90 em (for wheelchair
access). The door height in this case should be at least 2.i 0 m.
Door thresholds are to be avoided. The entrance door must also
comply with acoustic and fire protection requirements.
Entrance recesses should be at least 1.25 m (better 1.50 m) wide
and approx. 1.00 m deep, so that two people can wait comfortably
and protected in front of the door -7 e.
For typical entrance arrangements for single- and multi-family
houses and flat entrances see -7 0 - e.
An important element of the entrance to a block of flats is the stair
shaft with staircase and lift -7 p. 128. The layout and size of the
lifts determine the dimensions of the waiting area, which should
offer enough space for a number of people, wheelchair users or
stretcher bearers -7 0 - 0.
n, -
I= +=
I= t-
0
B=>l +=
0
r-
.,;
IIWaiting
±--
II
area
t1J81 --
D
It--
J .L
1----- ;;;4.25-----l
Q Staircase with two-flight stairs;
three flats per floor
Cil) Parallel arrangement of stairs and
lift; three flats per floor
T
Kj
"'
1.
CD Opposed arrangement of stairs and lift; two flats per floor
1----->6.00 ------j
4l} Single-flight stairs, displaced arrangement of stairs and lift

f-55 ---1-----E; 1.25 ----1 f-E; 1.15 ---t-E; 1.00--l
0 Space requirement in the entrance f) For easy removal of coats
hall for comfortable greeting
1---E; 1.30 ----1
8 Greeting
I
1,35
lf--65----j
I
1.40
lf-38--j
f-E; 1.00 ---l
1----> 2.15 ----1
0 Floor plan with movements
I~ l~
l ~ 1~
f--53---j l--30--1
1
86
j
0 Dimensions of coats and jackets, umbrellas, hats, briefcases and shoes
I
1.80
1
e Umbrella stand with watertight base, coat rack (six hooks across 1 m)
ROOMS
Access
Entrance hall
The entrance hall should be enclosed where the entrance leads
directly to the open air with an inner door (wind lobby function).
It should also offer sufficient room for a lot of moving around ~
0. This is where reception, greeting, taking off and putting
on coats, and taking leave all take place, but also offers the
first orientation for the visitor ~ 0 - 0. Countless objects
therefore have to be arranged practically yet tidily in this limited
space ~ 0, 0. The most important communal areas like the
kitchen, WC and staircase should be directly accessible from
the entrance hall.
0 Relationship between entrance hall and other areas of the house
e In relation to wind lobby
4D} Side entrance
C!) Entrance hall of a maisonette
In relation to kitchen1 WC1 cellar
stairs and bedroom
4D In relation to cellar stairs
@) Lobby in relation to office
147
ROOMS
Access
Kitchens
Living areas
Bathrooms
Subsidiary rooms
Garages

ROOMS
Access
Kitchens
Living areas
Bathrooms
Subsidiary rooms
Garages
f----5;0.90 -----1 f---5; 1.30----1 f--------5; 1.80---j
0 Corridor widths
Corridor type Little Heavy
traffic traffic
doors one side, opening into the rooms 0.90 m 1.30 m
doors both sides, opening into the rooms 1.60m
doors one side, opening into the corridor 1.40 m 1.80m
doors both sides, opening into the corridor 2.20 m
doors both sides and opposite each other, opening into the corridor 2.40m 2.60 m
f) Minimum corridor widths depending on door arrangement (separate, opposing),
opening direction and traffic volume
I m2 corridor as the node
between four rooms
e 4 m2
corridor: five rooms and
built-in cupboards
f) 5 m2
corridor: five rooms and
one bathroom
148
Children's
Kitchen
2 m2 corridor: four rooms,
otherwise as e
0 5.2 m2
corridor: six rooms with some
built-in cupboards and beds
e 4 m2
corridor: four rooms, one
bathroom and one dressing room
ROOMS
Access
Corridors
Corridors form the neutral connection between the rooms in a
house. Although they do not actually belong to the living area,
they should be laid out generously and be as spatially varied as
possible. Partial opening to living areas and natural lighting is
desirable. Adjacent rooms often seem roomier next to a more
generous corridor, because of the better arrangement of doors to
bedrooms and cupboards --7 0.
Corridor widths
The width of a corridor depends on its location, the number and
arrangement of the doors opening off it (doors one side, both
sides) and the number of people using it --7 f), The greatest
accessibility offered by various sizes and layouts of corridors to
rooms more than 2 m wide is shown in --7 8- CD. The examples
assume a minimum corridor width of 1 m, which allows two
people to pass. This width does not, however, permit the siting
of cupboards, which would be better built-in --7 0 + C!). When
arranging the doors, the location of beds and built-in cupboards
needs to be taken into account (see above).
2 m2 corridor: four rooms with
built-in cupboards and beds
G 1 m2
corridor: three large rooms at
the end of a flight of stairs
m7 m2 corridor: eight rooms with
single-flight stairs
«<!) 3 m2 corridor: six rooms
@) 5 m2 corridor: four large and two small
rooms (bathroom, changing room)
e 4 m2
corridor: eight rooms with
floors on different levels

...........1 IV
v
I/
I I I I I I I J I lt!ll I
I I I I I I I ,I, I 1~1 I
0 0 0
00
0 1
3 til;60-+----1.20/1.50
2.46/2.76
0 Dimensional requirements for kitchens
IS
T
f---;;i 40 -l
:------:
' '
' '
' '
1 /vj
I A I I
VI I I
f) Practical arrangement of working areas in the kitchen
Unit or appliance Space required
Width (em) Depth (em)
Cupboards for crockery/cutlery, foodstuffs etc.
1 base unit cupboard 30-150 60
2 broom cupboard 60 60
3 wall cupboard 30-150 ;340
Cooling and freezing appliances
4 refrigerator 60 60
5 freezer 60 60
6 chest freezer ;,;go ace. to maker
Worktops
7 small worktop between cooker and sink ;,;so 60
8 large worktop ;,;120 60
9 surface to set down appliances ;,;eo 60
10 worktop next to cooker ;,;30 60
11 worktop next to sink ;,;60 60
Cooking appliances
12 cooker with oven and extractor hood 60 60
13 built-in cooker with base unit 60-90 60
14 built-in oven with base unit 60 60
15 microwave oven 60 60
Washing-up equipment
16 single-basin sink with draining board ;,;90 60
17 double-basin sink with draining board ;,;120 60
18 dishwasher 60 60
19 washing-up unit (single-basin sink with draining "'90 60
board, base unit and dishwasher
8 Dimensions of kitchen units and appliances
ROOMS
Kitchens
The kitchen is a workplace inside the home and at the same time
an important living room and meeting point for the occupants and
their guests, with various relationships to other areas of the house.
According to the building regulations, every house or flat must
have at least one kitchen or kitchenette for cooking.
Kitchens and kitchenettes without windows are generally
undesirable and only permissible if effective ventilation is
guaranteed. As a habitable room, the kitchen must have a clear
ceiling height of at least 2.40 m and a window area (structural
dimensions) of at least 1/s of the net floor area.
Location
The location of the kitchen is ideally on the northeast or northwest,
in the immediate vicinity of the entrance area (short distances for
shopping, rubbish etc.), to the (vegetable) garden and the cellar.
There should be sensible internal room relationships with the
dining room, utility room and larder. It should ideally be possible
to see the front door, children's play area and terrace from the
kitchen~ e.
visible from the kitchen
routes
usual only in larger houses
8 Room relationships of a larger kitchen
Coordinated dimensions for kitchen furniture are provided in
~ 0. The dimensions given here do not take into account the
movement areas of the elderly or disabled so are to be considered
absolute minimum values. In general, the design of kitchens
should be based on movement areas for accessible housing
~ p. 21 ff.
The· planning of a kitchen should make possible a flowing work
sequence with sufficient space for movement, while avoiding
unnecessarily long distances. A movement area of 1.50 m (min.
1.20 m) is therefore required between the stretches of worktop.
With most kitchen units having a depth of 60 em on each side
of the movement area, this results in a minimum kitchen width
of 2.70 m (min 2.40 m) (plus approx. 6 em spacing up to the
wall).
The height of the worktops should if possible be adapted to suit
the height of the user and can vary between 85 and 95 em ~ 0.
Working while standing should be minimised through the provision
of (slide-out) worktops.
Good posture while working in the kitchen and good lighting in the
work area are general requirements ~ p. 154. In order to make
the work in the kitchen easier, a practical arrangement of work
areas is desirable ~ f).
149
ROOMS
Access
Kitchens
Living areas
Bathrooms
Subsidiary rooms
Garages
BS EN 1116
BS 6222
BS EN 60335
BS EN 14749
DIN EN 1116
MBO
see also:
Accessible
building p. 21

ROOMS
Access
Kitchens
Living areas
Bathrooms
Subsidiary rooms
Garages
BS EN 1116
BS 6222
BS EN 60335
BS EN 14749
DIN EN 1116
MBO
see also:
Accessible
building p. 21
0 One-unit ('cupboard') kitchen
(Fa. Haas und Sohn)
e Perspective view--> 0
I
0
l
e Galley (single-row) kitchen
IIII
..-----.o
@
f) U-shaped kitchen
1----4.00-----j
T
"'
~
l
f)
I
0
[ ---, 0
~~:~------- 0
~11H-H-:~~,
0
- -
f----1.875
- - !
Very small kitchen with internal
ventilation and extraction Arch.: Neuter!
G Perspective view--> f)
0 Galley (two-row) kitchen
e L-shaped kitchen with dining area
DDD
I I
ODD
C) Open kitchen continuous with the room
150
ROOMS
Kitchens
Kitchen types
The kitchen types shown here are produced from the requisite
kitchen arrangements and their floor areas. The basic types are:
Compact kitchens or kitchenettes: These are only adequate for
housekeeping requirements to a limited extent (scarcely any shelf
or cupboard space) and are really only suitable for holiday flats
and (student) apartments. Kitchenettes do not normally require
their own room and can be sited in passages or corridors --+
0-0.
Kitchen as working room: The kitchen equipment is functionally
arranged in the smallest possible area as a one-row, two-
row or U-shaped configuration, normally as a fitted kitchen.
The location of the appliances and worktops are optimised for
rational working --+ f). This results in practical working spaces
on a floor area of between 5.5 m2 and 9.5 m2 (though not suitable
for purposes other than kitchen work)--+ 0- f). The connection
to the dining area is via the corridor or hall and can be supported
with hatches etc.
G frequency of using
work area
~ main interrelationships
v with other areas
frequency of use of
routes between areas
4Ii) Practical arrangement of working space in the kitchen
Kitchen with dining area
The kitchen with dining area offers, in addition to the actual
kitchen fittings, space for a table with chairs or benches, to
be used as an additional dining area (breakfast area). The
kitchen thus becomes a lived-in room, providing improved
opportunities for conversation. Kitchens with dining areas can
be planned from approx. 10 m2
• A good arrangement is an L
shape with doors connecting to the living room and corridor:
area approx. 14 m2 --+ e.
A parallel development to the kitchen with dining area is the
'open' kitchen, where the kitchen area is open to the living
room and dining area. This can be designed as an 'American
fitted kitchen', a functional area connected to the living room,
with for example a kitchen breakfast/snack bar as divider --+
p. 154 e.
Modem kitchen designs are moving away from the fitted
kitchen. The kitchen area is seen as an ensemble of
independent objects developed in each case from formal and
functional conditions, which are grouped like pieces of furniture
in an (ideally generous) residential room. Open kitchens require
good ventilation and extraction in order not to impair the living
and dining room areas with cooking smalls. In many cases,
a mobile divider is to be recommended, for example using a
curtain --+ f).

H(cm) x W(cm) x D(cm) H(cm) x W(cm) x D(cm)
85 20-60 60 85 70-150 60
0 Single base unit f) Double base unit
H(cm) x W(cm) x D(cm)
35 20-120 35
65
100
H(cm) x W(cm) x D(cml
50 70-150 35
65
100
C) Single wall unit 8 Double wall unit
0 Built-in oven 0 Hobs
f) Extractor hood e Electric waste compactor
t) Dishwasher Cll) Pots and pans cupboard
ROOMS
Kitchens
Kitchen fittings
Numerous modular systems with fixed functions and dimensions
are available for fitting kitchens, mostly arranged along continuous
worktops. Types of kitchen unit and appliances:
- base unit with large drawers or cupboards for provisions, large
pots and pans and as shell for built-in appliances -7 0- f).
- wall cupboards for provisions and equipment or for lightweight
appliances (e.g. microwave) -7 e-o.
- tall cupboards with a height of approx. 2 m, to store provisions, as
a broom cupboard or as a shell for the installation of fridge, oven etc.
- cooker with extractor hood with 2-4 rings, electric or gas,
often split into an oven built into a tall unit and a hob built into
the worktop -7 0-0.
- sinks, normally built into the worktop with 1-2 sinks and an
integrated draining board -7 CD - Cf)
- the base unit under the sink generally houses a dishwasher
-7 0 and also a waste bin
- the refrigerator is housed under the worktop (in smaller
kitchens) or integrated into a tall cupboard at standing height,
with freezer compartment, separate freezer or in combination
with a chest freezer -7 0 - e.
86 1.24
IOr:JI4
{ I~c:Jr:JI
86 1.24
25/34
1.10 1.24
4D Sizes of built-in sinks mBuilt-in sinks
@) Small appliance and drying cupboard e Kitchen: central elements
Refrigerators
vol. (I) w(cm) d (em) h (em)
50 55 55--BO 8Q.-85
75 55 60--65 85
100 55--BO 60--65 85
125 55--BO 65-70 90-100
150 60-65 65-70 12Q.-130
200 65-75 7!J.-75 13Q.-140
250 70-80 70-75 140-150
Built in refrigerators
vol. (I) w(cm) d(cm) h (em)
50 55 50-55 80--65
75 55 55--60 85-90
100 55 60--65 90
~ Refrigerators 0 Dimensions -> 0
151
ROOMS
Access
Kitchens
Living areas
Bathrooms
Subsidiary rooms
Garages
BS EN 1116
BS 6222
BS EN 60335
BS EN 14749
DIN EN 1116

ROOMS
Access
Kitchens
Living areas
Bathrooms
Subsidiary rooms
Garages
DIN EN 1116
! !!
~~~~ fl~~~1
Q Place setting for meal: soup,
meat dish, dessert, drink
Place setting for meal: soup,
fish and meat dishes, ice cream,
sparkling, white and red wine
Roasting pan round, high Soup pot
014-16-20-24cm 024-28cm
~T
..::::::::·:-::::::::::'.:::::::.. ~ -!~1~;
;~~i::
12 ::::: ·:-::-:-:::::::
_L ;.;.,.;.:-:-:-
f) Place setting for meal: soup, fish
and meat dishes, dessert, white and
red wine
Place setting for meal: starter, fish
and meat dishes, dessert, sparkling,
white and red wine
Domed lid
~
~
c:==:::> Vegetable pot
A~~ ll.t·::::;:::·~:i::;r
Meat pot Pasta asparagus pot 0 16-20-24 em Soup pot
014-16-20-24cm 016-18-20cm
Q Stackable pans
~ peeling knife 16 em
~ vegetabteknlfe19cm
~ pointed knife 9 em
~ po!ntedknife12cm
~ boning knife 27 em
~ ham knife 15 em
~ cooking knife 15 em
~meat knife 1Bcm
~ hamknlfe20cm
~ cooking knife20cm
~ bread knlfe20cm
~ meatchopper
~ meatfork27 em
===='!!>--• sharpening steel29 em
~ cheese knife 29 em
~ gateau server SO em
~ soupspoon
~ tablefork
= : : , table knife
0=<=:> menu spoon
~ menufork
~ menuknife
tea spoon
0 24-28 em
()==- ladle
((>=- sauce ladle
f>=- skimmer
~spatula
~meatfork
~whisk
!1
11>-- mixer
li€0"'~--" balloon whisk
~'11~--- spoon whisk
Q d ladle =<P truffle cutter
Q..d pouring spoon ~ cheese plane
Q d flat spoon ~ oyster cracker
~ potato masher
~ d skimmer ~ pizza cutter
0 ..d vegetable spoon
'!!Y ___.r pan spatula
@I ___.r herringbone spatula
GJ .Lf' fried potato spatula
gateau fork <f,) ~ spaghetti spoon
vegetable/serving spoon 0 ~ risotto spoon
sauce spoon Cf;J =;:/" wok spoon
serving fork
meat fork ~.._/ fish and asparagus
steak knife 225 em spoon
(t Kitchen utensils
152
f) Coffee machine
12 piece
(
e Plates
4If) Tea and coffee set
ROOMS
Kitchens
T
~
lf---36--1
f) Multipurpose slicer; kneading, rolling
and slicing boards
G Dishes
li!!~~!i!I~!!ffi~~li~!
Bordeaux Burgundy Chianti Bordeaux, Burgundy Beaujolais Champagne
grand cru grand cru classico red Montrachet nouveau
I~~If~I~!!~!!Hit~Iff!
Sparkling Moscato Rose Riesling Bordeaux, Rheingau Burgundy
white wine grand cru Burgundy, Gorton-
white Charlemagne
~~~J[~!Jl!f3[~!j(!!Jr~!~!~1l
Alsace Sherry Apentlf Vl~~~r• T~~~Y Martini Water ISi~~le malt whisky
!~~!'.!;~~~r~·~df~Hdll~!i¥~~a:{~~~::i~~ ~!
..-..- •• ..-,..... C1..- CJ.,.... C1.,.- C1..- C1..- C1.- CIW
!I II U II !Ill U II II II U ll II II II U lllt
I> :X:> I> I> I> J:> I> J:> I>
Cognac Cognac Aquavit Berry Gin/ Herb Slone Stone Underberg
Xo V.S.O.P fruit grappa liqueurs fruit fruit
4f) Wine and spirit glasses

1-45-HO+B0/1.1O-t-6H
0 Section through kitchen with two
workplaces
1-1.20/1.50-l
C) Low-level ovens require appropriate
room for movement; provide an
extractor fan above the cooker
.................................................
Normal height for bucket sinks and
the maximum height for sinks with
usable high-level shelf
f) Correct and incorrect kitchen
lighting
Q Artificial ventilation with a fan
(A) or extractor hood (B)
f) Section through kitchen with room
for two people
r-oo-t-1.20/1.50 +ao-i
e Worktops 60 em deep
......................................a-............................
Q Reach-through hatch between
kitchen and dining area with
shelves for crockery at higher level;
can be opened from either side
::·:·::::::::::::.·:.:::. ............................................
e Normal table height of 85 em
lies between the best height for
breadmaking and the sink
(D) Extractor fan above cooker
ROOMS
Kitchens
Working processes
The layout of a kitchen should enable rational and time-saving
working. In addition to a suitable arrangement of appliances, shelves
and worktops ---7 p. 149, working processes can also be optimised
and accelerated with opposing worktops ---7 0. The kitchen can
also be used by two people at the same time in the same area if the
worktops and appliances are appropriately arranged ---7 f).
High cupboards and shelves should be suitably positioned relative
to the working areas and should be comfortable to reach ---7 0 -
0. Worktops placed at the correct height for the relevant activity
can make kitchen work considerably easier ---7 0.
Kitchens are frequently used areas of the house and should be
comfortable and easy to clean ---7 (D. It is a good idea to set window
sills at a suitable height above the worktop so that windows can
be opened without having to clear the worktop ---7 e.
The lighting should include lights fixed under the wall cupboards
---7 f). The arrangement of switches and sockets and the additional
space required for installations built into cladding, radiators and
their pipework should be taken into account in the planning and
spacing of the worktops.
1--60+1.20/1.50 +60-l
mAdjacent working
:·:·····:·····················::::::.•::::::::::.
G) Pull-out worktop intended for
seated working
· : : : : : : :
•• ......... •:: 0 • ................ •.........: : : : : : : : :
e Slide-out, swivelling table
4!} The best height for a metal plate to
enable a doorto be kicked open
between pantry and dining room
..............................
0 Correct installation of cupboard
base for comfortable cleaning and
working ~1 0 em
0 At the breakfast/snack bar
153
ROOMS
Access
Kitchens
Living areas
Bathrooms
Subsidiary rooms
Garages
BS EN 1116
BS 6222
BS EN 60335
BS EN 14749
DIN EN 1116

ROOMS
Access
Kitchens
Living areas
Bathrooms
Subsidiary rooms
Garages
0 Place setting for: soup, fish dish,
dessert, drink
f) Place setting for: soup, fish and
meat dish, ice cream, sparkling,
white and red wine
1-60 +50-1.1 0 -tt-45 +40 +-80 ---! f-60-l- 40+35+-50-1
8 Pull-out table and kitchen bar with 0 Space for drawers and doors
bar stools
1-60-+-35-f-60--145-60 1--80-145-601-35-1 I-55-I 45-50 1---90-110---1 45-50 1-90-110---1
e Space between sideboards and
tables
1-60 +-1.2-t--85-t-80 -j
~--~~-o-1
~ul§l
f) Kitchen bar, plan -> 0
l------2.0-----...j
10 f+5o-+-8o--t-so-H1o
:!181!111!:1B1I
1
II
0
• D · 1
± t I
o L____________________J
f-45--j
f----1.8--.j
C) Minimum space required for snack
and dining areas (five people)
154
0 Minimum distance of table from
wall
e Round table, 4-6 people
f--- 11 =1.8---j
f--- t2 =2.0-------l
([!) Minimum space required for snack
and dining areas (nine people)
ROOMS
Living Areas
Dining rooms
Dining rooms fulfil communication, social and prestige functions.
They form a central part of the (communal) life within a home.
The spectrum ranges from a breakfast/snack bar in the kitchen
to the occupants of the house taking meals together to dining
with guests (in a separate dining room). The requirements for the
design and spatial layout of the dining areas are correspondingly
varied. The dining table may well be considered the central point
of organisation in the home --7 p. 150 e.
Minimum requirements
The dining area should be laid out to accommodate the anticipated
size of the household. It should always offer space for at least
4 people.
Spatial layout
Dining areas are normally oriented to the south or west. A direct
connection to the kitchen (or pantry) is practical. It is good to
provide for extension (with sliding partitions etc.) for special
events. Dining areas should have access to the balcony or terrace
if possible.
If a separate breakfast area is desired, this is best placed to the
south or east of the house. If it is sited in the kitchen, it will require
additional storage and movement areas.
Equipment and space requirements
In order to be able to eat comfortably, a person needs a table area
of approx. 60 x 40 em --7 0. This results in sufficient distance
from a neighbour and room for a complete place setting. The
centre of the table should have a 20 em strip for plates, pots
and bowls.
A snack area can be formed from a pull-out table with a height
of 70-75 em --7 0. If there is room, a folding table fixed to a free-
standing cupboard is a good solution. A movement area of 80 em
is required to the left and right of the table.
A space-saving kitchen bar also has a depth of 40 em, but needs
less space because of the projection of 15 em. Special bar stools
or chairs are needed in this case --7 0 + 0. A dining area in the
kitchen needs an amount of space according to the layout, but
can often replace a dining room.
A comfortable round dining table has a diameter of min. 0.90 m,
though 1.10-1.25 m would be preferable.
A corner bench with table takes up less space than any other dining
area layout. If more than three people are to be accommodated,
the movement area increases by 80 em per seating place. Dining
table lighting should avoid glare.
large dining room for 6-24 people
width of table 55-110 em
width of places 55-70 em
additional for head of 10--20 em
table places
;;; round table
place width x no. people
3.14
e.g. for 60 em place width and 6 people
~ 60 x 6 = 1.04 m
3.14
mMinimum space required for snack
and dining areas (4-8 people)
Tables and Width Depth Area
chairs for (em) (em) (m2)
w1 w2 d1 d2 A1 A2
4 people 130 - 180 200 2.34 2.6
5 people 180 190 180 200 3.24 3.8
6 people 195 - 180 200 3.51 3.9
7 people 245 255 180 200 4.41 5.1
8 people 260 - 180 200 4.68 5.2
w1, d1,A1 without space for pulling out chair
w2, d2, A2 with space for pulling out chair
f) Minimum table sizes according to
number of people

0 Reclining chair
>-----;;; 2.80 ------<
e Corner balcony
f) Garden table
,___;:; 1.80 ----l
0 Open balcony
r----5; 3.50----1----"= 3.50-------l
(:) Recessed balcony (loggia)
e Balconies offset by stepping f) Balconies with angular offset
;;i4 ~12
H
1
lllllllllllllf
;;;
0
I'JI
1 :512
e Dimensions of railings
1-- 3.50 -----11-1.50 -1
f) Balcony adjacent to interior dining area
Glazed loggia as Reinforced concrete precast elerr Steel balcony with wooden pavin!
th~:~rm.::ol c::tnr;::onA thArm::.llv ~An~u::.tArl with rmttAr frnnt mnnnlt>rl n::.r:mpf
4li) Possible structural details for balconies
ROOMS
Living Areas
Open-air areas
The attractiveness of housing can be considerably enhanced
through open-air areas (balconies, loggias and terraces) adjoining
the rooms. In the summer these offer a desirable extension of living
space for relaxing, lounging, sleeping, reading and eating, and can
also offer an extended working area or an easily supervised open-
air play area for children. Balconies, loggias and terraces are a
part of the living areas, for which they are normally calculated as
25-50% ~housing area regulation, p. 136.
They generally have a spatial relationship to living and working
areas and dining rooms (with more than one open area, this can
also include bedrooms, kitchens etc.). Good orientation (compass
direction, view), sufficient size and protection from overlooking,
noise and weather (wind, rain, strong sunshine) are decisive for
the quality of open areas.
The space required for the parapet (and its planting) has to be
included in the functionally required depth.
Corner balconies ~ 8 offer privacy and wind protection, and
are more comfortable than open balconies ~ 0. Open balconies
should therefore be protected on the weather side. Recessed
balconies (loggias) ~ 0 enlarge the external wall area of the
adjoining rooms (causing heat loss) but offer the nearest to an
'open-air room'. From plan stage, offset balconies provide
excellent protection against overlooking and wind~ 0- f) .
Living
area
..........,
:
>-~
c: •
~ l
en l
-·-····-·j
4) Possible relationships of rooms to open areas
C!) Pram, reclining chairs
~aiEl 0
""
1
A
.,/"
BOBIB
I
0
.,;
1
B 1----4.20-----1
. , A= 7.0 m2 balcony for 3-4 people
B = 9.0 m2 balcony for 5-6 people
l---1.80--j
=:::::::J/Ic::::;:::: '0
I
I
I
o:
o:
"'
+
..l
G) Sitting group with table
i/11
II IC I D I~
DOD l
A f---4.20-l
I/'II
~~BflBif
B 4.80
4D A= 6.0 m2 balcony for 1-2 people
B = 10 m2 balcony for 3-4 people
155
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Kitchens
Living areas
Bathrooms
Subsidiary rooms
Garages

ROOMS
Access
Kitchens
Living areas
Bathrooms
Subsidiary rooms
Garages
0 Solartown house, conservatory on two storeys --> 0 + 0
f) Projecting conservatory
Q External corner conservatory
0 Recessed conservatory
Arch.: Planungsteam LOG
8 Corner conservatory
e Conservatory covering entire
building width
f) Transverse projecting conservatory
Plan
(j) Conservatory
@Gallery
®Swimming pool
@Terrace
@Kitchen
® Dining room
(f) Living room
e Plan--.0 Arch.: Helm+ Muller Architektur GmbH
156
ROOMS
Living Areas
Conservatories
Conservatories project from living rooms with their large glazing
areas. Originally they were heated by sunshine, naturally ventilated
---> 'ii) - G) and served as climatic buffer zones and to preserve
plants in the cold part of the year.
Nowadays conservatories are mostly seen as an extension of living
space, and used particularly in the spring and autumn. If equipped
with appropriate additional heating and automatic ventilation, they
can accommodate sub-tropical plants. In many cases they are part
of the heated building volume with corresponding requirements
for their outer envelope.
t) Natural shade
CD) Ventilation and extraction 4D External sun shades
Plans
<D Corridor
® Wind lobby
® Hall
@ Living room
® Dining room
® Double garage
(f) Kitchen
® Utility room
® Children's room
® Energy greenhouse
® Storage surface
@ Bedroom
@ Balcony
Cf) Ground floor of solar town house--. 0 + 0
@ First floor--> 0 + 0 Arch.: Planungsteam LOG

I
---~
0
1---- ;;;3.60 ------i
0 Flexibly functional individual room (movement area suitable for a wheelchair)
Morning sun
I
f) (Parents') bedroom with walk-in cupboard extension
8 Small bedroom and small twin bedroom
8 Twin bedroom (can be partitioned)
I-- ;;; 2.00 ----j 1----- ;;; 3.30 ----1
9 Small individual area with shower room and cupboard zone
0
.,;
/Ill
1
ROOMS
Living Areas
Living areas are categorised into those with shared rooms (living
and dining rooms, kitchens) and individual (private) rooms for one
or two people (parents' (bed)room, children's room, guest room).
This differentiation leads to the conventional room layouts,
particularly in commercial house building.
But the way living areas are actually used is much more complex
and varied. Bedrooms today are often used for work, play and
relaxation and thus have some of the functions of shared rooms.
This makes the fitting out of an individual room within a house as
a small apartment worth considering.
---7 0: an individual room which can be used for a flexible range
of functions. It has an area of approx. 13m2, including movement
areas suitable for a wheelchair and possible extension onto an
open balcony.
---7 f) - 8: bedrooms with minimal space of approx. 13 m2 (as
parents' room or twin bedroom) and approx. 8 m2 (single room).
These would normally be aligned to east or southeast (parents)
or south to west (children) and separated from the living room in
another part of the home.
---7 0: the options for a generous twin bedroom of 16.5 m2
, which
could be partitioned (for example, for children as they grow up).
---7 0: a small, independent individual area with shower room and
separate cupboard zone.
The conventional living room as a shared residential room and
prestigious face of the house for visitors is increasingly developing
into a multi-functional communications zone, which has to serve
the needs of residents, but also guests and visitors ---7 e-o.
n
______~_g_~________u
ODD
I I
ODD
I
I
1--------a.oo,---------t
e All-purpose room with cloakroom, kitchen. and eating and living areas
...
CJ I I
itJ!
DLlD
I I 0 i.,+-:~~~--+-1
ODD
IXIXIXI IL//:::rl
8.00
8 Classic living room with dining area
I
0
I I
157
ROOMS
Access
Kitchens
Living areas
Bathrooms
Subsidiary rooms
Garages
BS 8300
DD 266
DIN 18025
MBO
see also: Design
basics p.135

ROOMS
Access
Kitchens
Living areas
Bathrooms
Subsidiary rooms
Garages
0 Sheepskin roll-up futon, the
Japanese form of bed
9 Sofa bed: duvet and pillows can be
rolled up during the daytime and
zipped into the covers
8 High bed with deep drawers and
slide-out board on top, with covers
G) Armchair bed (fold-out); separate
container required for bedding
Fold-up bed on rollers for one or
two people, can be rolled into a
cupboard during the daytime
158
T
1
f) Camp bed with canvas cover, can
be folded up and used as a bench
0 As before, but with compartment
under the mattress to store the
bedding during the day
(!) Cupboard-bed with low cupboard for
clothes, suitable for very small rooms,
ship's cabins, studio rooms etc.
1.90---j
0 Sofa bed (fold-out)
f- 72 -+-- 68 -----1
T
73
1
4li) Wall cupboard for roller
bed with narrow door
opening
Low-level steel tubular bed
with quilt or woollen blankets
0 Sofa with divan behind the
inclined backrests
ROOMS
Living Areas
e Classic wooden bed with footboard
and headboard
e Sofa bed with pull-out
mattress unit
4D Three-level bunks for dormobiles, @) Pullman bed for sitting and sleeping
in vehicle; backrest folds up to form
second bed
weekend houses and children's rooms,
space required 0.338 rn" per bed
4) Frankfurt bed (folds away
sideways)
(IBIIII) s}
,
..........~ ,..........'l
J ~ I :
I ,
.,------2.10------i<
' i; !21.00
'' '
:: :
I ' '
~--·----~ ~-------j
~ Roller beds can stand in
front of closed cupboard
door
e Frankiurt bed (folds away vertically),
two adjacent or as double bed
'''I
'
'
'' '
..___________ ....
1
fll) With swivelling and folding
beds, the wall cupboard stays open
at night

0
l?="'==tt::--"
~,,
I
/
/ 9-10
.,/ suits
33 underwear
Free-standing wardrobe and linen
cupboard: plan, sections
>--1.00_____,
f-35-1-65--1
I
0
I
Built-in double wardrobe,
saving cost and space
e Built-in wall units, with wardrobes
both sides
1
+
g
1
internal finish:
wallpaper or painted
f) Built-in wardrobe and
linen cupboard with upper
compartment
f - - 1 . 5 0 -
t--55--+-65-+-30-l
Movable wardrobe between two
rooms
2.00
0 Wardrobe/dressing room
Wardrobes and linen cupboards
Contents (example):
For men
8 suits
6 coats
8 jackets
12 pairs trousers
20 shirts
15 T-shirts
12 jumpers
4 pairs pyjamas
8 pairs shoes
2 hats
Sundry items
6 sheets
6 duvet covers
12 pillows and cases
8 bath towels
8 hand towels
Details and fitting out
For women
6 suits
10 coats
5 jackets
20 dresses
15 skirts
15 blouses
20 tops
15 jumpers
15 pairs trousers/leggings
6 pyjamas/nightdresses
10 pairs shoes
4 hats
ROOMS
Living Areas
Wardrobes and linen cupboards are an essential part of fitting out
a home. They serve to store (larger) items of clothing, linen, shoes
and suitcases, and are normally situated in the bedroom.
The essential elements of a wardrobe are a drawer unit, a
hanging rail and additional shelves. It can be a free-standing
wardrobe -7 0. a built-in wardrobe (wall cupboard, single or
double wardrobe constructions) -7 f)- 0 or in the form of a walk-
in wardrobe or dressing room -7 0 -e.
Built-in wardrobe wall units -7 0 are useful as partitions between
bedrooms. In small rooms space can be optimally used with
cupboards built into wall niches -7 0 with continuous flooring
(and sliding doors).
When determining a house's layout, appropriate space should be
planned for. Free-standing (movable) wardrobes are suitable for
fitting out rented flats, and built-in wardrobes are often desired in
owner-occupied houses and flats.
When wardrobes are sited along external walls, care should be
taken that the thermal insulation is adequate and that ventilation
is provided. Walk-in wardrobes also require appropriate
ventilation -7 0.
0 Built-in cupboard and walk-in
wardrobe
e Practical heights for free-standing
cupboards
159
ROOMS
Access
Kitchens
Living areas
Bathrooms
Subsidiary rooms
Garages
see also: Store
rooms p. 162

ROOMS
Access
Kitchens
Living areas
Bathrooms
Subsidiary rooms
Garages
MBO
see also: Sound
insulation p. 477
~]
1.04
1.87'
Warm water Warm water Warm water Duration of use
required for: quantity (I) temperature ("C) (approx. min)
full bath 140-160 40 15
sitting bath 40 40 5
footbath 25 40 5
shower 40-75 40 6
0 Bathtubs and warm water requirement. Shorter tubs reduce the quantities
(guideline values)
Equipment Area required
Width(cm) Depth (em)
Washbasins, hand basins and bidets
1. single washbasin ""60 g55
2. double washbasin ""120 "'55
3. built-in vanity unit with one washbasin and cupboard ""70 ~60
underneath
4. built-in vanity unit with two washbasins and cupboard ""140 ""60
underneath
5. hand basin ""45 ""35
6. bidet, floor-standing or wall-hanging 40 60
Tubs
7. bathtub ""170 ""75
B. shower tray$ ~80 "'so·
WCs and urinals
9. we with wall installation or pressure flush 40 75
10. we without cistern (with cistern installed in wall) 40 60
11. urinal 40 40
Laundry equipment
12. washing machine 40-60 60
13. washer/dryer 60 60
Bathroom furniture according to ""40
14. low cupboards, wall cupboards, high cupboards manufacturer
• for shower trays, width= 90 also 75 em
f) Space required for items in bathroom and WC
Arrangement Measurements MD' MiU·
6T ~M,---4 f-----.-Ma-------1 M, 1200 1050
Dim
M, 2100 1900
1' lr ·lim M, 1350 1200
MM1 M 450 400
lm_
~MM!
~M, MM 675 600
m I MM1 750 575
MM2 675 500
M1 MM1 M 450 400
1M; IMMI
GJL MM 675 600
L@L Jll@L M, 450 400
MM1 600 525
I[ 1--M3--+Mtl M 450 400
~ ~ ~2
MM 675 600
M, 450 400
M
~1
M, 550 500
M, 1100 1000
*MD =Average, recommended dimension M, 750 700
**Mi =Absolute minimum dimension M, 950 900
e Centre-line and wall spacing for sanitary fittings
160
ROOMS
Bathrooms
A bathroom is defined as an independent room with bath/shower
and toilet and, according to building regulations, belongs to the
minimum equipment of a flat or house. In larger houses, bath
and we should be in separate rooms, or an additional we (guest
We) should be provided. The bathroom should be oriented to
the north, and if possible have natural ventilation and lighting
(otherwise provide effective mechanical ventilation according to
DIN 18017-3). The bathroom is normally next to the bedroom --7
e -0. e - ([!), although it is also often convenient for technical
reasons to place bath and kitchen (or we and kitchen) on a
common installation shaft --7 e - o.
ljl!l!"' l!l---·1 gents' room I· --....fJ
l!J l1J'·,,,jr-la-d-ie-s'_r_o-om--,~ ,./lJ
~~,~~~~~~if(
stairs
G Relationships of rooms to the bathroom
0 Bathroom between the bedrooms,
we accessible from corridor
0 Kitchen, bathroom and WC
on one installation wall
0 Bathroom off an internal corridor
Bathroom on corridor between living
room and the three bedrooms
e Kitchen, bathroom and WC
on one Installation wall
4Ii} Typical bathroom in terraced house

j---;;, 90--!15!--1,00 -j
0 Space requirements in bathroom
(guideline values).
T
"'
1
;;:;
..L
....
I
"'
"'
1
f-3Q-1--105 ---1 f---50 -j
f) In the shower At the washbasin
f-i'; 1.00-l
c::::J 0
C) we with washbasin
f-----i'; 1.60--l
20 20
f-+-40-f-t-80-----1
0 Space required for shower
l--i'; 2.35------l
20 20 20
f---75 ---t+-£0-t-+40-H
I
oo6
0
":
1
8 Space required for bathtub
f--1.10--1
Room between bath and wall
~1.70 ---t-30--1
Bathing and sitting
f--i'; 1.15---1
e we with handbasin
f-----i'; 1.60--j
20 20
1-+-40-f-t-80---!
0 Shower room with washing machine
> 2.70
20 20
~1.70 60---f-1
T J[· ]Jo
"'
"l
"''
oco c
1
e Full bath
ROOMS
Bathrooms
Details and fitting out
The former standard valid for movement areas in bathrooms was
withdrawn without replacement in 2007, because it inadequately
considered the requirements of disabled people. The dimensions
given here should therefore be considered as absolute minimums.
The movement areas in bathrooms should generally be based
on the 'Accessible building' standard --> 4D --> p. 21 ff.
The basic bathroom categories are: (guest) WCs with we and
washbasin --> 0 - 0, shower rooms with shower and basin -->
0- 0, bathrooms with bath, washbasin and we --j 0- e. full
bathrooms with bath, shower, washbasin and we --j (!!).
Because of the high humidity and resulting condensation, the
surfaces must be easy to clean. Wall and ceiling plaster sh.ould
be able to absorb and release enough moisture. Floor coverings
should be sufficiently slip-resistant. If there is no laundry room,
the bathroom must be designed with space and connections for a
washing machine, washer/dryer and laundry basket.
One earthed socket is to be provided (next to the mirror).
In addition, the following should be included in the design of
bathrooms and wes: cupboards for towels and cleaning materials,
lockable medicine cabinet, towel rail (perhaps with additional
heating), hand grips above the bath.
ll. ll
~g
D
c::::J 0
0
0
OCD
C) Functional split of the bathroom Into separate rooms
!-------> 3.15-------j
20 20 20
f---80 ---1-if-40 -H-60-+t---75-j
4I!) Full bathroom with space for washing machine
~1.50 --t-90--f-55--rr
I
"'
.,.
N
~II
1
"OJo gi
D ,-----------------::;-0 +
_____: : I
l 1.50x1.50 !OJ l
! . g
.....-~------~---------------! ~±
j---------~)3~-+-1~
G Accessible bathroom with showering space
161
ROOMS
Access
Kitchens
Living areas
Bathrooms
Subsidiary rooms
Garages
see also:
Accessible
building p. 21
Sound insulation
p. 477

ROOMS
Access
Kitchens
Living areas
Bathrooms
Subsidiary
rooms
Garages
MBO
0 Storeroom on Internal corridor
e Storage and cupboard spaces
I s~.2s
I
single sided
1
so 1
75
1
so 1
1.7S
double sided
9 Larders -> () - @)
0 Larder next to cupboard
e Spacious larder
162
f) Storage spaces in the corridor
and bedrooms
shoe
~--~cupboard
e Storeroom and shoe cupboard
in the entrance area
~
,so, 7S ,so
1.75
U shape
Q Corner larder
-
so 1
75-
1.2s
Lshape
0 Larder using space next to bath
ROOMS
Subsidiary Rooms
Storerooms
Storerooms are used for keeping and storing cleaning equipment,
tools, cleaning agents, shopping baskets, and bulky items like
bags, suitcases, washing baskets and stepladders. Sufficiently
large storerooms, particularly in flats, make a considerable
contribution to comfort. The building regulations require that
every flat or house be provided with a sufficiently large
storeroom.
In addition to cellar and attic areas in a property, storage space
should therefore be provided within a flat of E;;1 m2
with a clear
width of 75 em. In larger flats, 2% of the floor area should be
provided as storage space (split into many small areas is also
acceptable). It is practical to locate a part of this storage area near
the kitchen.
Storage rooms can be in the form of niches (for built-in cupboards)
or box rooms ~ 0 - (). Doors to storerooms should open
outward for reasons of space. The light inside the room should be
operated by a contact switch by the door. Good ventilation should
be provided.
Larder, pantry
When designing a flat or house, a larder (or pantry) should be
installed in addition to the general provision of storage space,
despite the additional space required, with shelves to the ceiling.
This is for the storage of supplies of food and drink, as well as
fresh foodstuffs which keep relatively well; space can thus be
saved space in the refrigerator. Basic layouts of larders~ 8. It
is most practical when the larder is next to the kitchen. It should
be cool, ventilated and protected from direct sunlight~()- G). If
required, a socket for a freezer should be provided, and possibly
also a wine cooler.
dining
area
..::::::::!1,---=--..Y
4li> Larder next to eating area
0 As before, next to WC
4D Larder with high-level window
G Larder in lobby to kitchen

t------- 1.00-----;
0 Space required for ironing while
seated
I
95
'<
~·)
t) Ironing machine
0 Space required for clothes horse
f) U-shaped laundry/utility room
f-60--/--6o-+-6o--/--69?!
@ r----l ~
~
e Two-lane laundry/utility room
1--45---t
f) Built-In cupboard for ironing
board
rr~
~'- ~ ~-~
G Sewing machine
0 Scheme of relationships of
rooms to the laundry/utility room
T
t
"!
+
0
I
Equipment and
appliances
<D Dirty washing
(chute)
@Washbasin
®Washing machine
®Washer/dryer
@ Ironing machine
@Work top
(j) Wall cupboard
@Tall cupboard
Width (em) Better
automatic washing 60 60
machine and washer/
dryer above each other
washbasin with water 60 60
heater
laundry basket 50 60
washing worktop 60 120
ironing machine approx. 100 100
cupboard space for 50 60
minor equipment
total approx. 380 460
f) Equipment and space required
ROOMS
Subsidiary Rooms
Laundry/utility rooms
Laundry/utility rooms are used to carry out domestic work like
washing and drying clothes, ironing and sewing. They can also be
storage rooms for small items of equipment, detergents, cleaning
agents and polishes, buckets and vacuum cleaners, tools and
ladders. The provision of a laundry/utility room is particularly
useful in flats, despite the additional space required.
These rooms are best placed to the northeast, next to or easily
accessible from the kitchen ~ 8 - 61. In this way, tasks can be
combined and carried out by one person. In detached houses,
direct access should be provided to the garden (for drying laundry).
In the design of utility rooms, a comfortable and healthy
arrangement of appliances is important: An ironing board used
in the standing position requires a different height to one that is
used seated ~ 0 - 0. A fully adjustable ironing board is ideal.
A worktop of 1.20 m width should be provided to deal with the
washing. Good uniform lighting is required in the working area of
the laundry/utility room (average light intensity~ 350 lx).
4D) Next to the kitchen, accessible
from the corridor
4!} Kitchen-eating area-laundry/utility
room
at Kitchen-eating area-laundry/utility
room
CD Accessible from the kitchen
G) Next to eating area
(E) One-room kitchen and laundry/
utility room
163
ROOMS
Access
Kitchens
Living areas
Bathrooms
Subsidiary
rooms
Garages

ROOMS
Access
Kitchens
Living areas
Bathrooms
Subsidiary
rooms
Garages
"'
c
'" "'
·:;;;
'iii c
"'
CJ)
CJ)
0
·:;;; c c
"' 2
'5'
"'
·:;;;
~ -"
"' "" -o X
.~
"
.c
" a. 0 .c
lD :;::: a: (/) lD :;:::
I I I T I
R.
"' "' (;j "'
"' "' "' "'
1 1 1 1
f-75 -1 f-75 -1 1-87-l 1-- w---1 l--9--j
0 Bottles
T
50
1
~
~
~
97 l--97-----1
f) Example of stacking in storage
units--.0
f) Wine rack/breeze block
I
"'
"l
1
T
54
1
l---50---j f-50-1
G Wine rack of quanied natural stone 9 Rack heights --> e
~30
'y
12
)-1m2
64 bottles 16'-18'C
r
Red wine
10'-13'C
White wine
8'-10'C
Rose or
1.48
dessert wine
1
6'C
Sparkling
wine
0 Clay tubes and ornamental blocks 0 Air-conditioned cupboard for wine
GF
Cellar
4!} Vaulted cellar
164
@) Plan---1$
1
165
19
21 5
24
Length
25om
grid
ROOMS
Subsidiary Rooms
Wine cellars
Wine cellars should if possible be below ground on all sides. The
location should be nextto the house; the north side is recommended.
Ideal conditions are 70% humidity, 10-12 ac. Wines age quicker
with every degree above 12 °C. (Temperatures of 1-1 0 oc do not
damage wine.) Such requirements can be met through the use
of air conditioning, or an air-conditioned cupboard or door ---1 $.
When air conditioning is used, the ceiling and walls should be
insulated. A sealed door (2.01 x 0.63 m) of coated and insulated
steel plate should be installed. A porous, breathing floor, like sand
or unglazed bricks, and brick walls provide natural humidity.
The room ventilation has to be regulated flexibly according to
climate and time of year.
Lighting in a wine cellar should be as low as possible and only
switched on when required. Storage shelves should be of porous,
breathing materials, e.g. breeze block, quarried natural stone,
sand-lime blocks or Hydroton expanded clay elements. This
regulates the humidity and stabilises the temperature. A natural
microclimate is created in the room ---j e- f).
On account of the temperature graduation, sparkling wines should
be stored near the floor, white wines in the middle and red wines
as high as possible ---1 0 +G).
l-365-----1
e Sand-lime rack blocks
VIew
I-- 1.0 ----1
1-- 80 --4
Open door
Ground plan
4Ii} Air-conditioned door for wine
~~ .'.' .'
165 H---- 1.80------+1165
5.50
e Installed in a cellar
6 litre bottles per stone
1--- 1.095
-------1
8 Inspection rack--> 0
Room temperature
18
Red Burgundy
~hJ~eJauJ~~~dy 14
~h~~~lemperature iO
Dry while wines
Champagne
Fridge temperature 6
Best red wines,
particularly Burgundy
16 Chianti, Zinfade!,
C5tes du RhOne
Ordinaires
12 Lighter red wines
e. g, Beaujolais
RosS, dessert wines
Lambrusco
Sweet white wines
Sparkling wines general
G Storage temperatures for wines
Cellar
....., Supply
~ Plan---1Q)
Length=
25 em gird
1

0 Space required for bicycles, prams, pushchairs, bicycle trailers, tricycles,
mopeds etc.
I
.
0
"'
N
l
f) Section -> 0
0
"'
.,;
Arrangement
at alternative
Lattice girder
J
T '-
. .
Bicycle
stands
7" ;--.. ''- ~
~It jiiF IF
II'- 1-- r--
f---1.20--l
Cladding plates
Steel tubular construction
I I I I I
I I I I I I
}___t________l_______ j _______ t______T _______ t__
~ Bicycle stands §
f---r"--------r------,-------r------...AJt... ______ T __
: : : : l j_ :
: : : : : :
1-l__!!!heilli9ruht!;,s______6.00-----------l
e Bicycle/pram room for about 20 vehicles (example)
ROOMS
Subsidiary Rooms
Communal storerooms
In addition to the storerooms or storage spaces in each flat,
for residential buildings in building classes 3-5, the building
regulations require an easily accessible (communal) storeroom
for prams, pushchairs and bicycles. Corresponding areas should
also be provided in other residential buildings and detached
houses.
For the design of these rooms, it can be assumed that at
least one vehicle per occupant (including children) has to be
accommodated. In addition to bicycles, prams and pushchairs,
it is also necessary to consider mopeds, tricycles, trailers etc.
-->0.
The rooms should if possible be located at street level, be lockable
and equipped with hooks and bicycle stands to secure the stored
vehicles. They can be laid out as storerooms inside the building (with
access to the entrance) or as separate bicycle sheds --> f) - 8.
A sufficient number of additional bicycle stands should be provided
in the open air, particularly if the storeroom has been situated in the
cellar.
Cellar
The storage space provided for each flat normally consists of
a storeroom inside the flat --> p. 162, and an additional space
outside the flat. This is normally provided as a cellar compartment
--> 0-e, but can also be provided inexpensively as a parking shed
in the grounds. Cellar storerooms should be dry and well ventilated.
Natural lighting is to be recommended. Appropriate detailing of the
window opening can optimise the light entering --> 0.
0
"i
"'
I
e Section -> 4:}
T
0
"l
I
System construction of
galvanised metal mesh
Light shaft Light entry
(precast)
1-----3.501-------j
0 Cellar compartment in a residential building (example)
165
ROOMS
Access
Kitchens
Living areas
Bathrooms
Subsidiary
rooms
Garages
MBO
see also:
Storerooms
p.162

ROOMS
Access
Kitchens
Living areas
Bathrooms
Subsidiary rooms
Garages .
Office/
library
Garage/
pavilion
......~-~~ ....
/' ')
..-.,:..-·/
Residential
building
Garden
,.···-..
~~:~:"
(_.... ·· ..
.......... _ ,.<~" /
Q House with double garage at the front (can also be used as a garden pavilion)
Arch.: Studio Paretaia
f) Relationship between the garage and other areas of the house
0 Garage next to or in a detached
house
Road
0 Garage at the back of the plot
166
e Garages next to or in terraced
houses
Terraced houses
Road
Greened carports
0 Communal parking spaces
ROOMS
Garages and Carports
According to the building regulations, the necessary parking spaces
must be provided in the grounds of the residential building itself or
in other suitable grounds at a reasonable distance where it is legal
to park. The parking spaces are often provided as single or double
garages or car parks, free-standing or attached to the building.
Space requirement ~ 0 - 0. A reduction in the parking area is
possible for private houses. The tendency of modern cars to get
larger (including in height} should be taken into account.
In addition to garages, roofed-over parking places (carports)
represent a cheaper, more beneficial in terms of building physics
(no condensation in cold cars in the winter!) and space-saving
possibility for protecting cars adequately from the weather (a close
wall on the weather side is a good idea). A combination with enclosed
storerooms (for bicycles etc.) is to be recommended ~ @. Carports
are particularly suitable for communal parking places ~ 0.
Examples of the layout and design of parking places for cars in
connection with residential buildings ~ 0- f).
0
I
0
0
t
0
.,;
1
0
T
0
0
<'i
All
_I_
I
0
0
.,;
All
1
T
0
"
l--2.50-3.00-l
Section-+0
~
f--3.80'----l *Suitable for
I--2.5Q-3.00-I wheel chairs
Single garage
1--~5.00-{
Carport for two cars and possibly
bicycles
T
0
N
C'i
All
I
e
I
0
0
~
"l
"'
1
4D
0
0
'!i
All
1
ll::~ ~I
l--5.00-6.00 ---!
Section~ (!)
l--5.00-6.00 ---!
Double garage
'Suitable for 1--3.50'-l
wheel chairs 1-;;; 2
_
75
-+-- ;;;2
_
75
__,
4l} Carport as communal parking
place

Ground floor plan
Section A-A
0 Student residence in Halle/Saale
1st floor plan
Section A-A
Arch.: Gemot Schulz
in: Hillebrand!+ Schulz, Cologne
STUDENT RESIDENCES
General Design Notes
Halls of residence are normally provided near colleges and
universities for students and are normally built and operated in
various architectural forms (20-30 units in courtyard layout or
groups of open structures, large buildings with 80 or more units).
They are used for the accommodation of students for the duration
of their course. The size and equipping of the rooms is often
very limited. Options such as single rooms, (double) flats and flat
sharing groups have proved successful. The arrangement and
design of the communal areas within and around the residences
are decisive for their acceptance.
Requirements
Student flats are 'living places' and not considered as residential
homes in the sense of the building regulations. The general
requirements of the building regulations essentially concern
residential rooms with minimum requirements for floor area (8 m2),
ceiling height (2.40 m), orientation, ventilation and lighting (window
area Ys of the room area), accessibility requirements (i.e. for disabled
people) and escape routes (two independent escape routes from
each floor, one of which is a legally essential stairway). The state
guidelines for student residences set recommended dimensions
for living places (approx. 12 m2
for single rooms and approx. 16
m2
for flats). In addition to this, a certain area will be required for
communal use.
Forms of living
These can be categorised into flat sharing -> f) - 0 and
individual rooms-> e- 0.
When flats are shared, the communal area is of more importance,
similar to a home. A group of rooms (4-8) with some functions
transferred to the communal area (kitchen, bathroom) has a
linear -> f) or central -> 8 type of layout. Single rooms located
along a corridor with communal bathroom and kitchen form the
classic (but anonymous) form of student residence. What has
proved successful is the further development of the single room
as flat-> e (room with shower room and perhaps kitchenette) and
the double flat -> 0 - 0 (two rooms with communal kitchen and
bath). This latter form of residence can be used very flexibly by
singles and also by couples (with child).
1-1.50-lt-1.50-t-t-1 .50-tt-1.50-t 1-1.50-tt-2.20--tt-1.50 -t
T
~
t
f) Student residence in Garchlng Arch.: Fink und Jocher, Munich :5
Bathroom
Single
room 12m2
Single
room 12m2
Communal kitchen
Single
room 12m2
Shared flat with single rooms, communal bathrooms and central communal
kitchen
oi
1 1---3.10--++--- 3.10 --j
G Flat
f-- 2.60 ---tt- 2.60 -t
9 Double flat
--t-2.60--+1.90-f-2.60--f+--2.60--+1.90-f-2.60--f-
0 Double flat with communal bathroom, kitchen and cupboard zone
167
STUDENT
RESIDENCES
'!180
State guidelines
for student
residences

ELDERLY
PEOPLE'S AC-
COMMODATION
Retirement flats
Nursing and
care homes
Examples
Private
area
Public 1
area 1
i
I
I
I
I
L __ --------------------- --------------------
0 Relationship diagram
f) Functions of a centre for the elderly
8 One-person retirement flat, 40 m2
f---3,75---+--3.75----l
0 Two person retirement flat, 58 m2
f) Retirement flats
168
-l--2.50-f-1..75+-2.51---l
0 Two-person retirement flat, 55.5 m2
ELDERLY PEOPLE'S ACCOMMODATION
Retirement Flats
Accommodation for elderly people
A retirement flat 4 8 - 0 is a self-contained flat which takes
the needs of elderly people into account, so that they can live
as independently as possible and not in an old people's home.
Such housing is usually scattered around residential areas, with
a density of 2-10%. One-person flat 25-35 m2, two-person
flat 45-55 m2 with weather-protected balconies ~3m2
, min. depth
1.40 m, balcony door without threshold.
Assisted flats for the elderly (~20 m2 per flat) are in a building,
supplemented by communal rooms with tea kitchen. Convenient
if sited in the vicinity of a care home for the elderly with facilities
for dining, recreation, relaxation and therapy. Features a nursing
support point with ward bath, therapeutic work room, central
washing-up kitchen and cleaning room. One car parking space per
5-8 occupants. Heating 2% above normal. Support of outpatient
services for the elderly.
Home for the elderly with residential living and care facilities.
According to the law concerning such homes, there are stringent
regulations on planning, licensing and operation. The large
ancillary areas mean that an economic size is about 120 places
with the provision of care, function and therapy rooms. There is
an integrated care department for short-term care. General fitting
out: stair steps 16/30 em without underlay, colour-highlighted
step edges and handrails on both sides, also in the corridors. Lifts
for moving patients on stretchers or in folding chairs. Accessible
building standard applies. Location: as near as possible to town or
village infrastructure and public transport.
Day centres for the elderly: function as meeting points and for
outpatient care for independently living elderly people. Approx.
1600 elderly citizens per day centre. With meeting room (can be
divided) up to 120m2
, service and consulting room 20m2, rooms
for movement and occupational therapies, changing rooms, group
rooms, WCs, tea kitchen, bowling alley.
e Centre for the elderly in Frauensteinmatte, Zug Arch.: Graber Pulver

I [] D D
0 0
DO
g C2JC2]
~tlO
co
1
0
l--1.55--li--1.90--++-1.90--IH .55--j
10 24 10
0 One-bed care room
H .63-1-1.50-++------3.50---1
11 24
C) One-bed care room
0 Section -> Q
f-1.55-#--1.80--t+-1.80-H-1.5!H
10 24 10
f) Two-bed care room
I
"'
I
lO
<>i
~± lliiiililiill..
8 Two-bed care room
~I
Nursing and Care Homes
Nursing and care homes for the elderly
These provide nursing, support and care for chronically ill and
other vulnerable elderly people. Activating therapy is intended to
exercise, maintain and rehabilitate failing powers via medical and
care-related assistance. There is a clear separation of residential
and operational areas --'; e.
Guideline dimensions: residential = 50% individual rooms = 18 m2
single rooms, 20 m2
double rooms --'1 0 -- 0. If the bedroom is
separate= 7m2
single, 12m2
double room. The entrance should
if possible have a minimum size of 1.25 m x 1.25 m (suitable for
wheelchairs) and the wet cell should be fitted with WC, washbasin
and shower.
A residential group consists of approx. 8--1 0 elderly people with
communal living room and tea kitchen, in which meals are also
taken. One adapted bath is required for every two residential
groups. Corridor zones and niches can be used for communication
and group building.
Room requirements:
-- nurses' sitting and handover rooms (support points)
-- we and cloakroom
-- care department incl. bathroom with acid-resistant bath (also
suitable for medical baths), washbasins, WC, bidet and shower
-- cleaning room with bucket sink and sluice for human waste
--washroom
-- subsidiary room for equipment and wheelchairs
-- centralised facilities can be situated in the ground floor and
basement or distributed in the individual departments.
The short-term care department takes in those temporarily in
need of care while their relatives are on holiday, and also provides
hospital aftercare, rehabilitation etc.
Space should be provided for administration, consulting rooms,
function and common rooms, cafeteria, occupational therapy,
gymnastics, chiropody and hairdresser.
ffF------~------T------,----~=rlh=~~~;::+:=rlh=~~==ri
! Bathroom
''
'
''
'
i=rr==,
L!lliving
room
0
0
0 'Haus Gislngen' care home for the elderly, FeldkirchNorarlberg, first floor
Air space
Entrance hall
Arch.: Noldin & Noldin
169
ELDERLY
PEOPLE'S
ACCOMMODA-
TION
Retirement flats
Nursing and
care homes
Examples

ELDERLY
PEOPLE'S AC-
COMMODATION
Retirement flats
Assisted and
care hones
Examples
0 'Haus Nofels' care home for the elderly, FeldkirchNorarlberg, ground and first floors
G) Single-bed room 16 m2
® Double-bed room 24 m2
® Wheel chair room 18 m2
Existing building- conversion to social wing
Delivery Disposal
@ Ward care bathroom
® Lounge/group room
® Meeting point
0 Restaurant and event room
@ Kitchen
® SeiVery
@ Home manager/administration
@ Ward sister
@ Reception/kiosk
@ Visitors' WC
@ Aviary
@ Hairdresser
@
Bed block - newbuild
8 'Eibe Flaming' care home for the elderly, Dessau-Rosslau, ground floor
170
Examples
Arch.: Rainer Koberl
Existing building -conversion to bed wing

Block
Access
Corner block
Solitary
(central lobby)
Escape route
Escape route
Catering
Hotel rooms
Star
0 Basic forms of hotels
Stores
Laundry Deliveries
Services ,_ Staffrooms
I
Administration
I Room
I
I Room
I I Reception
I
I Room
I Lobby
I-
I Room
I
I I
Bar Lounge
Room
I ..
Relaxation,Sport, Access road
Sauna, (parking, garage)
Swimming pool
f) Room and access scheme of a hotel
Block with foot
Block (central lobby,
multi-storey if required)
Ensemble
Stores
Cool room
1-
Kitchen
Washing up
Restaurant
Breakfast
Ballroom
Seminar
rooms
I
Shops
HOTELS
Basics
The hotel, formerly a business offering accommodation and
catering, often with exclusive flair, has today become a complex
and efficient (mass) service provider business with a wide
spectrum of possibilities (conferences, wellness, holidays).
There are hotels in various price and comfort classes, which are
classified according to five categories ---7 p. 172. A scheme of the
basic room and route relationships within a hotel is shown in ---7 e.
The essential areas are: hotel lobby and reception as the central,
well-arranged and prestigious nerve centre between the various
parts of the operation, catering area in connection with the
hotel lobby (extent of the services depend on the hotel category),
administration, a staff area, which is separately accessed and
partly in direct connection with other areas of the hotel, guest
room area with differentiated rooms and individual access areas
arranged under the aspects of category, orientation and noise
screening, service area with kitchens, store and associated
rooms. The percentages of hotels' surface areas required for the
various functions are shown in ---7 0.
Building regulations, general preconditions for the permissibility of a project; type and
building law code, extent of the building use etc. -> p. 56
zoning plans, etc.
MBO general construction requirements for buildings and building
elements, general fire protection requirements
DIN 4107 noise protection requirements, see-> p. 480
Accommodation additional construction requirements for buildings and
regulations elements for the accommodation of large numbers of people
(constructional requirements on walls, columns, floors, doors,
escape routes, legally essential corridors, alarm systems, safety
equipment etc.)
Catering guidelines additional construction requirements for catering establishments
(mostly related to fire protection)
Public assembly additional construction requirements for buildings and elements
places regulations in relation to the presence of crowds (escape routes, exits,
corridors, windows, doors etc.)
Workplace additional construction requirements for buildings and elements
regulations and concerning health and safety at the workplace
guidelines
Other requirements e.g. requirements of the accident insurers, accident prevention
regulations, health inspectors, trade supervisors
Laws, guidelines, provisions and regulations for the design of businesses
offering accommodation and catering (excerpt)
1. guest rooms, bathrooms, corridors, room service 50--BO%
2. public areas, lobby, reception etc. 4--7%
3. catering 4-8%
4. events, ballroom, seminar rooms 4--12%
5. wellness/ fitness area 5-10%
6. other areas, cosmetics, hairdresser 1-2%
7. management, administration 1-2%
8. service area, kitchen, staff rooms, stores 9-14%
9. building services 5-10%
Parking and garage areas and special areas (e.g. wellness and bathing area)
are also to be taken into account (and can vary widely according to the range of
services)
e
Hotel type m2/room
1. luxury 90-110
2. first class 60-70
3. comfort 5Q-60
4. standard (holiday hotel, motel) 40-60
5. tourist (low-budget) 15-20
Guideline values for (above) shares of hotel surface area taken by each
function and (below) gross areas per room in various categories of hotel
171
HOTELS
Basics
Rooms
Examples
Accommodation
Regulations
(BeVO)
see also:
Catering
pp. 174 ff.

HOTELS
Basics
Rooms
Examples
German
Hotel and Inn
Association
(DEHOGA):
German hotel
classification
Bed
Seating
TV
Table
Luggage shelf
Cupboard
Bath/WC
1- 4.00 ---1+-- 3.50 ---j
f--1.60 -!t-2.20 --++-2.20 -jj-1.1--l
Double room 1B m2 Single room 15 m2
T
0
0
oi
+
0
"l
I
0 3-star hotel rooms showing features and main dimensions (according to
DEHOGA classification, single room slightly enlarged)
f) Bathrooms between hotel rooms Bathrooms between hotel rooms
e Hotel room with extra WC
e Hotel room accessible for a
disabled person with space for
accompanying person --> p. 21
e Hotel room with cupboard zone and
balcony
172
0 Two-room apartment
Lo
0
[Q
8 Two-room apartment with small
kitchen
-1
T
C) Diagonal room arrangement
HOTELS
Rooms
Hotel rooms account for the largest share of a hotel by area. The
quality of hotel rooms is an essential criterion for the evaluation of
a hotel by a guest. Traditionally, the trend has been to standardise
and schematise floor plans and arrangements ~ 0.
In light of the extended significance of the hotel room (living,
relaxation,work and sleeping room), architects normally attempt
to answer the economic and technical requirements by reflecting
the demand for comfort through spatial division, while still meeting
concerns for individuality and identity 0- m.
I
I
I
I I
:--so-i
I
I
I
I
I
cso~
Minimum distance between hotel beds
I
I
I
I
I I I
~50ti-SO-i-1.50-i-
Hotel room features, according to DEHOGA (excerpt)
According to the classification system of the German Hotel and
Inn Association (DEHOGA), there are five categories, essentially
determined by the room's size and features:
1 Star (Tourist): single room 8m2
, double room 12m2
(minimum
area for 75% ofthe hotel rooms, without bathroom), bed, wardrobe,
seat, washbasin in the room, reception as a separate area
2 Stars (Standard): as before, but single room 12 m2, double
room 16 m2
(minimum area for 75% of the hotel rooms, including
bathroom and corridor), bathroom in room (for 70% of hotel
rooms), seat per bed, colour television (in 70% of the hotel rooms)
3 Stars (Comfort): as before, but single room 14 m2
, double
room 18 m2 (minimum area, see above), bathroom in room (for
all rooms in the hotel), telephone, reception area with seating for
group, independent reception
4 Stars (First Class): as before, but single room 16 m2 , double
room 22 m2 (minimum area, see above), minibar, armchair/couch
with coffee table, lobby with seating and drinks service
5 Stars (Luxury): as before, but single room 18m2, double room
26m2
, (minimum size, see above), 2% of the hotel rooms as suites
(at least two), each with an armchair/sofa per bed, additional
washbasin in double rooms and suites, additional colour television
in suites, reception lobby.
ODD
D D
D D
mThree-room apartment (suite) with cooking niche, two bathrooms and guest WC

0 Guest house, Havelland, ground floor
Hotel rooms
f) SIDE Hotel, Hamburg, standard floor
Basement
garage
e SIDE Hotel, Hamburg, ground floor
=
o 10m
Arch.: Subsolar
=
0 10m
Arch.: Jan Stormer Architekten
HOTELS
Examples
Guest house in a village environment
The 'Hof der Stille' guest house -7 0 is located in the buildings
of a converted courtyard in an agricultural village in the Havelland
near Berlin.
The individual buildings of the former farm are arranged around
an internal yard, which, in the place's new identity, serves the
role of central access and orientation in the conversion. This also
forms a spatial and visual focus point with the ambience of a
cloister. The simple guest rooms fitted out in the former stables,
the main house with dining room, lounge and seminar rooms, the
flat belonging to the owner and the former barn containing sauna,
fitness and relaxation area are all directed toward this centre.
The individual guest rooms have the character of apartments.
They are equipped within the least possible area with a wet
cell and mini-kitchen arranged in the back of the apartment as
an 'installation rail' along the boundary wall to the neighbouring
property.
Luxury hotel in an urban context
The SIDE Hotel in Hamburg -7 f) - 8 is part of an urban block
and has an (obtuse) corner -7 p. 171. Its shape results from an
external angle (which fits the block structure) and a rearward
block, which is four storeys higher than the angle and surmounts
it. Between these, a 'Sky Lounge' on the eighth floor, a naturally
lit 30 m high hotel lobby, forms the central architectural element.
This mediates between the angles of the street alignments and is
also the integrating and orienting core of the ensemble.
On the standard floors -7 f), the hotel rooms (all of 5-star grade)
are mostly arranged around the open space of the lobby, with
bathrooms parallel to the corridor as a one-sided access gallery
system, In the corners and also on the first and twelfth floors are the
suites (partially built over the lobby). Restaurant and conference
rooms are situated in the corner on the ground and first floors. The
kitchens and administration are in the rear part of the ground floor
and the large conference rooms (with daylight entering through
a light well), spa, swimming pool and underground car park and
services areas are in the four basements.
e SIDE Hotel, Hamburg, A-A section
173
HOTELS
Basics
Rooms
Examples

CATERING
Restaurants
Dining rooms
Fast food outlets
Restaurant
kitchens
Large kitchens
Examples
see also: Dining
rooms p. 152
45-50 55-65
0 Space required for waiter and diner
0
mr
wT
0
f--1.46---l
1-~85-l
9 Tables/seating
174
1--1.25--j
DO
II:ttl~
DO
>---1.96 ----4
1
15-20
~60
ao-a5 75
1-----------2.50------;
ODD T DODD
~~~
'tJOo 1 D'Otftf
t-------2.46-4
CATERING
Restaurants
To be able to eat in comfort, one person requires a table area
around 60 em wide and 30-40 em deep -7 f) - 0. This provides
sufficient distance between adjacent diners. Although an additional
20 em space in the centre for dishes and large bowls is sometimes
desirable, an overall width of 80-85 em is suitable for a dining
table. If the food is served on plates, then 70 em is sufficient, and
for fast food 60 em table depth.
Distance between table and wall ;;;;75 em -7 0, because the chair
alone requires a space of 50 em. If the space between table and
wall is also used for access, the distance should be ;;;;1 00 em.
Round tables need a little more space, a difference of up to 50 em.
T
1
f----50-----i
f) Breakfast 8 informal dinner
~ I
ni@~·~~ I
9./10.
0 Formal dinner
0 Breakfast setting: 1 tea or coffee pot; 2 mllk jug; 3 jam or butter bowl; 4 sugar bowl; 5 dessert
fork; 6 dessert knife; 7 coffee or tea spoon; 8 dessert plate; 9 napkin; 10 saucer; 11 coffee cup
0 Informal dinner setting: 1 fork; 2 knife; 3 soup or dessert spoon; 4 spoon; 5 beer glass, 6 wine or
dessert wine glass; 7 soup bowl; 8 dinner plate; 9 napkin
() Formal dinner setting: 1 dessert fork; 2 fish fork; 3 fork, 4 soup or dessert spoon; 5 spoon;
6 knife; 7 fish knife; 8 dessert knife; 9 soup bowl; 10 dinner plate, 11 napkin; 12 beer glass;
13 red or white wine glass; 14 11queur or dessert wine glass
~3.75-----i
000000
lr:t::ltUft!: J!II
DOD DOD
f----2.96-----i
table length with
head of table
~ o!f~%/!?: ~~~~·:::;:~g~1~: ~:~~~
1
l
f------2.80-601
r------3.96 _________,

1-1.00-l-1.00-l-1.00-l-1.00---t--1.00-l
00
-
DO
ii
00
0 Closest seating layout
0
o[lo
0
00
1rmrmm1 lto
00
DO 1.oo
Htii:::i 4
00
f) In an alcove
~50!- 85 -+--1,81l--+- 85-t-1.35--+--85--+--1.80--+-85-i
l-----1.75--t-90-t--1.75---f45+--1.75--+-90-t-1.75---t
C) Parallel arrangement of tables
135>--1.4(1.--t60l
15~1.20-l-1.00--t--1.20-+50+-1.20-+-1.00-i-1.20--i
1--1.40---t-BO-t-1.40--G()--1.40-+80+-1.40--i
e Diagonal arrangement of tables
t371-1.05-+55-i
pa-60+--1.30-+ 60+654 60+-1.30--+60-j
1-1.05-1-85-l-1.05--t-+--1.05-l-85-+-1.05 -i
20
e Closest table spacing
~
rm~
~-sr~!Jit
()-85-1-1.30-+ 85-+ 65+- 85-<
1--1.30--l-85-1-1.30---i 1-1.30-1
20
0 Tables in a cafe
TT
1.201.40
-1-1
5030
tT
1.201.40
il
5030
tT
1.201.40
11
fT
601.05
J5~
+T
601.05
*+
601.05
ll
8 Zuntz table
CATERING
Restaurants
Before any restaurant or other catering establishment is built, the
organisational processes must be determined with the operator.
The following have to be decided: what food will be on the menu,
what quality and quantity will be on offer? Which service system
will be used, whether aIa carte with fixed or changing daily menus,
plate or table service, self-service or mixed? For design purposes,
it is important to know which target clientele is aimed for. The site
itself will help to determine the most suitable type of restaurant.
Appoint specialists in: kitchen equipment, electrical, heating,
ventilation and sanitary design.
The main room in a restaurant is the dining room. Its furniture
and fittings should be appropriate for the business. A number
of additional tables or chairs should be available, so that table
groupings are flexible. Provide special tables for regulars. Side
rooms and conference rooms should always be flexibly furnished
in order to permit variations. A food bar with fixed stools can be
arranged for customers in a hurry. Larger dining rooms should
be split into zones. Kitchen, side rooms, toilets and sanitary
installations should be grouped around the dining room, also in
the basement-) e.
Columns in a dining room are best located in the centre of a group
of tables or at the corners of the tables-) 8. The ceiling heights of
dining areas with a floor area ~50 m2 =2.50 m, > 50 m2 =2.75 m
and >100m2 ~3.00 m; above or below galleries ~2.50 m.
Emergency exits 1.0 m wide per 150 people using them. Minimum
clear width of aisles in restaurants 0.80 m, doors 0.90 m -) e.
Toilets in public houses, bars or restaurants: Stairs to toilets,
wash, staff and storage rooms, usable width ~1.1 0 m. Clear walk-
through height ~2.10 m measured vertically. Window area ~1/10
of the floor area of a restaurant.
e Functional scheme of a small restaurant
Floor area of dining
room
Usable walking width
~100m2
;;;250m2
;asoom2
~1000 m2
>100Dm2
~1.10m
~1.30m
~1.65m
~1.80m
E;2.10 m
0 Usable width of stairs
Seat Kitchen
occupancy floor area
Type per meal (m2fcover)
exclusive 1 0.7
restaurant
restaurant 23 0.5-0.6
with rapid
turnover, e.g.
department
store
standard 1.5 0.4-0.5
restaurant
Inn, guest 0.3-0.4
house
Dining room
floor area
(m2/seat)
1.8-2.0
1.4-1.6
1.6-1.8
1.6-1.8
for storerooms, personnel rooms etc., add
approx. 80%
cover"' seat x seat turnover.
(D Space requirements
Dining WCs, WCs, Urinals, Channel
places gents ladies no. (m)
;250
;250-200
=200-400
~400 - decision for each case -
4Ii) Toilet facilities
Furnishing No. Walter Self~service
(tables) places (m2/p!ace) (m2/place)
square 1.25 1.25
rectangular. 4 1.10 1.25
rectangular 6 1.00 1.05
rectangular 8 1.10 1.10
@) Total space required for dining
room: 1.4-1.6 m2/place
main aisles
intennedlate aisles
side aisles
41) Aisle widths
min. 2.00 mwide
min. 0.90 m wide
min. 1.20 m wide
175
CATERING
Restaurants
Dining rooms
Fast food outlets
Restaurant
kitchens
Large kitchens
Examples

CATERING
Restaurants
Dining rooms
Fast food outlets
Restaurant
kitchens
Large kitchens
Examples
Table 4 4 4-5
2 places places 30 places places 30
2.0-+1.0-j-1.90~1.65--j--1.04---2.15 140
1
5
places
T
0
f
0 Table sizes In a restaurant: with predominantly plate service the table depth can be reduced to 70 em
Table 4 unsuitable 6 places unsuitable
2 places places places 01.70
2.0-+1.0-j-1.90-+1.0-I----+1.0-j-1.90-+1.0-f--2.80---t-1.0-l----l
Q In a self-service restaurant
Table 4 places 2 places 3 places 4 places 3-5 place::
2 places 100/60 060 060 060 060
1.85-+1.0+-1.75-+1.04--2.0--j-1.0-l-1.35+1.35-+1.0-f-1.60-j-1.60--j--1.0-l-1.25-l
C) Bistro-caf9-bar
Table 8-10
6-8 places places places
CATERING
Dining Rooms, Service
The space required varies very widely
according to the character of a restaurant.
Apart from fast food outlets, the least space
required is in cafes. The most is needed in
restaurants and diners. Diagonal arrangement
of the tables generally takes up less space than
an aligned pattern, with a space saving of up
to 35%. Alcoves are beneficial for use of space
because the distance between seats and wall
is no longer required. In larger restaurants,
many groups of tables (a waiter's 'territory') are
collected together to form units.
Basically, the design of dining rooms based
on 'number of heads = m2, formulas is to be
avoided, as they are not applicable to rooms
under 100 m2 and can lead to false results.
Fixing the dimensions of rooms should in any
case be done from concrete furniture layout
plans. The functional design of dining rooms
involves determining the following:
1. Entrances and traffic axes, which limit the
usable area, according to number and
required width.
2. Service points (with the exception of variable
forms offurniture): stations for 40 places
each with at least one service point as
centrally placed as possible.
3. Table sizes and shapes according
to the character of the business and
the expected guest structure. A good
procedure is to design a percentage
structure of desirable table sizes with
various combinations, starting from the
intended total capacity. Table sizes and
shapes result from the intended use. Areas
of about 20 (12-24) places are designed
according to the character, type of
business and intended visual organisation,
to avoid the impression of a waiting roorn.
f----2.60--j--1.0+--2.90---t-1.0+---- 3.60-4.20----1
8 Banquet
90
+55-l---2 40--t55t
90
-1.0 . -1.0
1---- > 5.40----l
e Corporate and seminar rooms
176
15 15
90
t55t---s.5o--f55f 90
-1.0 -1.0
1----->6.60-------j r-----;:; 5.40------j
Gastronorm Tilt com- Shelf Tilt com-
compartment partment cupboard partment
open or dirty laundry rubbish
closed laundry
f40t4ot4oHso
m1n1mum1
mobile l·v
if required )'. I
0 Waiter station--> 0
f--- 1.80 --1 f---1.80--l
f) Events, meetings: without eating

Benches
~
CJ.··::-o oEEto DCJII
CJO b 85 DCJ
rd0.60rr1.60@
oo oLJo om
c-~~~-=D.c:__> 6.55---1
f) Seating arrangements, variants
f--~~~~~- ~15.0-~~~~~~-j
0 Space required for a horseshoe-shaped bar for eating
. --+
60 60
60H1.25H1.3&t-+1.25+-4 60
0 Space required for a horseshoe-shaped bar for eating, variant
Kiosk
t
Eating area
f) Example of a fast food restaurant, self-service
i Trays
2 Fruit
3 Juice/milk
4 Salad bar
5 Hot dishes
6 Snacks
7 Bread/cake
8 Tea/coffee
9 Cutlery
10 Drinks/glasses
11Till
I
I
55l-·l75t--2.30--f75t-+-j45
~
Flo
IZJO
Flo
[JO
55
DF]O
D[JO
DPJO
DL]O
1--;;;5.35------1
f-1.30+1.20-f1.30-H 15
DO
•
DO
E2TI
tid
DO
E2Til
DO
1--- ;;; 3.95 ----1
e Seating arrangements, variants
CATERING
Fast Food Outlets
The heavy traffic of people
resulting from fast turnover
demands larger sales areas
to ensure smooth operation.
Tables and chairs are kept as
small as possible and tightly
grouped --> 0 - e. The
customer space, 1.50-2.15 m2
per person, features groups of
seats and the longest possible
bar at which to eat --1 0 - e.
If the business is favourably
placed to catch street traffic,
a built-in kiosk will be able to
serve food on the pavement as
well as indoors --1 f) - e.
' '
' '
:d
b<Yi~
k><>~ l
:Ad;
.k>v~:·::
~
,~(:):
: <01 :
G Seating arrangements~ variants
DtE
.·.·.·o
....
o:-:·:·:o
o.o
r:::r::::::n
'ODD
ODD
i§l§f§l
DOD
1§!§1@
Self-service restaurants have
three times the utilisation of
places through shorter table
stay time. Average eating
time 20 minutes-> f)- e.
Two-place tables are good
with an average size of
70/50 em each, arranged in
pairs with a slight separation
-> 8 +e. if required, the
individual groups can easily
be pushed together to seat 4
- 8 people-> e. Length of
a table unit (horseshoe): ->
0-0 ;o;10-12seats at a
spacing of 62.5 em =7.5 m.
This length can be served
by one waiter with prepared
food. Tills on the way out,
subsidiary rooms like toilets,
staff -rooms, services are
situated in the basement.
1 Trays
2 Cold buffet
3 Drinks
DODD LIDO
l·:·:·:{·:·:·:f·::}:·:·:J•t·:·:·:J-:··:}:·:·:1
DODD bOD
4 Hot food
5 Cheese and dessert
6lill
7 Fridge
e Fast food restaurant in Paris
a Drinks cupboard
9 tee
10 Wanning compartment
11 Street sales
Arch. Prunier
177
CATERING
Restaurants
Dining rooms
Fast food
outlets
Restaurant
kitchens
Large kitchens
Examples

CATERING
Restaurants
Dining rooms
Fast food outlets
Restaurant
kitchens
Large kitchens
Examples
0 Snackbar
BS EN 203 f) Cafe-restaurant
BS EN 631
BS 6173
BS EN 12851
BS EN ISO
22000
BIP 2130/2078
DIN EN 631
DIN 66075
8 Large hotel restaurant kitchen
C) Restaurant with buffet and
vending machines
E deliveries
Self-service restaurant
178
meals and drinks servery
dishwasher
2a crockery returns
3 drinks bar with mixer,
toaster, food containers etc.
4 oven for small pastry items
5 food storage
6 rotisserie
6{1 cooker rings
7a water boiler and steam machine
8 pot and pan washer
11 stores/office; catering size
refrigerators and freezers instead
of cold store
19 staff toilets
G1 bar counter
G3 customer toilets
waiters' walkway
1a service counter and cash tills
2 dishwasher
3 drinks bar with mixer, toaster,
ice cream freezer etc.
4 pastry preparation
4a pastry oven
5 sandwich preparation
6 reheatiilg equipment {e.g. soup)
7 cooker rings
11 empties
15 linen store
17 deliveries and (a) store
19 staff tollets and cloakroom
G1 toilets
G2 telephone cubicle
waiters' walkway
1a garden service counter
2 dish~washing area
3 drinks counter
3a drinks cellar
4 pastry counter
5 cold dishes
6 hot dishes and sauces
sn table with hot store
9 vegetable preparation
10 meat preparation
11a deliveries, and access to stores,
offices, staff cloakrooms and
toilets
S service accessories and tills
serving aisles in U~shaped
counters
1d vending machines
2 link between two counters with
covered dishwashers, operated
from both sides, each with two
rinsing basins
4/5 cold meal preparation
4/5a cold servery (salads, ices,
desserts)
an griddle, soup heater, water boiler
etc.
6[7a hot servery (bain-marie,
hotplates)
1d
1e
1f
2
2a
3/4
5a
6/7
6/7a
11a
12
E
self-service buffet with grill and
chip fryer
sauces, condiments, cutlery
cash till
dishwasher
crockery returns
food and drinks servery
(service to street possible)
cold meal preparation table
heating units, used from both
sides
hot meal preparation table
refrigerators, used from both
sides
sales kiosk (serving inside and to
street)
entrance
CATERING
Restaurant Kitchens
Snack bar ~ 0, corner pub, bistro, cafe, restaurant: capacity
55-60 seats (2-4 place turnover at lunchtime, 2 in evenings).
Between lunch and evening meals: serving coffee, cakes and
snacks. Kitchen: supplied predominantly with pre-prepared items.
Storeroom need not be particularly large if deliveries are daily.
Cafe-restaurant ~ f) with tea room. Urban business in heavy
traffic location.
Cafe: alcohol-free drinks, except bottled premium beer, liqueurs
etc., patisserie and light food- cold and hot.
Tea room: alcohol-free drinks, patisserie, sandwiches. Capacity
approx. 150 seats, continuous operation 6.30 - 24.00. Kitchen:
predominantly pre-prepared items, little storage.
Large hotel restaurant kitchen ~ 8 also for large catering
establishments with side rooms, external deliveries or production
for outside companies. Capacity 800-1000 people. Waiters'
walkway: in the centre with special service in the garden or also
bowling alley and direct access to the side rooms. Kitchen: cell
system fronted by the backs of the large appliances.
Restaurant with buffet and vending machines ~ 8 for fast
midday meals in canteens, department stores and motorway
services. Capacity 500 people/h. Kitchen: only warming of pre-
prepared foodstuffs, except for salads and soups.
Self-service restaurant ~ 0 suitable for department stores or
attached to offices. Kitchen: no in-house production. Outside
delivery and preparation using deep frozen process.
Cold stores
1 Peeling machine
2 Drip tray
3 Cleaning surface
4 Holding surface
5 Universal machine
6 Cutting board
7 Sink+ Worktable
8 Hand wash basin
9 Worktable
10 Slicers
11 Freezer
12 Bench scale
13 Stir/beat machine
(t Separate preparation of vegetables and meat
1. Work areas together
without physical separation
1. Work areas, production and
manufacturing space, separately
Cooking/frying
IProduction I 1.-:P':-ro-'d';-u-c""tio-n'l
IFinishing I IFinishing I
I Servery
f) American hotel kitchen system:
boiling and roasting areas arranged
parallel to the servery
cookln~/frying
production area
finishing area
servery
Cl) French hotel kitchen system:
boiling and roasting area arranged
perpendicular to the servery,
separation of production and
finishing zones

Store
supply
~Store
waste
Dishwasher
I Ser~;:_ 1- L___--+-
,__j
.,. .
L ____ J
Restaurant
-Goods flow
• • Waste flow
- - Container circulation
--Crockery circulation
0 Restaurant kitchen: functions
Hot
Cold
palisserie
Drinks
serving
Food and drinks
servery
Waiter passage
Dirty
dishes
Return
8 Restaurant kitchen: organisation
Bistros, snack bars, small cafes - or speciality restaurants with
40-60 seats- are classified as small operations. Small to medium
units (70-1 00 places) require on the other hand carefully zoned and
fully equipped kitchen facilities. Large businesses (service areas,
fast food restaurants, large hotel kitchens) achieve considerably
higher place numbers, often with an integrated eating bar or self-
service areas.
Seats 80 120 200
goods inward 0.05-0.075 0.05-0.067 0.05-0.06
empties 0.05-0.075 0.05-0.067 0.05-0.06
waste/rubbish 0.05-0.075 0.03-0.050 0.03-0.04
delivery/disposal 0.15-0.225 0.13-0.183 0.13-0.16
cold room meat 0.05-0.075 0.05-0.067 0.04-0.05
cold room fruit and vegetables 0.05-0.075 0.05-0.067 0.04-0.05
cold room dairy products fridge 0.03-0.05 0.03-0.05
cold room cold service fridge fridge 0.02-0.03
cool room drinks fridge fridge 0.05-0.07
freezer room 0.05-0.075 0.05-0.067 0.06-0.08
cooled goods delivery 0.15-0.225 0.183-0.25 0.24-0.32
store dry goods 0.15-0.175 0.117-0.13 0.09-0.1
store drinks 0.075-0.1 0.1-0.117 0.08-0.1
store non-food 0.075-0.1 0.067-0.083 0.07-0.08
cooled goods storage 0.3-0.375 0.283-0.33 0.24-0.28
vegetable preparation 0.075-0.1 0.067-0.083 0.04-0.05
meat preparation 0.075-0.1 0.05-0.067 0.04-0.05
fish/poultry preparation 0 0.03-0.05 0.03-0.04
hot kitchen 0.325-0.35 0.217-0.23 0.16-0.18
cold kitchen 0 0.05-0.067 0.04-0.05
patisserie 0 0 0.04-0.05
pot washing 0.05-0.Q75 0.05-0.067 0.03-0.04
office kitchen manager 0 0 0.03-0.04
kitchen facilities 0.525-0.625 0.47-0.567 0.41-0.5
dishwasher 0.1-0.125 0.1-0.117 0.09-0.1
service/waiter office 0.075-0.1 0.083-0.1 0.07-0.08
dishwasher/office 0.175-0.225 0.183-0.217 0.16-0.18
-Total 1.3-1.675 1.25-1.55 1.18-1.44
0 Kitchen areas: space required (m2
/seat)
CATERING
Restaurant Kitchens
The trend away from conventional restaurants to those offering
a wide range of food not only affects the planning and design
of dining rooms, but also of kitchens. Small and medium-sized
restaurant kitchens play a particular role here, and the following
details are primarily based on this type of business.
Gastronorm system
The dimensions of containers, tables, shelves, devices, crockery
and built-in units are all based on a 530 x 325 mm module -7
p. 181 o.
Function and organisation of the restaurant kitchen -7 0 - 0
The capacity of the kitchen is primarily dependent on the number
of customer seats, customer expectations (type, extent and quality
of the meals offered), the proportion of products freshly prepared
from raw (in contrast to ready-prepared food) and the rate of
customer turnover all day or at mealtimes (consumer frequency).
In fast food restaurants the rule of thumb for seat changes is
about 1-3 times per hour, in conventional restaurants about 2.
In speciality and evening-based restaurants, the guests stay on
average for 1.3-2 hours.
Percentage of total kitchen space requirement -7 0
Differentiated according to small, medium and large kitchens, floor
area values for individual functions are be based on -7 0.
Aisle widths in storage, preparation and production areas differ
according to whether they are purely traffic routes or also overlap
the service area. Working aisle widths should be 0.90-1.20 m,
side traffic routes with (temporary) overlapping use 1.50-1.80 m
and main traffic routes (transport and two-way through traffic)
2.10-3.30 m wide. For kitchen areas in small to medium
restaurants, aisle widths of 1.00-1.50 m should be sufficient.
Area Proportion(%)
gooos ae 1very 1nc ua1ng 1nspec 1on ana was e s orage 10
storage in freezer, cold and dry rooms 20
daily store
vegetable and salad preparation area 2
cold dishes, desserts 8
patisseries/cakes 8
meat preparation 2
cooking area 8
washing area 10
traffic area 17
staff rooms and office 15
Total 100
e Basis for dimensions and space requirements
empties rft Ideliv-
1
enes w"t•J staff changing room
..
dry goods store
r~~~ It~~:; office.
washroom
toilets
dally store ~:~. Ip~:~. pp~eap~ I restroom
pot ~asher hot dishes Icold dishe~ cake shop
dish+asher servery, waiter's walkwa~ coffee room
:............. buffet---------------------- bar 'ervery...................................j
Kitchen areas: classification and relationships of functional areas in clean and
unclean zones (if earth-covered vegetables are prepared, this must take place in
a separate part of the unclean area!)
179
CATERING
Arrangement
Restaurants
Dining rooms
Fast food outlets
Restaurant
kitchens
Large kitchens
Examples
BS EN 203
BS EN 631
BS 6173
BS EN 12851
BSEN ISO 22000
BIP 2130/2078
DIN EN 631
DIN 66075

Restaurants
Dining rooms
Fast food outlets
Restaurant
kitchens
Large kitchens
Examples
BS EN 203
BS EN 631
BS 6173
BS EN 12851
BSEN ISO 22000
BIP 213012078
DIN EN 631
DIN 66075
0 6
m
1
2
4 3
3
'
---------~
&
1 cooker
2 deep fat fryer
3 griddle
4 water boiler
5 work surface
6 cooker
7 double-deck oven
8 convectomat
9 hand basin
10 storage area
0 Basic organisation of the hot
kitchen --> f) -8
2. production in line
e Kitchen for restaurant with
60-100 places
~
ookinf
f-1
frying
0 0 n
0 0 0 0
apportioning
I cold meals I
1. production in block
f) Kitchen for restaurant with
60-1 00 places
0
cooking: cooker, boiler (80 1),
work surface, eight-ring hob, two
ovens, bain-marie, hot cupboard
frying: griddle, work surface, twin
deep fat fryer, frying pan, hot-
air oven with table
0 Restaurant kitchen for
150-200 meals
e Functions and organisation of 0 Organisation of cold kitchen
hot kitchen
:" '~RllJr=llls?L
0 Servery, waiter walkway
kitchen
cafeteria
e Self-service restaurant
kitchen
drinks
li&4tdesserts
41!) Free-flow restaurant
,---,
' '
I I
I I
l __ .J
Do
1: returns, sorting table; 2: sink; 3: waste
cle~rance; 4: pre-wash; 5: dishwasher;
6: dtscharge.table; 7: crockery area
Q) Basic solution: dishwashing area
180
kitchen
carousel
server
f) Self-service restaurant
kitchen [2 LUJfillillJ---
~~ ~+l ~+l ~
bar-counter servery {section system)
G Self-service restaurant
L IXIDO
r-------,
I '
,_
1: re*urns, sorting table; 2: sink; 3: waste
clearance; 4: pre-wash; 5: dishwasher
6: discharge table; 7: crockery area
CD Basic solution: dishwashing
area
CATERING
Restaurant Kitchens
Hot kitchens, corresponding to their main functions - cooking and
roasting - contain finishing zones and some or all of the following
equipment: cooker (two to eight rings), increasingly mobile
hotplates, extractor hood, water boiler, fast-cooking equipment,
automatic cooker, steamer, automatic steamer and pressure cooker,
combination device, water bath (bain-marie), baking and roasting
oven, roast and grill plates, frying pans, staged roasting oven, chip
pan, salamander, circulation machine (for frozen goods), microwave
oven, continuous process automatic roaster and baker. Large
automatic appliances are used only in very large kitchens. Storage
and working surfaces should be located between appliances and at
the end of the block. In addition to the fixed arrangement in the block,
mobile appliances are increasingly being used, which can be adapted
better to production changes and are easierto clean. -7 0- e.
Cold kitchens should have a layout logically planned in parallel to
the hot kitchen and be convenient for the (common) servery and
bread area. The regular equipment is a day refrigerator under/over
the cold table, various cutting and slicing machines (bread, cold
cuts, meat, cheese), mixing machine, scales, cutting boards, salad
table with lower cold cabinet, toaster or salamander, microwave
oven and sufficient working and storage space -7 0.
Servery for restaurant kitchens with counter or self-service, ideally
situated between the preparation area and the dining room. There
should be sufficient shelf space, a hot cabinet with heated plates
and a cool zone for cold foods. Crockery shelves or upper fixings,
cutlery container. In large businesses, also basket, plate and soup
bowl dispensers.
Crockery return: the difference between washing crockery and
pots is considerable. With waiter service, the plates are brought
back to their own area of the servery -7 0 - 0. In addition to
one or two sinks with drainers, storage space and shelves for
pot washing, small kitchens naturally also require dishwashers
in various sizes, feed types and operational types. Dishwashers
under the worktop are usual, but also tunnel and rotary batch
washers. Provide surfaces for the return (temporary storage,
worktops, sorting, soaking) and space for the crockery -7 0- tD.
Staff area: about 10-15% of the total space required in a kitchen
facility should be allocated for offices and staff rooms. The kitchen
staff will need changing rooms, washing facilities and toilets.
For more than 10 employees, a rest/break room is necessary
(workplace regulations). It is important that changing and social
rooms are near the kitchen, to avoid staff having to cross unclean
room areas or corridors. For changing rooms, > 6 m2 floor area,
4-6 air changes per hour and privacy. Provide each employee with
a well-ventilated, lockable cupboard. In large operations, even
differentiate street and working clothes. Guidelines for the toilets:
per unit ryvc and washbasin) 5-6 m2 and for the shower areas
(for more than five male or female employees) a washbasin and
shower, approx. 5.5 m2 per unit.
Ventilation and extraction: according to VDI guideline 2052,
large kitchens should be equipped with mechanical air supply
and extraction. Extract the air at each cooker and run it through
ductwork into the open air. Supply fresh air (no recirculation). Take
the heat production from the appliances into account (e.g. induction
ovens can reduce the unused heating of the surroundings).
~
~
2 work surtace
3 automatic rinsing
4 automatic rinsing system
(Serene)
5shelf
6 holding area
~ Basic solution: pot
washing area
~
sink, mixer taps with spray hose and swivelling nozzle;
waste food cleared through hole in work surface into bin
below; splashproof wall
r=~-rr----....--.
dirty crockery
0 Functions and components of the
dishwashing area

m2
/Person
0.50
0.45
0.40
0.35
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0
a
=:::.; b,c,d
-""<8
Q,h
--i,k
" "
a Main kitchen f Adjoining rooms
b Cold kitchen g Meat and fish
c Cake shop processing
d Wash cabinet h Salad kitchen
e Vegetable i Refrigerator
preparation j Stocks
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
Pers.
0 Space required for kitchen and utility rooms in restaurants and hotels. a-k ~ m2
required per person in each room group
Food preparation and cooking (core temp. min 70'C)
+
Portioning
• Shock cooling to+ soc in max 90 min.
t t t
Storage and distribution in max 5 days at+ soc
In hot steamer
on pallet trolley
Banquet
•
Cold portioning
at max+ 10oc
t
Reheating (core temp. min 70'C)
In transport
trolley to station
Serving
Hospitals
Old people's homes
Care homes
Jn hot steamer
•
Portioning
•
Student refectones
Cafeterias
Canteens
f) Cook chill portioning variants for various service requests
Goods and
Delivery container return
RF"'=='W i
Toilets and t
changing ~ t
rooms ~ 1
1
1
r·--~ Exit to th
~r==-~=-~~., satellite•
r~::~-~ ru--~--:::g--~-~1 i
1 room~ 1 I' 1
'---+----~ I t _j,
t + __-=--=:;==:_.~ I
i!l===,dj I I I I
____....,_____} I ~----....__) ----...-- ~- ...,.___J
i 1 ~ . . lshock I P~rtio· Storage
TPreparation l 1Port1onmglcoo1e~-..i mng room +Soc
t___~___..__j llh..?!Lt,B'C----+--- ~~!~
Schematic plan of cook chill kitchen with the product routes
Drawing: FDS Consulting H. Uelze
~t '~ GN 1/61 '~
GN1/4 r-~
GN2/1 ~ GN1/1 GN 1/3 ~----~ GN2/3
GN1/2~ 'l<l
65 325 325 325 ~----~ 325
G Container sizes in the Gastronorm system (GN)
CATERING
Large Kitchens
With communal catering for many people in offices, hospitals and
factories, a large number of meals have to be supplied in a short
period of time. Under the conventional system, 'cook and serve',
the kitchen has to be designed to cope with this peak demand,
and the working times of the staff are also directly linked to the
serving cycle. In order to employ staff and kitchens more regularly
and effectively, 'cook and chill' has been developed ~ 8 - e.
Under this system, the meals are prepared conventionally or
purchased as convenience products, cooked in advance, quickly
cooled and stored cool. The dishes are then completely cooked
(finished) just before serving. This results in a separation of the
production time and the serving time. The possibility of storing
the prepared dishes enables the capacity of the kitchen to be
increased considerably, with up to three times as many meals
being produced as in a conventional large kitchen. The extra
work involved in the production phase in cooking, cooling and
rewarming has to be balanced against the advantages of better
utilisation of the kitchen and service.
The meals are prepared in a kitchen, which has a shock cooler
in addition to the conventional cooking equipment. One of the
most important factors involved with this system is the hygienic
requirements in production (similar to industrial food production).
The design must therefore implement an absolute separation of
clean and unclean areas~ p. 179 0.
Unclean areas
These are the goods reception, storerooms, preparation rooms,
washing up area, waste disposal and cleaning agent store.
Clean areas
These are those for storage and preparation of pre-prepared
products, food production, shock cooling, portioning and packaging,
plus finishing cold rooms for ready-to-serve meals and the service
counters.
When preparing the food, it is important to make sure that the
core temperature is at least 70°C during cooking and that the
subsequent cooling to +3°C takes place within 90 minutes.
The food is also to be stored at +3°C. The cold portioning should
take place at a temperature of +12°C and the transport to the
consumer locations at max. +3°C. The cool chain from goods
delivery to eating must never be interrupted. The statutory hygiene
regulations are to be observed absolutely.
A recent innovation is the introduction of cook chill assembly
kitchens. These are only portioning kitchens, which put together
individual parts of meals. All food is produced by an external
supplier as cook chill products. This results in the saving of a
large part of the storage rooms and the whole of the cooking and
roasting kitchens.
The planning should always be left to experienced designers,
because additional details are important concerning hygiene for
the kitchen employees.
unpertorated perforated
0 Transport and heating containers in Gastronorm sizes (GN)
181
CATERING
Restaurants
Dining rooms
Fast food outlets
Restaurant
kitchens
Large kitchens
Examples
BS EN 203
BS EN 631
BS 6173
BS EN 12851
BSEN ISO 22000
BIP 2130/2078
DIN EN 631
DIN 66075

CATERING
Restaurants
Dining rooms
Fast food outlets
Restaurant
kitchens
Large kitchens
Examples
BS EN 203
BS EN 631
BS 6173
BS EN 12851
BSEN ISO 22000
BIP 2130/2078
0 Container transport in the Contiport system
~ I
0
II n I II 0 0~ ct)) 0
DIN EN 631 f) Combi steamer oven: foods are cooked or finished on trays
DIN 66075
1 automatic crockery
dispenser and tray
unloader; dispensing
from heated cabinet
below; punched card
reading device
2 meal distribution
conveyor
3 electronically controlled
serving trolley for
potatoes
4 illuminated display for
desserts and salads
5 rack trolley for
desserts
8 Food serving system
6 rack trolley for
salads
serving trolley for
vegetables
serving trolley for
meat
9 illuminated display for
special diets
10 supplementary conveyor
for special diets
11 automatic sauce
dispenser
12 cutlery dispenser
60'---f-- 90 --+---
snack-making
device or
work table
e Food service, cafeteria
182
13 soup plate
dispenser
14 automatic soup
dispenser
15 dispenser for heat-
retaining container lids
16 automatic closing device
for soup plate covers
17 control desk for diet
assistant
18 automatic tray stacker
19 tray distribution
trolley
I
105
CATERING
Large Kitchens
Container transport ---> 0 of unit containers in Gastronorm sizes --->
p. 181 0. Automatic through-flow roasters and cookers---> 0- 9.
Mainly used in industrial food production.
Combi steamer ovens enable the most varied modes of cooking
in one appliance (hot air steaming, roasting and reheating. The
core temperature of the food can be used for computer control of
the cooking process). Heated by electricity or gas. Water supply
needed. When cook and chill production takes place in the
immediate vicinity of the cold portioning room or shock cooler, the
cooler motor for the shock cooler should if possible be located in
a side room (to prevent noise nuisance and heat production). The
cold portioning is arranged between the shock cooling room and
the cook chill storeroom. This is useful for the checking, portioning
and assembly of the cooled foods.
In addition to the serving system with hot and cold counters---> 0,
0- 0, cook and chill production is also well suited for serving in
front cooking systems.
In hospitals and residential/nursing homes, the serving is done on
a portioning conveyor. The finishing of cook chill foods can then
be carried out on special tray trolleys by induction, conduction
or convection. According to the system used, special crockery
may be required and/or space for the docking station in the ward.
With all systems, it is possible to equip the trolley with cooling
to ensure the unbroken cool chain for the cook chill system and
also to keep cold foods like salads and desserts cool. Especially
in large kitchens with long traffic routes, these systems can keep
the food warm for a long time and avoid the core temperature
dropping under the specified value.
8 Automatic pass-through cooker e Automatic pass-through roaster
G) Ventilation ceiling
@ Shelves for casseroles and salamanders
@ Work surtace/cooker
@ Floor unit with fridge/freezer, oven or cupboard
®
®
@
Q Section through working area
1
"'
00
l

Reheating § Reheating
:g Tray filling
t
0
J
0 Functional scheme of a cook chill kitchen
Connection passage -
Dishwasher - clean
and trolley station
Tray portioning and
crockery store
+8°C
C) Cook chill kitchen in a hospital
Statfroom
~
1'
~
~
OJ
1tt
U!
Open mixed-food kitchen with serving zone and kiosk for
approx. 300 meals (300 m'), in Braunschweig
Designer: FDS Consulting H. Uelze
CATERING
Examples of Large Kitchens
f) Large cook chill kitchen in Usbon (11 00 m') for approx. 30 000 meals
0
26. Bistro
0
Connection passage * unclean
~
~
Tray
return
/ /1 Entrance
']guests
Table size Places
area per place 0.9-1.2 0.9-1.0 0.75-{).9
extra for passage 0.15 0.1 0,1
servery 0.15 0.1 0.1
walls, columns etc. 0.15 0.15 0.15
Total required/space 1.35--1.65 1.15--1.35 1.19-1.25
0 Space (m2) required per place in canteens
183
CATERING
Restaurants
Dining rooms
Fast food outlets
Restaurant
kitchens
Large kitchens
Examples
BS EN 203
BS EN 631
BS 6173
BS EN 12851
BSEN ISO 22000
BIP 2130/2078
DIN EN 631
DIN 66075

YOUTH
HOSTELS
MBO
Guidelines
German
Youth Hostel
Association
Mattress
with duvet
0 (fraditional) bedding In youth hostels
f) Youth hostel: functional scheme
8 Hitzacker youth hostel
184
G) Porch
YOUTH HOSTELS
General design notes
Traditionally, youth hostels have offered reasonably priced
accommodation for young people, youth groups and school
classes, but the range of services of a modern youth hostel also
includes meetings, courses, seminars, education of young people
and adults, leisure facilities, school trips, and walking for singles
and families. In rural areas, there are children's hostels (up to age
13) and youth hostels (13-17), and in towns there are youth guest
houses offering tourist and cultural services. The tendency among
youth hostels is towards the 3-star hotel standard --7 p. 172, with
sizes of 120-160 beds.
Functional areas
Bedrooms in hostels consist of 4-6 (maximum 8) rooms in groups
with a leader room (one bed, one folding bed as day couch), and
in guest houses 2-4 bedrooms, leader/teacher accommodation
1-2 rooms with work area, family rooms with 4-6 beds; the trend
is to separate rooms for parents and children. Boys and girls are
separated, mostly allocated rooms starting from the head of a
corridor with a number of dividing doors, which can be locked
if required (for flexibility). Showers and washbasins connected to
the rooms, separate WC (accessible for disabled people), lockable
luggage store. Cleaning rooms on each floor and shoe store/
cleaning room.
Lounge and meeting rooms: One room per 20-25 beds. Multiple
dining rooms, multi-purpose areas with individual corners,
cafeteria, lecture room, dining room also suitable for events, same
number of places as beds, entrance hall/reception and office for
the warden. Outdoor camping area (door to sanitary facilities),
sports and games, parking for buses and cars, garden for the
warden. Inside, separated noise zones for table tennis, hobbies
and workrooms.
Utility area: kitchen serving individual portions or group meals,
serving trolleys, no self-service counter, utility room, staff lounge.
Living areas: flat for the warden, bedrooms for staff, 12-15 m2•
UK issues: Youth hostels, for financial reasons and because
they are frequently located in sensitive surroundings, are often
conversions of existing buildings. Consequently the UK Youth
Hostels Association (YHA) is reluctant to impose definitive
architectural guidelines. However, some are applied, especially
regarding fire safety and space per bed.
Access
road
Accommodation wing
@ Bread storage
® Entrance hall
@ Registration
@) Cloakroom
@Telephone
@Office
@ Personal residence
@ WC-Personal
@Group room
@Dormitory
@Head
(?) Dining room
@Kitchen
@sink
@Sideboard
@Pantry
@Guest
@J Bath
@Shower
@ Cleaning products
@we
Arch.: C. Schonwald

0 Log cabin with sleeping loft
f----2.15-j-2.15---j
I
T
0
"l
t
0
"'
ui
l
0
ro
<: 0
f--------4.30-------j
sleeping loft
S3
ladder
0 First floor--> 0
T
0
"l
l
HOLIDAY/WEEKEND HOMES
Holiday homes are for temporary holiday accommodation, either
for the user or for (paying) guests. They can be single buildings
on their own plot or grouped in a holiday park and are subject to
the LBO.
Weekend homes, which make use of appropriate waivers under
the LBO concerning the quality of residential rooms, thermal
insulation, sound insulation and fire protection, may be erected
only on suitable sites and are restricted to certain sizes laid down
in the States' Camping and Weekend Home Regulations (e.g.
floor area max. 40 m2 (+ 10 m2 veranda), height max. 3.50 m).
The features of rented holiday homes are often controlled by
the German Tourism Association, which issues classifications.
In general, weekend homes should have a living area, a proper
kitchen (partitioned), an enclosed shower, with WC and washbasin,
and at least one enclosed sleeping area.
Q Weekend home for four people with 25 m2
living area
Architect: Prof. Cosse
Arch. H. Lowell 0 Holiday home in Belgium
Architect: Konstantinidis
0 Holiday cabin in Greece
Architects: lmmich/Erdenich
f) Weekend home
Ground floor of a holiday home
in Nordseeland
e Balcony-->0
Architect: Hagen
First floor--> CD
C) Section-->0
Architect: Solvsten
Weekend home
(!) Elevation --> 0
Architect: Jensen
Holiday home on Bornholm
185
HOLIDAY/
WEEKEND
HOMES
LBO
States'
Camping and
Weekend Home
Regulations
German Tourism
Association

MOTELS
'
!
~2.50--f 1-2.50---1
1---4.00 -+--4.00 -+-4.00--+-- 4.00 -+--4.00 ----l
0 Room units, lit one side, with furnishing variants Arch.: Polivnick
f---- 5.50 --+- 5,50 --el--
f) Room units, exposed two sides
5.50 --+- 5.50 - - j
Arch.: Roberto
r-1.40-1
l--3.40-iJ-3.40--t--- 6.00 -------l--3.40-lt--
0 Group of six room units with covered parking places Arch.: Duncan
Q Stepped arrangement
Arch.: Thompson
e Stepped arrangement
Arch.: Hornbostel
r------------------ _.J
L-~~--------~-- .. ··------·- _J
9 Stepped arrangement of room units with registration and manager's flat
Arch.: Williams
186
MOTELS
Motels offer reasonably priced accommodation for travellers.
They are located at the edge of towns in places easily reachable
by motorway or arterial roads, near tourist attractions and holiday
regions. It is beneficial to have restaurants, petrol stations and
services for motorists in the immediate vicinity. In contrast to city
hotels, motels are mostly single-storey, widely spread facilities
~ 0. The access road normally leads to the registration (short-
term parking), then to a car park or carport as near to the room
as possible. (Departure also via registration with check-out and
return of key.)
Room sizes 4 x 4 m - 5 x 5 m, with bathroom and sometimes
kitchenette ~ 0 - 0. Furnishing is cost-saving and simple (most
of the guests stay only one night). Community rooms for guests,
with desks and reading tables, radio, television; play area should be
situated away from the guest rooms so as not to disturb sleepers.
restaurant
::J
Q Motel facility with joint car park for each building and restaurant as separate
business Arch.: Fried
accommodation
units
Cl) Layout plan for--> 0 with restaurant Arch.: Hornbostel
C) Four room units as block
Arch.: Tibbals, Crumley, Musson
4Ii) Two room units with optional
additional room

~~
1.20-1.80
1.40 - 1.80 -'
~
I[ID T
I~>
CJmJ
T
0
"': 0
"' c::::::::::::x: :L: "'
I c::::::=:JO
Ci
1
f-- 2.20-----j l---2.50---j 1---------6.00
0 Small tent with flysheet f) Large tent with inner lining, two
flysheets and awning
f---- 6.70 - - - - - j
G
T
~
Ci
1
I
~
I
Large house tent with high side-walls, inner linings, awning, windows
Caravan with cooking, seating,
sleeping and luggage
compartments
we Seating
=
Sofa/bed
=
Sofa/bed
Q Folding caravan with cooking,
seating, sleeping and luggage
compartments
Swivel
Swivel
e Motorhome with seating, swivelling chairs, sofa/bed and WC
CAMPING
Camping sites -t 0 offer the cheapest legal accommodation - in
tents -t 0- 0, or caravans -t 8- 0 or motorhomes -t 0. The
spectrum ranges from natural camping sites in holiday areas,
mostly in attractive countryside (e.g. on the coast) to motorhome
parks, as a cheap alternative to hotels and motels, in reachable
locations near towns (they are mainly for motorhomes).
The requirements for camping sites are laid down in the states'
Camping and Weekend Parks Regulations. Camping sites
generally need to have an access road from a public road, with
access control (barrier), reception and assignment of places,
Tan area for waiting vehicles, visitor's car parks and internal
0
access with roads adequate for fire service vehicles (width
~ min. 3.0 m).
1 Camping sites and motorhome parks should be separated. A
place should be provided for each caravan or motorhome. These
places are min. 75 m2 (65 m2 if car parking spaces are provided
separately) and are grouped into sections of 20 places by fire
roads (5 m wide). It may be necessary to provide firebreak strips
next to the boundaries.
Motorhome
parking
Tent places Internal access road
(for fire services)
f) Example of a camping site with tent area and places for caravans
Communal facilities
Camping sites have the following communal facilities:
- drinking water taps (one tap for every 20 places supplied
from the public water main), electricity sockets (parking
places for motorhomes and larger caravans should ideally
have water supply, drains and electricity supply), fire
hydrants and fire extinguishers (one fire extinguisher per
40 places)
- sanitary facilities with: toilet blocks (guideline: 1 block per
100 places with: 4 WCs/2 urinals/1 washbasin (gents'), 6 WC/
1 washbasin (ladies'), 1 we for the disabled), washing facilities
(guideline for each 100 places: 3 showers, 5 washbasins for
gents and ladies, 1shower and washroom for the disabled), sink
for washing crockery and clothes, emptying facility for waste
water and toilets, sufficient and appropriately distributed
waste bins
- telephone line with emergency call function, kiosk,
supermarket, snack bar or restaurant, leisure facilities (play
area, sports grounds, barbecue site, open area).
187
CAMPING
MBO
States'
Camping and
Weekend Parks
Regulations

CHILDREN'S
DAYCARE
Access and
building forms
Rooms
Outdoor areas
LBO
indirect assignment
0 Functional arrangement of group
room, cloakroom and sanitary
facilities
~ ~ .. ·············::·:::........ :::::~
8 Children's daycare centres
access types: in a single block
e Hallaccess
0 Building form: grouped pavilions
188
~
terrace
common room
dining
kitchen
role-play
building
bonding
group room
washroom/We
I__ _
1
5 -m
I'() Ol··
I i/Wi@'l ••
1n~o 1111
1""'0 "'D
I ~
Typical plan of a kindergarten
group Arch.: Franken/Kreft
0 In two blocks
f) Courtyard access
f:D Building form: rows of pavilions
CHILDREN'S DAYCARE
Access and Building Forms
The design of facilities for children should consider their needs
and size. There are no regulations or guidelines for the construc-
tion of children's daycare buildings. The regulations of the relevant
state and the LBO are used as guidelines. Accessibility building
design standards are recommended.
Children's daycare centre
This term includes creches, kindergartens, after-school care etc.
The daycare centre is organised so that a mixture of children with
ali-day and part-time arrangements can be looked after.
Creche, nursery
Cares for small children from babies to three years old. The group
size is generally approx. 10 children.
Kindergarten
Looks after children from min. three years old until they go to
school. It may be possible for them to eat lunch and sleep. The
group size is generally 20 children.
Children's after-school care
For the care of school-age children until 14 years old. Lunch after
school and assistance with homework are offered. These estab-
lishments are often combined with kindergartens and the group
size is generally 20 children.
Age 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Height (em) 75 85 94 101 108.5 115 121.5 127 131.5 137 143 148
Eye level (em) 64 74 83 91 96 103 108 113 117 122 127 131
Reach (em) 30 36 42 48 52 57 61 64 66 69 72 75
9 Guideline sizes of children (Gralle, Port -> refs)
Bag compartment
Tf
~+
J!
Shoe compartment
e Cloakroom cupboard for six
children
0} Building form: stepped
0
"'
IJ
Cl) Cupboard for storing children's
mattresses (size: 140/70 and
120/60 em)
(D Building form: compact

Group room
Most time in the children's daycare centre is spent here. Required
floor area approx. 2.5 m2 per child. Create zones as varied as
possible and design a second floor level and a stage (play-stage
half-open, with a snug cave). Play decks up to a height of 1.50 m
must have a handrail at least 70 em high; play decks more than
1.50 m high must have handrails min. 1.00 m high. The group
room should have as short a distance as possible to the WC
area. Ideally, provide direct access to the open air and align to
the south.
Rest or sleeping rooms
These are not always considered necessary, as mattresses are of-
ten laid out in the group room for the midday sleep (cupboard to
store the mattresses -7 p. 188 0).
Kitchen
The status of the kitchen in the children's centre can vary accord-
ing to the paedagogical concept, for example a central kitchen for
all groups or as a series of kitchens, one in each group room. Dif-
ferent floor heights are recommended so that adults and children
can cook together.
Dining room
The group room is normally used for eating. An extended corridor
or the entrance hall are also suitable as communicative places to
eat.
Stairs
The risers of stairs in children's centres should not be more than
16 em, and the treads between 30 and 32 em.
Height recommendation Washing facilities we, seat height
nursery for every 10 children
potty room 1, 45-60 em 1, 20-25 em
kindergarten approx. for every 5 children
potty room 1, 45-60 em 1, 25-30 em
after-school approx. for every 10 children
girls 1-2. 1
boys 1-2 1
65-70 em 30-35 em
Q Height guidelines for washbasins and WCs
f) Pond with clay lining for outside area in children's daycare centre
CHILDREN'S DAYCARE
Rooms, Outdoor Areas
Outdoor areas
Outside playgrounds should be designed to be as varied as poss-
ible. The design of external works for children's centres is regu-
lated by several standards. The stipulated minimum area outside
per child is variable between the German states.
Hilly landscape Modelling the terrain by heaping and excavating
the ground surface. The coarse shape is produced by a hydraulic
excavator, and the fine modelling by hand. The hills can incorpor-
ate plants, shrubs, hedges, flowers and clover of various heights.
Compost heap as the core of an organic garden. Semi-shaded
location for organic waste from the centre.
Trees for climbing, to provide shade, deliver fruit and be edu-
cational. Also worth considering are vegetable/herb gardens,
sandpits, bird tables, dry stone walls, meadows etc.
Pond should have min. 6 m2 water surface and a depth of 80 em
to avoid oxygen deficiency. For safety reasons, either a coarse net
should be spread over the water or builder's steel mesh installed
10 em under the water surface.
189
CHILDREN'S
DAYCARE
Access and
building forms
Rooms
Outdoor areas
BS EN 1176
ASTM F1487
DIN EN 1176
DIN EN 1177
DIN 18034
LBO

PLAYGROUNDS
Playground
equipment
BS EN 1176
ASTM F1487
DIN EN 1176
DIN EN 1177
DIN 18034
0 Tractor
f) Trailer-->0
T
~
.
1.10
-------~
8 Horse and cart
~f
-~-<
t) Rocking horse
8 Pig
~
e Snail
flTil""
~
f) Swing for small child
~~0
~
e Snack table
~
~:0
G Sandpit (squared timber)
~l4o
-~.00
4Ii) Sandpit (round timber)
190
mPlayhouse
0 House group
«<) Swings
4D Slide
~
~
49 Cablerun
rllJI'
~
4D Vertical bars
f) Seesaw
e Slide and climbing house
PLAYGROUNDS
Playground Equipment
Playgrounds must be varied in ·design, changing and changeable.
They must meet the needs of children. Some of the requirements
for children's playgrounds are: traffic safety, no pollution by emis-
sions, sufficient sunshine, groundwater level not too high,
Play equipment in playgrounds is often made of timber (e.g. larch,
robinia) and the surface of the wood can be additionally protected
with beeswax treatment. Standing water and damp should be
avoided on all wooden surfaces, so galvanised steel is often set
into the ground at the base of verticals.
Playgrounds should be orientation points within residential dis-
tricts and connected to housing with simple networks of paths.
Do not banish playgrounds to the periphery, but design in combi-
nation with other communication systems.
Guideline values for the design of playgrounds are built up from
individual data: age group, usable area per resident, play area
size, distance from home:
Age (years) m2/resident Accessibility, max. distance (min.)
from home (m)
0-6 0.6 up to 200 and in sight 2
6-12 0.5 up to 400 5
12-18 0.9 up to 1000 15
Playgrounds for children are to be provided, as private facilities
within the building plot, with the construction of houses or flats: for
small children up to 6, for children from 6 to 12, plus leisure areas
for adults. This is a requirement for three flats or more. The uniform
basis for the provision of all public playgrounds is: 5 m2
playing
area per residential unit, minimum area of playground: 40m2
• Out-
door play areas must be fenced at least 1 m high (thick hedges,
fence or similar) to prevent access to roads, car parking, railway
lines, deep watercourses, cliffs and similar dangers.
Legends:
CD open octagonal house
@ Lilliput castle
@ seesaw chickens
@water toy
@ bicycle stands
@ table tennis tables
(J) bench with pergola
® trampoline-like web walk
® castle with moving pans
@ Robinson Crusoe's island
@ water source
@ revolving cross
@paved area
@ amphitheatre
4D 'Karnacksweg• playground

~60+1.20-i
DDT
uu uut
D Dj_
uu uu
0 Minimum dimensions for table
arrangement in regular classrooms
(Saxony --> refs)
00000 0
0000000
C) LTR (=listen, talk, record)
laboratory, SB =speaker's
booth, RR =recording room
oooooo
c::cr::rJ
0000
0 LT (= listen and talk) laboratory
J.;.sot
I 30o
-t
i:!J
t
IO
:.=;;q
/1!(1')
Downstand
beam
Design parameters
SCHOOLS
General Classrooms
f) Room heights of classrooms
The basis for the planned development of schools are the school
building guidelines of each German state (including model room
layouts), in conjunction with relevant national building standards
and health and safety regulations.
General classroom area
0
This includes standard and replacement classrooms, course rooms,
rooms for languages and social studies, language laboratories,
I
teaching equipment and map rooms, and other subsidiary rooms.
The subjects taught in the general classroom area are: languages,
general studies, mathematics, religion, social studies and politics,
0 0 0 as well as optional subjects and remedial teaching.
0 0 0 0 0 0
0
Group rooms
Q Q Q ~ ~ In primary and special schools it should be arranged that these are
D D D ~ 1
each accessible from two classrooms. Multi-purpose rooms can
D D D be assigned to other areas.
o o o o o o Number of floors
g ~ Q This should lie between three and four. Schools for pupils who
0 0
are physically disabled or have learning difficulties should have
1-2 storeys.
Max. depth of classrooms with
one-sided daylight
Room dimensions
The maximum number of pupils in a class is 32.
According to the school building guidelines, the design of classrooms
should normally be based on tables with two workplaces --7 0. If
the windows are all on one side, the max. room depth is 7.20 m. If
possible, have windows on both sides to permit furniture to be free-
ly positioned. The distance between the blackboard and the pupil
workplaces at the back should not exceed 9.00 m -0 G. Guideline
values: area: 21.8G--2.00 m2/pupil. Air volume: 25.00-6.00 m3/pupil.
The ceiling height of classrooms (min. 3 m) may not be reduced by
more than 0.30 m by individual construction elements --7 f).
Language laboratory --7 0 - 0
e Workplace with monitor
Located within the general classroom area or near the media
centre/library. Guideline: approx. 30 language laboratory places
per 1000 pupils. Size: LT (listen and talk) and LTR (listen, talk,
record) laboratory size, total approx. 80 m2
, language laboratory
cabins approx. 1 x 2 m, number of places per laboratory 24-30 m2
,
i.e. 40-60 m2 plus subsidiary areas. LTR laboratory --7 0: 23 work-
places as cabins, approx. 65 m2 (approx. 2.8 m2/place) including
subsidiary rooms approx. 95m2
.
LT laboratory -0 0: 33 workplaces as desks, approx. 65 m2
(ap-
prox. 2.0 m2/place) including subsidiary rooms approx. 95 m2
•
Side rooms: studio, recording room, archive for teacher and pupil
tapes. Language laboratories are also possible in inner areas of
the building with artificial light and air conditioning.
Computer room
f) Seating arrangement for 80 pupils ii;1 0 years old,
for film, slides and overhead projection
Should if possible face north and not be on the ground floor (Saxony
-0 refs). The IT workplaces are designed according to the guidelines
for computer workplaces. The upper edge of the monitor should
be below eye level so that the pupil's head is tilted at 15-20° --7 e.
e Building form: grouping with
central access
C) Building form: grouped
pavilions
CI!) Compact building form: with
central courtyard access
CD Compact building form: with
light wells
191
SCHOOLS
General
classrooms
Specialist
classrooms
Information and
communal area
Sanitary facilities
Break and
circulation areas
Arrangement of
classrooms
Clusters
Model room
programme
Examples
BS 4163
BS EN 14434
DIN 18024
DIN 58125
GUV 16.3

SCHOOLS
General
classrooms
Specialist
classrooms
Information and
communal area
Sanitary facilities
Break and
circulation areas
Arrangement of
classrooms
Clusters
Model room
programme
Examples
t-1.oof-- 1.60-+ f-1.00+-1.60-+
~ c=J1~ c=J1
uutu uu1
u
~
u
ct n nn 1
uu-+-~ C
layouts in practical rooms, in
layouts In practical rooms, back-
to-back
rows
classroom with
48 places 80m2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
preparation and
library 60m2
nommm~
tJ mmmo~
room for practicals,
40 places 80m2
C) Rooms and areas for science teaching
ft ~~·~:~~rtt~t-~
0c:=:::J c:=:::J
oc:=:::J®=
o = =
0 = =
0:0 0:0
I
®
r-]
ffi.ffi ~ ~ rn·~'f~ ffi.ffi
EB ~ chemistry rooms · EB ffi
o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o
<D for pract1cals ® classroom @ extra practical roorr
@ for practicals & teaching ® preparation and library @ library
G Science area, approx. 400 places, approx. 1400 m2
teaching materials
0 Areas for technology/business studies, office technology, technical drawing,
subjects altogether approx. 350 places, approx. 1600 m2
192
SCHOOLS
Specialist Classrooms
Science teaching area
This includes teaching, teaching/practical, practical, preparation
and meeting rooms, photo work and photo lab rooms. Teaching
rooms for biology, physics and chemistry approx. 2.50 m2
/place.
For lectures and demonstrations approx. 4.50 m2
/place.
Demonstration and practical room for natural sciences, chem-
istry and biology, and physics, chemistry and biology approx.
70-80 m2 ~ E). Teaching room for lecturing and demonstrations
in the subjects physics, biology and perhaps chemistry approx. 60
m2 , with permanently installed, ascending auditorium seating. A
second entrance and exit may be necessary. This room may be in
an internal location with artificial lighting. Practical room for pupils,
collaborating groups etc. in biology and physics or also interdisci-
plinary practical area, space sub-divided by means of partitioning,
area per room or section approx. 80m2
•
Preparation, meeting and materials room for subject combinations
or single subjects: together approx. 30-40 m2
or approx. 70 m2
,
according to the size of the science area. This room may be in an
internal location with artificial lighting.
Music and art teaching
Rooms for drawing should have uniform natural light, if possible
from the north. Music rooms should have an appropriate layout
and sound insulation to avoid disturbing other facilities.
Technical teaching
Workrooms should be arranged so that teaching in other rooms
is not disturbed by the noise. The working area should be sub-
divided into the various media (wood, paper, metal, plastic) and
ideally be located on the ground floor.
Photo laboratory
The photo laboratory is a dark room for positive work (one enlarge-
ment table for 2-3 pupils, combined with wet working areas), for
negative work (film development) and a film storage room. If possible
it should be north-facing with constant room temperature. Space re-
quirement: 6-14 pupils per work group, min. 3-4m2
per work place.
crafts/natural science
-12 places ...95m2 -40m2 -30 places -100m2
8 Rooms and areas for technology
:o:uu::o:
o o o a·~~--~
paper and clay work
~25 places
f) Areas for technology
music room
0 0 0
0 0 °
0 0 0
0 0 0
o0
0 0
ao o 0
o
0 0
oO 0
oooo
-30 places ...aom2
e Areas for music and art
art room
0 0 0 0 0
0 c 0 0 0
ancillary ~~~off~o~~:fttr=-1
room
0
0 0
0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
-35m2 -35 .glaces -90m

1 multi-purpose room
2 audio booths
3 office
4 central catalogue
5 newspapers,
magazines
6 group area
7 individual places
8 typing booths
9 information,
lending desk
10 lecture room
11 audiovis. studio
12 racks
13 free access
14 photocopier
15 cloakroom, lockers
0 Example of school library/media centre
f) Example of school library/media centre
.. ....
·-----------1
D0
0 0
oro
0~0
0"0
0 0
0 0
Main kitchen
<J Preparation
t>
....
r-----------~ --
~
Day store Vegetable
preparation
0.
·-~-· Meat ~~
I preparation ~ ~
"' v
DDDCJDDDCJ!J
0
I "' :
I oor:=::H:::::J oc:::Jc:::Jc:::::J
I 0
QDDDCJDDD ~ c::::JO[::::H:::::JCJCJC::::H::::::J
0
<lo --------------- 0
... .... ... .... ..... ... ... ....
8 Organisation of space and functions in a school kitchen
SCHOOLS
Information and Communal Area
Library, media centre and central facilities
Information centre for teaching, further education and leisure. The
users are pupils, teachers and external participants. Library de-
notes a conventional school and lending library including lending,
reading and work spaces and the appropriate shelves for books
and magazines. Media centre describes the extension of the li-
brary to cover recording and reproduction technology (hardware)
for radio, film, television, cassettes, tapes, CD, DVD, i.e. so-called
audio-visual material and a corresponding stock of software.
Guideline space requirement
Total for library and media centre 0.35-0.55 m2/pupil.
Details: Book issue and return, per work space approx. 5 m2 in-
cluding catalogue areas approx. 20-40 m2•
Advisors (librarian, media teacher, media technician etc.), per em-
ployee approx. 10-20 m2
• Compact book storage per 1000 vol-
umes at approx. 20-30 volumes per running m of shelf, approx.
4 m2
self-service shelves incl. movement areas; reading places
and catalogue per 1000 volumes of non-fiction and reference
works approx. 20-40 m2
; general working zone per 1000 reference
volumes approx. 25m2
for approx. 5% of pupils/teachers but min.
30 work spaces each 2 m2
, approx. 60 m2, per carrel approx. 2.5-
3.0 m2
• Group work room, 8-10 people, approx. 20m2 --> 0- f).
Kitchen and dining room
For a dining room with more than 400 places, the places of as-
sembly regulations should be complied with.
The size and equipment depends on the catering system, food
service and return of plates. For young pupils meals may be
served at table (portions possibly served by the teacher) otherwise
self-service (from conveyor, counter, cafeteria line, free-flow cafe-
teria, turntable etc.). Serving capacity: from 5-15 meals/minute or
250-1 000 meals/hour with varied personnel requirement.
Space required for serving system approx. 40--60 m2. Dining room
size depends on number of pupils and sittings, per seat min. 1.20-
1.40 m2. Larger areas should be partitioned into smaller rooms. At
entrance, provide one washbasin per 40 seats--> 0- 0.
-2500m2
G Servery, plates return and eating area
193
SCHOOLS
General
classrooms
Specialist
classrooms
Information and
communal area
Sanitary facilities
Break and
circulation areas
Arrangement of
classrooms
Clusters
Model room
programme
Examples

SCHOOLS
General
classrooms
Specialist
classrooms
Information and
communal area
Sanitary
facilities
Break and
circulation
areas
Arrangement of
classrooms
Clusters
Model room
programme
Examples
DIN 58125
f-min.-f
1.00
.. (1~-----"'"
0 Doors
f- ;':;28 tread t -f
== t
~17
e Pitch of stairs
~
9 Lesson-time WC facilities,
e.g. tor approx. 100 boys,
approx. 15 m2
e.g. for approx. 100 girls,
approx. 15 m2
e Teacher WC facilities,
e.g. for approx.
30 teachers, approx. 15 m2
C) e.g. for approx.
20 women teachers,
approx. 10 m2
No. users
40 boys
20 girls
15 teachers
10 women teachers
f)
f) Corridors~ min. escape route width
Handrail
~1111111111111
Handrail
Stairs as escape route (according to
school building guidelines)
Break-time WC facilities, e.g. single-row
facilities tor approx. 250 girls, approx. 40 m2
;
for approx. 250 boys, approx. 40 m2
Break-time WC facilities e.g. two-row
facilities tor approx. 500 girls, approx. 65 m2;
for approx. 500 boys, approx. 40 m2
we Urinals
1 2
1 -
1 1
1 -
G) Guideline for number of sanitary facilities (Saxony--. refs)
Context Form Separation Location
boys/girls
class we toilets with lobby no near a classroom
lesson we toilets yes accessible from
corridor or hall
breakWC toilets yes accessible from
schoolyard or hall
teacher We toilets ladies/gents for teachers or
administration
@) Recommended WC facilities
194
SCHOOLS
Sanitary Facilities I Break and Circulation Areas
Circulation and escape routes
Horizontal and vertical access routes are normally also emergency
escape routes. Escape routes must have a clear width of min.
1.00 m/150 people but min. width of corridors in classroom areas
is 2.00 m, or 1.25 m with up to 180 people. Stairs in classroom ar-
eas must be 1.25 m wide, other escape routes 1.00 m wide. Max.
length of escape routes: 25 m measured in a straight line from the
stairwell door to the farthest work place, or 30 m in an indirect line
to the centre of the room. Capacity of stairs dependent on number
of users and average occupancy, e.g. stair width: 0.80 m for each
100 people (min. 1.25 m, but not wider than 2.50 m).
Doors -7 0
These may open inward or outward. Outward opening doors
should not endanger pupils and project max. 20 em into the es-
cape route. -7 e.
Doors from rooms with more than 40 pupils or increased fire risk
(chemistry, work rooms) must open in the direction of the escape
route.
Stairs, ramps -7 0 - G
The pitch of stairs is to be based on length of pace: 2 riser +
tread= 59-65 em. Ramps ;:;;;6% gradient.
Cloakrooms
Cloakrooms are to be provided outside classrooms.
Break areas
The space guideline for enclosed break areas is 0.4-0.5 m2
/pupil.
They are to be designed so that they can be used for school
events. Dining and multi-purpose rooms may be used as break
areas. If the connection between school building and sports hall
is roofed over, this can be designed as a break area or covered
sports area (Saxony -7 refs).
Communal area
A communal area should be provided in each larger school for
events and celebrations. This can be achieved through the tem-
porary connection of several rooms and circulation areas. Wheth-
er the building of a school hall is necessary is regulated by the
relevant state school building guidelines.
Sanitary facilities -7 0 - 0
The necessary WCs, urinals and washbasins are provided accord-
ing to the total number of pupils (divided between boys and girls)
according to the school building guidelines -7 $. One washbasin
is provided for every boys' WC or for every two girls' WCs. Toilets
should be as directly lit and ventilated as possible. The accesses
for girls and boys are to be separate.
Use Notes
during lesson possibly for preschool and school kindergarten, poss. 2 WCs
and lobby
several classes each classroom without we should be max. 40 m distance
during lesson (incl. stairs) from lesson we
for classes during WCs at ground level, not in centre of building, accessible from
the break break areas
during the break possibly linked to staff cloakroom

0
f)
oQoQcO cO cO
cOaOaO aD oO
cQoOnQ aQ cO
aOaOnO aD aD
cOoQ aQnQ nQ
DoIteaching I
Cj
I
classroom
cloakroom
corridor
Classroom lit and ventilated on both sides through cloakroom and corridor,
corridor opening up every two classrooms into teaching equipment room
Arch.: Yorke, Rosenberg, Mardall
outside
class space
classroom
oQ ~o c(} Ol oa 0
cO oQ <i1 ol
ao oQ <i1 aQ
- cO a[) tiJ aG
aO oO cO aG
l-J handicrafts room
cO a[) a} aG
corridor
Design proposal: combination of classroom, open-air classroom and hobby
room Arch.: Neutra
corridor
e Saw-tooth plan Arch.: Carbonara
/
corridor
Classrooms with additional daylight through high-level window, without view
in from the back. Corridor opens up at each classroom into cloakroom and
storeroom Arch.: Carbonara
Hexagonal classrooms with enclosed triangular hobby rooms
Arch.: BrechbOhlen
1
1
I
SCHOOLS
Arrangement of Classrooms, Clusters
l
ITI
0 Cluster, bundling of several classrooms, single-sided daylighting of individual
rooms
o[] oo oo o[]
lJ[]oQaQaO
o[] 0 0 nO oO
o[] ao ao oO Do
o[] oO nO '{)
classroom
f) Multi-storey building: two classrooms to each staircase,
daylight from two sides Arch.: Schuster
gr,::;;:,ll;:j;:jl
'Im''!TI?'afl
===
00 00 PC
~ra111fffil
o==
DO 00 00
classroom
Q Four classrooms per storey with daylight from both
sides, side extension for group teaching Arch.: Haefeli, Moser, Steiger
--- I I
1.----------------- _J
covered access
Hexagonal classroom without corridor, accessed
through cloakroom and lobby Arch.: Gottwald, Weber
195
SCHOOLS
General
classrooms
Specialist
classrooms
Information and
communal area
Sanitary facilities
Break and
circulation areas
Arrangement of
classrooms
Clusters
Model room
programme
Examples

SCHOOLS
General
classrooms
Specialist
classrooms
Information and
communal area
Sanitary facilities
Break and
circulation areas
Arrangement of
classrooms
Clusters
Model room
programme
Examples
Places m2/room
General teaching rooms
classrooms 24-32 50-66
group rooms 12-18 36-50
multi-purpose rooms 32 72
side rooms 18-36
teaching equipment room 18-36
Specialist classrooms
work room 16 72
side room 24
music room 32 72
School library/media centre
Administration
head teacher's room 12-18
secretariat 18--24
teachers' room 24-50
sick room 18
parents' meeting room 12
caretaker's room 12
Communal areas
kitchen servery 24
dining/multi-purpose room
side room 18-24
Utility areas
caretaker's workshop 18
room for cleaning materials 12
storeroom
Caretaker's flat
Sports hall
Open-air sports facilities
break areas with gymnastic and
play equipment
school garden
playing field
100m track 4 tracks
long jump facility 3 tracks
gymnastics lawn
Subtotals
general classrooms
specialist classrooms
school library/media centre
administration
utility areas
Total
m2/pupil
0 Model room programme, primary school, school building regulations (Saxony_, refs)
196
SCHOOLS
Model Room Programme for Primary Schools
1 cohort L conorts
4 classes 8 classes
120 pupils 240 pupils
No. m2 No. m2
326-490 592-748
4 200-264 8 400-528
2 72-100
1 90 1 72
1 18 1 24
1 18 1 24
96
1 72
1 24
60 72
36 102
60
36
12
1 18
1 1
1 12
92 92
1 24 1 24
1 50 1 50
1 18 1 18
24 66
1 18
1 12
1 24 1 36
1 80
1 600
600 1200
150 300
1 pitch 1 pitch
400 400
326-390 592-748
96
60 72
36 102
24 66
446-510 928-1084
4.0 4.2

CD Break hall
®Break yard
@Sports hall
@) Physics classroom
® Drawing/crafts
@ Class/course rooms
0 Markt lndersdorf grammar school, first floor
CD Forum
®Stage
Arch.: Allmann Sattler Wappner Architekten
Montessori school, Aachen, one-stage school, ground floor
Arch.: Prof. Ernst Kasper, Prof. Klaus Klever
CD Break hall
®Classroom
@Group room
@store
®Caretaker
SCHOOLS
Examples
@Music room
(!) Woodwork,
housekeeping
@Services
@ Multi-purpose
roam
C) School for individual promotion of learning, Alzenau, primary and secondary
school, ground floor Arch.: (se) arch Stefanie Eberding und Stephan Eberding
®
®
®
C) Volta school house, Basel, fourth floor--> 0
--'>0-0
CD Entrance hall
®Sport hall
@ Yard light well
@Classroom
with group
@Crafts
@ Religion/remedial
teaching/
languages
0 Volta school house, Basel, ground floor
®
Arch.: Miller & Maranta
197
SCHOOLS
General
classrooms
Specialist
classrooms
Information and
communal area
Sanitary facilities
Break and
circulation areas
Arrangement of
classrooms
Clusters
Model room
programme
Examples

UNIVERSITIES
AND COLLEGES
Lecture theatres
Examples of
lecture theatres
Seating
Projection
Seminar and
service rooms
Laboratories
see also: Student
residences,
p. 167
Faculty extension
0 Scheme of university facilities
f) Geometrical determination of the listener curve
e Normal lecture theatre design (humanities)
student seats
during operations
0 Lecture theatre for demonstrations on a bench (medicine)
198
UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES
Lecture Theatres
Central university facilities include: great hall, event hall, adminis-
tration, deanery and student union. Also prominent are libraries, can-
teens, sports facilities, car parks and student residences (~ p. 167}.
Basic space requirements for all subjects
Lecture theatre for basic and special lectures, seminar and tutorial
rooms (partially with PC workplaces) for detailed instruction of the
course material, specialised libraries, rooms for scientific assis-
tants, conference and examination rooms.
Space requirements for specific subjects:
Humanities: lecture theatre with seating raked (rising) at a low pitch
~ 8. No particular requirements for blackboards or projection.
Technical and artistic subjects: e.g. architecture, art, music: draw-
ing, studio, workshop, practice and meeting rooms of all types.
Technical and natural science subjects: e.g. physics, mechan-
ical engineering, electrical engineering: drawing rooms, labora-
tories, workshops.
Natural science and medical theory subjects: e.g. chemistry,
biology, anatomy, physiology, health care, pathology: laboratories
with associated practical rooms, scientific workshops, animal keep-
ing and experiment rooms. Medical demonstration ('anatomy') the-
atres with steeply raked seating ~ G. Natural science lecture the-
atres with experiment benches and steeply raked seating ~ C).
ceiling line
1
sloping ceiling I
0 Longitudinal section through a lecture theatre
e Steeply raked lecture theatre (natural sciences)
f) Steps in life drawing class with seated area of 0.65 m2 per student (technical
artistic subjects)

f
I
,I]
I
I
I
I.

I II I
~ ~
90
90
1-t----11.40-----j-----j
0 Rectangular lecture theatre with 200 seats
f) Trapezoidal lecture theatre with 400 seats
.l
~oject8roorn:Y
0 Lecture theatre with 800 seats
Lecture Theatres
Larger lecture theatres for central lectures are preferably accom-
modated in auditorium buildings, and smaller lecture theatres for
specialist lectures in institute or seminar buildings. Access to the
lecture theatre is best separated from the research facilities, with
the shortest possible route from outside to the back of the lecture
theatre (in the case of raked seating, entrances behind the up-
permost row, or in larger lecture theatres also at the side at middle
height -> 8). Lecturers enter the lecture theatre at the front, from
the preparation room, and experimental apparatus can be rolled
into the theatre. Common lecture theatre sizes are 100, 150, 200,
300, 400, 600, 800 seats. Lecture theatres with up to 200 seats,
ceiling height approx. 3.5 m can be integrated into an institute
building; larger theatres should ideally have their own building.
Experiment benches should be easily changeable, on wheels and
suitable for laboratory work. Media connections are required.
-
f) Floor plans for light and sound booths
0 Longitudinal section -> 0
I
I
() Plan of podium area
I
I
I
I
I
/
/
/
/
/
G) movable blackboard
® service duct in floor
@ experiment bench
@ point of reference
light and
sound lock
30
x,~-----j-1
199
UNIVERSITIES
AND COLLEGES
Lecture theatres
Examples of
lecture theatres
Seating
Projection
Seminar and
service rooms
Laboratories

UNIVERSITIES
AND COLLEGES
Lecture theatres
Examples of
lecture theatres
Seating
Projection
Seminar and
service rooms
Laboratories
CD Large lecture theatre
® Seminar room
@ Server room
@)Side room
®Airspace
@we
([) Small lecture theatre
tl
0 Bremerhaven University, third floor Arch.: Kister Scheithauer Gross
f) Council building, Freiburg University, ground floor entrance hall and two-storey
Auditorium Maximum Arch.: O.E. Schweizer
<D main lecture
theatre
®projector
® lecture hall
@ senate room
®cloakroom
0 Auditorium of the Technical University of Delft Arch.: Broek + Bakema
200
Examples of Lecture Theatres
0 Section -; 0
Lecture theatres, Griifin Donho!! Building, first floor, Frankfurt an der Oder
University Arch.: Yamaguchi und Essig Architekten BOA
0 Student building in DOsseldorf
G) lecture theatre
® projection room
@cloakroom
f) Lecture theatre of the ETH Honggerberg, Zurich

[:i:[:i
Level
l--85-l- 85--+- 85----1
1--85 -l-105----j
On 15 em steps
Sloping floor up to 12% incline
0 Lecture theatre seating
1----'9"'0'------j
8 Lecture theatre seating /desk
ventilation
I I
ProJector
P< i•
0.5 h
II
I
0 Layout of projectors, plan
f) Seating arrangement with tip-up
seats and desks
Arrangement with fixed desks and
rotating seats (required space)
8 Desk ventilation I air flow
--
--
-- --
4.
or
T
J_
+-----3.5 h -----+
Layout of projectors, section, showing distribution of the angle of inclined view
to places above and below the projectors
Seating and Projection
Lecture theatre seating
Combined units with tip-up or slewing seat, backrest and desk (with
shelf or hook for case or bag), mostly fixed mounting ~ 0 - 0.
Arrangement is according to subject, number of students and type
of tuition: from light (slide shows, electro-acoustic facilities) to heavy.
Some lecture theatres (surgery, internal medicine, physics) have
raked (rising) rows of seating ~ 0. The space requirement per
student depends on type of seating, desk depth and floor pitch.
Per student (including all walking areas in larger lecture theatres in
a cramped situation), the space requirement is 1.10 m2, in smaller
lecture theatres and in a normal situation 0.80-0.95 m2•
Projection, boards, acoustics, lighting:
Projection screens and black-/whiteboards can be designed as
segmented surfaces, or fixed to a straight back wall. Wall boards
in many sections, mostly vertically sliding, manual or mechanical,
can be dropped down below the projection area. Wheeled boards
or screens are also possible.
Speech should reach the listener as uniformly as possible, with no
disturbing echo. Suspended ceilings will aid reflection and absorp-
tion. Rear walls should be clad with sound-absorbing material, oth-
er walls flat. Light intensity in windowless lecture theatres: 600 lx.
Connection for
access point
Motion detector
Loudspeaker
-Emergency
call-listen-in
-Announcements
Wall panel
AMX
Hinged door, behind
trips/ switches
Media column Integrated into
lecture theatre, exact height
according to room height
-L -- --
1
Front row
-" 1.5 b f-
tion screen
-~-l--
--
1Projec
--
T
~
1
4li) Front view, mobile (wheeled) media
table
Rearmost row of seats
35J40o
I
---- -- ---- --
max. ::::1l
-
-
60°
----
--
--
--
G Projection wall width dependent on length of lecture theatre, plan
T~-----------a----------r
- - - Projection wall Spectator
in the
last row
@) Projection wall width dependent on length of lecture theatre, section
201
UNIVERSITIES
AND COLLEGES
Lecture theatres
Examples of
lecture theatres
Seating
Projection
Seminar and
service rooms
Laboratories
BS EN 12665
DIN 5035

UNIVERSITIES
AND COLLEGES
Lecture theatres
Examples of
lecture theatres
Seating
Projection
Seminar and
service rooms
Laboratories
Places of
Assembly
Regulations
see also:
Libraries,
pp. 247 If.
Prof. office
18m
2
Trrr)
Prof. office Director
18m2
26m2
Laboratory
200m2
Archive ~ 1
30m
2
"'ffil
0 Plan of a university building; seminar rooms are used by many departments
Corridor Corridor Seminar rooms
lofficellll I I ~~~;ri·j Project rooms I
1.80 2.00
t5.oo-+i-+1
2
.-
20
+l-+
1
---16.oo ____
'_s._oo_+--
__
8_.o_o~--l
1-------------38.00 ~
f) Section ~ 0: column-free pre-stressed concrete floor boards supported on
the external walls
n
0 0
u
0 Dimensions of a computer room
0
r 00 00 00
[=::J
OD
0
00 00 00 Heightof o
the window o o
=a 0 0
00 00 00
r0 0
00 00 00 0 0
00 00 00 00 00 00
-+----maximum 2.5 a 4
e Dimensions of seminar rooms with natural ventilation
c:::o
r ~
c::=:J D
DO
cris m2
ca.18-20 m2
Prof.
sci[j~ant
Do ~0 ~ """u
D g
0 2 :----,
ca.20m ~m2
~s[jjD ill
Q Basic equipment for service rooms
I I I I
000000
000000 ~
Q)
===::1 T
~
~ l
'0
0 0 0 0 00 Books
·u;
So
0 00 0 0 0 0
'0
~ 000000
0 00 0 0 0
I I I I Bookshelves
0 0 0 0 0 0
(lt Arrangement of reading places and bookshelves
202
Seminar and Service Rooms
The design of lecture theatres and seminar rooms has to comply
with the places of assembly regulations. It should also be ensured
that wheelchair users have sufficient space in lecture theatres in
line with standards.
Service rooms for lecture theatres
Every lecture theatre should have a directly accessible side room.
This has no fixed function and can be used as a storage room.
Sufficient preparation area should be provided next to all lecture
theatres featuring experiments, positioned at the same level and
with a short route to the podium. Guideline for the min. size: for
rectangular plan lecture theatre, approx. 0.2-0.25 m2
/seat; trap-
ezoidal plan 0.15-0.18 m2/seat; natural science and pre-clinical
subjects 0.2-0.3 m2/seat.
Areas for storage and staff rooms are necessary for the proper
operation of a lecture theatre building: a room for technical staff
to maintain the facilities; for cleaning staff; storeroom for replace-
ment parts, light bulbs, fluorescent tubes, black-/whiteboard,
clothing etc. Min. size per room 15 m2; space required for all side
rooms min. 50-60 m2.
Computer room
The size of the computer room is related to the number and size
of the computer desks, which depends on the size of the displays.
General tuition rooms
Seminar rooms, usual sizes: 20, 40, 50, 60 seats; mobile double
tables, width 1.20 m, depth 0.60 m, space required per student
1.90-2.00 m.
Variable arrangement of the tables for tutorial and group work. If
there is free ventilation from only one external wall, the depth of
the room should not exceed 2.5 x clear ceiling height.
Offices for scientific personnel -7 0
professor 20-24 m2
scientific assistant 15 m2
assistant 20 m2
secretary 15 m2 (double occupation 20 m2)
Cloakroom and WC facilities
Rough estimate for both together: 0.15-0.16 m2/seat
Faculty and open-access libraries (-7 Libraries pp. 247 ff.)
Storage for 30 000-200 000 vols on open-access shelves.
Book storage space -7 C)
Bookcases with 6-7 shelves, 2 m high (reaching height)
Distance between bookcases 1.50-1.60 m
Space required 1.0-1.2 m2/200 vols
Reading places -7 0
Width 0.9-1.0 m/depth 0.8 m
Space required 2.4-2.5 m2 per place
Entrance control, with storage for cases/bags; catalogue, copier
room
0
uuu
0 c:=:J
0
0 c:=:J
0 0
Q)
0 c:=:J f---1.80--J
'0
·u; 0
c:::::::J I
" 0 c:=:J Books
0
nnu
'0 0 0
c
~ 0 c:=:J 0 0
0 0 Reading places
0 c:=:J
0 0
0 c:=:J
0 0
0 Arrangement of reading places and bookshelves

1- 80 -t-- 1.40 --+ 80 --j
1-80 + 1.25 -; 1-80 --j
0 Minimum passage width at workstations
1-- 3.60------i
writing area=.c====~===='f"'-
0~~ 00~
~o 0~0 0
1 ~
f80t-1.60 -!801
corridor
-,-- -,-- -.- -,-- -,- -,-
f) Research laboratory
"'
'E
"'
0
.0
c.
0
a X
1-- 3.60---t80t-1.60 -!801
Function and ancillary rooms
24 seats
__._-
8 Teaching and practical laboratory
Lab safety level 3
CD warning sign
® double-door safety lobby, self-closing
doors
® outdoor clothing
@ protective clothing
® floor trough (pas. disinfectant mat) In
front of shower
® hand wash basin with disinfectant
dispenser
0 workbench (clean bench) with separate
special filter
autoclave (In lab or building)
I
extractor
fiat panel radiator (7.5 em from wall)
control and monitoring cupboard:
electricity box, emergency mains off-
switch, error board
@ pressure difference display readable from
inside and out with acoustic alarm
lab
-
@emergency telephone, telephone
@two-way intercom, electric door-opener
@Windows: gas-tight, non-combustible,
leaded
@pass-door: fireproof
Lab safety level 4
@three-chamber safety lobby. Doors
®~~~:~~~:~~~~~~r9
lL-1i~~~tem can be
upgraded*). Collect anO disinfect
waste water
0 gas-tight, enclosed workbench,
~d~ft~~~eaf~;e~~fll¥n~~~ extraction,
®autoclave with lockable doors on
both sides, disinfect condensation
@flood lock
@autoclavable container for used
protective clothing
*) Only required if upgrading to L-4 lab.
exchange area
c_
~ t
t§j C_
@ [coU I
~].,..:1~~~,~t
.....
entrance
door
e Clean room laboratory, example
Laboratories
Laboratories differ according to use and subject. According to
use:
Tuition-related practical laboratories with a large number of
workstations collected together and mostly with simple basic
equipment -7 e.
Research-related laboratories, mostly in smaller rooms with
special equipment and additional practical spaces like weighing
and measurement rooms, centrifuge and autoclave rooms, rinsing
kitchens, air-conditioned and cold storage rooms with constant
temperature, photographic/dark rooms etc. -7 e.
According to subject:
Chemistry and biology laboratories have permanently installed
laboratory benches. Rooms have a high rate of air exchange and
frequently additional fume cupboards with air extraction -7 p. 204
-7 0 for work producing gas and smoke. Fume cupboards are
often installed in their own rooms ('stink rooms').
Physics laboratories mostly have mobile benches and sophisti-
cated electrical equipment in cable ducts in the wall or suspended
from the ceiling. Low rate of air exchange -7 p. 204. There are
special laboratories for specific requirements, e.g. isotope lab-
oratories for work on radioactive substances in various safety
classes.
Clean room laboratories are used for work requiring especially
dust-free filtered air, e.g. in microelectronics or for particularly
dangerous substances, whose release into the surrounding rooms
should be prevented by special air circulation and filtering (micro-
biology, gene technology) -7 0.
G) fume cupboards
® workbenches
®reserves
@ dry work places
® weighing tables
® workstation for
chemist
®corridor
® materials cupboards
®eye douche
8 Section, BASF plastics laboratory
® hand-held fire
extinguisher
@ vertical energy
supply
@ overhead pipes
@ ventilation and
environmental
control system
Arch.: Suter u. Suter
:J • rEJ 0
'@I I I I CI:J IT
"il'® -e-®
@
:J c
0 Plan->0
203
UNIVERSITIES
AND COLLEGES
Lecture theatres
Examples of
lecture theatres
Seating
Projection
Seminar and
service rooms
Laboratories

UNIVERSITIES
AND COLLEGES
Lecture theatres
Examples of
lecture theatres
Seating
Projection
Seminar and
service rooms
Laboratories
l-3.125
--f--3.125
--+-3.125
--t---3.125
----l
0 Room dimensions derive from size of bench (workstation). Services and
cupboards are in the corridor wall. Weighing room is separate.
f) Uniform laboratories with measurement and weighing rooms in front, University
Clinic, Frankfurt am Main Arch.: Schlempp + Schwethelm
escape balcony
wlndo ench
desks desks
~
'!'Window bench
~
0
Pnl lR ~
/ ru··m· ~ ;)
*!!deep extractors :§ c-'¥ )<
~~rhch Q) wet~tor !~ ~
racks ltiil (sc~r) og~.g_ ;x
~ l!!j l::!!:J ~E.§_
8 Laboratory equipment in main
scientific laboratory (Bayer AG
dye plant)
escape balcony
aisle
e Arrangement of equipment in
accessible service ducts (BASF)
energy conduit+ adjoining bench with low cupboard
r--------, ,- .--------,
0 ODD -- r- = 0 ODQ
T
i
I
······ti~ed·~~~;;~~~d······················~c;································~~~b~~;;;·~~·~~;t~~~-·
r---- 1.20 -----; f- t- 60 -j f------1.20 _____,
e Chemistry laboratory bench
energy conduit+ adjoining workbench
r-
CJ 0 DDO
=·=·~=;=.~~:::::::::r·:·:·=·~2o,:::·~~·=.::;=·=·=·=·=·=·:·=·=·=·=·=·=·=·=·=·=·=·:·=·:·=·:·=·=·=·=·=·=·=·=
e Physics laboratory bench
204
Laboratories
Cold laboratories are used for tasks requiring extreme tempera-
ture conditions, photographic work and as darkrooms. Work-
rooms without equipment installed also belong in the close lab-
oratory area:
Study cubicles; social/rest rooms for laboratory staff; central
rooms for general storage, chemical stores and issue, with par-
ticular safety measures; isotope stores with decay containers etc.
Animal laboratories are a special case, with rooms for keeping the
animals, which have special equipment appropriate to the species
and require their own air circulation.
Laboratory workstations
The determining design unit for the laboratory workstation is the
laboratory bench, permanently installed or mobile, whose dimen-
sions together with the associated work and passage areas de-
fine the laboratory axis, which forms the basic spatial unit ~ 0
-e.
Standard dimensions for the normal working bench:
120 em width in practical laboratories, several times that in re-
search laboratories, 80 em depth work surface including socket
strip~ 9- ().
Benches and fume cupboards are mostly in the form of a building
block system: element widths 120 em, fume cupboards 120 and
180cm~o.
The socket strip is an independent element with all electricity sup-
ply systems. Benches and low-level cupboards are placed in front
ofit~e-o.
Steel tubing supports the construction of laboratory benches,
whose work surfaces are of artificial stone panels without joints,
seldom tiled, and chemically resistant plastic panels. Low-level
cupboards are of wood or plastic-coated chipboard. Supply ser-
vices are fed from above out of the ceiling cavity or from below
through the floor structure.
Ventilation
Of low- or high-pressure systems, the latter are particularly rec-
ommended for multi-storied institute buildings with large-scale air
requirements, in order to reduce the ducts' cross-section. Cool-
ing and humidification as required. Ventilation equipment has the
highest demand for space of all services installations.
All laboratories in which work with chemicals takes place must
have artificial ventilation and extraction.
Air changes per hour: chemistry laboratories 8 times
biology laboratories 4 times
physics laboratories 3-4 times
(in the extraction area)
Electrical installation
Each building will need its own transformer station if the numbers
of connections are high or if special electricity supplies are speci-
fied. Electrical service rooms must be enclosed in fire-resistant
walls and may not be crossed by other pipework or cables.
1
§
oooooooo
aooooooooo aoaooooooooooo
l I I
:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:•!•!•!·:-:-:·!·!•!•!•!•!•!•!•!•!•!•!·!·!·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:
1- 1.20 -----;
Q Fume cupboards
f---- 1.80 ----1 ~60 -j

_Q
i:
8
.,.
.0
~
0.
~
:~
L.
stairs
L serv.
0 Services shafts on the
face side, internal vee
p: :cj
t . . :1
serv.
Services shafts central,
vee as leading element
L escape
balcony
e Internal installation, coupled with VCC
exhaust air
serv.
f) Services shafts on the
face side, external vee
serv.
Q Single-shaft services,
internal vee
0 External services shafts, central VCC
Q Horizontal conduits and ducts: laboratory floor. Plan -> 0
cw
HW
c
ow
cws
CWR
I
II
cold water St steam E emptying
hot water Co condensate RE reserve
circulation A air LW lab water
distilled water G gas SAE secondary air
cooling water supply SM special medium extraction
cooling water return SWW sanitary waste water
1st pressure level RWP rainwater pipe
2nd pressure level
f=--------5.90-------c.,l
25
2 05----+ +--1.95---l~
r +-------- · ~~~8w~
n
0400
e Plan of joint shaft -> 0
Laboratories
Possible arrangements of service shafts, columns and
vertical circulation core {VCC)
Services concentrated in:
- joint shafts on face side of building, internal vee --7 0
- external joint shafts, external vee --7 8 - central joint shafts,
vee as leading element --7 e
- services distributed among single-shaft installations, internal
vee --7 o
- internal installation, coupled with vee --7 e
- external shafts, central VCC, cruciform plan --7 0
Vertical services system --7 0
Many vertical supply lines, internally or on the fac;:ade, run the
media in individual shafts to the laboratories. Decentrally routed
air supply and extraction ducts to the fume cupboards, separate
ventilators on the roof.
Advantage: maximum individual supply; short horizontal connec-
tions to laboratory bench.
Disadvantage: limited floor layout flexibility; greater space require-
ment on working and services floors.
Horizontal services system --7 Cl!>:
Vertical main services for all media concentrated in joint shafts
and distributed horizontally from there into the services floors with
upper or lower connection to laboratory benches.
Advantages: less space required in the services shafts, greater
flexibility of floor layout, simpler maintenance, central ventilation
equipment, better adaptability. High density of installation requires
large amount of space. Vertical joint shafts are simpler, more
accessible and allow revisions.
Conduits should be insulated against condensation, heat, cold
and noise transmission --7 0- e.
I I
I
I I
I
I ! ~
I I
I
Average
0 0 0
0 0 0
Ground plan
0 0 0
I Stairs
0 0 0
I
I
0
0
I I
I
I I
0 0 0
Single shaft
0 0 0
Vertical services system: single shafts for installation of building,
horizontal direct connection to laboratory benches, fume cupboards etc.;
limited flexibility of floor layout
Averane
Ill. .
-------
-------
---------
---------
--------
---------
=::i::::::i:::::
Stairs
Ground plan
(!) Horizontal services system: horizontal conduits and ducts in ceiling space, good
flexibility of floor layout
205
UNIVERSITIES
AND COLLEGES
Lecture theatres
Examples of
lecture theatres
Seating
Projection
Seminar and
service rooms
Laboratories

UNIVERSITIES
AND COLLEGES
Lecture theatres
Examples of
lecture theatres
Seating
Projection
Seminar and
service rooms
Laboratories
([) control lobby
®dark room
~ u::~h-up o ~
~·~
I.o-l
@ autoradiography
@cold room
@tissue culture
@ sterile containers
0 Part of the floor plan of cancer research centre, Heidelberg
Arch.: Heinie, Wischer u. Partner
...
r-------- ------,
f) Analytical physics laboratory building (BASF Ludwigshafen)
0
~~
'ii~Jl'::II!W,il'~lt,ie§I::'W!i!,llllli:t:
~
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~lg
ci
f3.12f3.12j f3.t2+3.12-{
e Typical floor plan of an adaptable multi-purpose Institute Arch.: W. Haake
horizontal services duct
8 Cross-section of laboratory with well-placed central corridor
206
Laboratories
Structure and fittings grid
Good structural grids to achieve mostly column-free rooms have
the following dimensions:
7.20 x 7.20 m, 7.20 x 8.40 m, 8.40 x 8.40 m, normal storey height
4.0 m, clear room height ~3.0 m.
The structural grid is a multiple of the typical planning grid of
120 x 120 em (decimetric system). Reinforced concrete frame
construction, as pre-cast elements or cast in situ, is preferred on
account of the flexibility of plan.
Following programme and layout requirements, with installation at
high and low level, plus natural and artificial lighting and ventilation
rooms, results in areas with different potential uses and techni-
cal qualities. Laboratories therefore have large internal zones and
are arranged as three-block facilities ---7 0 - 0. The length of the
building is influenced by the maximum reasonable length of the
horizontal runs of wet services.
Columns are placed on a grid offset from the structural grid to
increase the flexibility of servicing. Separation of areas is via a
room-enclosing system consisting of partitions and suspended
ceilings. Movable partitions should be easily operated and have
chemical-resistant surfaces. Ceilings should permit disassembly
and have sound insulation. Floor coverings should be resistant to
water and chemicals, without joints and with low electrical con-
ductivity. Normally, plastic roll flooring material or tiles with welded
joints should be used.
Windows in the doors or next to them are important to provide a
view into laboratories.
Isotope laboratories should have flat, non-porous ceiling and
wall surfaces, rounded corners, be surrounded by lead and
concrete, monitored waste water, and shower cubicles be-
tween laboratory and exit. Concrete containers for active resi-
dues or waste and concrete safes with lead doors etc. must be
provided.
Weighing tables are part of every laboratory, and are normally in-
stalled in their own weighing room. The tables should be at the
wall side of vibration-free walls.
Services floors for plant are normally placed in the basement or
on the top storey.
f3o-f--a7'-f301 Ho+ts2'ft4o-j
0 Main pipe duct (accessible): cross-section varies according to number
of pipes

Public, controlled area
Cafe, bar
Restaurant
Shop
Visitors'
entrance
Entrance
Orientation
Cloakroom
Pay desk
we
Conference rooms
Exhibition area
Permanent exhibitio s
Temporary exhibition~
Library
Lecture hall
Private area
Administration
Director
Catalogues
Copy room
Delivery of
works of art
L l-Lib_m_ry----~~ LI_Ar-ch-ive----~
Restoration
D and conservation
workshops Delivery of
works of art
0 Functional scheme
''
North'-
Exhibition
/
/
/
/South
f) Indirect lighting filtered through
suspended glass ceiling
Exhibition
e Indirect lighting filtered through
suspended glass ceiling
;------ 10.00--i
0 Well-lit display room according to
Boston tests
Exhibition
8 Lighting of display from rooflight
facing north
_._.._
Exhibition
e Side lighting from north
Screen
f-----10.00_______,
0 Uniformly lit gallery with light
according to S. Hurst Seager
MUSEUMS AND ART GALLERIES
General
A museum is a public collection of objects testifying to human
cultural development. It collects, documents, receives, researches,
interprets and communicates these through display.
The following museum types can be categorised according to the
origin and nature of the items in the collection:
Art gallery: Collection of works of fine art (including craftworks
and graphics).
Cultural historymuseum: Collection ofdevices, weapons, clothing,
written documents etc. which show the cultural development of a
geographically restricted area (ethnological museum, open-air
museum, local history museum).
Ethnology museum: Works from the cultural heritage of traditional
peoples and lost cultures.
Science museum: Collection of educational and display material
connected with scientific and technical themes.
Lighting
There should be no direct daylight falling on museum objects as
this could cause damage. Therefore display rooms should be
provided with flexible lighting systems: no permanently built-in
lights, no fixed wall and ceiling lights.
Guidelines for lighting:
Very sensitive display objects
Sensitive display objects:
Less sensitive display objects:
UV radiation must not be exceed 25 W/m2•
50-80 lx
100-150ix
150-300 lx
It must be possible to completely darken all display rooms. In
public rooms where no items are displayed, e.g. entrance area,
cafe, library, a greater amount of daylight is desirable.
The lighting calculations for museums are highly theoretical:
the quality of lighting is decisive. American tests can be more
informative.
Room climate in the store and the display areas
The ideal temperatures in the store and the display areas are
15-18°C in the winter and 20-22°C in the summer. Except as
short peaks, in the summer 26°C should not be exceeded. Stores
should not therefore be located in uninsulated attics, for example.
Because the reproduction of insects is very limited under 15°C,
above all for science and ethnography collections a temperature
of 12-13°C is optimal.
Photo and film material is relatively chemically unstable and the
material should therefore be stored cool and dry at temperatures
under 16°C (ideally at approx. 5°C).
The relative humidity in the store and the display areas depends
on the displayed and stored materials: the optimal values are
for wood 55-60%, canvas 50-55%, paper 45-50% and metals,
max. 40%. It is important to avoid short-term variations in relative
humidity: the variation within one hour should not exceed 2.5%,
or not more than 5% in one day. Seasonal variations should not
be more than +5% in summer or -5% in winter. The changing flow
of visitors in museums leads to continuous variation in the climatic
parameters.
207
MUSEUMS AND
ART GALLERIES
General
Display rooms
see also:
Lighting,
pp. 501 ff.

MUSEUMS
AND ART
GALLERIES
General
Display rooms
0 Open plan
0 Linear chaining
D
9 Complex
T
0
0
'"1-,
oo
"'"'
.-:I
ll_
H.OO--j
f) Main and side rooms (core and
satellites)
G Labyrinth
e Round tour (loop)
90-
f-1.oo--l
f) Light and shadow in display cabinets e Distance and light
E 6' 27' 33' 42'
'fitg 0.1 10.5 I 0.6 10.75 I
E'J-------2.oo------+so+so+so+so--!H=E•tg27' 1
2.001
1.50 11.001 50 'E'
CD Field of view: height, size and distance
208
MUSEUMS AND ART GALLERIES
Display Rooms
The decisive factor in the layout of display rooms is the
relationship between the collection and the way it is to be
displayed (display concept). There are the following basic types
of layout --7 0 - 0:
Open plan --7 0: large and visually autonomous items on display,
free circulation, function rooms in basement.
Core and satellite rooms --7 f): main room for orientation in the
museum or the exhibition, side rooms for autonomous displays
(themes/collections)
Linear chaining --7 0: linear sequences of rooms, controlled
circulation, clear orientation, separate entrance and exit.
Labyrinth --7 0: free circulation, guided route and direction are
variable, entrance and exit can be separate.
Complex --7 0: combined groups of rooms with typical features
of --7 0 - 0, complex organisation of collection and display
concept.
Round tour (loop) --7 0: similar to linear chaining-. 0, controlled
circulation leads back to entrance.
Display concept Spatial arrangement
oriented on display items open plan -> 0
systematically oriented main and side rooms (core and satellites)-> f)
thematically oriented linear chaining ----t 0, round tour~ 0
complex oriented labyrinth-> 0. complex-> e
The size and height of the display and store rooms depend on the
dimensions of the works and the extent of the collection, but the
minimum height is 4 m clear.
Picture/
I
Distance: 1 (;!!/
according to I
_ siz:_o~i~u~~ __ _
1.20-1.40
!1.
~
l m_in. passage a/A
Width 'tf
- ---------
View to the centr~
2.20-2.50
1.00 ---t1.20-1.40
I Through
I ~ldthage
~~:
JiiI
I
I
I
G Pictures on the wall: viewing and traffic ~ Space in front of display cabinet
f-1.00--1
~30-35-j
----~Picture _____
Words on picture~
or board I
max. distance
to observer I
1.10mreadable I
rjJ!JBook
15'-20'--+ r
I ~
J; 1
4l) Ensure labels/commentaries readable

0 Theatre of Dionysos, Athens,
452-330 BCE: plan
A, Band C:
parts ofthe
stage
1 first gate
2 hell
3 Garden of
Gethsemane 12
4 Mount of
Ol!ves

crosses
20 Christ's cross
21 Holy
Sepulchre
"---'-'--'--' 22 heaven
C) Plan of medieval stage facilities
f) Theatre of Marcellus, Rome,
11 ,500 seats, 11 acE: plan
0 Swan Theatre, London
A: changing room
B: higher backstage section, slope
up to 1:9
C: frontstagesectlon,ralsod
1.10m above floor level 0
E: orchestra
F: seatlngareaforgovernorsand
highest dignitaries
G: seatsfornoblo.s'wivcs
G-H seats for first rank nobility
H--Jseats forsocondranknobility
J: from hera upwards, nobility of
lesser standing
K: seats for tho commonars
L: proscenium
M: wall of the hous~:~ or hall onto
whlchthetheatrewasbuilt
P: final back-drop of perspective
stageset,atleast60mfromM
so actors can pass behind
0 Theatre layout, Sebastiana Serllo, 1545
0 Teatro Olimpico, Vicenza, 1585, section and plan Arch.: Andrea Palladia and
Vicenzo Scamozzi
f) Teatro 'San Carlo', Naples, 1737 Arch.: Antonio Medrano and Angelos Carasale
THEATRES
Historical Review
The design of theatres requires an understanding of complex
functional interactions, of which much is explained by the history
of theatres. This is an architectural challenge, which has been
interpreted by various societies for more than 2500 years. Each
theatre building today stands in a great tradition, even if it is
marked by efforts to escape from this. A few examples should
throw light on the historical development of this type of building -'>
o- 0 -" p. 21 o-" o- e.
Ancient theatres
Theatre of Dionysos, the start of European theatre building
-'> 0. Greek theatres were located next to towns and
embedded in the landscape. Theatre of Marcellus, Rome. The
first theatre in Rome built completely of stone -'> f). Rows of
seating and the back wall of the stage were connected and of
the same height.
Middle ages
Medieval stage theatre. Temporary stage and buildings -'> 8.
Interior space of the Swan Theatre, according to a drawing
by van de Witt 1596. Only a curtain separated the front and
back stages and the upper stage served for balcony or siege
scenes -'> 0.
Renaissance
The early Italian Renaissance theatres were temporary wooden
installations in existing halls -'> 0. Vasari, for example, developed
a wooden, reusable system for the theatre installation in the Salone
dei Cinquecento in the Palazzo Vecchio, Florence. Teatro Olimpico,
Vicenza -'> e. The first permanent theatre of the Renaissance,
which resumed the ancient tradition of theatre building. Semi-
circular and rising rows of seating for the audience and a stage
house with fa<;:ade. Next to this were the loggia courtyards with
spectator boxes arranged in a horseshoe. The Teatro Farnese,
Parma -'> Cl) + 0 was the first building with movable scenery
system in a deep stage space.
e Section ofTeatro Farnese, Parma, 1618-1628 Arch.: Giovanni Battista Aleotti
Cl) Teatro Farnese, Parma, 1618-1628 Arch.: Giovanni Battista Aleotti
209
THEATRES
Historical review
Typology
Auditorium
Stage
Subsidiary rooms
Workshops and
staff rooms
Rehearsal and
public rooms
Modernisation

THEATRES
Historical review
Typology
Auditorium
Stage
Subsidiary rooms
Workshops and
staff rooms
Rehearsal and
public rooms
Modernisation
Baroque
THEATRES
Typology
The theatre with boxes and a 'peephole' single-room stage steadily
became more prevalent. Teatro 'San Carlo', Naples, p. 209 ---7 0,
and Teatro alia Scala, Milan ---7 0 + 8 are considered the models
Q Section, Teatro alia Scala, Milan, 1779 Arch.: Piermarini for the building of opera theatres in the 18th and 19th centuries,
f) Teatro alia Scala, Milan, 1779 Arch.: Piermarinl
C) Section, Festival Opera House, Bayreuth, 1876 R. Wagner and Arch.
0. Bruckwald
8 Festival Opera House, Bayreuth, 1876
0 Waiter Gropius: Design for the
'Totaltheater', 1927
210
R. Wagner and Arch. 0. Bruckwald
0 -'> 9 Stage rotated
but also the new 'Met', in New York 1966.
19th and 20th centuries
Festival Opera House, Bayreuth ---7 8 - 0. Richard Wagner
introduced this form of theatre (auditorium in a classical semi-
circle and rising) and set a counterpoint to the Grand Opera in
Paris. Totaltheater Project (Gropius/Piscator), cf. 'The Stage in the
Bauhaus', Dessau 1924. Note: audience space can be rotated,
stage with paternoster system, surrounding projection on walls and
ceilings ---7 9 - 0. Playhouse on Lehniner Platz, Berlin, first large
new building of a flexible theatre space (rebuilding of the Mendelsohn
building, 'Universurn', of 1928) ---7 p. 213 ---7 f!)- f). Opera Bastille,
Paris, the largest theatre yet, with 10 side stages on two levels.
Tendencies in current theatre building
There are two tendencies today:
1. Preservation, restoration and modernisation of existing theatres
from the 19th to mid-20th century ---7 p. 218
2. New buildings with 'experimental' open-space character, e.g.
Playhouse on Lehniner Platz ---7 p. 213. A similar direction is
demonstrated by the many projects to rebuild existing spaces
into workshop theatres with a size of 80-160 seats.
Different types of theatre building
1. Opera house:
This belongs to the tradition of 18-19th century Italian opera
buildings ---7 0 - f). It is characterised by a clear spatial and
architectural separation between auditorium and stage, by high
numbers of seats (1 000 to nearly 4000) and the corresponding
system of boxes or tiers, which is necessary for so many theatre-
goers, e.g. Scala, Milan, 3600 seats; Deutsche Oper, Berlin,
1986 seats; Metropolitan Opera, New York, 3788 seats; Opera
Bastille, Paris, 2700 seats. The counterpoint to the form of opera
house as tiered/box theatre is the Festival Opera House, Bayreuth
---7 8-0. This is designed as a theatre with stalls according to the
Greek and Roman pattern, but has only 1645 seats.
2. Playhouse:
This is in the tradition of the German reform theatre of the 19th
century. It is characterised by the stalls layout (that is, the audience sit
on a large, rising and curved floor) and by a pronounced apron stage
(area in front of the proscenium), which can be used for the play as
well. The playhouse also, however, follows the tradition of the English
theatre ---7 p. 209 0. i.e. theatre in the round. The open and variable
layout became more intensive with the spatial experimentation of
theatres in the 1970s. Variations in layout are shown, for example, by
the Playhouse on Lehniner Platz, Berlin ---7 p. 213.
3. Multi-purpose theatre:
This mixed form of opera, theatre and ballet is a speciality in
German-speaking regions. The space is mostly characterised by
the predominant influence of the opera. The frequent changes of
scenery are enabled by the appropriate subsidiary rooms (store,
scenery store, workshops). Example: Heilbronn City Theatre,
Arch.: Biste u. Gerling 1982 ---7 p. 217 0.
4. Musical theatre:
Actually no separate type of building, but rather a theatre built,
usually, for a particular musical by an impresario. A specific
challenge for the designer is the adaptation of the building to the
concept of the musical without neglecting the needs of later uses
for other productions.

f--;;; 90 ----1 better 96--1 00
<0 T
i
~
5; 50
1
-"
0 Seating must be fixed according to
Places of Assembly Regulations.
Minimum dimensions are not
adequate for theatres!
.................................................
:::::::::::::::::::::.·::.·:::::::.·:::::::::.·::::.
8 Row width 20 places
---t---1Jilllit··--
----1t0-s::~~U__U__U__U
______
aisle
---- -----~----~---~----~--------
::: :. .: ;:
10seats . · . :_ •,
J ____ -- ----
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::.
0 Row width max. 10places, side
aisle at left and right
1. 2.
last middle
row
24(32)m
auditorium
f) Staggered folding seats offer
freedom for elbows
door
.....................................r- 1.o -..................
1.2 aisle
----Tr-I'T'ITT________
25 seat~:il l±l IJ
----~-tl-ftr--------
25 seats m
---- ___jill__rj__~----------
1.0 3-4 rows aisle
~
..","
..~
..~
...~,m~m~m~~~.~
~m~mNm,,m,m,,mo,m,~,
8 Row width 25 places, door needed
1----- 2.0 ---l
1---- 2.4 ---l
0 Boxes may have ~20 loose chairs,
or fixed seating if necessary; per
person ~0.65 m2 floor area
I0-Jine (proscenium line)
proscenium width
at 24m~ 13m
at 32m~ 17m
stage
0 Proportions of traditional auditorium plan
--. II I0-llne
::: 1111 -width of auditorium j e:~d~~enium
A -last row --._BI
8/C - proscenium width~ --J~'777.'777777l'
BCDE- acting area of stage /I
f i
A. : .
account is taken of the
fact 1hat the hatched
section cannot be seen
by the side seats
·--·--·-...
·--
p
P =point to
determine
width of
--·__..-·..-C. auditorium
.--· ~ 2 x proscenium width ----4
.--·-- ~ 1 x proscenium -l
I width
depth of stage acting area
e Auditorium width
THEATRES
Auditorium
In addition to the local building regulations, decisive for the design of
theatres are the Places of Assembly Regulations of the relevant state.
This is based on the Model Places of Assembly Regulations, which
can vary in detail from those of a particular state! This legislation
applies from 200 spectators. It should be noted that it is not the actual
number of seating or standing places that counts: it is assumed that
there are two spectators per m2
in the place of assembly (for rows of
seats; two spectators per running m for standing places).
Auditorium and stage/acting area
Size of auditorium: the number of people in the audience gives
the required floor area. For seated spectators, assume E":0.5 m2/
spectator. This number results from:
seat width x row spacing
add E":0.5 x E":0.9
E":0.45 m2
=0.05
E":0.50 -7 0
/seat
/seat
Length of the rows of seats per aisle: 10 places -7 0 + e,
25 places per aisle if an exit door of 1.2 m width is available at the
side per 3 or 4 rows -7 0
Exits, escape routes 1.2 m wide per 200 people -7 0- e.
1% ofthe seats (at least two) must be accessible for wheelchair users,
if possible in connection with a seat for an accompanying person.
Auditorium volume
This is determined by acoustic requirements (reverberation) -7
p. 221 as follows: playhouse approx. 4-5 m3
/spectator; opera house
approx. 6-8 m3/spectator. Air volumes must not be less for technical
ventilation reasons, in order to avoid too rapid air changes (draughts).
Proportions of the auditorium
These are derived from the psychological awareness and angle of
view of the spectator, or the requirement for a good view from all
seats. Options are:
1. Good view, without moving head, but light eye movements of
approx. 30°.
2. Good view with slight head movements and light eye
movements of approx. 60° 0.
3. Max. awareness angle without head movement approx. 110°,
i.e. all actions in the field are 'in view'. Outside this field, there
is uncertainty, because 'something' is out of view.
4. Full head and shoulder movement allows an angle ofview of360°.
Proportions of the classic auditorium
Opera, multi-purposetheatre, and traditional playhouse -7 0: distance
of the furthest row from the start of the stage should not exceed:
- playhouse, max. 24 m (max. distance for the recognition of facial
expressions); opera, 32 m (large movements are still recognisable).
Auditorium width is determined by the spectators at the side being
able to see the stage adequately -7 G. The comfortable proportions
and sometimes good acoustics ofthe classic theatres ofthe 18th and
19th centuries are based on particular rules of proportion -7 0 - GD.
CA=4R
AB = tangents
Design of auditorium's contour,
Grand Th68.tre, Bordeaux
Arch.: Victor Louis 1778
CA = CB =radius of the semicircle AB
CE =CD=2CA
E = mid-point of the arc BE'
D =mid-point ofthe arc AD'
Design of the auditorium's curve,
Teatro alia Scala, Milan.
Arch.: Piermarini
D
211
THEATRES
Historical review
Typology
Auditorium
Stage
Subsidiary rooms
Workshops and
staff rooms
Rehearsal and
public rooms
Modernisation

THEATRES
Historical review
Typology
Auditorium
Stage
Subsidiary rooms
Workshops and
staff rooms
Rehearsal and
public rooms
Modernisation
1
0-llne,
proscenium line
I
. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.row .
I I I I I
.
1
lines of sight, super-elevation
. ~:~T """"•
lo 1 as ' T -1.10 :..--
. pont T -1.10 [ ----
:::}:.•.z.:J,I)):::.•::,IJ~ _L--- ~uper-el~vationof
I forestage height :•:.'.:.:::::::::::. -- - eye lev~l- ~~~ ~~!'g1hi~~ery
i ~~~·d.~o~.90m f~~,s~~~~g {or6_cm'perrow);
j · · · ~~~~~ednOJ~~ not
0pron stage above this, steps
I =4-Sm --t--- 1.5 -1---o.a +o.a-+o.a -10.9--+-------.
0 Elevation of seating (gradient)
----------------!Ideal logarithmic rise _______....-
:..._. ____________
~0'-'0»>T~0'-'0»>T0'-'00'-'0~rn Modification as broken
:·:·: straight line
f) Gradient curve and its modification
middle seats
side seats
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.row
0 Offsetting ofthe seats In a row is achieved through variable seat widths (0.5()-{).53-0.56)
l!!li!!l!llll!!l
II !If!! il!!ii!!ll
llll!!l!!l!i !!!Ill
g;,"«;llllllll!!l!l!l.':':':'l
feeling of integration {mutual perception)
G Contact relationship between the audience and the stage and with each other
overall perception width ~
.._..______ ___. - - 3D visual field for
both eyes
9 Field of perception and proportions of the proscenium arch
circle 2
T
min. 2m stalls
......:.::-·
............................................................. .............
···············::~;;~;~~·~:-~;~..Y::t·:·.-:·:-............:-:-:-:-:-::::::-~::·:-:.--·-
(stage)
e Tiered theatre and view of stage
212
THEATRES
Seating
The elevation (gradient) of the seating in the auditorium is
derived from the sight lines. The sight line construction applies
for all places in the auditorium (stalls, but also tiers) --7 0. It can
be assumed that the spectators sit sensibly and so only every
second row requires full sight super-elevation (12 em). Specialised
mathematical literature addresses problems of view in the theatre,
including, for example, the distribution of people's heights.
Rows of spectators should be positioned in arcs, not only for
better alignment toward the stage, but also to achieve a better
perception of each other (security effect) --7 8. The stepped side
aisle must rise 10-19 em and the tread must not be less than
26 em. The floor between the seats must be on the same level as
the adjacent aisle at the side.
Overall layout of the auditorium
Firstly, determine the height of the proscenium. In stalls theatres,
the relationship should be:
proscenium height 1
proscenium width 1.6
This derives from the golden section and the physiological field of
awareness, respectively --7 0. After determining the proscenium
height, the ramp height, the pitch of the stalls and the volume of
the room, this gives the room height. The ceiling is to be adapted
for acoustic requirements. It should be the case that the noise
reflected from the stage and apron is distributed evenly over the
room --7 0.
For tiers, it is important that there is also a sufficiently deep view
of the stage from the uppermost level --7 8- This may render it
necessary to make the proscenium higher.
Proportions of an experimental space --7 p. 213
These are neutral or open theatre spaces, which permit different
arrangements of spectators and stage areas. This variable
arrangement is achieved through:
A. Mobile stage platforms and mobile stands for the audience on
a fixed floor.
B. Mobile sections of floor, which consist of moveable podiums.
This solution is technically more elaborate and is therefore
used only in larger spaces for min. 150-450 or more people.
The simpler option A is particularly suitable for smaller theatres
and for unused spaces, which normally do not have extensive
space underneath. Size: up to max. 199 places, because the
regulations apply from 200.
199 seats x 0.5 m2
=100 m2 (2/3) +30 m2 (1/3) stage area =130 m2,
:·:-:·:·:·
Actors
Air volumes
Actors 4-5 m 1>
Opera 6-8mb.
per spectator
Acoustics must be adapted through appropriate measures like ceiling shape or
acoustic 1
Sails' -----7 p. 220

Tr--r-.----.----.----,
2.20
lr----L----~--~L_--~
volume
extendable
A. extendable stand; on
rollers or air cushions·
~·.,,:..,.,.,'.:.:::·~·~· ~... t.~'"'"J"'*"
flat floor extended folded
0 Experimental theatre space
directed play with
1fa orchestra pit
(234 seats)
f) Space variants, at the MOnster City
Theatre, Kleines Haus
for lectures and
conferences the
whole room iS reduced
to one level; small podium
for the directors and speakers
e Ulm Theatre, section through podium
B. travelling folding podium,
height adjustable
tables and chairs all
round, dance band at
the back:, dancing floor In
the centre (178 seats)
completely
free room
(for exhibitions,
dances, etc.)
.-....? f) Arch.: v. Hausen, Rawe,
Ruhnau
Arch.: Fr. Schafer
f) Podium Ulm, six variants for arrangement of performance areas
Size of stage
THEATRES
Stage
The Places of Assembly Regulations, which apply to all venues
with audiences of more than 200, differentiate two types of stage:
large stage and open stage (single-room theatre).
Large stage
Large stages are defined as having a stage area of more than
200 m2 behind the stage opening and with an upper stage of
2.5 m height above the stage opening or an apron. The essential
requirement is the fire-resistant separation of stage and auditorium.
This necessitates an iron protection curtain between the stage and
the auditorium in case of danger.
Open stage
Open stages are divided into those with more or less than 200 m2
and those with or without sprinkler systems. The special feature of
open stages is the regulations about curtains and scenery. These
affect above all the operation and not the design of the open stage.
Spaces for experimental forms of theatre (black box theatres)
can abolish the separation of stage and audience in various ways
through differentiated design of the floor topography (mobile
sections of floor or podiums) and the free distribution of audience
area and stage. Example: Playhouse on the Lehniner Platz, Berlin
~e-o.
Section of the room for single-room {black box) theatres
Single rooms can make do without the technical ceiling ~ 0, but
manual lifting devices can be provided (battens, which are lifted
into the ceiling with manual hoists). In large theatres, a smaller,
more variable space is often included for experimental theatre.
Examples: Podium Ulm, Arch:. Schafer, approx. 150-200 places,
1969 ~ 0 + f); Kleines Haus MOnster, Arch:. v. Hansen, Rane,
Ruhnau, 1971, 180-380 places, central field of the floor can be
varied with mobile podiums~ f)- e.
e Playhouse on the Lehniner Platz, Berlin, 1982 Arch.: J. Sawade
0 Playhouse on the Lehniner Platz, six variants for arrangement of possible open
stages
213
THEATRES
Historical review
Typology
Auditorium
Stage
Subsidiary rooms
Workshops and
staff rooms
Rehearsal and
public rooms
Modernisation

THEATRES
Historical review
Typology
Auditorium
Stage
Subsidiary rooms
Workshops and
staff rooms
Rehearsal and
public rooms
Modernisation
+ Pullout: l Moving:
carriage
I
scenery
t Pull ......._. Carriage
(bar/point)
;) Turning: - ~f-
(revolving stage)
Lift/lower
stages
;~ Turntable o&!'_:'~~ Tilting:
sloping
stages
0 Backdrop theatre: change of scene f)
by pushing the painted scenery
'Peephole' single-room stage. Large
wing and rear stage areas enable the
quick changing of scenery structures
:-:·J·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:·:·:·
. . :tj Roller platform t:
[::.·::::::::.·::::.·:.·:.:l.~~B:~.:..~..:.~~-:::.:::.....:}1 Upper stage fL::::::::::::.·:.·::
· Li hting e uipment : with galleries ·::;:
Foyer ., :1'! l: Adjustable for pridge :.~_-:.:.
Public or proscenium
:-:·:·:·:-~:~-~::-~.:-:·:·:-:-:-:-:::·:·:·:·:·~.':.':1
• ! Main stage ....................::::
......:::::]-:_;- I Understage :::::::::::::::::::::::.
·: ::::.·:::·t'.·:.·:::.·:::::.·:'...:'·:::::::::
Orchestra pit 10-line level of the "iron curtain"
0 System section of theatre
e Typical plan of opera house
214
® multi-section orchestra
lifting podium
® back-drop lifting stage
(J) proscenium towers
@stairs
® stage manager's lift
® scenery transporting
@ steel safety curtain
@ border curtain- side stage
@ border curtain -rear stage
(13 divisible main curtain
Scenery stage
THEATRES
Stage
The classical stage system of the 18th and 19th centuries had only
the main stage; the scenes were changed, in little space and with
uncanny speed, using sliding painted scenery. A small rear stage
had the function of providing room for deeper stage perspectives
~o.
Full stage
In order to be able to quickly change more elaborate and
sculptural scenery structures, stages were supplemented by
wings and under-stages of about the same size. Complete
sets of scenery were mounted on wagons, lifting platforms or
turntables and could be prepared with little effort during the
performance~ e.
For design purposes, the technical constraints must be established
early, e.g. whether a turntable on a wagon is sufficient or whether a
turntable with single lifting elements or even a two-level turntable
should be used.
Proportions of the stage
The proportions of the stage are developed from the sight lines in
the auditorium. The stage is the area for acting and also a handling
and working area. The conventional layout of a traditional full
stage~ e-e.
The mobile scenery surface is formed by platforms of adjustable
height or through lifting platforms. The variability of form is
achieved by splitting the surface into separate flats. Basic
module 1 x 2 m.
Section of stage
The size of the stage space is determined by the number of
scenery sets to be kept ready, which can be moved into the
stage quickly by lifting or pushing. At least one rear space and
one wing are usual. The height of the stage space is determined
by the (iron) safety curtain, which must be able to close the fire
compartment between auditorium and stage within 30 s in case
of fire. It is a complete closure joined at the ends to a fire wall
(F90) and no cables or scenery are permitted in the space for the
safety curtain.
Stage direction room
Control of lighting and sound on stage, with sound mixing desk, light
controls, computer connections and projection equipment~ f).
0 Typical section of opera house--> 8
G) lifting podia, two-storey
@ lifting podia, single-storey
® side-stage trolley with
compensating podia
@) rear-stage trolley with
turntable and compensating
podia

2
doors for the general public, 1-5. allow
space to compensate for height differences
3J 4
E
D
secondary/storage areas
0 Subsidiary areas/storage space for open stages
traditional storage of back-drops
doors uniformly
distributed for
variable room use
room height
connecting doors
A-E, height of the
secondary area as
for the room itself
modern back-drop storage
- on edge in boxes, manual transport,
large proportion of area required,
height: 9-12m
- in boxes, manual transport, large
proportion of area required for moving
- loading of containers by hand from
secondary stage, or specific storage areas
- transport of container to external store
- computer-controlled storage of
containers in multi-storey shelving
f) Storage near the stage 0 Storage in containers
T
.l
0 Deutsche Oper Berlin, plan
Main stage Bacl<sta:J Scenery store
wr ,-se-m~'> <
room
.__.___ __,LAJL-J.
Store
Workshop
Wing
Painter's worksh;-1 Joinery ~veries
Access points from the subsidiary areas to the stage. Height and location of doors
and lift must be determined from max. backdrop height and fire protection measures
THEATRES
Subsidiary Rooms
Experimental (black box) theatre
Open stages require subsidiary areas for scenery and storage
places for platforms and stands. The subsidiary areas should be of
the same size as the stage. The space required for storage can be
calculated from the folded platforms and stands. Subsidiary areas
plus storage area amount to about 30% of the total area--> 0.
Considerably less scenery is used with open stages than with
normal stages, the reasons for which are:
- the stage is viewed from many sides.
- regulations limit the use of scenery for safety reasons.
Large stages
Storage areas are required for:
Scenery, backdrops, furniture, props, costumes, hats, shoes, make-
up, wigs, lighting, etc. Scenery and costume stores require a great
amount of space.
Scenery store:
Specially for heavy items. Location: at stage level and immediately
next to the stage. At access points and on traffic routes (particularly
at fire exits and lifts), the height ofthe scenery, normally proscenium
height+ 2 m, must be taken into account.
A rough estimate for the size of the scenery and costume store
can be made from the number of productions in the repertoire and
the frequency with which they are played. For theatres the number
of productions might be 15-20 and for multi-purpose theatres and
opera up to 50 per season. About 20-25% of the stage area is
required for storage per production, i.e. for theatres about 3 times
the stage area, for the opera at least 10 times. Practice shows
that, as time passes, the store always turns out to be too small,
and theatres, and particularly operas, have to make arrangements
outside the building.
The high cost of transport has forced the introduction of the
most modern transportation and storage technology: container
systems with computer-controlled warehouse technology (per
performance about 2-4 containers - in special cases for operas
about 12 containers).
Examples:
Deutsche Oper Berlin: the stores are in direct connection with
the stage --> 0
Nationaltheater Mannheim: storage outside the building in
containers.
The storage area required for costumes is determined by the number
of productions in the repertoire and the size of the ensemble, e.g.
for opera: the chorus and ballet in addition to the singers. Space
required for costumes: 1-12 em/costume or 1-15 costumes per
running m of rail --> 0- 0.
Two-level hanging and storage of
costumes in fixed clothing storage
0 Single-level -> 0
215
THEATRES
Historical review
Typology
Auditorium
Stage
Subsidiary
rooms
Workshops and
staff rooms
Rehearsal and
public rooms
Modernisation

THEATRES
Historical review
Typology
Auditorium
Stage
Subsidiary rooms
Workshops and
staff rooms
Rehearsal and
public rooms
Modernisation
90 -----------------------;
1---- 25 ---t-3+-6+-10+6+-12 --t--17--+3+--a-;
1---- 25 ~6+-19 ---1
50
0 Workshop building, ground floor
1---- 3.0 --+- 3.0 ---1
Soloist dressing room
S;3.8-5 m2/person
1-- 3.0 --+- 3.0 --j
0
0
0
0
Chorus dressing room
~2.75 m2/person
f--- 3.0 --!-- 3.0 ---1
paint store; 30m2
2 paint mixing; 30m2
3 sculpture store; 78m2
4 sculptors; 130m2
5 spraying room; 78m2
6 loading ramp
7 construction room; 144m2
8 metalworking shop; 204m2
9 supervisor; 12m2
10 we
11 wood store; 174m2
12 supervisor; 12m2
13 steel store; 96m2
Arch.+ Techn.: Biste u. Gerling
Soloist dressing room
~5 m2/person
f-- 3.0 ----+- 3.0 --;
DODO
c::o
DODO
c::o
Dressing and tuning-up room for
orchestra players i=:';2 m2/person
1---- 3.0 ----j
DO
D
DO
DO
D
DO
e Dressing room for additional chorus
and/or extras ~1.65 m2/person
f) Changing and rest room for
technical staff
Dressing room for ballet
group S;4 m2/person
216
0
0
0
0
Make-up room and work room for
make-up artist
THEATRES
Workshops and Staff Rooms
Workshops for production of scenery
The area required for scenery workshops is 4-5 times the main
stage area for medium-sized theatres (theatres and multi-purpose
theatres); in large opera houses or double theatres (opera
and theatre), 10 times. Workshops, in or outside the building,
should always be accommodated on one level. The Workplace
Regulations and their technical rules and the work protection
and accident prevention rules of insurers have to be taken into
account in the design. In some cases, the company and collective
agreements with the employees can also have an effect.
Scenery workshops are categorised as follows:
a) Painting room:
The floor area must be designed to accommodate two large
backdrops or 'cycloramas' (Rundhorizonte - curved backdrops)
rolled out on the floor for painting. The average size of a cyclorama
is 10 x36 m.lt must be possible to sub-divide the room with athick
curtain for spraying work. Also required are underfloor heating to
dry the painted backdrops; wooden floors for spreading out the
canvases; a gallery from which to check the work lying on the
floor. The painting room is located next to the sewing room (with
a size about 14 of the painting room) joining the pieces of material.
b) Carpenter's shop:
Divided into bench and machine rooms, it has wooden floors and
an adjoining timber store for 3-10 productions.
c) Upholstery: approx. 1/10 area of painting room.
d) Metalwork: as carpenter's shop, screeded floor.
e) Sculpture workshop.
f) Workshops should be grouped round an assembly room, which
serves to test-assemble the scenery and has the same floor area
as the stage. The height should be proscenium plus 2 m, diameter
9-10m.
g) Changing, washing, and rest (canteen) rooms are to be provided
for technical staff, and offices for the technical management.
Further workshops for sound, lighting, props and costumes, size
as required (production intensity, personal equipment).
Personnel rooms
Artistic staff, stage manager, administration. Historically, personnel
rooms were situated on both sides of the stage: left, ladies, right,
gentlemen, although this was operationally impractical. Today,
these rooms are located on one side, opposite the technical side
on several floors. This includes make-up, frequently also the
costume workshop, administration and stage manager.
Dressing rooms: ---7 f) - 0 typical floor plans.
Visitors
for 30-40 female visitors
for 40-50 male visitors
for 1DOD visitors
Theatre and opera performers incl.
chorus, ballet and extras
for 10 female performers
for 15 male performers
for room for 1 soloist
for dressing rooms for 2 soloists
for the soloist dressing rooms1) together
for every 4 ballet, chorus memberorextra1l
for the bailet1l
Staff of workshops etc.
for 15women
for20 men
for 4 people1l
for 5 people1l
for 10 people1l
Sanitary facilities
1 we, 1 washbasin
1 we, 2 urinals, 1 washbasin
1 wheelchair we, accessible
1WC
1 we, 2 urinals
1 washbasin
1 washbasin, 1 shower
2 baths
2 washbasins, 1 shower
2-4 foot washbasins
1WC
1 we' 2 urinals
1 washbasin
1 shower
1 bath
The composition of the visitors is assumed to be 3/5 women and 2/5 men.
1>The facilities are to be provided separately for women and men.
Cil) Guidelines for sanitary facilities in theatres

I I":J----~~k.~~/71-------I I
I a.Q) I I
~! !~~ i ~~
;:1 c~;:;"""'-max. 15:
~~ ·~e!" playing !:@
: @~ I :
5:1 ~§:/area~'~
~~l .I C1+~
All -; 1.0 r"AII
_J ~ i ·-
forestage/orchestra pit
I
production space,
--oT-· storage area ----
co; Above: lighting/sound
B recording studio
0 Large rehearsal stage, typical plan
~
0
]
ca. 1.4m2jsinger, minimum 50m2
ca. 7 m3fslnger
f) Chorus rehearsal room, typical plan
ca. 2.Q-2.4m2Jmusician
ca. 8.0-10m3fmusician
F-------------------------CI
C) Orchestra rehearsal room, typical plan
1 entrance foyer
2 cloakroom foyer
3 tickets
4 ticket office
5 steps to
underground garage
6 steps
7 visitors' we
8 studio foyer
9 studio
10 canteen
11 kitchen
12 kitchen store
13 orchestra pit
14 substage
16 rehearsal room
16 extras
17 choir
18 conductor
19 director
20 tuning room
21 stores
22 electrical shop
23 changing rooms
24 battery room
25 low-voltage
switchroom
e Entrance floor of Heilbronn City Theatre
26 medium·voltage
switchroom
27 transformer cells
Arch.: Blste u. Gerling
Evacuation plan, Trier City Theatre (626 seata) Arch.: G. Graubner and
H. Schneider; stage technician: A. Zotzmann 1964
THEATRES
Rehearsal and Public Rooms
Rehearsal rooms
Every theatre needs at least one rehearsal stage to back up the main
stage. For example, a small theatre: the main stage has the scenery
of the current play and the rehearsals take place on the rehearsal
stage. The dimensions should correspond to the main stage. Typical
floor plan of the rehearsal stage of a traditional theatre -7 0. Multi-
purpose theatres and opera houses also require: orchestra rehearsal
room -7 e, chorus rehearsal room -7 e, soloist rehearsal room and
ballet room.
Experimental theatres
These also require, in reduced form, staff and rehearsal rooms,
workshops and stores, if in continual operation.
Technical rooms
Rooms for transformer, medium- and low-voltage switchgear,
emergency power supply batteries, air conditioning and ventilation
plant, water supply (rainwater system), according to local conditions
and specialist design work.
Public rooms
The classical Italian opera had only narrow entrances and stairs,
with no actual foyer. This makes the generous public rooms at the
Grand Opera in Paris particularly impressive. The Vienna theatre
fire in 1881 led to extensive changes: the audience is now required
to have enclosed emergency stairs for each tier. This requirement
continues in principle today (Public Assembly Regulations).
In the traditional theatre, the foyers are split into: actual foyer
(lobby), restaurant (buffet), smoker's foyer. Area of the foyers
0.8-2.0 m2/spectator (more realistic is 0.6-0.8 m2/spectator). The
function of the foyer has changed today: it must include provision
for exhibitions, performances and regular plays there.
Cloakrooms
Per 100 visitors: 4 running m of rail. Sometimes lockers are also
provided: one locker for every four visitors. The foyer is also a
waiting and queuing room, and has the usual extent of associated
WCs: one WC/1 00 people. 1fa gents, 2fa ladies; min. one gents' and
one ladies' WC. Total number of sanitary facilities: -7 p. 216 G).
Entrance hall (lobby) with day and evening cash desks, which
should be opposite each other.
External access, emergency exits
According to local conditions -7 p. 211 0 - 0 and Public
Assembly Regulations.
e Evacuation plan, LOnen City Theatre (765 seats) Arch.: G. Graubner;
stage technician: W. Ehle 1958
217
THEATRES
Historical review
Typology
Auditorium
Stage
Subsidiary rooms
Workshops and
staff rooms
Rehearsal and
public rooms
Modernisation
see also:
Location of
building -> p. 223
8-0

THEATRES
Historical review
Typology
Auditorium
Stage
Subsidiary rooms
Workshops and
staff rooms
Rehearsal and
public rooms
Modernisation
0 Saxony State Theatre Radebeul, ground floor with new
building hatched
f) Saxony State Theatre Radebeul, sections
218
THEATRES
Modernisation and Extension
Saxony State Theatre, Radebeul
The home base of a renowned travelling theatre that covers
the entire spectrum of a multi-purpose stage company (music,
dance, theatre) consisted before rebuilding of a conglomeration
of extensions and reconstructions at various times of a former
hotel hall. The intention was to relieve the resulting functional
and organisational problems and improve the external
appearance.
The entrance for the audience was extended with a new two-
storey foyer area of steel and glass, in which the cloakrooms,
lobby and a snack bar could be integrated.
An extension of the storeroom and wings was possible only on
one side because of the plot boundaries and the topographical
situation, butthe mostfunctional possible connection of workshops,
rehearsal rooms and props was still the intention. Another feature
was the improvement of fire protection and workplace safety.
The existing stage equipment was only renewed and slightly
extended. No elaborate solutions like lifting platforms or turntables
were planned, in order that plays developed here can also be
presented on simple stages on tour.
The extension of the existing building with new elements will still
be possible after completion.
G) New foyer
®Main foyer
@ Theatre courtyard
@ Cloakrooms, WCs
® Auditorium
@Canteen
(J) Changing rooms
@ Orchestra pit
@stage
@wtng
@ Stage make-up
@ Scenery store
@Store
@ Changing/orchestra practice
@ Small rehearsal room, ballet hall
@ External restaurant
Arch.: meyer+ bassin, Dresden

--Direct functional relationship
·········Indirect functional relationship
Staff
entrance
........
Deliveries
.........
Visitor entrance
Q Functional scheme of a concert building with one hall (Skoda --> refs)
Concert houses
Intended for musical performances, but other uses are also possible (congresses, lectures etc.),
can also if required be supplemented by chamber music hall, rehearsal hall, tuning and warming up
rooms and stores. Hall sizes of 1500 and 2000 (in isolated cases 2800) seats in the audience have
become usual, for chamber music 400 to 700 seats.
Block form
Rectangular plan
Pattern: redoubt, ballroom and dance hall
View is not optimal due to flat stalls
Polyfunctionally usable with level seating
Primary structure according to conditions,
similar to the golden section enables a very
good sound
Block form: Lucerne Concert Hall,
1995-98 Arch.: Jean Nouvel
Arena
Polygonal ground plan
Pattern: amphitheatre
Orchestra area is completely surrounded
by audience
Optimal viewing conditions, communicative
effect
Good direct sound transfer
Optimal acoustics are possible,
but expensive to create
Arena form: Philharmonie Berlin,
1960-63 Arch.: Hans Scharoun
Horseshoe form
Horseshoe-shaped plan
Pattern: box theatre
Good view, good direct sound transfer
Sufficient short reflections, few complex
reflections
Little space and good sound transparency
e Horseshoe fonm: Carnegie Hall, New
York, 188&-91 Arch.: W.B. Tuthill
CONCERT HALLS
Origins, Variants
Acoustic multi-purpose rooms
Churches were the first form of
concert hall, with strong rever-
beration. The echo increases the
holiness of the place, but domes
and vaults are problematic for
sermons and orchestral music.
The first theatres and opera hous-
es were stages and auditoriums
installed into existing halls.
There was good understanding
of speech due to the open view
and short distance to the stage,
but insufficient reverberation due
to decoration with soft materials
and surfaces with little reflection
of sound.
In a tiered theatre, the stalls are
surrounded on three sides by
tiers, generally leading to short
reverberation times, as empty
wall surfaces are obstructed by
boxes and galleries and are full
of people. This is advantageous
for the understanding of speech
but music sounds rather dull and
toneless.
Concert halls
Today four types of concert hall
are common (possibly modified):
block, arena, fan and horseshoe
-> 0 - 0. The selection of hall
type depends on the urban plan-
ning situation, intended space and
acoustic requirements.
Circle/arc form
Fan-shaped plan
Good view, good direct sound transfer
Acoustic disadvantages due to fan-shaped
opening of hall
Optimal acoustics are possible,
but expensive to create
Fan shape: Brucknerhaus Linz,
1969-73 Arch.: Heikki Siren
219
CoNCERT
HALLS
Origins
Variants
Requirements
Organs
Orchestra
Acoustics

CONCERT
HALLS
Origins
Variants
Requirements
Organs
Orchestra
Acoustics
see also:
Religious
buildings
pp. 285 ff.
~iJ
fiJ
GO
P~.
D
.
® ® ©
80/UO
@ ®
®-@
0 Sizes and forms of organs
Type Size Registers
A chest 3-7
B positive 8-12
c small organ 12.20
D II manuals 20-30
E II manuals 25-35
F-G Ill manuals 30-60
H-1 IV-V manuals 60-100
f) Organ types and sizes (housing)
-o
Q)
0..
Height(m)
0.6-0.8
2.5-3
4-6
6-7
6.5-9
7.5-10
9-13
uo
IBl-CD
Key
GO
so
co
ChO
uo
p
Ped
Width(m)
1.1J.-1.2
1.6-2.5
3-3.5
5.5-6.5
4.5-7
7-9
8-12
great organ
swell organ
choir organ
chair organ
upper organ
positive
pedal organ
Depth (m)
0.7-1.2
0.6-1.6
1.2-1.8
1.2-2
1.5-2.5
2-3
2-4
Register number~ room volume in m2
/300 +number seats/50
Formula to determine the number of registers (according to Walcker)
b - · - - ---1
2 Manuals 3 Manuals 4 Manuals
a
b
c
180 200 220
150 160 170
110 120 130
Free-standing console and its
dimensions
0 Organ with IV manuals (section)
220
a~ Width including filing
b ~ Deep including bank
c ~ Height without music stand
00%
17
A !Pill]~
z_J
<!)lJ CD~
<ib
/]~ c:Q
c::r:::J OJ c::::::LJ
e German seating arrangement
f) American seating arrangement
1. Conductor 1D. Bassoon
2.1stviolins 11. Trumpets
3. 2nd violins 12. Horns
4. Violas 13. Trombones
5. Cellos 14. Tubas
6. Basses 15. Harps
7. Flutes 16. Percussion
8. Oboes 17. Kettle-drums
9. Clarinets
CONCERT HALLS
Technical Requirements, Organ, Orchestra
There is little stage equipment: elements of floor structure in
the area for the orchestra, adjustable wall and ceiling fixtures,
transport aids, loudspeakers and lighting equipment.
Lifts to extend/reduce the stage
Large concert halls have special compartmentalised systems
in the orchestra area to make various orchestra configurations
possible, enlarge the stage area or maximise the number of seats
in the hall by placing seating units on lifts. There is also transport
of items between basement and stage, electrical spindle drive
with limited lift and low raising speed.
Mobile seating units
The lifting platforms can be lowered to allow a smaller stage and
the positioning of additional seating, which can be in the form of
mobile units.
Orchestra stage
Modular system with flexible stage options for music groups.
Transport and storage is on storage wagons in the store room.
The floor covering matches the concert platform.
Choir platforms
Additional to the choir seats, when extra space is required, large
seating platforms are rolled onto the stage and mounted in front
of the fixed choir seating; the seating in both types is identical.
Access is via detachable balcony elements in the choir seating
area or up temporary stairs on the choir platform.
Mixing desk
Area consisting of three rows in the auditorium stalls; can be
quickly adapted for the most varied performance and conference
conditions.
A motorised platform under the stalls can be occupied in various
ways: mobile seating unit, mobile mixing desk, or empty (e.g. if
guest musicians bring their own mixing desk).
Cyclorama scaffold
Motorised tubular scaffold, used to fix curtains and banners,
portable stage lighting and other production elements at the
rear of the stage, and can if required be partially or completely
dismantled.
Organ built into the concert hall
There is no fixed standard for the layout, with organs being
designed musically and architecturally for each individual space;
it is an important visual eye-catcher. The location of the organ
should be at the back of the stage, with a location in front of the
back wall being ideal, free-standing and not in a niche.
The size depends on the volume ofthe hall, acoustics, position in the
room, number of seats, musical requirements (solo or accompanist
instrument). The better the acoustics and the location of the organ,
the smaller can it be -+ 0- 0.
To the depth of the organ housing should be added: 1-2 m for
the organist and min. 0.5 m for tuning access behind the organ,
min. 1.5 m free space necessary above the organ -t 0 - 0.
In concert halls, a second organ platform is necessary (electric,
mobile); this is placed near the orchestra, so the organist becomes
part of the orchestra. The dimensions depend on the size of the
organ-+ 0 + 4!). Necessary cable connections should be provided.
Orchestra sizes and layouts
The various orchestra seating layouts, formerly German and today
mostly American, are important for the sound in the hall -t 0- f).
The following sizes of orchestra are usual today in Europe and
North America: large symphony orchestra with 60-150 musicians
and chamber orchestra with 25-40 musicians; this determines
the additional space requirement on the stage (e.g. Gewandhaus
Leipzig, approx. 180m2).

AP.··..
...........':.;:.:::···l·························································..··························..··························
,::~:~:::r,:::;~:>>
A d ..····/~..
;~·~:.::.:'::-::·..1
0 Sound waves and sources of reflected sound in an auditorium. A= sound source
A1 = source of first order reflected sound etc. (Kuttruff -> refs)
Volume V (m3
)
f) Relationship of reverberation, hall volume and music type (Hall -> refs)
The reflection characteristics of
various materials are of great im-
portance for the acoustic design.
Hard surfaces are preferable
to achieve long reverberation.
The seats should also be pro-
vided with surfaces of hard mat-
erial. Upholstering of seats can
achieve uniformity of reverbera-
tion, even with different numbers
in the audience.
Degree of sound absorption (alpha)
of various surfaces (Hall -> refs)
Frequency (Hz)
acoustic board, suspended hard
acoustic board, suspended in frame
acoustic rough plaster
normal plaster on laths
plasterboard 16 mm on squared timber
plywood 8 mm on squared timber
artificial stone, untreated surface
painted concrete
fair-faced concrete
brick
heavy carpet on concrete
heavy carpet with felt underlay
stage flooring, wood
window glass
wall hanging, medium velour
upholstered seats, occupied
upholstered seats, unoccupied
wooden or metal seats, unoccupied
CONCERT HALLS
Acoustics
The most important objective in designing a concert hall is a
superb sound. Acoustics result from the interaction of various
elements: size, volume and proportions of the concert space,
number and arrangement of the seats, materials used, surfaces
and finishes.
The sound properties of various instruments and the human
(singing) voice have to be taken into account, alone and together,
and also differences in pitch range and character (volume,
frequency distribution and time structure of a sound). The various
layouts of the orchestra are of significance for the sound in the
hall: the positioning of various groups of instruments (particularly
the string section).
For the effect of the instruments in the hall, the relationship of the
sound travelling directly to the listener to the early reflection from
the sides plays a decisive role ---> 0.
Optimal reverberation is important for the quality of hearing:
excessive reverberation reduces clarity, and too little reverberation
makes music sound dull. It is dependent on air changes/person
(older concert halls 4-5m3
/seat, newer over 6-15m3/seat).
The acoustics are influenced by hall size, shape and (surface) material
used; these can be adapted for different acoustic requirements
through the selection of various materials. The following variants are
possible and usual:
Acoustic reflector
Installed over the stage, this is an adjustable, wide, heavy, sound-
reflecting surface consisting of two or three independent sections;
each section must be 2-3 m above the stage and adjustable up
to 2 m under the ceiling. The height and position of reflectors is
determined by the type of concert: smaller concerts, light chamber
music and concerts with string instruments require a lower height
for the reflectors.
Sound-absorbing curtains and banners
These influence the length and strength of the reverberation
(lowered by widening the curtains). If not required, the curtains
are retracted into curtain niches (and must then be without effect).
Acoustic regulation spaces (promenades)
Additional volume can be gained for works with long reverberation
(those for organ, large orchestras and large choirs, as well as with
acoustic amplification) through the extension of the auditorium.
Access passages and foyer areas can be used for this. They can
be opened into the hall with movable panels using central control.
125 250 500 1000 2000 4000
0.2 0.4 0.7 0.8 0.6 0.4
0.5 0.7 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.5
0.1 0.2 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.7
0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0.04 0.05
0.3 0.1 0.05 0.04 0.07 0.1
0.6 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
0.4 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.3
0.1 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.1 0.1
0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.03
0.03 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.07
0.02 0.06 0.15 0.4 0.6 0.6
0.1 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
0.4 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.15 0.1
0.3 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.07 0.04
0.07 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.7 0.6
0.4 0.6 0.8 0.9 0.9 0.9
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.7 0.6 0.6
0.02 0.03 0.03 0.06 0.06 0.05
221
CONCERT
HALLS
Origins
Variants
Requirements
Organs
Orchestra
Acoustics

CINEMAS
Projection
Auditorium
Multiplex cinemas
Drive-in cinemas
0
max. outer edge of seating block
= outside edge of picture
last row of seats
plan view
Optimal auditorium
I I wide screen 1:1.85
'Kinoton' format 1:2
70mm
Cinemascope 1:2.34
Picture formats with same picture height
8 Picture formats with same picture width
60
i50
ro 40
IL
6

~
'.
X
30
N
"
>
~
"
0
-g 20
"'
" ""'-......
10
..............
I I
1JJJ
1
Ur
F::::::
64 126 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000
frequency
e Permissible disturbance level
222
CINEMAS
Projection
Before embarking on the design of a cinema, ask the advice of a
cinema equipment company.
Picture projection: Fire-separation materials are no longer
required in the projection room due to the use of safety film. One
projectionist operates a number of projectors, so the projection
room is no longer considered as continuously occupied by staff.
It has 1 m spacing from the projector at the back and on the
operator side, 2.80 m height, ventilation and extraction, and sound
insulation to the auditorium. The projection rooms of several
auditoriums can be combined together.
Film widths are 16 mm, 35 mm and 70 mm. The centre of the
projection beam should not deviate more than so horizontally and
vertically from the centre of the screen or it should be redirected
by a deflection mirror -'> 0.
Conventionally, two projectors are operated with cross-blending.
Automated operation with one projector plus horizontal film tray
showing 4000 m reels without pause has become established
worldwide, in many projection rooms remotely run from projection
and control points. The film gives automatic signals for all
projection functions like lens changing, hall lighting, stage lighting,
curtain and picture covering.
Picture sizes: These depend on the distance of the projector
from the screen and having a height-side relationship of 1:2.34
(Cinemascope) or 1:1.66 (wide screen) with a narrow auditorium
width. The angle from the centre of the back row of seating to the
outer edge of the picture should not exceed, for Cinemascope,
38° =distance of the back row : screen =3:2 -7 f) - e.
Screen: Distance of the screen from the wall with BTX (-'> p. 223)
is min. 120 em; according to cinema size and system this can be
reduced to 50 em on the setting up of the sound system.
The screen is perforated (sound-permeable). Retracting blinds
or curtains restrict the screen at the sides with the same picture
height. Large screens are curved in a radius centred on the back
row of seats. The lower edge of the screen should be min. 1.20 m
above the floor -'> 0.
Auditorium: This should receive no incoming light except for
emergency lighting. The walls and ceilings should be of non-
reflecting material in relatively dark colours. The audience should
sit within the outer edge of the screen. The viewing angle from the
first row of seats to the centre of the picture should not exceed 30°.
31.5 83 125 250 500 1K 2K 4K 8K 16K frequency
e Permissible reverberation time depending on frequency
2.0
!
1.0
E
... 0.5
"
0
0.4
.,
!./
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!':
" o:s
-e
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0.2
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/ v
0.1 /
,.,.,.""
30 m3
300 m3 3000 m3
e Reverberation time relative to auditorium volume

:T~
f--1 f--1
;:;;4o ;:;;4o
1-1.2 m row spacing
0 Spacing and rows of seats. Cinema
seats are normally largerthan the
minimum dimensions stipulated by
the Public Assembly Regulations.
90
t---1
1.2
f--------1
1---- 2.0 ------1
1 - - 2.4 ------1
Boxes may have ~20 loose chairs;
"'0.65 m2 floor area for each person
... mtw~1:m~~·m:·"··"
A : 6 C ;r
0a~
0~~viation:
!!!·E·o:;:
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...;:;:;:.r----=ro:>:J!l E!ll!!D "" ""'"'"""' ''"""!'"'"''''"''
f--1
90
f--------1 2.00 corridor
1.2
Seating -A: for auditorium "'200 people; B: "'200 people; C: 50 seats, if there
is a door at the side for every four rows
~lmfn"'.'"'"'
3.50 .
~t----~~~~~:rr:r·
...........
Ill wall ~Ill
f) Access roads and through roads 9 Distance of the building from the
plot boundaries depending on
number of visitors
I
Auditorium
I
I
I
I
12'
!D
"'
II
Zazie 'programme cinema' with 0 Auditorium for flat films
cafe and bar, Halle (Saale)
Arch.: Complizen.com
CINEMAS
Auditorium
Up to a 10% floor gradient is permissible, or else steps with max.
16 em risers and aisles of 1.20 m width~ 0. Up to 10 seats may
be arranged on each side of each aisle ~ e.
Acoustics
Adjacent auditoriums should be separated by walls of approx.
85 dB 18-20 000 Hz ~ p. 222 0. The ceiling should feature
sound-directing surfaces with low acoustic delay difference
time.
The reverberation time can increase with growing auditorium
volume and reduces from 0.8 to 0.2 s from low to high frequencies.
~ p. 222. The rear wall behind the last row of seats should have
an insulated surface to prevent echo.
Loudspeakers are distributed in the auditorium so that the
difference in volume between the front and back rows does not
exceed 4 dB.
Sound reproduction
In addition to mono optical sound reproduction, the Dolby
stereo optical system with four channels will be required in the
future, using three loudspeaker combinations behind the screen
and additional speakers at the sides and back. For 70 mm
film, 6 channel magnetic sound, there are additional speaker
combinations behind the screen. With BTX, behind the screen
there is a sound-absorbing wall (following the Lucas film system),
in which the loudspeaker combinations are installed.
Cash desks
Predominantly electronic booking and reservation systems: 1 cash
desk per 300-400 seats, requiring approx. 5 m2•
Types of cinema
'Programme cinemas': As a counter-trend to multiplex
cinemas ~ p. 224, city centres have seen the establishment of
'programme cinemas', which mostly show specialist films. Sizes
of 50-200 seats are usual, normally in combination with eating/
drinking facilities~ 0.
Circarama/Panorama cinemas: Round or spherical screens
increase the impression of being directly involved in the action.
Because special film techniques are required for these (a
number of cameras have to film the same view simultaneously),
there are only a few films available, and this type of cinema
is therefore restricted to adventure parks and planetariums ~
e-e.
!D
VII
B
e Auditorium for panoramic films Circarama. Picture surface spherical
(360'), on which a consolidated
picture from 11 simultaneously
running projectors can be shown.
Example: Brussels Expo
223
CINEMAS
Projection
Auditorium
Multiplex cinemas
Drive-in cinemas
Model Public
Assembly
Regulations

CINEMAS
Projection
Auditorium
Multiplex
cinemas
Drive~in cinemas
Model Public
Assembly
Regulations
..II

I
I
0 Access to cinema auditoriums
f) Schematic arrangement of cinema
auditoriums on one level
Screen -wall distance
Screen
Atsle wtdth mm 90 em
Row of seats ·. Row of seats
·~seatrowstepB 1.20mr- .'
·.. fCross-passage step B =1.80 m Steps
·..!' : ,....,.....,-,-
Steps
~
Projector
Hall proportions: 1.1.3 -1.4:0.5 (W x D x H) Screen distance A= 1.20- 1.50 m
Curtain storage space 8: each side approx. 1O% of the screen width
Distance C (head front row- screen): approx. 75% of the clear room height
Width of curtain pocket: approx. 40 em
Screen curvature: circular arc (centre projector), from about 500 seats
Top of screen: about 0,30 m below ceiling, bottom of screen: about 0.80 m above FFL
Height of screen: results from the values given above
Width of screen: screen height x 2.35 (largest format: Cinemascope)
Clear ceiling height above the back row: min. 2.30 m
C) Generalised ground floor plan of a larger auditorium with technical dimensions
e Wide screen projection equipment
224
CINEMAS
Multiplex Cinemas
With a number of screens of various sizes in one building, multiplex
cinemas are often combined with shopping centres, car parks etc,
which require extensive parking space ~ p. 225. The auditoriums
are reached via a common entrance and sometimes stacked. On
account of the large numbers of visitors, good orientation and
clear signing to the individual screens is important. The location of
the screens in relation to the entrance foyer should be according
to their size (large screens nearest to the foyer), or the largest
screen in a central location/on the direct route from the foyer. The
sizes of the single auditoriums depend on the requirements of the
operator, as also the spacing of the rows, foyer design etc.
The cash desk zone should be near the entrance, the number of
desks dependent on the number of seats: approx. 5 m2
floor areal
cash desk; for 2500 seats, approx. 6-8 cash desks.
The entrance foyer should be of generous proportions, clearly laid
out and at a prominent location in the building; it includes the main
entrance, food/drink counters and access to the screens. Before
the access points to the individual screens on different floors,
there are normally additional foyers with bar counters, WCs etc.
The main foyer should be of adequate size for events (premieres,
presentations etc.).
Because eating and drinking are normally a significant part of the
cinema concept, counters should be provided in central locations
with the necessary storage and service facilities.
Cinema auditorium
The screen should fill the entire wall; there should be no exits in
this wall or the side walls near to it. Cross-passages should be
provided as a connection between the doors or at a side entrance
to reach the side aisles ~ p. 235.
Projection room
Minimum room size: 6.50 x 2.80 x 2.80 m 0/IJ x D x H). Projection
window size approx. 150/250 x 50 em (one or two projectors) Film
can be supplemented by video projectors, and space should also
be provided for horizontal film tray equipment and control desk.
The platform under the projectors should be vibration-free. A
noise level of approx. 75 dB must be damped to 30 dB by the
projection window. The working temperature should not exceed
22oc in order to protect film copies and equipment.
Subsidiary rooms
These are to be provided as required: offices for the manager,
secretary and employees, archive, IT room, staff rooms (changing
rooms, ladies' and gents' WCs, staff rest room).
For the foyer and food/drink area: catering stores, counter stores,
cool room, room for empties, rubbish room, cleaning equipment
room, stores for cleaning firm and decoration.
e Projection room

0 Kosmos cinema, Berlin, plan Arch.: Rohde Kellermann Wawrowsky
f) Kosmos cinema, Berlin, elevation/section Arch.: Rohde Kellermann Wawrowsky
8 Filmpalast Dresden, plan Arch.: Coop Himmelb(J)au
C) Filmpalast Dresden, view/section Arch.: Coop Himmelb(l)au
CINEMAS
Multiplex Cinemas, Examples
The town-planning situation plays a significant role in the number
of cinema screens that can be combined into a unit. Possible forms
are layered stacking (screens stacked as a cube, access and service
functions connected in free form atthe side)--> 8-0, or a horizontal
row of screens (larger cinemas from the 1960s were extended with
further screens, sunk into the ground for conservation reasons) -->
0 - f) or combination forms. A common form is the combination
with other functions like shopping centres and car parks, with sales
areas on the ground floor, cinema screens and parking on the first
floor: a prominent urban landmark in conjunction with two high-rise
point buildings --> 0- 0.
G) Cinemas
@Foyer
®Offices
@ Parking areas
Neustadt Centrum Halle, first floor plan (cinema level i)
Arch.: Hermann & Valentiny with Noack und Partner
Neustadt Centrum Halle, ground floor plan (shopping level)
Neustadt Centrum Halle, section
225
CINEMAS
Projection
Auditorium
Multiplex
cinemas
Drive-in cinemas

CINEMAS
Projection
Auditorium
Multiplex cinemas
Drive"in
cinemas
t--out
.
t--out
. . .
•('
~~~{:pea~~~
. . .
. .
0 Drive-in cinema in a fan shape with inclined ramps and low projection cabin,
which only takes up two rows
line of sight from rear seat to lower edge of screen
·~...~.=~~-~-~.~.----------;--~~~:~-----
p o s = I ·········'···.·.·.········ 'l'...~=-1~·············'·'·'~
and electrical heating 7.60 90+-- 3.00 · ·
1--------11.50----------1
f) Ramp arrangement and dimensions: elevations can be different according to screen picture height
;
0
entrance
f) Double cinema. One projection room for both screens, with the possibility of staggered starting times. All
other areas (cash desks, bar, toilets etc.) are common
226
CINEMAS
Drive-in Cinemas
Drive-in cinemas, where the audience do not
have to leave their cars.
The size is limited by ramps, number of cars
~1 000-1300, while still ensuring a good
view. Normal is 450-500 cars ---> 0.
Cars No. ramps Screen to back edge of
ramp(m)
500 10 155
586 11 170
670 12 180
778 13 195
886 14 210
1000 15 225
Location: on the motorway, near petrol
stations and services, with screening so that
light and sound do not distract passing traffic.
Ramps are curved and sloping in order
to lift the front of the cars, so back seat
passengers also have a good view of the
screen---> e.
Entrance road: with waiting area, in order to
avoid backing up of traffic on the road. Drive-
past ticket counter, so that tickets from the
cars can be checked ---> 0.
Exit: ideally after leaving the ramp forwards.
Detailing of the entire area to avoid dust and
skidding in wet weather.
Ticket counter: one counter for 300 cars;
two for 600; three for 800; four for 1000.
Screen: depends on the number of cars: for
650 cars 14.50 x 11.30 m; for 950 cars 17.0
x 13.0 m. Ideally facing east or north, which
enables earlier performances. For the Central
European latitude, the screen is better
installed in a solid, permanent structure.
Cinema screen in the Billbrook drive-in
cinema near Hamburg: 36 m high x 15.5 m
wide. Height above ground level depends
on ramp gradient and sight angle. Screen
tilted upward avoids distortion. Scaffolding
and screen must be able to bear wind
loading.
Rows of seats should be provided, and a
play area for children is also a good idea.
Projection building: mostly central, at a
distance of 100 m from the screen.
Projection room contains projectors,
generators, sound amplification system.
Sound reproduction ideally has loudspeakers
inside the cars; the loudspeakers are
attached to a post for every two cars at 5.0
m separation and are attached inside the cars
by the visitors.
Heating: on loudspeaker posts, possibly
also a connection for heating in the cars.

space
0 Second floor+ 9.00 m (underfloor theatre)
f) Third floor (stage area)+ 13.00 m
CIRCUS
Stationary
Show theatre, permanent venue
Amphitheatre-type hall, laid out as three quarters of a circle,
offering seats for an audience of 1600. The last quarter is intended
for the stage, which consists of five stacked lifting platforms. This
enables the stage sets to be changed very quickly ~ e.
Access to the hall on the third floor+ 13.00 m above road level. A
27 m high reinforced concrete dome spans the circus arena.
Project:
Arch.:
8 Section
Berlin Leipziger Platz
Aldo Rossi Milan
Planungs AG Neufert/Mittmann/Graf, Berlin
Sceno-Pius Experts-Conseils, Montreal
0 Fourth floor (audience seating level)+ 16.50 m
Show main!.
56 m'
227
CIRCUS
Stationary

zoos
Basics
Keeping animals
Enclosures
Directive
1999/22/EC
Animal Protection
Law
Report, Minimum
Requirements
for Animal
Husbandry,
Federal Ministry
for Consumer
Protection,
Agriculture and
Forests
"Asia"
"Africa"
"Pongoland"
"Founder's garden"
"South America"
"Gondwana landu
Elephant, temple, tigers...
Zebras, giraffes, rhinoceroses...
Gorillas, chimpanzees...
Zoo history
Anteaters, spectacled bears, giant otters
Giant tropical house (planned)
0 Master plan of a modern zoo with adventure world (animal geography),
from the example of Leipzig Zoo Arch.: Rasbachr Architekten
Zoo
The modern zoo attempts to balance the interests of research, animal protection and
the experience of nature.
On one side stand the requirements for keeping the animals, feeding, cage design
and veterinary care in line with the needs of the species, research activities for the
conservation of species, participation In international breeding programmes and zoo
educational publicity work.
On the other hand, the zoo is also a business, whose success mainly depends on
visitor numbers and is in competition with other leisure providers.
The basis of any zoo design is therefore the orientation on the state of research Into
the keeping of animals In a way suitable for the species, and also the consideration of
the demands of the potential visitors. The staging of exotic ("near to nature") animal
worlds and spectacular visitor facilities should therefore be evaluated against this
background.
f) Tasks of the modern zoo, combining the interests of research, animal
conservation and providing exciting experiences
228
zoos
Basics
Objectives of zoos
Starting with Directive 1999/22/EC, zoos are subject to the
following requirements ---> f):
1. Involvement in research activities for species conservation
2. Zoo educational publicity work
3. Keeping and feeding the animals correctly for the species
4. Protection against animals escaping or pests and vermin
infiltrating
5. Keeping a register of the zoo collection
Infrastructure of a modern zoo ---> 0
Access: good accessibility, clear signposting, sufficient number
of parking spaces, stops for public transport
Main entrance: distinctive entrance area, pay booths/counters,
kiosks, administration, tidy paths, welcoming seating
Further infrastructure: event and lecture room, high-class
restaurant with view of zoo facilities and separate entrance from
outside (for evening business), further restaurants according to
zoo size, self-service cafeteria, kiosks, toilets, picnic sites, zoo
shops, zoo school
Operations and staff building: separate access (out of public
view) with adequate external areas for the storage of feed and
litter, building materials, etc., staff department with washing
and changing facilities, cafeteria, training and rest rooms
(security staff), breeding of feed animals, central/dispersed feed
preparation, water distribution, storage and cool rooms, rubbish
removal, sheds for parking and maintenance of cleaning machines,
transport vehicles and cages, workshops, gardening, heating, air
conditioning, ventilation
Medical care of animals: animal clinic, quarantine station,
laboratories, research facilities, acclimatisation and breeding
areas, cadaver storage
Access roads and paths: wheelchair-accessible main paths
(5-6 m wide), with weather protection, laid out as round route,
side paths (3-4 m wide) to each group of animals, independent
operational roads (3-4 m wide) for supply, waste disposal, animal
transport and as emergency access (fire service, ambulance).

0 Elephant park, Cologne Zoo
caregiver
f) Great ape facility, Wuppertal Zoo
Baltic
aquarium
C) Ozeaneum, Stralsund
Arch.: Oxen und Romer, external works:
Fenner, Steinhauser, Weisser
Hochbauamt Wuppertal
Arch.: Behnisch, Behnisch und Partner
zoos
Keeping Animals
'Hands-on', the traditional principle of keeping zoo animals: it
denotes direct contact between the (tame) animals, the keepers
(feeding, care) and the zoo visitors (petting zoo) ---7 e.
Functional aspects include separation into public and private or
invisible areas, assignment of visitor areas, enclosures, keeper
access and subsidiary rooms. The most important aspects are
hygienic considerations and the presentation of the animals.
Hands-off' (protected contact) was originally developed as a
safe method of handling dangerous animals (indirect, technically
supported contact between animal and keeper), and today often
corresponds to the expectations of zoo visitors for species-
appropriate keeping of animals in zoos ---7 0: The large area
and natural character of the reproduced original habitat, with
appropriate fixed points (drinking trough, climbing rocks, etc.) and
the possibility of observing from selected and protected (secretive)
positions are also seen as desirable regarding lack of disturbance
and encouraging reproduction in human care. "Hands-off"
facilities have excellent potential for research and breeding.
0 Section -7 f)
basin
0 Section --. 8
Examples
Animal houses and open-air enclosures are differentiated.
Combinations are possible, with and without water:
The elephant park at Cologne Zoo ---7 0 is an example of an inte-
grated 'hands-off' facility (animal house and open-air enclosure). The
partially roofed area can be divided into various sections from a control
centre by means of mechanical gates. The visitor areas are separated
from the enclosures by water-filled ditches or differences in level
The great ape house at Wuppertal Zoo ---7 8 is an animal house
(with outside enclosure built subsequently), consisting of the
internal enclosure lit from above with protected sleeping bunks,
glass partition to the visitor area, keeper access frorn behind, feed
kitchen and special cages (sick bay, baby apes).
The Ozeaneum, Stralsund ---7 8, as an example ofa multifunctional
animal house/aquarium with an extensive round tour for visitors,
thematically divided aquariums (Baltic, North Sea) and central
area for keepers. The facility serves the purposes of exhibition
and research and is elaborately conceived with spectacular views
into the tanks (shoal fish tank with 15 x 5 m glass pane, tunnel
aquarium, overhead aquarium, touch pools, simulation tanks).
229
zoos
Basics
Keeping animals
Enclosures

Basics
Keeping animals
Enclosures
0 Concealed visitor position
f) Indoor enclosure with glass corridor: view from dark into light
l-2.00-------j
8 Water barrier: visitor and animal outdoors
r------3.00------1
-------------------------------)
G Water barrier: visitor behind protective glass screen and animal outdoors
-~->~
------r--
0 Aviary 0 Terrarium
230
zoos
Enclosures
Design aspects
Near to nature: The enclosure should correspond to the ideas of
the visitors regarding the appropriate habitat for the animals, be
aesthetically pleasing and give a generous impression.
Physical nearness: The nearer people can come to the animals,
the greater the interest and the longer they stay.
Emotional nearness: Enclosure boundaries should scarcely be
noticed.
Observation: Animal enclosures should work secretively and be
an invitation to exploration (e.g. view into the enclosure through
a cave or a waterfall). Routes should invite lingering, not passing
an enclosure but rather leading to it. It should be possible to see
only one enclosure from each location; distracting views, and also
masses of people in front of the enclosure, should be avoided.
Enable comfortable observation in a relaxed position, not into
the sun or through a reflecting pane of glass; the visitor should
look into a bright, lit enclosure from shadow (this also has the
advantage that the animals do not immediately notice the visitors).
Areas where the animals like to pass the time and are active should
be clearly visible.
Withdrawal: It is, however, also important that the animal can
withdraw from view and be unobserved.
Information: Signage; sufficient information should be available
Accessibility: Access to the enclosures (only for the zoo keepers)
is provided by dedicated roads and care areas; the appropriate
animal catching and transport facilities are here.
Barriers
Ditches were originally developed as dry ditches, but are today
generally constructed as water barriers (moats)-+ 8. A natural
appearance is advantageous, but the water becomes dirty quickly
and the animals can leave the enclosure over the ice if it freezes
over, so the water level therefore has to be lowered in winter. There
are normally fences or walls to provide additional protection.
Glass is becoming accepted by most zoos -+ 8 + 0, because it
gives the impression of direct contact with the animals and also
prevents the infection of animals by humans.
Iron bars disturb the visitor and the animal. The classic method
of keeping animals in cages is therefore avoided in modern zoos.
f-------3.00------1
8 Water barrier: the moat should be wide enough for large animals

Task Type of work Location of work
routine tasks
~
individual work single room
project
development
><
team work
~
group room
meetings,
exchange meeting room
negotiations
Q Relationship between duties and room type
oflice area included in calculation of
rent according to GIF
I
I I
main usable area subsidiary areas traffic areas
offices sanitary facilities (partially proportional)
cloakrooms corridors
tea kitchens lilt lobbies
archives entrance hall
cleaning rooms reception area
f) The GIF (Association for Property Economics Research), in collaboration with the DIN standards committee, has developed
definitions of working areas in offices ('MF-B') and commercial rooms ('MF-H'), for the purpose of comparing commercial
rents. Based on the concepts of DIN 2771973/87 ('Areas and volumes of buildings'), certain areas have been categorised
into 'rented areas for office space' and 'rented areas for commercial space'. Areas with shared use are only considered
proportionally. Application is not binding.
I net office area
I
I I
workgroupM service
related areas
office areas (proportional),
cloakroom,
break room,
tea kitchen
(pantry),
sanitary
facilities
I
functional workplace space
general
traff!c
communications
filing presentation
space
I
horizontal
traffic areas
(proportional),
main
corridors,
level
transport
facilities,
waiting areas
I total gross area I
(external dimensions)
building-related area
]of~~=·=~a sp~~~:iea~ea J
I I I
Vertical technical internal
traffic supply areas, structural
areas, slairs, air condi- areas,
escalators, Honing, heat- columns,
lifts, lift ing, electricity load-bearing
lobbies, supply, tele- walls
pneumatic phone relay
tube, post room, emerg-
chutes, ency genera-
transport tor, server
facilities rooms
I
external
structural
areas,
fayades,
parapets
net special area
I
I
I I I
specially service horizontal
protected, areas main traffic
office-related (proportional), areas (propo-
areas, e.g. cloakroom, rtional), main
services for break room, corridors,
lloor, post, IT tea kitchen, level trans-
reception, IT sanitary port facilities,
rooms, cante- facilities ramps,
en, kitchen, wailing areas
archive, conf-
erence rooms
usable space for workgroups
meeting/review filing
office equipment
storage
computer terminals
drawing board
special usable space for workgroups
e.g. waiting area
general distance, spacing, access noise
reduction, privacy, compact furnishing,
dividers, partitions, plants, traffic in room,
extra for visitor traffic, access and side routes
1-------_L_________ e.g. exhibition area
e.g. safes, cashiers' rooms
e Organisational structure of office space (Lappa!)
: ~ ~~~~~~~~n ll~ ~~~~~~=tiona! 1
: ~ :a~:~ation : : - ~~~~~:tructions:
' training 1 I - scheduling 1
1 - 1 1
1
-job description 1
1
1 -age 1
I - health 1 1 - staff turnover 1
~ _________J l~c~~~~n~c~~~J
: - office machinery 1
1- office furniture :
I - files, registers 1
: - stationery :
'-literature 1
: - paperwork :
1- office aids 1
: - dala storage I
1.---------....!
0 The factors determining office work (Henkel --> refs)
-acoustics
-lighting
- decoration
- open-plan office
- single office
-group room
- quality of space
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
J __________ .J
endogenous forces
- major increase in profitability
M centralisation requirements
of economy
- Parkinson's law
- 'phenomenon' of work flexibility
(rationalisalion)
exogenous forces
-societal factors (flexitime etc.)
- globalisation of induslry
and markets
- economic development
- direct or indirect office work for
statutory authorities (e.g. changes
in taxation)
- em lo ment markeVIechnolo
OFFICE BUILDINGS
Structures
Office work
Administrative work is the pro-
cessing of information. The empha-
sis of office work is changing from
routine processing of data (tradi-
tional card systems)to morecreative
information processing and evalua-
tion on account of changes in stor-
age and improved ways of access-
ing information.
Employees are becoming ever
more important in the organ-
isation of office work. Factors
like the image of the company
(corporate identity), design of ar-
eas for breaks and relaxation and
the individual configuration of
workplaces are all intended to in-
crease employees' performance.
Global networking means that
routine work can be carried out
on a decentralised basis (home
working, neighbourhood and
rented offices).
The company headquarters is
becoming an information market
place, which is made use of by
many employees either tempor-
arily or in changing groups to
achieve their tasks. These chang-
es result in the very variable dem-
ands made on the workplace in an
office building.
The range of options runs from
the single workplace in a cubicle
office through group rooms to
workstations which are only used
at specific times ('hot desking').
The more flexible the rooms in
a building are, the easier it is for
the company to adapt to ever-
changing requirements.
Design
Detailed recording of the business
and organisational structure, and
thus the specific functions and
working relationships in the com-
pany, enable the determination of
a schedule of requirements (needs
assessment).
In rented buildings, flexible room
layout is of great importance, to
achieve the most variable sizes of
office unit possible.
231
OFFICE
BUILDINGS
Structures
Tendencies
Typology
Until1980
Since 1980
Space
requirement
Computer
workstations
Archives
Additional areas
Room typology
Grid
Access
Building services
Construction

OFFICE
BUILDINGS
Structures
Tendencies
Typology
Until1980
Since 1980
Space
requirement
Computer
workstations
Archives
Additional areas
Room typology
Grid
Access
Building services
Construction
Demand cycles for office types
0 Development of the demand for different types of office (DEGI -> refs)
'limited'
workstation: 65
'extended'
workstation: 10
smallroom CJ
rmmr~ /
80-85% in a row o:t
and 15-20% divisible
group office -------1
77-80% mrn
and 2Q-25% separate
f) Analysis of daily use in an office, 8
area%
Recommendation for relationship
of permanent and flexible room
structures in small and group room
offices, area %
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
®director,
chief departmental
manager, departmental
manager, assistant
@ secretarial
department
@ chief group manager,
group manager,
project manager
82% group office
assignment of staff
to types of room
group office
for 5-16 people
assignment of staff
to working groups
{actual -+ target)
management
meeting
secretarial
departments
small room
for one person
!two people),
floor area per storey meeting, etc.
0 Usage basics for division of rooms (all figs, Gottschalk -> refs)
232
OFFICE BUILDINGS
Tendencies/Criteria
Influence of information technology and office automation
The developments in information and communication technologies
are leading to changed working conditions in offices.
Multifunctional terminals are replacing single components in data,
text and image processing. Individual systems are being networked
into integrated office communication systems. The ever-improving
public data networks (ISDN, DSL, 3G) make it possible to exchange
great quantities of data over long distances. Flat screens, laptops
and mobile telephones reduce the amount of space required at
each workstation. The effect of office technology on the office
layout and workstations is creating evaluation criteria like: more
emphasis on immediate workplace quality; ensuring company-
wide flexibility; ecologically sound working environment, to whose
spatial configuration older office buildings no longer measure up.
New Workplace Regulations stipulate working areas according to
demand (no more minimum areas).
The rationalisation potential of administrative activities (filing,
sorting, copying, searching, acquisition of material) and
communication activities (conferences, meetings) is about 25%
of weekly working time. Routine tasks acting as active relaxation
breaks would be reduced by about 50%. Increasing telecommuting
leads to a reduction in office space, because only some activities
(meetings etc.) then take place in the office building at specific
workstations, which are no longer personalised and can be
used by various employees as required ('hot-desking'). Personal
areas are reduced to office containers, which contain a post
box and files. Mobile telephone and computer WLAN networks
make a change of location simple. The potential independence
of location (decentralisation) is countered by other possible
losses (concentration of staff at central locations, headquarters
in prestigious situation, urban location as sign of continuity,
ambience, work and leisure activities in one place), which can play
important roles.
Changes at the workplace
The rationalisation effect of information technology and altering
workplace requirements (procedures and organisational pattern)
are changing the structure of offices. Staff levels are falling and
work groups are getting smaller. The former hierarchical division of
labour among staff, like manager, secretary, specialist employee
etc., is changing to integrated work groups and thus altering the
assignment of office space.
A more sensitive relationship to the direct working environment
is closely linked to the predominant value orientation in
the company. This is reflected in the attitude to the quality
of the workplace (daylight, environmental context, energy
consumption), and the activity (ecological viewpoints, material
use, waste disposal). The workplace is an important place
for social interaction among the users, which is increasing
in relevance due to formalised work structures (IT, work
organisation etc.). Increased mental and physical stress leads
to a greater awareness of the working environment (sufficient
space, some personal choice in furnishings, ventilation, lighting,
sufficient protection from disruptions). 75% of daily work takes
place at the 'close and extended workplace' --1 f). Necessary
work contacts and collectively used facilities are significant, thus
the requirement for a mixed provision of single and group rooms,
'personal' and 'collective' workplaces --1 0 - 0. In addition to
the refurbishment of existing office space, new spatial concepts
involving single and group rooms are starting to appear (Fuchs,
Gottschalk, Henkel --1 refs).

0 Single-room offices, Garrick f) Single-room offices in
group of three
Building, Chicago
Arch.: Dankmar Adler and
Louis H. Sullivan, 1892
e Reversible offices
first phase,
office bul/ding In Bremen, 1987
0 Open-plan office
second phase
Architect: Kohlbecker
Group-room office
for OVA insurance)
Mannheim 1977
Arch.: Striffler
group offices 0 [LJ
a small rooms,} zoned
fixed; group
0 ~';~~~~~oms, 0 offices
C:!J :~~~etarlal
Application of linked and partially zoned group rooms; these are connected
by reversible small-room zones and can be partially zoned when required for
common areas.
Key
• Elevator
0 Main staircase
0 Side stairs
Iii Core areas
mill Group rooms
[SJ Small spaces
State Central Bank of Hesse, Frankfurt am Main, 1988
Arch.: Jourdan, Muller et al.
Forms of office organisation
OFFICE BUILDINGS
Typology Until 1980
Open-plan offices (Mies van der Rohe: '... clearly laid-out, undivided,
only structured.. .' --> refs) are suitable for large groups of employees
who are predominantly engaged in shared work and for routine
activities with a low concentration threshold. This is increasingly
the exception rather than the rule today. The concept appeared in
the 1960s with arguments like transparency and manageability of
work processes, development of community feeling, and a rationally
organised multifunctional area. IT machines were in separate rooms
and not available in offices. The extensive room depths of 20-30 m
resulted in high costs for building services, which is of limited suitability
for the conversion of buildings, and the potential flexibility has its limits
in the light of today's demands (opening windows, control of lighting,
air conditioning and electricity supply) (Henkel --> refs). The open-
plan office is attested by sociologists to be afflicted with a character
of compulsion (social controls, dependence on technical equipment,
optical and acoustic disturbance), and therefore led to a negative
reaction among its occupants.
0 BIG Frankfurt 8 Cantonal building, Berne
Arch.: Nowotny-Miihner, HPP, Arch.: Matti, Burgi, Ragaz, Liebefeld
Speer und Partner
Single-room offices are suitable for independent or concentrated
work, as a single-person room or for a few people in very small
groups who need to exchange information constantly. This
arrangement has been common in Germany since World
War II and still has its justification when the requirements of the
workplace correspond (--> Gruner, Jahr; Steidle, Kissler; or --> new
offices for the Federal Environment Office, Dessau, Sauerbruch,
Hutton) or in newbuild high-rise offices, where the structure of the
building can be so decisive that it leads to the very standardised
character of spatial and organisational working practices.
Reversible offices constituted an attempt to improve the working
conditions in open-plan offices, which are often found to be
inadequate on many grounds (no differentiated air conditioning,
daylight, optical and acoustic disturbance). The possibility
of partitioning producing a more effective single-room office
structure (i.e. cubicles) when required for more concentrated work
considerably increased technical input to enable flexibility. However,
not only the dissatisfaction of the users but also the increasing lack
of cost-effectiveness with increasing energy prices led to this form of
office being questioned. The working structure as changed by new
technologies (e.g. the use of PCs) enabled organisation into small
groups. First example: the building of the OVA, Mannheim.
Group rooms (smaller open-plan) are suitable for work groups
with constant information exchange. This form of office was an
attempt to install room layouts with more scope for individual
decisions (--> Changes at the workplace, p. 232 ), via the
size of the workplace surroundings (max. 7.5 m to a window),
and thus improve the working conditions of an open-plan
arrangement (light, air, individuality), which were found to be
inadequate with the increasing demands on office work. It is
possible to do without full air conditioning in favour of back-up
ventilation services, in addition to opening windows and using
radiators.
233
OFFICE
BUILDINGS
Structures
Tendencies
Typology
Untii19BO
Since 1980
Space
requirement
Computer
workstations
Archives
Additional areas
Room typology
Grid
Access
Building services
Construction

OFFICE
BUILDINGS
Structures
Tendencies
Typology
Unti11980
Since 1980
Space
requirement
Computer
workstations
Archives
Additional areas
Room typology
Grid
Access
Building services
Construction
0 Office in an existing building with workplaces laid out to meet needs, which can
be occupied by employees for specific tasks. This form of organisation with
non-territorial workstations is called a 'hot desk office'.
Arch.: Schnell und Partner, Munich
f) Scheme of a small group of three rooms (high-rise plan) with flexibly usable
zones at the ends and areas for cubicles in the core
8 Scheme of a building with variable areas for rent. The external access to the rented
units along the gallery leaves the Internal access to be decided by the tenant.
The smallest possible unit is a half grid between two supply cores. Building depth
approx. 15 rn and spacing of the supply shafts 12.90 m, the smallest letting unit
approx. 90 rn2
• UFO, Frankfurt arn Main Arch.: Dietz Jopplen Architekten AG
E
"'
.,.;
________ E
Q Room depths for various types of office
234
OFFICE BUILDINGS
Typology Since 1980
The continuing progress of information technology is resulting in
new job descriptions for employees. The requirements for office
space are also changing and often require the refurbishment of
existing office buildings. An additional factor of equal importance is
that the open-plan configuration has been found to be inadequate
(-'> Changes at the workplace, p. 232).
The means used for this reorganisation are rebuilding, provision
of daylight from inner courtyards, straightforward plan layouts,
creation of workplaces of equal rank with regard to light, air and
sound reduction, or the use of office furnishing systems, which
can increasingly undertake the function of building services like
cabling, sockets etc., and also of partitions.
The combi-office principle attempts to provide a suitable room
concept for the specific requirements of an office organisation. This
entails a room arrangement that is flexible where required, enables
group work, provides individual rooms for concentrated work and
a temporarily usable collective layout for particular communal
activities. It is particularly suitable for independent, highly qualified
work where the workplace can change with the daily programme.
'Hot desk offices' or 'business clubs' are not spatial layouts but
denote a particularly flexible organisation of work without fixed
personal workplaces. Particular value is placed on variable room
use possibilities and differentiated room qualities. For combi-
groups and open-plan offices, efficiency is not achieved through
rebuilding of rooms but via the business organisation and a flexible
'club' atmosphere conducive to wellbeing.
In new buildings, this experience leads to more value being
placed on reversibility, in order to be able to react better to the
ever-shorter innovation cycles of office technology. This leads to
buildings which can be divided into user units of varying sizes
without great inconvenience (rented offices) -'>8 - e, or even
permit a combination of production and administration (start-up
centres) -'> 8. The changed values regarding the workplace, plus
high energy prices, are leading to new architectural forms with
building elements intended to provide temperature regulation and
natural ventilation (conservatories, halls, double fac;:ades).
;;:,:
0 ;:::::::::
-
lu="'
'8:j:;:::::::;:::;:::;: 0
::::1 ;::::::
::::::: ::::j
::::::
8::0;!:i:t:::::::l
d-
:::::::::::;
Key
• Column
• Lift
() Main stairs
Q Side stairs
raJ core area
[;)Group rooms
c=J Small rooms
- - Partitioning
of letting units
possible
Q Scheme of a building with variable areas for rent. The central building zone can
be opened to the various rental units as required. Kennedyhaus, Dusseldorf
Arch.: Kister Scheithauer Gross,
Prof. U. Coersmeier, Cologne
"~'& D~D
wQ[]!Qo 0; D
IJ D D [] [] [] [] [] () ()~ ()
ld ld ~ ld ld
En<> "l
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E "
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Ll Ll
ffi
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:rn[]
~
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[] [] lJ [] [] [] []0 " [][
e Possible arrangements of various office depths in a 15 m wide plan

0
~
~
~-o I
I I
I I
I I
L~------_j
min. 3.40
Example: single office
min.3.40
Example: double office with
wall-oriented workstations
4.60
0 Example: office management
f J f f f J l
I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I
~
~
- - l
I~ I
1~1
l - -
- - l
I
I~ I
l~·l
I
l - -
f) Minimum space requirement for a
single workstation
e Space required for meeting zone 9 Space required
for files
Q Space required for single workstation
with additional shelf space
EJ CDEJ
e Example: workstation layout in a large group office 0 Example: workstation layout in a small
group office
OFFICE BUILDINGS
Space Requirement
Workplace
According to the new Workplace
Regulations, there are no longer any
fixed minimum dimensions for work-
places. But the requirements of the
accident insurers and the fact that
all workplaces today have computer
screens means that the minimum
dimensions in the relevant DIN EN
standards and regulations apply.
Furniture areas
The standard no longer prescribes
fixed dimensions for workplaces,
but requires sufficient working
and movement areas for changing
positions at work and for the
individually adaptable placing of
work equipment.
The assignments of various areas
are differentiated by the standard;
however, they can overlap if this
results in no limitation ofthe function.
The areas are:
- work area: table
- shelf area: plan area of the
furniture
- furniture function area: space
required for doors and drawers
- movement area at the workstation
- traffic and through-passages
Forms of office and work
The office's form and thus its room
layout are part of a system influe-
nced by activity, procedural organ-
isation, IT technology and company
culture. The building structure and
design of rooms can have a signifi-
cant influence on the use. Efficiency
gains can result from factors like
reduction of the area per worksta-
tion, rooms designed to support
procedures and improve motivation,
for which emotional factors above all
are decisive, like material and colour
ideas, but also the provision of quiet
and communication areas for formal
and informal meetings. The analysis
of requirements can produce valu-
able pointers to possible forms of
office.
235
OFFICE
BUILDINGS
Structures
Tendencies
Typology
Until1980
Since 1980
Space
requirement
Computer
workstations
Archives
Additional areas
Room typology
Grid
Access
Building services
Construction
DIN 4543-1

OFFICE
BUILDINGS
Structures
Tendencies
Typology
Until1980
Since 1980
Space
requirement
Computer
workstations
Archives
Additional areas
Room typology
Grid
Access
Building services
Construction
BS EN ISO 9241
DIN EN ISO 9241
ZH 1/618, 1/535
see also: Daylight
pp. 488 ff.
seated permissible
'~ J. ~F;i~~~
[I &65'
' ~!!/~f.r.;;~·'": ~ ...,::'::!:ow :~:r
I '""" ~
0 Vertical field of view f) Horizontal field of view
C) Preferred and permissible reach areas
8 Ergonomically correct basic
posture at computer workstation
e Legroom
T
s
T
e Ergonomicallydesigned computer
workstation with fixed desk
60(70)
12
(20)
::::::::::::::.·:::::.·::::.·::::::.·:::.·:::::::::·:.
values in brackets are target values
Job type 1
table adjustable in height
chair adjustable in height
Women
Women and Men
T (Table height)* (630-t)- (730-t)(630-t)- (780-t)
S (Chair height) 420-460 420-500
Job type 2
not height-adjustable table
not height-adjustable chair
not height-adjustable footrest
Women
Women and Men
T (Table height)* (700-t)- (730-1)(750-t)- (780-t)
S (Chair height) 420-460 500-550
P (Height 0-100 0-150
footrests)
Job type 2
not height-adjustable table
not height-adjustable chair
Women
Women and Men
T (Table height)* (630-t)- (730-t) (630-t)- (780-t)
s (Chair height) 420-460 420-500
*tmeans keyboard height above the table top
Dimensions for workstation furniture
236
OFFICE BUILDINGS
Computer Workstations
Workstations are where elements such as computer screen,
alphanumeric keyboard and document or sound recording device are
decisive for dealing with the work. Computer workstations are not
based on one standard solution but according to the specific work
procedure (e.g. information point, data entry point etc.).
The regulations are laid down in ZH 1/618, 'Safety rules for visual
display workstations in office areas', issued by the Association of
Commercial Accident Insurance Companies. They include:
- Workplace Guidelines and Workplace Regulations
- more than 40 DIN regulations, particularly:
- DIN EN ISO g241 T1-T7, 'Ergonomic requirements for office work
with visual display terminals'
- ZH 1/535 'Safety rules for office workstations'
- VDI and VDE (German engineering and electrical associations) standards
for technical services (heating, ventilation, electricity). Computer
workstations should be designed to comply with these regulations and
the generaHy recognised rules of the technology or in accordance with
the relevant state of occupational health and ergonomic knowledge.
Workplace layout
Items which are frequently used during the working day should be
put in the preferred places where they are visible and reachable ---7
0 - 0. There should be a free movement area of at least 1.5 m2 at
the workstation.
Furniture: This should enable the correctly defined working posture -
upper arm and elbow vertical at an angle of approx. goo and thigh and
lower leg vertical at an angle of goo ---7 0. To achieve the correct posture
for people of different heights, table and chair sizes must be adjustable.
Two ergonomicaHy equaHy valuable possibilities are:
A: workstation type 1, desk at variable height
chair at variable height
B: workstation type 2, type 3, desk of fixed height
chair of variable height
footstool of variable height
There should be sufficient legroom ---7 0.
60-78 em
42-54 em
72cm
42-50 em
00-15 em
The desktop working area should be at least 120 x 80 em (few
documents, predominantly screen work; for specialist employees, at
least 200 x 80 em)
Environment: AU furniture in the immediate vicinity (desktop etc.)
should have a coefficient of reflection of 20-50%.
Lighting intensity should be 300-500 lx, and lamps have limited glare,
e.g. through recessed ceiling grid luminaires or 2-K lighting ---7 p. 501-
51 0. Light bands should be arranged parallel to the window. Matt
surfaces in the room with recommended coefficients of reflection
(approx: ceiling 70%, walls 50%, partitions 20-50%).
The view to the screen should be parallel to the window fagade and to
light bands, with the screen if possible in-between. Install computer
workstations in windowless zones.
Recommendations for climatic conditions and sound reduction
should be complied with. The increased use of equipment in offices
will more probably result in a cooling load rather than a heating load
(---7 p. 466).
Psychology of the computer workstation
Negative effects can arise for the management that determines
computer work if a strategy of rationalisation is pursued which excludes
the employees from the working process as much as possible and
attempts to restrict them to residual activities. Prof. Walter Volpert (---7
refs) formulated nine criteria for the design of workstations, which define
contrasting (machine-person) work tasks with the foHowing features:
- wide scope for action and decision
- reasonable amount of time allowed
- possibility of personal structuring of demands
- performing tasks free of hindrance
-sufficient physical activity
- stimulation of varied senses
- concrete handling with real objects (or direct social relations)
- possibility of variations
- encouragement and enabling of social cooperation and immediate
contact between people
(---7 Changes at the workplace, p. 232)

8 Shelves, usable depth 42 em;
1.37mwide
Hanging rail for magnetic tapes,
49 single positions
f) Slide-out unit for suspended files
f) Series B -> 0 - 4D)
G Slide-out shelf with telescopic
runners
e Slide-out shelf for microfilm
cassettes, holds up to 164
e Rails with suspended files
parallel to the front
Q Pull-out shelf for 0 Rail for centre-mounted
82
A
diskettes, holding up to 190 suspended files
aisle space
o~~~~.------------, ~o·
~ furniture space H;<-------------1
~ aisle space ~ furniture space
~~--~u~rn~Jt=u~re~s~pa=c~e~
1--
B
c
: aisle space
~ furniture space
Relationship of passage/aisle to furniture floor space for various
filing systems
Large Velox archive shelf,
section and plan
A vertical files
8 horizontal files
Handling times:
Comparison of flat and vertical files
flat vertical
remove file 29% 14%
sort files 41% 66%
replace files 30% 20%
100% 100%
@) Filing systems
OFFICE BUILDINGS
Archives
Filing
Despite the application of new office technologies, the use of paper as
the main information storage medium has increased. Until1980, paper
consumption doubled every four years. Computer-aided storage is
increasingly used as information depository in office communication
systems. Letters, texts and newspapers, which are described as
uncoded information, will continue to be part of the paper volume.
Purpose: Clearly arranged ordering and storage of files within short
walking distance and efficient exploitation of the space. Space
requirements for filing systems (according to Ladner -t 0). Increasing
depth of shelves also increases the distance to walk between them.
L x W (filing furniture) = space for furniture
+ Y, L x W + 0.5 m = passage space
total space required - space for furniture+ passage space
Deep filing cabinets are more economical. The relationship between
furniture floor space and passage space for a vertical filing system using
large archive shelves (Velox system) and for a horizontal filing system is
made clear in -t $. Furniture floor space needed with vertical storage is
5.2 rn2
, passage space 4.6 m2
(100:90}. With horizontal storage, furniture
floor space 3.2 m2, passage space 3.6 m2 (90:100, ratio inverted}. A
horizontal filing system offers less storage space and the high shelves are
hard to organise. Vertical storage offers a personnel saving of over 40%.
Suspended files make about 87% better use of wall area than files on
shelves -t0. Files can betransported with a paternoster lift. Workstations
should include sorting shelves, small desk, chairs on castors.
The filing system should be centrally located. A favourable window centre-
line is 2.25-2.50 m, ceiling clearance height 2.10 rn (2 storeys of normal
office space =3 storeys of filing). The rooms must be dry, so attic and
cellar are inadvisable. Continuous table -1 0 + CD with suspended files
and writing surfaces combines workstations effectively. Trolleys can be
used as writing surfaces, or for card index boxes. Mobile filing systems
(Soenneken Compaktus system) enable a space saving of 100-120%} by
eliminating intermediate passages -1 0 B Systems are not standardised
and are adapted to the relevant requirements of filing systems, archives,
libraries, stores. Take note of the higher loading per m2
of floor area (-t
Libraries, pp. 247 ff.). Movement ofthe filing system is manual or by a drive.
The entire filing system or just parts of it can be closed with one hand.
horizontal storage library storage in
in loose-leaf letter organisers in
binders on open roll-front cabinet
shelves 35 x 200 40x125x220
10 000 files 1) continuous cabinet or 7,25m 11.00m
approx. 2 mm wall length
thick (without 2) basic space requirement
folders) approx. including operational but 5.92 m2 B.25m2
25 sheets not side passages
G Space comparison for various filing systems
r--0.81------1
6} Wall space comparison between 0 Narrow shelf with trolley
suspended filing and boxfiles
forthe same file content
combined vertical
and suspended filing
cabinet in folders on
shelves 65 x 78 x 200
2.4m
3.6m2
4i)Section-> 0
Gi) A~ mobile filing system B ~ space comparison with normal filing cabinet
237
OFFICE
BUILDINGS
Structures
Tendencies
Typology
Until1980
Since 1980
Space
requirement
Computer
workstations
Archives
Additional areas
Room typology
Grid
Access
Building services
Construction
see also:
Libraries/Archives
pp. 247 ff.

OFFICE
BUILDINGS
Structures
Tendencies
Typology
Until1980
Since 1980
Space
requirement
Computer
workstations
Archives
Additional areas
Room typology
Grid
Access
Building services
Construction
see also: Daylight
pp. 485 ff.
Security ], tothe J
equipment ~-~i~e~~i we
Cafeteria
tAccess 1 Conference
control
Canteen Porter -- __}
Waiting Training
Restaurant
zone Exhibition
JJ ..... l'
Entrance zone
[ Wind lobby
j
.....
0 Relationships of publicly accessible rooms to the entrance area and
access control
75 75 75
lt-::-::-!1
I 60 I
J[J[J[][J
60 60 60
I I
~]:
~
JOOOODJ~
JOOOOO ~
f) Space requirement for seating in conference and training rooms
Area(m2
) Range Average Total
Immediate workstation 11-15 13
Workstation 15.5
Additional area (consulting, storage) 1.5-4.2 2.5
Sanitary facilities 0.6-0.8 0.7
Conference/training 0.3-1.0 0.6
Archive 0.4-1.0 0.6
Stores 0.4-1.5 0.6
Subsidiary
Canteen, cafeteria, tea kitchen 0.6-1.6 1.1
areas 9.0
Entrance area 0.2-0.7 0.4
Supply and disposal 0.5-1.5 1.0
Post room 0.3-0.5 0.4
Server room 0.5-1.5 1.0
Garage parking 0-13 2.6
Construction area 1.9-3.8 3.0
Building Building services 2.4-4.6 3.0 10.5
Traffic area 2.2-6.0 4.5
8 Average gross space requirement for a workstation
238
OFFICE BUILDINGS
Additional Areas
Subsidiary and additional areas
The total space requirement per workstation varies between 23
and 45 m2, depending on organisational and status requirements.
This includes 2.6 m2 car parking area in the basement, which is
not included in the floor to space ratio. The tendency has been
increasing since the 1970s.
Entrance area
Connection between public and working areas. The important
functions are lobby, access control, information, visitor registration
and waiting zone. Important area for the company's corporate
identity- the first impression is decisive!
Conferences, training
Conference areas should be directly accessible from the entrance
area. Provide sliding partitions (which can divide large rooms),
tables, seating, presentation media, and also store rooms and a
pantry for catering (these subsidiary rooms require about Vs of the
conference area). Good noise reduction is important. A conference
area requires about 2.5 m2 per seat (without subsidiary areas).
Space requirement- 0.3-1.0 m2 per workstation.
Post room
Undertakes the distribution of all incoming and outgoing post
and goods. Work positions (packing and sorting tables) should be
sufficiently large so that distribution can be rapid at peak times.
Space requirement - 0.3-0.5 m2
per work position.
Archive rooms
Files and written documents, which are seldom needed but have
to be kept (statutory storage requirements), are stored here to take
up as little space as possible (purely paper archives rapidly take
up 10-20 m per workstation). For this reason, microfilming and
some electronic archiving are worth looking into at an early stage.
Archive rooms should be designed for an increased floor loading
of 7.5-12.5 kN/m2 (for mobile units)~ Archives, p. 252.
IT technology
Early planning of network technology is important. This will
determine whether data centres or server rooms with or without
constantly manned workstations are necessary and whether these
should be placed centrally or decentralised in the building. These
rooms should have a 70 em raised floor on account of the large
amount of installation, and should be air-conditioned. Access
control is particularly important. Back-up systems should if
possible be separated from the data centre in fire-protected areas.
Social areas
Canteens or cafeterias (~ Catering, p. 174 fl.) are mostly operated
as units by outside companies. Location near the reception and
outside the access control allows outside visitors in.
Tea kitchens should be as near to the workstations as possible
and connected with communication zones. For every approx.
50-1 00 workplaces, one -10 m2 kitchen.
Toilets
Sanitary facilities are to be provided in accordance with the
Workplace Regulations (~ p. 270) and separation between the
anteroom with washbasins and the actual toilets is important.
A good ratio is one toilet unit per 50-80 workstations. Space
requirement -0.6-0.8 m2 per workstation.
Cleaning services
A cleaner's room should be provided on every floor, as a store for
cleaning equipment and ideally with water supply and bucket sink.
A central waste room, possibly enclosed waste collection rooms
with separate collection containers and shredders. The caretaker
should have a rest room, store and workshop in a central location.
Further special areas
Garage areas with maintenance and parking facilities for company
vehicles; company sports facilities, swimming pool, sauna and
kindergarten should be considered as required.

Single-room office f) Group office
~~~~~~~
~~m~~ §o[] §
~~d)~~i
e Open-plan office G Combi-office
28.9 m2
26.4m2
25.6m2
22.4m2 23.1 m'
Standard Comfortable Open*plan Group Combi-office
partitioned partitioned room
office office
0
In an investigation on cost-saving (by Prof. H. Sommer), five alternative room
arrangements were set up, in order to obtain quantitative data about space
requirements.
~n··.·.·.·.·.·.·.·.·.·.·.·.·.·.·.·.·l
~::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
:~:~:~:~:~:~:~:~:~:~:~:~:~:~:~:~:~:~
e Single-row layout, economical as very deep offices
f) Two-row layout
e Three-row layout
Cl) Layout without corridor
Legend:
QMain
stairs
Q Side
stairs
aJcore
area
First design for a combi-office:
ESAB Head Office., Stockholm,
1976. Layout variants: open-plan,
group room, single rooms, combi-
offlce Tenbom Architektur AB
IZ]Group EJsmall
room room
Types of offices
OFFICE BUILDINGS
Room Typology
Offices can be categorised according to size and occupation into
two types: single rooms and open-plan offices. All further types
are variations and different arrangements of these basic types.
Room types
Single-room offices: Single and double rooms are arranged in
rows along a mostly artificially lit corridor. Jointly used infrastructure
occupies expensive window space in occupied rooms, because
no furniture is allowed in escape routes. The most economical
occupation, by two or three people, disturbs concentrated work.
Single rooms hinder internal communication. This is still the most
common form of office layout ---> 0.
Open-plan office: A form of office developed in the 1960s and
1970s of the last century. Large-scale office landscapes with 100
or more workstations are made possible by artificial lighting and
ventilation; they stand for free communication and openness.
Economical cubic structures, however, have the disadvantage
of high maintenance costs. This form is not very popular among
users---> 0.
Group office: The experience with the open-plan layout led to the
development of group offices with approx. 4-16 workstations; each
office is used by a single team or department. This arrangement
is preferred above all for creative, design or coordination and
development activities with high internal communication needs.
-;f)
Room systems
Combi-office: Very small single offices are separated by glass
walls from the deep connection zone, in which communally used
infrastructure is located. The combi-office was developed in
the 1980s as an attempt to combine the advantages of single-
room and open-plan offices. Each employee is provided with an
individual workstation for concentrated work and a jointly used
room in the central zone, with its glass partitions, encourage
communication ---> Cli).
'Hot desk' office, 'business club': Certain functions are assigned
to workstations. The users choose the suitable working location
for the current activity (non-territorial offices). The personal area
of the employee is limited to a mobile desk/cupboard unit. This
type of office is only made possible by new forms of business
organisation and technical equipment like mobile phones and
laptops. Combined with teleworking or with a high proportion
of travelling representatives, savings of 20-50% are possible
compared with personalised offices---> p. 234---> 0.
Satellite office: Office space is located in decentralised locations, for
example in residential areas near the employee. In the form of rented
office space, satellite offices provide 'service stations', not only as
branch offices of large companies but also varied sizes of office and
infrastructure for small firms or self-employed people. The intention
is to relieve rush-hour traffic and offer seldom-used office space like
meeting, conference or training rooms when required.
Reversible office (Revibllro): This is actually not a type of office
but rather a form of building which hosts functions of different
office companies at more or less expense. The cost of equipment
rises with increasing adaptability and compromises have to be
accepted concerning office sizes and organisation. This type of
building is rnainly suitable for offices for renting to tenants who are
not yet known ---> pp. 234, 235.
239
OFFICE
BUILDINGS
Structures
Tendencies
Typology
Until1980
Since 1980
Space
requirement
Computer
workstations
Archives
Additional areas
Room typology
Grid
Access
Building services
Construction

OFFICE
BUILDING
Structures
Tendencies
Typology
Until1980
Since 1980
Space
requirement
Computer
workstations
Archives
Additional areas
Room typology
Grid
Access
Building services
Construction
0
3.75 5.00
3.75 I
12.50
Grid module 1.50 m, building depth 12.50 m, an
economical form of building for single offices or for
combi-offices; this provides a narrow communal
zone and 10% fewer workstations at the window
than with f).
5.15
grid module 1.20m
C) Possible uses for various window axis dimensions
A Column in front of fagade B Column in fagade
o0
4.30 5.00 4.30
13.40
Grid module 1.35 m, building depth 13.40 m, an
economical form of building for combi-offices, but
for single offices this produces deep and badly
proportioned rooms.
4.75
grid module 1.30m
C Column behind fagade
4.40
grid module 1.40 m
D Column offset behind
fagade
8 Various possibilities of placing the columns in relation to the grid module. With A and D, the partition-fa9ade
junctions are always the same. With B and C, there are different partition junctions with columns and fa9ade.
// '//////////////
B c D
9 Avoidance of sound transfer through junction elements above and below light partitions (Schulz --> refs)
240
OFFICE BUILDINGS
Grid
Grid module spacings define possible
room sizes through the resulting spacing
of columns and fagades. The fitting out
and fagade grids must be the same in
order to enable the partitions to connect
to the windows. The structural grid can
be offset against the fitting out grid. This
reduces the problem of connecting the
partitions to columns, but loses space
in the rooms, which contain columns.
Because of the different lifecycles of the
building elements, an adaptable module
dimension should be chosen. The
modular dimensions, which have proved
successful in recent years, are 1.50 m for
single-room offices and 1.35 m for office
types based on the combi principle.
Modular dimension 1.50 m
This is the economical module dimension
for single-room offices consisting mainly
of double workstations. Workstation
depth 2.20 m (80 em desk, 1 m
movement area, 40 em shelf behind).
With 10 em wall thickness, this gives
4.40 m clear room space.
The usual depth of buildings with central
corridors is 12-13 m. This dimension is
only of limited practicality for combi-
offices.
Modular dimension 1.35 m
Room widths of 3.80 m (-18 m2
usable
area) enable:
-additional filing storage; two computer
workstations with a depth of 0.90 m, as
recommended by accident insurance
companies; one drawing board or
drawing machine and one desk;
one desk and meeting table for four
people. All usual office workstations
are possible, offering high flexibility of
use without moving the partitions.
Partitions
The junctions of light partitions demand
particular attention to noise reduction.
When glass partitions are specified,
the required degree of sound proofing
should be discussed with the user!
Fac;:ade
Vertical profiles in the fagade, which lie
on the modular grid, should be wide
enough to connect a partition. A better
solution is with sound-insulated profiles
running along the fagade. Take care
with the opening lights of the windows.
Ceiling and floor
Screed bonded to the slab is good for
sound insulation --78, D with integrated
cable ducts, because airborne sound is
transmitted only to a slight degree.
With raised access floors and suspended
ceilings, either vertical continuation of
any possible partitions is to be provided
or these elements are to be sound-
insulating in themselves --7 8 B + C

0
I~
Single-row layout with
very deep office zone
Iiiii
Single-row layout is normally uneconomical
•
8 Three-row layout with supply
core in the dark zone
0 Two-row layout, standard 0 Offset two-row layout, overlapping zone with supply 0 Three-row layout; lightwells
in the core can light these
naturally
solution for single-room core forms three-row layout
office blocks
t ~
' i
" /
__.-ll-L
T I I I I I - ~¥-- -++•t-
__ ~ l _J_ __J_
/I" --t++t-
+ /
I " --r--fr-r
0 Building forms and arrangements of supply cores (Hascher--> refs)
1-30.00---+-30.00----l
f----30.00-----1
f----60.00---1
f----60.00---1
'i) Building with lightwell
T
0
"'
,-.:
..!..
1--30.00-ll---60.00---11-30.00--1 f----30.00------;
1--30.00-+---60.00---11--30.00--1
T
0
0
d
"'
l--35.00-----t---60.00---1-35.00--l 1
T - -
0
0
d
I
w. ~
1--------100.00-------1 I
0
f--about 30.00 about 60.0----!
According to MBO 2002, every point in an occupied room must be
~35 m from a staircase. This in practice leads to a spacing of the
staircases from the end of the building of 30 m and from each other of
60 m--> 0-0. Take note of deviating stipulations in the current LBO!
OFFICE BUILDINGS
Access
Building concepts
Single-row layouts are uneco-
nomical, and only acceptable
with deep office rooms (daylight?)
---70-f).
Two-row layouts have mostly
been used for administration buil-
dings until now; single rooms and
small offices are possible with day-
light ---7 0. The supply cores are
situated in well-lit zones. The
transitional form, three-row, is
produced by offsetting the two-
row layout in the supply area ---7 0.
Three-row layouts (typical of
office high-rise) ---7 8 + 0
A large supply zone at the
centre of the building is normally
practical only for high-rise buil-
dings (greater proportion of
vertical transport). Daylight can
mostly be exploited into a room
depth of about 7.00 m. New
daylight systems for the deflec-
tion and transport of light (prisms,
reflectors ---7 p. 499), exploit the
available daylight still better.
Lightwells can illuminate the
centre of three-row buildings
naturally ---7 e.
Building alignment
Coinpass orientation is variously
estimated. According to Rosenauer,
90% of all office buildings in the
USA have a main axis ENV, because
the deeply penetrating morning and
evening sun is a disturbance. Sun
from the south can be shaded more
easily with sun blinds. According
to Joedicke (---7 refs), the main axis
in the N/S alignment is to ensure
sunlight through all rooms. North-
facing rooms are acceptable only
for layouts without a corridor.
Access systems
Fixed points are sanitary facilities,
stairwells, lift shafts etc., situated
at maximum spacings defined
in the building regulations ---7 e
- Cl}. The arrangement of these
determines urban development's
building structure ---7 0 - 0. For
combined use units of less than
400 m2, the corridors are not
subject to the requirements for
escape routes.
241
OFFICE
BUILDINGS
Structures
Tendencies
Typology
Until1980
Since 1980
Space
requirement
Computer
workstations
Archives
Additional areas
Room typology
Grid
Access
Building seJVices
Construction

OFFICE
BUILDINGS
Structures
Tendencies
Typology
Unti11980
Since 1980
Space
requirement
Computer
workstations
Archives
Additional areas
Room typology
Grid
Access
Building
services
Construction
see also: Daylight
pp. 485 ff.
3.00
Storey height 3.00/3.10 m
Building with a low degree
of installation. No
suspended ceilings. Heating
pipes in external wall.
Electrical supply through
windowsill or floor duct.
Ceiling lighting supplied
through ducts or standing
partitions. Corridor areas for
installation.
Storey height 3.40 m
Building with installation
requirements, without
ventilation system. In the
ceiling void (h =32 em):
electric cables and
heating and water
pipework. Installation
ducts in the corridor.
Building with
air-conditioning system.
A ceiling void of min. 50
em is recommended for
air-conditioned offices.
Ducts along the corridor.
Office with 3.00 m ceiling
height. Crossing
ventilation ducts require
a storey height of
approx. 4.20 m. All
heightwdependent
building elements
influence the ratio of
building costs to usable
office space.
0 Storey heights according to the degree of installation (installed zone can either be in the ceiling void or above
the bare floor slab)
Ill
~
~ i
""' i
I
I
I
-......._
i
I
I
I
I
---....._J;··
i
I
I
I
~~
- ..
T
~'ilm
II QD II
~'ilm
II QD II
I II
1--
r-
1--
1--
1--
1--
r-
-
-
-
-
--'
~I
~
-11
-1
;:::'._
Bare ceiling slab serves as heat buffer.
Transverse ventilation through tilted
windows and ventilation ducts over the
corridor zone enable night-time cooling
of the storage mass. If building
elements are additionally
temperature-regulated through heating
or cooling pipework, then it is called
building element activation. The
system saves energy but reacts
sluggishly and is not individually
controllable.
Underfloor convector with air supply
from outside serves to heat or cool (for
which a fan Is required). The system is
Individually controllable only to a
limited degree because the heating
and cooling medium flows in the same
circuit.
Underfloor convector serves for
heating. Cooling convectors in the
cupboards cool warm air under the
ceiling and lead it back to the floor area
of the room (without fans). The system
can be well controlled individually but
requires a double system of plpework.
f) Alternatives to air conditioning of offices: saving of storey height through reduction of the supply cross-
sections (water instead of air)
Floor Floor construction Duct type
construction thickness above
slab (mm)
Fresh air According to VOl According
m3/h per ventilation rule to USASRE
30 open duct with distribution person guideline
above floor 10 non-smoker with
55 duct under the screed with
bonded distribution above floor
screed 70 open duct with underfloor
distribution
air heating, under
ooc outside
temperature
10-27
office
20-30 non-smoker
duct under screed with underfloor 26-34
distribution
30-40 smoker
70 raised floor with underfloor
34-51
distribution
51-68 directors'
70-1000 cavity floor with underfloor room
distribution (smokers)
8 Floor installation dependent on floor construction 8 Ventilation requirement for office rooms
242
OFFICE BUILDINGS
Building Services
Air conditioning
Two fifths of the operating costs of an
administrative building are energy costs.
The energy required for cooling in the
summer is considerably higher than for
heating in the winter.
The room temperature should be min. 19°C
and max. 26°C (legal interpretation of the
Workplace Regulations). The construction and
alignment of the building are decisive for the
energyconsumptionto provideairconditioning
and light. Building elements which store heat,
double fagades and light deflection systems
reduce energy consumption.
Fully air-conditioned rooms
The gross built volume and the total con-
struction costs for air-conditioned build-
ings are 1.3-1 .5 times higher than for build-
ings without air conditioning ~ 0.
Gentle cooling ~ f) - 0
In order to reduce peaks of energy
consumption, large areas of solid building
elements should be in direct contact
with rooms as heat buffers. Ceilings are
particularly suitable for this purpose
because the partitions should normally be
easy to relocate. A further development
is building element cooling, e.g. capillary
tube mats with refrigerant flowing through.
Radiant ceilings work without the buffer
effect of heavy building elements. Further
savings of energy can be achieved with
geothermal heat exchangers, which
can pre-warm or cool the air supply to
ventilation plant or passively heated halls
by making use of the constant temperature
underground. In order to achieve better
regulation capability, there are suitable
systems which regulate the temperature of
the air supply with convectors. The radiant
heating capacity of a building element in
connection with temperature-regulated
air supply can provide sufficient heating
(usable area can be gained through less
floor or ceiling construction). The cost of air-
conditioning systems with building element
cooling are not more than conventional
air-conditioning systems. Advantages:
no draughts, no noise, reduction of the
investment and operating costs (water has
1000 x less pumped volume than air for
the same performance, closed circuit, heat
reclamation), reduction of the supply cross-
sections (water instead of air) and size of
the building's energy control room.
element lifetime
structure 50 years
building envelope 20 years
building services 7-15 years
finishings 5-7 years
technical devices, furniture and Constant
communications technology
e Lifetime of building elements

~~-
_5.5~~~~~~,5.Q~---~+~
Floor slab rn C 20/25
d=20,betterd=25 g
- ~---- -1-1- - ~- "
~ijf. Slab cross-sectiOn g
~
B<i;n~l;;~l;;-~~~o-;;nd-;;;1;,~-!-i
e.g. for 3 store;i•I0 30
min. 24/24 em
_ ·-·-·-· §!_a_b....§.~~fr.2.._m.~q~Le
~~I
Ill
f
Partition
1~1
wall as
required
Finishings
111
'"
-5.00 10 10 5,00
..!1
1.80
11
Floor spanning across building.
Supporting beams running along the
building. Central support beam and
columns at the side of the corridor
separate from corridor wall.
-flexibility and reversibility unlimited
-sufficient corridor width for clear
passage between column and wall
-highly suitable if no suspended ceiling
or for enclosed car parking with access
route along the building
0 Structural system, asymmetrical
two-span beam
--+----~-5 ~0 -
1
2~01Rei:~:~~I
concrete o
solrd slab ~
rn B25mrn.
- d= 16
betterd =20
20± 0
20f 24 0
m.~~:~~~J~-~~ ____II"
nt4/24 em Built-in ~
(min. dimensions cupboard
for in-situ concrete)
beam section
Slab section ai
downstand
-·-·-·- --
Finishings
Non-load-
bearing
external waU
~- - - -
- 4.80 24 60 -4 80
4-~~~~~G-~~
Floor spanning across the building.
Supporting beams running along the
building on both sides of the corridor in
the middle span. The corridor wall can
also be constructed as a load-bearing/
bracing wall to increase longitudinal
rigidity.
- masonry corridor wall cannot be altered,
so limited flexibility in room depth
-floor thickness min. 20 em (impact
sound insulation) if no suspended
ceiling or floating screed
-not suitable above enclosed car parking
-construction of corridor wall as load-
bearing is cost-effective
-construction increasingly cost-effective
with greater building depth and longer
spacing of columns along building
t) Structural system, three-span
beam
5 50 6 50
~W~in=do=w=li=nle=l=i==~~c= ~===
has little load
{slabs also 1 )_!3
possible) 1 ro
=---~~=~=
0 c
';' 0
J ~ l
H=====i==:~~ = lo =
;:g
6l
Slab seen from above ~ ~
1
• - 4.8o r~ w 5.00
1.50
Floor spanning along the building.
Supporting beams running across
the building from external column to
centre column to external column.
-additional sound insulation
measures required on account
of insufficient density of floor
(suspended ceiling, floating screed
- highly suitable for enclosed car
parking with access route along the
building.
f) Structural system, multi-span
beam
-12m
Slab seen from above
~
c
§
0
II
"
{l __
"
~~
UJ
Reinforced concrete
columns, e.g.
~
0~
"'
"'0
"'
§
~
_rn -·
for 3 storeys 30/35 em
Free arrangement
. of finishing elements.
Supporting beams spanning across
building freely from external column
to external column.
-suspended ceiling is required -
services run across the building
between webs, longitudinal
arrangement in holes in beams (cut-
outs) is not practical
- construction uneconomical overall,
high supporting beams (also in
steel), large building volume, only
for column-free superstructures.
Reduced supporting beam height
of 60 em, structure susceptible
to vibration and high degree of
deflection.
Q Structural system, slab acting
as beam
8
..
OFFICE BUILDINGS
Construction
Structure - influence of construction on the layout of offices ---7
0 - 0. Construction proposals for the cross-sections of two-
row office buildings with the following loading assumptions:
normal 5 KN/m2
, additional 2 KN/m2 for screed (8 em for floor
duct and supply connections).
Ceiling height 2.75 m according to Vst regulation (enables the
later installation of raised floor and deeper suspended ceilings).
For predominantly sedentary activities, the reduction of the ceiling
height by 25 em is possible, but min. 2.50 m clear. Corridors and
sanitary facilities are permitted to be 2.30 m high (this can be
exploited for installation runs). According to Kahl (---7 refs), the cost-
effectiveness of a structure is less dependent on the optimisation
of the individual components (e.g. pre-cast elements), and much
more on their integration into a functional building. Differentiation
between longitudinal and transverse spanning systems ---7 0- 0.
Constructive scope for decision-making via the example of a
reinforced concrete slab with 6.50 m span. Criteria: almost identical
costs; higher weight has influence on costs for load transfer and
foundations; thicker slab has advantages through greater stiffness
under differing loading (box-outs, spreader beams, point loads,
various spans, various floor constructions).
Ribbed slabs: Only economical over longer spans (less self-
weight, higher labour costs for formwork). Cutting through the ribs
is not possible, due to lack of space. Supporting beams have the
same soffit level.
Slab beams (double T or Pi-slabs): These are structurally advan-
tageous for long spans. Installation should run parallel to the web;
crossing runs should be carried out in the corridor ---7 0 - 0. The
far;:ade plane can lie behind, between or in front of the structural
plane. Greatest variability with separation of construction and external
envelope. Layout ofcolumns, frontface offar;:ade, backface offar;:ade,
in front or behind, have no influence on the compartmentalisation of
the far;:ade or the division arrangement (grid, corner detail).
Internal columns ---7 p. 240 0 A-D: If the slab cantilevers with
a cantilever of c =1/5 L-1/3 L, the span is economical. Bracing
through walls acting as deep beams, storey frames and the
provision of solid access cores and end-fixed side zones.
Building the walls: Solid partition walls can replace columns
and supporting beams, or can be considered as deep beams to
provide rigidity ---7 0 - f). Not reversible, openings should be
specified in advance. The use of lightweight (non-load-bearing)
partitions has the advantage of potential relocation, but also
delays decisions about room layout, even during construction
(construction, studding - both sides 2 x 12.5 mm plasterboards
approximately correspond to the sound reduction value of a 24 em
block wall of density 1.2 kg/dm3 , plastered both sides).
:=-. w-w·a·b
0 Frame 0
bracing, which
transfers wind
load into the
foundations
Bracing using
wall panels
~--l~~---.J~;-·
~~·-~
- . . - - . -
·~· ... ·-· ·-- -· ·-·-
.--.=· ~ -=· ·=·· .. --~~
-· -~· ·-· ·-· ·-·
- ·~'§!§~· - - ~- -
Ail•Br···
t-t -
~:.~-.-.~·
-· -~--
C D
f) Four ways of distributing the floor
loading onto columns and core
zone in three-row layouts
243
OFFICE
BUILDINGS
Structures
Tendencies
Typology
Until1980
Since 1980
Space
requirement
Computer
workstations
Archives
Additional areas
Room typology
Grid
Access
Building services
Construction

HIGH-RISE
BUILDINGS
Basics
Construction
Requirements
0 Internal traffic areas and
subsidiary rooms are purely
artificially lit and ventilated
Arch.: Rosskotten
Layout plan
f) Two-row floor plan with C) Cruciform floor plan with
bracing core and external
emergency stairs
access at the external
faqade
Foyer with
enclosed stairs
and access core
Entrance level
Legends
IE Core areas - - Elevator
0 Main staircase
IT] Traffic areas,
foyer 0 Side stairs
High-rise building developed from the ground plan of the block, Daimler Chrysler Building, Berlin
Arch.: Kallhoff
+ 124.40
Standard floors Entrance level Section
0 The load-bearing construction forms the towers, between which pre-stressed floors are ~24 m wide, but only
0.75 m deep Arch.: Ponti-Nervi
244
HIGH-RISE BUILDINGS
Basics
Definition of high-rise buildings
High-rise buildings are those intended for
long-term human occupation whose upper-
most floor on one side of the building is
more than 22 m above ground level.
Typology
There are two basic types of high-rise
building:
1. The block, which has been designed as
a high-rise building for economic reasons,
and whose form has been developed from
urban structure and planning, and from
building regulations. Predominantly found
in densely built cities, e.g. New York-> G.
2. The tower, erected as a solitary building
and mainly intended to provide a symbolic
and prestige effect to keep the client and
the city at the forefront of attention -> e.
Use
High-rise buildings are a sign of extreme
urban density and can also be seen as
a town within the town. Use is therefore
correspondingly varied: on the lower floors,
public establishments (plaza, hall); and,
above, offices, hotels and apartments.
Because high-rise buildings in Europe are
mainly built as prestige projects, these
are often company headquarters I office
buildings with additional uses like hotels or
apartments. In Germany, use as schools,
hospitals or homes for elderly people is
ruled out by the applicable regulations.
Location
In Europe, the construction of high-rise
buildings is mainly determined by political
decisions. Because their effect is decisive
for a city's character, the city normally
decides where and what type of high-rises.
The integration of a high-rise building into
the urban landscape poses many questions
for urban development planning. The preser-
vation of street spaces, extension of public
access areas, connection to public trans-
port, pedestrian circulation, the needs of
neighbouring buildings to receive natural
light and alteration of the urban micro-
climate all have to be considered.
Approval
In addition to the normal authorities,
further specialised bodies are also involved
in the approval of high-rise buildings
according to location and federal state,
e.g. the requirements of air-traffic control
(Radar damping -> p. 112), broadcasting
authorities, state criminal offices and water
protection boards have to be considered
and their approval gained.

~
g;
~
"'
~
g; 0
E g;
32
""
:g ,;
"' :2
~
)~ ·s 8 t5 g> ~ 0> 1ij ·s :;;
"'""' @ 0:: c iii-c ~:g ~
0
0~
0
2
~~ I 0>
~~ ~~
g,
~~
-"' 0> "' 0>
1'1
"' ·m ·m
~-~ ~~ cc ·a.!! :> @
m:2 0- 0-
~
"' "'0 "'0 E<~> c.c
~i§
wa. oz ,o tD:C OI wz '-=j(l) (1)0
0 Some of the world's highest buildings
f) Range of cost-effectiveness for structural systems
House of Representatives, 0
Bonn, 1969
Arch.: E. Eiermann with BBD
BMW headquarters, Munich, 1972, 0
standard open-plan floor
Arch. Karl Schwanzer
Eccentric placement of the core
zone enables different room
configurations
Different fitting out with single
offices
HIGH-RISE BUILDINGS
Construction
Frame construction in steel or reinforced concrete is the standard
solution. Spans vary according to material and type of constru-
ction. Solid reinforced concrete slabs span 2.5-5.5 m, ribbed
slabs 5.0-7.5 m, both with a maximum 12.5 m between main
beams. Pre-stressed concrete can span up to 25m with only 0.75
m structural depth -> p. 244 8. The exterior wall should be a
curtain wall in front of set-back external columns (take note of fire
protection -> p. 246 0). There are a multitude of mixed forms of
construction such as steel frame with concrete floors. In areas at
risk of earthquakes, special construction is necessary to prevent
oscillation of the building.
The design of high-rise buildings is determined by the construction
system and the vertical access elements. The ratio of usable
floor area to building cost becomes ever less favourable with the
increasing height of the building. Construction and access areas
take up a large part of the plan area. The division of high-rise
buildings into sections with transport to 'sky lobbies' by express
lift, where the passengers can transfer to normal lifts, reduces the
space required for lifts and the travel time-> p. 246 e.
Cost-effectiveness depends on the 'sway factor', the ratio of
maximum permissible horizontal deformation at the top to the
total height of a building (max. 1:600).
The decisive factor for the design of very high buildings is the
horizontal forces (wind) and not the vertical loads. 90% of horizontal
deformation comes from the shifting of the frame, or 'shear sway',
and 10% comes from the slant of the entire building. Frame
structures without special wind bracing are economic only up to
about 10 storeys. Conventional frame systems lead to uneconomic
dimensions for more than 20 floors. Reinforced concrete frames
are practical up to 10 storeys without, and for 20-30 storeys with,
bracing walls, and higher than that for concrete tube and double
tube structures. The cost-effectiveness of a building is determined
by material used, suitable type of construction and application of
rational construction technology -> f).
An example of a structurally economical solution is the John
Hancock Center, Chicago, 1965, by Skidmore, Owings & Merrill.
The visible structural elements form the design concept. The tube
principle considerably reduced the amount of steel required and
the operational economics are improved by layered usage:
Floors 1-5 shops, 6-12 parking, 13-41 offices with flexible use,
42-45 services and 'sky lobby', 46-93 apartments, 94-96 visitors
and restaurants, 97-98 TV transmitter-> 0-0.
0
·~..~...~"
[(~j~~:
John Hancock Center~ Chicago~
floors 13-14, offices with flexible
use
f) Additive basic form
HI
e John Hancock Center, Chicago,
floors 46-93, apartments
Arch. Skidmore, Owings & Merrill
Compact basic form
245
HIGH-RISE
BUILDINGS
Basics
Construction
Requirements

HIGH-RISE
BUILDINGS
Basics
Construction
Requirements
see also: Fire
protection
pp. 511 ff.
Lifts pp. 128 ff.
High-rise group Height above fire Special requirements
service parking area
I 22-30 m high-rise regulations apply
II 30--60 m at least 1 fire service lift
Ill 60--200 m elements of structural significance must
be F 120 and many fire service lifts can be
required
IV over200 m the approval authority can place further
requirements
0 Approval requirements for high-rise building groups
·--·min. sealing
and full-walled
,J r
~~~r-~~r--i 7
~
§I~~
'1
fj Emergency stairs on the external
wall with minimum distance to
windows
r
c=
~
r
Q External safety stairwell
Express __
group
Lower local
group
Middle group-
lower
local group -
Without
long-haul-
group
Upper
local -
group
Express
group -
Lower
long-haul
group
Lower
local-
group
r

c=
~:
r
e Emergency stairs inside the building
with ventilation system
Positive pressure
from pressurised
smoke-prevention
system
J
(_
r
c=
7
Q Internal safety stairwell with smoke
protection pressure system
:r~~;urant ---1------
Upper long-
haul group - - -
Upper local
group
~:~r express_ &..U..--n
Middle long-
haul group
Middle local
group
Middle express _ a..U..--H
group
Lower long- _ _
haul group
Lower local
group
0 Running a number of lift groups in the same shaft by arranging express groups
('sky lobbies')
Requirements for the parapet area in high-rise buildings to prevent fire
spreading from one storey to the next
246
HIGH-RISE BUILDINGS
Requirements
The requirements of the high-rise building guideline are mostly
derived from the need for fire protection. Described here are
mostly those relevant to the structural layout of a design. The
exact requirements for particular building elements should be
taken from the relevant state building regulations and the high-rise
building guideline. Specific local regulations should be clarified at
an early stage.
Escape routes
Escape routes are min. 1.25 m wide and should if possible lead in
two directions, to each staircase. The maximum walking distance
from each point of an occupied room may not exceed 25 m.
Corridors with two escape directions may be max. 40 m long.
After 20 m, a smoke-proof self-closing door must be installed.
Branch corridors with only one escape direction may be max.
10m long. If a second escape route (e.g. an escape balcony) is
available, max. 20 m.
Stairs
High-rise buildings up to 60 m high: at least two emergency
stairs must be available, which must be located opposite in two
separate fire compartments. Their walking width must be at least
1.25 m. The wellhole must be min. 0.80 m wide in order to avoid
having to lay hoses on the stairs. Smoke outlets must be provided
at their highest point (5% of the floor area but min. 1 m2). The exit
must be directly into the open air or through a lobby without any
fire load. In exceptional cases, one staircase can be approved for
high-rise buildings up to 60 m in height, if it is a safety staircase.
Requirements for the location of stairs -'t 0 4:}.
Lifts
Up to about 25 storeys, it is usual to provide one group of lifts with
all lifts serving all floors. If more than 6 lifts are necessary, they
should be divided into two groups.
In higher buildings, the lifts are split into groups. A group of lifts
serves a certain number of floors with priority. When there are more
than three groups, this system becomes uneconomic because
of the high number of lifts in the lower area. High-rise buildings
above about 200 m therefore have 'sky lobbies' reached by an
express group (mostly 2-3) and further distribution continues from
there. This enables a number of lifts in one shaft to provide the fine
distribution -'t 0.
Fire service lift
In high-rise buildings more than 30 m high, there must be at least
one fire service lift in its own shaft, from where every point of an
occupied room can be reached within a radius of 50 m. It must
have an anteroom with a hydrant, which is large enough to enable
the transport of stretchers to the lift. Access routes must be at
least T 30 fire-retarding.
Fac;:ade
In order to avoid fire spreading from one storey to the one above,
there must be W 90 A fire-resistant parapets at least 1 m high
(fire spreading height). Alternatively, a W 90 A horizontal building
element projecting at least 1.5 m from the fac;:ade can be provided.
All-glass fac;:ades (also double fac;:ades) are permitted only with
special approvals if particular protection measures (area sprinklers,
mist extinguishing systems) can prevent the spread of fire to the
next storey -'t 0.
Window areas which cannot be cleaned safely from inside, must
be cleaned from the outside by trained personnel using suitable
apparatus -'t p. 101.

').e block of shelf units
~~,r------------~
J.,'bc.et'"" r 1 aisle between shelving .... ,.. :
~~/ I /~
,,'
--r-
_1_ ..L.<O<.l-+&4
double-
sided shelving
(length x depth x height)
centre~line
distance
shelf
(length x depth x height)
~ single-sided
shelving
0 Unsealed sketch to clarify the terms used in the calculation of areas for stock
block of shelf units 8.70 x 12.00
t=========--12.00--========±__,
adjacent aisle
0 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . . . . . . . . . . . g
f) Floor area for bookshelves in stacks (stores), which are closed to the public
r--- 6.00 ---;-
adjacent aisle
Area Centreline
distance (m)
store 1.35
shelving/
m
~~
(1.20)
1.44
<0
m
~~
~
self-service 1.40
E <nO
~ ~;i
area 1.70
information 1.60
aisleL
"
~
~
area and 2.00
reading
~
room
8 Floor area for bookshelves in self-service area, standard block 8.70 x 6.00 m
Library area/floor Stacks and Compact Reading room Administration
type self-service systems and self-service
store area
on floors arranged 7.5 12.5 5.0 5.0
transversely
on floors not 8.5 15.0 5.0 5.0
arranged transversely
0 Load assumptions for floors (kN/m2)
Structural grid
3.60 4.20 4.80 5.40 6.00 6.60 7.20 8.40
Stacks (St) 1.05 1.08 1.10 1.05
Self-service areas (S1) 1.20 1.20 1.20 1.10 1.20 1.20 1.20 1.12/1.2
1.29
Self-service areas (S2) 1.40 1.37 1.35 1.33 1.32 1.31 1.40
1.44 1.50 1.47 1.44
1.60 1.54 1.60 1.53
1.68 1.65 1.68
Reading room areas (R) 1.80 1.80 1.71 1.80
1.92 2.00
Workplaces (2.25) (W) 2.40 2.10 2.07 2.10
2.40 2.10 2.40 2.10 2.40 2.20 2.40 2.10
Group workplaces (G) 3.60 4.20 4.80 3.60 4.00 4.40 3.60 4.20
0 Suitability of common structural grids for essential functions of a library
LIBRARIES
Basics
Types of library
Public lending libraries ~ p. 250: offer a wide range of literature
and other information, preferably on open shelves. The supply of
literature covers all population and age groups. In larger cities,
the functions of scientific and public libraries are sometimes
combined.
Scientific libraries~ p. 251: collection, acquisition and provision
of literature on specific subjects for education and research,
mostly publicly accessible without limitation.
State libraries: federal state and national libraries; collections,
for example, of literature produced in the state or a region (legal
deposit copies); publicly accessible.
Specialist libraries: scientific libraries for the collection of
specialist literature and media on specific subjects, often with very
limited group of users.
Components
Three areas in every library: user and reading area, store and
administration. The space requirement for these areas differs
according to the type of library.
User and reading area: With a good orientation system
(signposting of routes, functions and shelves with easily read
signs), the reading area with reading and working places should
if possible be spread over as few floors as possible, also for ease
of book transport; staggered floors should be avoided. Access
should if possible be by stairs. All areas of the user and reading
room should also be accessible by lift (book transport, disability-
friendly). The floor in the user and reading area should be designed
for a loading of 5.0 kN/m2•
Traffic routes > 1.20 m wide, clear distance between the shelves
-in public areas always fixed- up to max. 1.30-1.40 m. Entrance
and reading room area separated by access control with book
security system. If possible, only one entrance and exit. The
access control should ideally be situated near the lending counter/
central information.
Outside access-controlled area: cloakrooms or lockers for
clothing and bags/cases, toilets, cafeteria, newspaper reading
corner, exhibition room, lecture and conference room (which may
be open outside library opening hours), central information point,
possibly also card index and microfiche catalogue, online catalogue
terminals, book return, collection point for ordered books.
Inside access-controlled area: reader information, bibliographies,
online catalogue terminals, handing out and return of books only
to be used in reading area, issuing of books in educational book
collection, copiers (in separate rooms), book stock on open
shelves, user workplaces, possibly access to self-service stores.
The provision of user workplaces in university libraries depends
on the number of students and the distribution of the individual
subject groups. Special workplaces for disabled people (wheelchair
users, visually impaired), special work tasks (microform reading
and enlargement devices, PCs, terminals, CD-ROM and similar:
observe the guidelines for computer workplaces p. 236!) and single
workplaces (cubicles, carrels, single work rooms). The arrange-
ment of the reading places should be in daylight. Space require-
ment per single reading/working place 2.5 m2, per PC or single
working place ~4.0 m2• Traffic routes ~1 .20m wide, clear distance
between the shelves, which in public areas should always be
fixed, up to max. 1.30-1.40 m.
247
LIBRARIES
Basics
Fittings
Lending counter
Public libraries
Scientific libraries
Archives

LIBRARIES
Basics
Fittings
Lending counter
Public libraries
Archives
DIN specialist
report 13
Distance between Volumes/ m Vertical Volumes/m Space Volumes/
centreline of standard shelves double needed for 1000 m'
double shelves (m) shelves shelves books (m')
1.20 30 6 360 3.99 250.6
30 6.5 390 3.68 271.7
25 6.5 325 4.43 225.7
"'-
30 7 420 3.42 292.3
0 25 6 300 4.80 208.3
N
"
t:
1.25 30 6 360 4.16 240.3
0
30 6.5 390 3.84 260.4
;e
.., 25 6.5 325 4.61 216.9
..,
.!'!. 30 7 420 3.56 280.8
~
4.99 200.4
" 25 6 300
"'
" 1.30 30 6 360 4.33 230.9
.ll
6.5 3.99 250.6
.., 30 390
"
"' 25 6.5 325 4.80 208.3
0
0
"'
30 7 420 3.70 270.2
1! 25 6 300 5.19 192.6
.ll
1.35 6 360 4.50 222.2
"' 30
.ll 30 6.5 390 4.15 240.9
25 6.5 325 4.98 200.8
30 7 420 3.85 259.7
25 6 300 5.40 185.1
1.40 30 6 360 4.85 206.1
30 6.5 390 4.47 223.7
"'- 25 6.5 325 5.17 193.4
"'
N
30 7 420 4.16 240.3
iii
t:
25 6 300 5.82 171.8
0
~ 20 5.5 220 7.63 131.0
..,
.!'!. 1.44 25 6 300 6.00 166.6
"' 25 5.5 275 6.53 153.1
1!
"' 20 6 240 7.50 133.3
"
.!l 20 5.5 220 8.17 122.3
~
" 1.50 25 6 300 6.25 160.0
"'
.,!.
25 5.5 275 6.81 146.8
Qi
"' 20 6 240 7.81 128.0
20 5.5 220 8.51 117.5
1.68 25 6 300 7.00 142.8
:g 25 5.5 275 7.62 131.2
0
"' 20 6 240 8.75 114.2
'0
" 20 5.5 220 9.53 104.9
.!'!.
m~
1.80 20 5.5 220 10.22 97.8
rnl}, 20 5 200 11.25 88.8
EN
1.87 20 5.5 220 10.62 94.1
0
e 20 5 200 11.68 85.6
g> 2.10 20 5.5 220 11.92 83.8
'0
"' 20 5 200 13.12 76.2
1!
20 4 160 16.40 60.9
Source: Schwe1gler
0 Space calculation
Area Volumes
per shelf
stacks 25-30
Structural grid 7.20 mx 7.50 mx 7.80 m x 8.40 m x
self-service 20-25
area
7.20m 7.50 m 7.80 m 8.40 m
information 20
n x distance 6x 1.20 6x1.25 6x 1.30 6x 1.20 area and
between 5x1.44 5x 1.50 5x 1.56 4x 1.40 reading
centre-line (m) 4x 1.80 4x 1.87 4x 1.95 4x 1.68 room
f) Example of standard spacing for usual
structural grids
0 Volumes per shelf
No. shelves Standard distance between centre-line (m)
1.10 1.20 1.30 1.40 1.50 1.60 1.70 1.80
4 3.83 3.72 3.62 3.54 3.46 3.39 3.33 3.27
5 4.38 4.24 4.11 4.00 3.90 3.81 3.73 3.65
6 4.93 4.75 4.60 4.46 4.34 4.23 4.13 4.03
7 5.48 5.27 5.09 4.93 4.78 4.65 4.53 4.42
8 6.03 5.79 5.58 5.39 5.22 5.07 4.93 4.80
9 6.58 6.31 6.07 5.85 5.66 5.49 5.33 5.18
G Live floor loads for various number of shelves and centre-line distances
Vertical shelves n 7 6 5 Assuming a format distribution of
Max. book height (em) 25 30 35 25cm 65%
Average book depth (em) 18 20 22 25-30 em 25%
Load per shelf (kN) 0.38 0.51 0.55
30-35 em 10%
results in a required load
assumption of 7.5 kNJm2
0 Floor load assumption for stacks of 7.5 kN/m2
248
LIBRARIES
Basics
Lighting in the user area: generally approx. 250-300 lx; reading
and working places, card index, information, lending counter
500 lx. Climate in the user area: 20° ± 2°C, -50 ± 5% relative
humidity, air changes (flow of outside air) 20 m3
/h x no. of people;
these values can sometimes be exceeded according to the weather.
Avoid direct sunshine as UV and heat radiation destroy paper
and bindings. Air-conditioning systems should be used sparingly
because of the high energy consumption and thus high operation
costs. Window ventilation is possible for low building depth.
Safety and security in the user area: fire protection is adequately
covered in the regulations and requirements of the local building
inspectors. Burglary prevention through motion detectors and
burglary-resistant glazing and theft protection through book
security systems, optimally securing unsupervised emergency
doors through electronically controlled automatic locking on
alarm. Mechanical securing of emergency doors, also with
acoustic and/or optical signals, is not very effective.
The stacks (store) should ideally be situated in the basement
on account of the more even climate and support of the higher
loadings. 'Book towers' are inconvenient on account of the
increased cost of air conditioning, transport and staff because of
the limited space and flexibility. The largest possible continuous
areas without steps are the most practical. Divide into fixed
and mobile shelf blocks ('compact systems') depending on the
structural grid of the columns (-7 DIN specialist report 13). Mobile
stacks can increase the capacity by up to -100%. Floor load-
bearing capacity for fixed shelves is min. 7.5 kN/m2
; for mobile
stacks min. 12.5 kN/m2
(-7 DIN specialist report 13}.
Climate in stacks: 18 ± 2°C, 50 ± 5% rei. humidity, air changes
(flow of outside air) ~3 m3/h x m2; filtering of harmful substances
(dust, S02, NOx etc.) is required according to location. The use of
wall materials with a good capacity to retain moisture and heat
can reduce the need for air conditioning. Slight air movement
is useful for the avoidance of mould formation, particularly with
mobile stacks (use open ends). Special collections and materials
(e.g. slides, film or sound and data storage media as well as
card, drawings and graphics) require a particular climate.
Floor load-bearing capacity in administration and book
processing areas >5.0 kN/m2
; can be higher in the technical
areas (workshops) on account of machinery (individual structural
verification required}.
Construction: Reinforced concrete or steel frame construction
with a grid of>7.20 m x 7.20 m and room heights of ~3.00 m have
proved successful on account of the flexibility of fitting out.
Traffic routes: avoid crossings and overlapping of routes for
users, staff and books.
Transport: Book transport carried out horizontally with trolleys
(no thresholds, differences of level should have ramps for ;;'ii6% or
lifting platforms) and conveyor belts; vertically in lifts, conveyor
belts (plan the route carefully, with sloping upward inclines; very
low maintenance costs), container transport systems (mechanically
programmable, combination of horizontal stretches and paternoster
lifts} or automatic container transport systems (routes can be
horizontal or vertical as required, automatic, mostly computer route
control; high investment cost, currently very high maintenance costs).
Space requirement for bookshelves depends on the form of
organisation, accessibility for users, type of shelves (fixed or
mobile}, systematic subject categorisation with corresponding
display, format separation and construction grid (tables -7 DIN
specialist report 13}.

Tr-------,
•' " I ~ T
LI I ~ J:1 D .·.•· 1.00
· ~~~~~~.-~ 1 11-l r~ .····. l
0 Space for a single workplace-> 8 f) Minimum spacing between tables
Minimum free room in reading
area->9
e Transporting books between
sitting and standing library
users-> 0
,,~da~itMJ:.,
ffi-·~-ill-·~-ill-=-m+
llr'narrowest aisle'T'circulation route~ normal width rT1
Q Minimum spacing
G Shelf unit, five shelves 41!) Shelf height for schoolchildren
1--1,00-----l f---54---1 !-30-l
;:=;== ;==
I WI<
F, ~b · e · (1+~} formula 1
F1 floor area required for an open
workstation for library user
width of table
distance between centre-lines
of tables arranged one behind
the other
N% percentage of area allowed
for adjacent aisles providing
access to individual
workstations
Under the conditions listed above, the
floor area required for an individual work-
station is approx. 2.50 m2
• Example:
F1 ~ 1.00 m· (0.70 + 0.95). (1+ .§Q,)
F1 ~ 2.48 m' 100
8 Area calculation -> 0 m2
main
usable area
r··c·~~::::
.
1-1.00---l
~~-;;lf1::::%fffi
v1v1l
shelf
units
EEE
L__Jl ~
e Carrels (non-lockable protected
workplaces)
>--- 1.70 ----4
:-108
I I
A 1,3.~m~-- __j
1--- 2.00 ---1
1.50
1
~-lgq .l
B ~~m_:_____: 1
e Microfiche reader workplace
4D Shelf unit, four shelves- small
children
I
5
f= I=
!---1 ,00 - - i !--54 --j 1-30-t
4
I= F=
0
3 F=
"'.
I=
2
I= T
I= 22,5
T F= 1
30
1
I~ r==i
1
- ,-- :=-
4
I=
I===
3
I=
0 I=
"'·
I
12
I=
I=
T I= T
1
30 20
l
~
.L
I~
double-sided single-sided
$ Bookshelves for adults 5-6 shelves, for children 4-5 shelves-> 4D
LIBRARIES
Fittings
System furniture for reference
and lending libraries for all
types of devices (telephone, PC,
terminals, microfiche readers)
and for all required cable
ducts for network and com-
munications systems.
Cupboards with special
drawers for card catalogues,
microfiches, slides, film, audio
and videocassettes, compact
discs, drawing cabinets for
maps, drawings and graphics.
Shelving systems for books,
magazines, media; mostly
freestanding double shelf
units (vertical steel profiles,
shelves steel sheet or wood)
h = 2.25 m, spacing of verticals
= 1.00 m, depth of shelves =
0.25-0.30 m, but also extra
depths, e.g. for atlases and
newspaper collected editions;
shelves adjustable for height
min. every 15 mm. Height of
the freestanding double shelves
max. 5 x depth. Capacity of the
shelves depends on the number
of shelves per unit, calculated
at 25-30 vols/running m (-->
DIN specialist report 13). Shelf
spacing in stacks > 0.75 m,
longer in accessible areas.
Mobile shelf units (only
permissible in closed stacks)
can, if the column grid is
favourable and the shelf
blocks fit, result in a capacity
increase of up to approx. 100%.
Required: floor load-bearing
capacity ~12.5 kN/m2
(extra
costs compared to the usual
7.5 kN/m2).
Microfilm reader workplaces
will be necessary in the future to
make available microfilmed media
(predominantly newspapers). The
tendency, however, is towards
digitalisation because this
creates better use and access
possibilities.
(D Magazine rack
249
LIBRARIES
Basics
Fittings
Lending counler
Public libraries
Archives

LIBRARIES
Basics
Fittings
Lending counter
Public libraries
Archives
,------
Permanent workplace
f+-
Near to the
for staff administration
~
"0
t
c
"'
£ Issue/return of media.
c
f---+ Counter Book transport automatic
Q)
"' and hidden it possible
c
·c
g
t
c
0
::;;
Informing the users
Near to computer
~ terminals for catalogue
Explanation of IT catalogue
research
-
0 Demands on the lending counter/issue desk
adults
Functional scheme of a medium-sized library
"'
3000
2400
~ 1500
g 1200
"'
Q)
~
"
900
600
!--- .......
,......
1//
......-'
.......v
300
r-7~T Tolovf'ujej fjr "!"j3joj'
10 20 30 40 50 80 100
Scheme: space requirement of a library depending on the amount of stock
Technical processing
Post room Reception booking
goods entrance/ ramp Store, sort and distribute
Packaging (remote lending)
Administration
Invoicing
office workplace
Librarian Stock-taking
Office workplace with additional Title registration
shelf space for media ;?i2 m2 Issue of signature
Parking for book trolley Subject assignment
(50 em x 100 em) Catalogue processing
Technical processing
Bookbinding workshop ;?;so m2 Binding
Restoration workshop ;?i200 m2 Labelling
(for 4 employees) Restoration
Material store ;?;15 m2
Distribution Sorting
Book sorting room~ 14m2 Distribution
Stacks I sell-service shelves
Q Route of book processing from delivery to lending
250
LIBRARIES
Space Requirement
Lending counter
This is the interface between entrance areas and the normally
accessible catalogue areas, the reading room with microfilm
device, the stacks and the administration. Here the issuing and
return of books takes place, information about the library is given
and people are checked on entering or leaving the reading room.
So there are many demands on the counter.
Mobile counters of combined units are mainly suitable for
smaller libraries. Larger libraries, especially when the book trans-
port systems are integrated into the counters, tend to prefer
permanently installed systems. The height of the counter depends
on the rnain activity undertaken --7 0, 95-1 05 em is appropriate.
It is better not to have any additional units above the counter in
libraries mainly used by young people and children. The surface
of the counter is subject to very heavy wear, so suitable materials
should be specified, which can still look presentable after a long
period of use (e.g. solid wood, linoleum or laminates coloured
right through). Provide connections for computer and telephone,
adequate lighting and a view into the open air (comply with the
requirements of the Workplace Regulations, as the counter is
normally a permanent workplace).
Public libraries
These offer general literature and other media on directly acces-
sible self-service display. Systematic collection and cataloguing
by content of printed and other media is restricted to a few large
public libraries. Public libraries have no scientific collection duty
or archive function, but are lending libraries, which normally have
small stores or none at all. The users are children, young people
and adults. Public libraries aim their range of stock and services
at meeting the needs of the users. As a place of communication
('market place') for the population, they offer, in addition to the
traditional lending of books, browsing zones, citizen's advice,
information, cafeteria, listening to music, areas for sitting and
events, art lending, and/or travelling library.
Stock ('media') can be not only books and newspapers but also
magazines, brochures, games or new media (CD, DVD, video,
PC games), which can be borrowed or used in the library. Rooms
should encourage visitors to stay by being welcoming. Structure
the areas into those for adults, children and young people with
activity-oriented movement rooms, not separated but in zones
with flowing transition. The space requirement is in line with the
amount of stock --7 0. The target is two media units per inhabitant,
but a minimum size of 300 m2 usable area with 10 000 media
units in stock. They should be large, connected areas, almost
square and flexibly usable, and extending horizontally rather than
vertically (less staff), capable of extension and with an inviting
entrance area. The shelf units in the adult area will have five or
six shelves (max. reach height 1.80 m --7 p. 249 ~), and in the
children's area four shelves (reach height -1.20 m --7 p. 249 $ -
0). Passages should not be longer than 3 m, neither niches nor
compartments. Books are transported with a book trolley (L x H
x W: 92 x 99 x 50 em). Goods lift at the goods entrance, and in
larger libraries also book transport systems. Floor loading in public
libraries: 5.0 kN/m2
, in store-type self-service areas with denser
stacking 7.5 kN/m2
, with compact storage (mobile shelving units)
12.5 or 15.0 kN/m2.

Section reading room
3rd floor reading room
2nd floor reading room
1st floor reading room
0 Juridicum Halle: specialist law library, Halle University, Wittenberg
LIBRARIES
Scientific Libraries
Scientific libraries have always had a key role in the history of
science and in the life of universities. They are not only a location
for storing books, but places where books can be worked with.
An important and decisive part of world literature has been
produced in libraries. Their erection is among society's greatest
building projects. Important architectural examples from the
19th century show what high prestige has been applied to the
task (Biblioteca Laurentiana, Florence; Bibliotheque Nationale,
Paris).
They collect and access printed publications and other
information media for education and research, and offer it for
use in reading rooms (stock which is not lent out) and also for
lending from the closed stacks, the self-service shelves and,
to select in the reading rooms, separately displayed teaching
material or specially gathered collections for one term. As
well as books and magazines, most other types of audiovisual
media are collected, catalogued and available for use. The
number of reading places is related to the number of students
in the various subjects. Orientation is provided by systematic
classification of stock by subject. The services offered include
remote lending (obtaining literature from distant libraries),
copying services and enlargement of micro-forms (microfiche
and microfilm).
Example: Juridicum Halle___. 0- f).
University libraries
These are single- or two-storey buildings: single-storey systems
are centrally administered (book processing and services) and
mostly have at least a few separate user areas in branch or
specialist libraries. Two-storey libraries include a central library
and an (often larger) number of libraries for faculties, specia-
list areas and institutes. Stock is often freely available in
reading rooms, often in self-service stacks (shelving units
spaced as in closed stacks) and in closed stacks, the different
forms of display being mixed in most university libraries. The
ratio of stored to display and lending stock is determined by
the structure of the stock, and/or the organisation type or
library concept, and often also the space available in existing
buildings.
CD Main entrance
®Lockers
®Waiting area
@Staff/supervision
@Exam room
f) Juridicum Halle, section
®we
(J) Cafe, accessible from outside
@ Reading places
® Bookshelves
@ Computer places
Arch.: Thomas van den Valentyn, Gernot Schulz
251
LIBRARIES
Basics
Fittings
Lending counter
Public libraries
Scientific
libraries
Archives

Basics
Fittings
Lending counter
Public libraries
Archives
0 Extension of the State Archive In Dresden, section through old building and new archive building
Arch.: Kister Schelthauer Gross
f) The archive storerooms are arranged round the access and ventilation core. The room can be flexibly
divided due to the three entrances. Pre-stressed concrete slabs enable thin floor structures with high loadings,
so that space-saving rolling storage units can be used.
e First floor serves to connect to the old building and houses seminar rooms, cafeteria and reading room.
e Ground floor and first floor serve public functions. The foyer In the new building enables disability-friendly access
and connection to the old building.
252
LIBRARIES
Archives
Basics
Archives do not, unlike libraries,
serve mainly to make available
written, graphic and audio media,
but for their systematic cataloguing
and long-term preservation.
In this function, they are often part
of libraries, museums or universities.
State archives keep all sorts of files,
business records, maps, drawings
and documents.
Inorderto beableto acceptthe rapidly
increasing stock, suitable storage
systems such as rolling shelving
units or plan chests (---7 pp. 237,
248) must be provided. The loading
on the floor slab should be paid
particular attention (---7 p. 248). For
the durability of the preserved media,
the maintenance of a uniform climate
is the most important factor, but
full air conditioning has not proved
acceptable on account of the high
cost. Natural ventilation is the ideal,
but also brings the danger of entry
by air-borne pollutants. Systems
without air conditioning need solid
walls with the best possible diffusion
values, and the temperature should
be maintained by simple wall surface
heating (skirting radiators).
CD Controlled
access for users
® Information,
issue
®Store
@) Supervision
@ Reading room
® Map reading
room
(!) Search aids
®Workshops
®Delivery
@ Staff access
@Display
@ Seminar/ lecture
@ Bistro/cafe
@ Self-service films
@ Film reading room
@Post room
@Director
@ Administration
@ Archive rooms
@Stair and
ventilation core
8 Principle of source ventilation: prepared
air is blown in through shafts and fed to
the floors through ventilation blocks.

I
p
I Internal administration
I
I I
• I Specialist customer
. service departments
Customers/ •
staff side I .
entrance .'
I
I I Counter hall . • Strong room
.'
I
Special area: L.::.
I
exhibitions .
conferences
Self-service
. Self-service zone .• customer
deposit boxes
0 Room layout for a branch of a clearing bank with customer business
~
f) Cashpoint
ATM cash dispenser:
height: 1.30- 1.60 m
width:
depth:
weight:
0.40-0.60 m
0.80-1.00 m
600-1000 kg
80-1.00
i. Monitor
2. EPP
3. PC
4. Cash
cassette
Weight approx. 600-1000 kg
Statement printer;
height: 1.10-1.30 m
width:
depth:
weight:
0.50-0.80 m
-0.60 m
-150 kg
8 Dimensions of cashpoint and statement printer
Q Container strong room 8 Nightsafe
MA
0 Self-service zone
Opening 520 mm
Height approx.
9D0-1300mm
(D Self-service zone
® Discretion area
@ Customer hall
@Service
CD Cash dispenser
SP Statement printer
MA Maintenance area
in accordance with
manufacturer's
instructions
BANKS
Bank buildings
There are two basic types of bank buildings: high street clearing
bank branches with customer transactions and special or central
banks without public access. The latter institutions are large-scale
investment and/or corporate buildings.
High street clearing bank branches are a mixture of administration
offices and customer service centres. The administrative share is
larger for main offices and considerably less in smaller branches,
because administration is mostly centrally organised. The main
preconditions for the banking business are security, trust and
reliability, which should also be visible in the design.
The UK, in addition, has long-established building societies,
originally funding house purchase loans from the deposits they
accepted, but now most are also functioning as banks. Their
operating basis resembles that of a bank, so their building design
requirements are similar.
Banks' functional areas are as follows:
Processing zone
Internal office area for administration without public access
(~ p, 231 ff.).
Special zones
In addition to the social rooms for staff and the normal subsidiary
rooms for administration offices (~ p. 238), there are conference
and prestige-promoting areas. These serve training purposes and BANKS
provide space for exhibitions.
Security area
Safes, today described as bank vaults or strong rooms, are mainly
installed in larger bank branches or head offices. In new buildings
there is solid and specially reinforced concrete construction and
in old buildings a room-in-room structure of pre-cast elements.
The ideal location is in the cellar near the entrance, because the
shaft from the night safe has to be almost straight. The routes to
the customer safe deposit boxes and to the bank strong room
should if possible be separate. Delivery of cash and valuables by
armoured vehicles also has to be considered. An access gallery
with surveillance mirrors can be provided to monitor the strong
room. Wall thicknesses are in accordance with the security level,
from 80 em (T1 0) to 100 em (T20). For the customer safe deposit
boxes, 'fully automated safe deposit systems' open at all times are
available. These can be reached from the self-service area through
an additional access control vestibule without staff involvement.
The design should take into account the recommendations of the
Research and Testing Association for safe and strong rooms and
above all the requirements of the insurers.
Customer zone
The introduction of automatic teller cash dispensers (cash dis-
pensers operated by bank staff) with restricted and time-locked
cash release means that the structural protection of the counter
area is no longer necessary. Cash dispensing and simple infor-
mation is mostly at self-service cash points (ATMs). Cashless
transactions can be carried out by home banking. This reduces
the space requirement in the customer area, because the activity
mostly consists of consultations and reference to specialist de-
partments. For initial information, standing consultation counters
are sufficient, but thorough consultations require a separate room
for privacy. Expert departments (e.g. credit and investment) are
often located on the first floor of the customer area.
The self-service zone is also accessible outside business hours.
It is therefore mostly relocated into a lobby outside the customer
area ~ 0. This zone is equipped with cashpoints, account
statement printers, deposit slot for the night safe and possibly the
access to the safe deposit system.
253

RETAIL
OUTLETS
Guidelines and
typologies
Retail regulations
Entrances and
shop windows
Checkout and
waiting zones
Waiting zones-
examples
Routeing,
escalators
Fittings-
dimensions
Food shops
Self-service
shops
BS 9999
DIN 4102
LBO
Retail outlet,
trading, business
and accident
prevention
regulations
Workplace
and insurance
guidelines
0 Open sales, unrestricted entrance
and exit
Stores
[]Till
Staff
C) Specialised shop
Stores
Staff
Till
0 Specialised shop with counter
sales
0 Section of a shopping arcade
f) Closed sales, unrestricted entrance
and controlled exit
G Specialised supermarket (self-
service)
0 Department store
I
~
I
I
e Section of a shopping arcade
~t
Road/
public area
_ ___, ~----
Adjacent
building
Road/
1
1 ·t
public area ......
Cl) Plan of a shopping arcade
254
Adjacent
building
RETAIL OUTLETS
Guidelines and Typologies
Business types
Open sales --7 0: unrestricted entrance and exit (specialised
shops and retail chains, department stores).
Closed sales --7 f): unrestricted entrance, exit only through
staffed checkout (specialised supermarkets).
Sales types and typologies
Specialised shops --7 0: small shops (50-500m2), mostly only
one sector (pharmacy, shoe shop, flower shop), service and con-
sultation --7 0.
Specialised retail chains --7 0: chain stores, mostly only one
sector, presented like specialised shops Oeweller, fashion, shoe
shop), open sales --7 0.
Specialised supermarkets --7 0: chain stores, small to very
large businesses, one or more branches, self-service (pharmacy/
drugstore, toys, DIY, electrical goods, groceries, supermarket),
closed sales --7 e.
Department stores --7 0: often chain stores, very large shops,
mostly multi-storey, various sectors, sections can be rented to
other chains (shop-in-shop principle}, open sales --7 0.
Shopping arcades, shopping centres/malls --7 0 Cli): concen-
tration and conglomeration of specialised shops, supermarkets
and department stores, on one or more floors, with additional
cafes, bars, restaurants.
A shopping arcade --7 0 is from 10,000 m2 in area, usually
approx. 20,000-25,000 m2
in area, roofed, mostly a 2-3 storey
street space with multi-level access, exploiting urban block
zones, external access (min. two) via squares, streets or shop-
ping areas, semi-public access routes; no fixed opening times.
Smaller shops are often along the internal street, with well-
known large-area chains mostly in the corners or at the end of a
street as a 'magnet'. Internal streets often lead into squares or
courtyards.
A shopping centre/mall --7 Cli) is a larger and more elaborate
collection of retail outlets, eating places etc. It has fixed opening
times, therefore no semi-public access routes; main external ac-
cess normally from only one road, but additional side access from
a car park or multi-storey car park is possible.
4D) Shopping centre/mall

~22m
--------~
-------- Ground
level
'7
0 Layout of sales areas
Fir~_
wall
Sales area
;;;10,000 m2
_Fire
on upper floor wall
Fir~
wall
f) Size of fire compartments with sprinkler system
Sales area
Fir~- ;;;3,000 m2
_Fire
wall on ground floor wall
Fir~
wall
Ground
~
:55m
v
Sales area
;;; 5,000 m2
f- Fire
on upper floor wall
Sales area
;;;1,500 m2
on upper floor
up to max
3rd floor
r-- Fire
wall
C) Size of fire compartments without sprinkler system
Sales area
>500m2
f---2.00-2.50---j
Sales area
>500m2
- -
f-1.25---j
G Width of emergency stairways
11.001
~ 500 m2
sales area
Exit into open air
Sales area
>100m2
Exit into stair space
0 Minimum two exits/escape routes
f--2.00-l
> 500 m2
sales area
0 Width of exits, depending on size of sales areas
~ 500 m2 sales area > 500 m2
sales area
··•••••••·••••••••·•..•••n••···u••n~•·••·•
::::.:::::r::..
8 Width of emergency corridors
RETAIL OUTLETS
Retail Regulations
The provisions of the retail regulations apply to retail outlets whose
sales area and shop passages, including building elements, have
a total area of >2,000 m2.
Sales areas
Those in which goods for sale or other services are offered (ex-
cept for emergency staircases, staircase extensions and garages.
Shop passages do not count as sales areas.
Shop passages
These are roofed or covered routes adjacent to sales areas, which
contain customer traffic. They must be at least 5 m wide.
Layout of sales areas
Sales areas, except for catering establishments, may not have a
floor level >22 m above ground level, or >5 m below ground level
-->0.
Fire compartments
Sales outlets are to be divided into fire compartments with parti-
tioning walls built like fire walls--> 0- 0.
The permissible areas of fire compartments on each floor are:
with sprinkler system without sprinkler system
ground floor sales outlets 10,000 m2 5,000 m2
other sales outlets 5,000 m2 1,500m2'
'if the sales areas extend over more than three floors and the total area of all floors
within a fire compartment is not more than 3,000 m2
Emergency stairways
Emergency stairways for customers must be at least 2.0 m wide
and may not exceed a width of 2.5 m. A width of 1.25 m is ad-
equate if the stairway is provided for sales areas <500 m2
in total
--> o.
Exits
Every sales area, occupied room and shop passage must have
a min. 2 exits leading to the open air or into an emergency
stairway. One exit is sufficient for sales areas <1 00 m2
in total
--> 0. Exits from a floor of a sales outlet into the open air or
into an emergency stairway must have a width of 30 em per
100 m2 of sales area, and be min. 2 m wide, but for exits from
sales areas <500 m2, a width of 1 m is sufficient--> ().An exit
leading into a corridor may not be wider than the corridor, and
an exit leading into an emergency stairway may not be wider
than the stairway.
Escape routes
For every sales area, occupied area and shop passage, min. two
escape routes must be provided on the same floor, if possible go-
ing in opposite directions, leading to exits into the open air or to an
emergency stairway. These must be accessible within a distance
of 25 m from every point of a sales area (or 35 m for other areas or
shop passages). The doors must open in the direction of escape
and be without thresholds. A main entrance or a shop passage
must be provided within 10 m (linear distance) of every point in a
sales area.
Emergency corridors
For customers these must be at least 2 m wide. A width of
1.40 m is sufficient if corridors are intended for sales areas
<500 m2
--> 0.
255
RETAIL
OUTLETS
Guidelines and
typologies
Retail
regulations
Entrances and
shop windows
Checkout and
waiting zones
Waiting zones -
examples
Routeing,
escalators
Furnishing -
dimensions
Food shops
Self-service
shops

RETAIL
OUTLETS
Guidelines and
typologies
Retail regulations
Entrances and
shop windows
Checkout and
waiting zones
-1-- 2.00---t
1.00-H- 1.00-f
0 Opening or revolving door with a
clear opening height of 2.20 m
C) Revolving doors with side doors
0 Simple single-leaf entrance
Waiting zones-
examples
Routeing, 8 Funnel-shaped entrance
escalators
Furnishing -
dimensions
Food shops
Self-service
shops
C) Offset entrance
G Shop window as display area
256
JC==:r
f) Sliding door
G Folding door
RETAIL OUTLETS
Entrances and Shop Windows
Entrances
With entrances to sales outlets <2000 m2 the door widths can be
>1.00 m; to those >2000 m2 they must be disability-friendly and
have automatic doors. According to the retail regulations, the clear
opening width must be >2.00 m, and the clear height >2.20 m
~o.
Shop windows
These serve, outside the shop, to present the goods on sale, to
wake the interest of customers and to present an invitation to pur-
chase~ 6) - 0, 0 - 0. The design of shop windows depends
on the particular goods being sold and should complement the
layout, form and size of the entrance. The two basic types are
windows with display area ~ 6) and windows with a view of the
shop~0.
Shop windows with display area: separation of the displayed
goods and the sales area, mostly in department stores and spe-
cialised retail chains.
Shop windows with a view of the shop: view through the win-
dow into the sales area, mostly for specialised shops (e.g. baker,
D butcher...)
0 Corner entrance
D
e Recessed entrance
([!) Small funnel-shaped entrance
f) Variant of-> 6) with parapet (e.g.
jeweller)
@) Rounded turnstile
4D Stepped shop window display with
glazed screen behind
' ' ' ' '
Cf) Shop window with view into shop
0 Three-arm turnstile
Sun
screen
0 Mobile shop window display
unit with screen behind
e Variant of-> 0 with parapet
(e.g. book shop)

I ol
=
~170--1
0 Single cash desk, straight
l 0
0
"'
"'
All
1 110---i
Area or floor cash desk
I
~
1
1----- 130 --I
0 Checkout desk in self-service
supermarket
')t
0 ~
111111 l
1----- 140 --I
f) Variant of 0
T
!
tl
t~
+
~65+60~
c!JI
H-1oo-teo~
15
f) Single cash desk, angled
~eat 100 -teoi
0
1<l
l0
0
-1--
0
"'
-'-
C) Island cash desk with large
packing area
1---130----j
0 Variant of 0
I
0
"'
"'
I
e Variantof0
~65+60~
T.
0
0
'f
0
tlo
~ [!]]
0
"'
I
-L
0
~
0
~
0 Checkout with before- and after-sale (!) Repacking checkout
conveyor belt
RETAIL OUTLETS
Checkout and Waiting Zones
Types of checkout
According to the product and shop type, there are various types of
checkout: single, area and central cash desks and rows of check-
outs.
Row of checkouts
In specialised supermarkets (self-service area), these form the
only exit from all shops with a closed sales area. The passing
width between the checkouts should be sufficiently wide that
shopping trolleys, pushchairs and wheelchairs can pass through,
i.e. min. 1 m. Checkouts are mostly equipped with a conveyor belt
(sometimes a before- and after-sale belt) and stationary scanner.
Self-checkouts are also available as complete products.
Single, area, floor and central cash desks
In specialised shops, specialised retail chains and department
stores with open sales, depending on the functional organisation
of the shop, cash desks can be arranged as single, by area, by
floor or centrally. Department stores with different specialised sec-
tions have mostly area cash desks, specialised retail chains often
have cash desks on each floor or grouped centrally, specialised
small shops mostly have single cash desks.
T
0
~
/Ill
+D
0
~
/Ill
Checkout
trolleys
D
j_--~------Pa_c-ki-ng_z_a_n_e----------~
11
$ Waiting zone, self-service area
0 Double checkout
T
0
"'
f
g
1
Entry/Exit
check~out
counter
:r.
0
·:
'I
>I
basket shelf
basket
stack
- -
--
- -
- -
- -
- -
g]
1------ 160-180 -----!
@) Island cash desk
T
T
t;;
t
+
e Section through small island cash
desk
257
RETAIL
OUTLETS
Guidelines and
typologies
Retail regulations
Entrances and
shop windows
Checkout and
waiting zones
Waiting zones -
examples
Routeing,
escalators
Fittings-
dimensions
Food shops
Self-service
shops

RETAIL
OUTLETS
Guidelines and
typologies
Retail regulations
Entrances and
shop windows
Checkout and
waiting zones
Waiting zones-
examples
Routeing,
escalators
Fittings-
dimensions
Food shops
Self-service
shops
•
•
®
•
•
•
•
Q Checkout waiting zone
G) confectioner
@ glazed frontage
@bakery
G) ovens
®lockers
®staff area
(J) cold room
® store-room
® washing-up
@silo - .
I
standing consumption
"'"" 0 snacks
'-.
0
folding glass partition
o ; plants and flowers
~ flower arrangement
0
Ly room
• o·"-~exit
2 fish specialities
3 preparation
4 bar/eating area
F==---t 2 standing consumption
• ....
....
<J ,
~.
em
• •
f) Fresh food supermarket at Hamburg main station
258
RETAIL OUTLETS
Waiting Zones - Examples
While you wait: buying, with the emphasis on experience - con-
sumption on the spot or take-away.
Impulse buying
Addressing the senses, suggestive display, lifestyle, quality of life,
convenience for employed people and homemakers. Prepared
products, warm or to be warmed up= fast food. No self-service=
free flow. Shop-in-shop. Multitude of ideas, concentration, smaller
shops, high turnover. Matching designs from one designer. Stor-
age for one day, deliveries typically every morning, fresh stock.
Minimal sanitary facilities for standing customers. One WC for
staff.
Range
Bakery- sales only 40-80 m2, +eat in shop 80-120 m2• Butcher's
-sales only 40-80 m2, +eat in shop 80-120 m2
• Cafe, pastries, ice
cream parlour- sales only 40-80 m2, + eat in shop from 220 m2
•
Fish - sales 40-80 m2
, + eat in shop 80-120 m2
• Fresh food
market, eat in shop as extension from 600 m2
in checkout waiting
zone -tO: seafood, fruit, flowers, drinks, wine, champagne, deli-
catessen, up-market snacks.
Additionally
Pizza, steaks, organic food, brewery bar etc. -1 0
(j) brewing tanks
®malting mill
®fish ffi
@bar, steaks '<1Y
®hot food and drinks
counter
Micro-brewery and pub in fresh food supermarket
....
Operator: Floor space
(incl. ancillary areas)
CD bakery with eating area 64m2
® butcher's with steak
and drinks bar
® local specialities
@ Italian specialities
@ Japanese specialities
@ fish specialities
(J) cheeses/salads
@ Mexican specialities
@ cold meat specialities
@ fruit/saladsfluices
<!]) coffee and ice-cream
@ wine merchant, tasting
@ confectioner's
~ coffee roasting
@ tea merchant
@ champagne bar
and delicatessen
@ chocolates
General circulation space
and WCs
Design: Maler and Pistor
89m2
50m2
"' 54m2
43m2
"' 43m2
"' 45m2
46m2
68m2
"' 42m2
20m2
"' 28m2
35m2
28m2
"' 23m2
21m2
~ 25m2
total "'724m
2
::::::95m2
Design: Maier und Pistor

~~''',,,,,,,,,,,,]1
····~.
riTniiir=l•Yi.:··.··.~.··.·.···.··.·······
·~L_j@W
.~
,t=,,,,,,,,,,.,,~~
Q Centric routeing (variant 1)
f) Centric routeing (variant 2)
0 Polygonal routeing
Q Routeing in a single loop
e Routeing in a self-service supermarket
RETAIL OUTLETS
Routeing, Escalators
Routes and escalators serve above all to highlight the promotion of
goods and special offers. The largerthe area of a retail outlet, the more
important is the routeing concept It can be put into practice through
different means on the floor of the shop: lighting, fittings and pos-
itioning of the goods on offer. The location of the goods is determined
by the intention to encourage customers to buy by displaying, as they
pass by, shelves, stock and thus all the product ranges -t 0- f).
The following variants are common for vertical escalator access
in shops:
Double criss-cross: -t 0
The direction of travel of this escalator is 180°.
Parallel layout: -t 0
Escalators in the same direction lie above one another.
The rule of thumb is one escalator for every approx. 1000 m2 of
sales area.
Down RETAIL
Sf~
Down
0 Single parallel escalators 0 Double criss-cross escalators
Routes should include corner areas; separate entrance and exit in a and c,
doubled in b. K =checkout
express service
--,
/ I
," J
:~'~ ~·~..~··~ •
'- -- --- _:J -- ___,__ ---- -"----- __ ,_),__ ··---I----- __ ..'
refill aisle
The shop should be clearly laid out for customers and control (checkout), so the
customer is not forced to make diversions -7 e a
259
OUTLETS
Guidelines and
typologies
Retail regulations
Entrances and
shop windows
Checkout and
waiting zones
Waiting zones -
examples
Routeing,
escalators
Fittings-
dimensions
Food shops
Self-service
shops

RETAIL
OUTLETS
Guidelines and
lypologies
Retail regulations
Entrances and
shop windows
Checkout and
waiting zones
Waiting zones -
examples
Routeing,
escalators
Fittings-
dimensions
Food shops
Self-service
shops
•
~
~
•
rn
•
~il
~ ~
ttB tE "l 0
~ tE HE tE
f-d
!;? ~
H
r--------10.00 10.00----------j
• •
~
I I I I I I I I I II
I I I I I I I I I II +~
I I I I I I I I I II
I •I I I I I I I •
II
l•n
~I I I I I I I I I
~2.00i
II
0 e>J C!
~ shelving
I
+~
~I I I I I I I I I II
u
0
Fsps1s9
0
oi
Ill I I I I I I I •I I I I I I I I •I I I 0
0 Dimensions of the counters and shelves, column grid 10 x 10 m
l-ao--1-so-l-4o+4o-l--120-13o---J-;,;ao-f4o--f
f) Minimum width of a shop "'4.0 m, better 5.0 m
1-----1.46-
e Refrigerated display case with
upper shelves
f---1.17----1
9 Vertical refrigerated display case
with upper shelves
260
L~ 2.60 + 3.85m
total display area = 3.0 + 4.5 m2
capacity~ 910 + 1360 I
1-----1.46-
Q Refrigerated display case without
upper shelves
f------ 91---4
C) Refrigerated display cabinet
RETAIL OUTLETS
Fittings- Dimensions
,_ 60 -1 1-- 90-1.25 ---1
f) Wall shelves
for bottles
Wall shelves for Cl) Wall with drawers, passage for
fruit and vegetables restocking (sliding baskets are
(goods to restock) exchanged)
f----59-----1
C) Small shopping trolley (e.g. drugstore)
T
0
I I 1
f----1.02------1 j-5s--j
T
l
Cil) Large shopping trolley (e.g. large supermarket chain)
t----97----j f----5a---i
I
l
$ Shopping trolley (e.g. DIY store)
I
~
I
4!) Island shelf unit G) Wall shelf unit

0 Traffic scheme for fishmonger
8 Traffic scheme for game and
poultry dealer
f) Fish display case with cooler and
extraction
hanging
game
e Solid counter with marble and tiled
worktop
0 Traffic scheme for bakery. Storerooms e Sales counter with screen
should be well ventilated, possibly
with vapour extraction.
Sales scheme for greengrocer; small e
storeroom, as mostly delivered daily
electric
heating
Counter with mounting for boxes
and wire baskets; draining shelf
and dirt drawer
I-- 1.00 ___,
Fishmonger
RETAIL OUTLETS
Food Shops
Because fresh fish do not keep very long, they are stored cool, but
smoked fish have to be stored dry. The goods are odour-intensive,
so the shops are accessed through control doors or protective
curtains. Walls and floors must be easy to clean. Take into ac-
count bulk deliveries in the design. Consider an aquarium (display
advertising). -7 0 -f)
Game and poultry dealer
This business is often combined with a fishmonger. Storage for
only a day's needs. A workroom must be provided with pluck-
ing machine and game scraper. Because poultry is susceptible to
odour, it must be stored separately in the shop and the cold room.
Counter worktops and walls (marble, tiles, mosaic, plastic) must
be washable. Provide plenty of refrigerated display cases or cabi-
nets. -7 e- e.
Greengrocer
Fresh vegetables, unprocessed or kitchen-ready, must be stored
cool, but not chilled. Potatoes are stored in dark rooms and sold
from the deposit-bearing containers they are delivered in (baskets,
crates, boxes). Protective sliding inserts are provided under stor-
age trays. Greengrocers -7 0- 0 can possibly be combined with
flower shops. Self-service shops offer pre-packed goods in trans-
parent packs.
Butcher
Work steps: 1. delivery of live animals, 2. slaughter, 3. butcher,
4. process, 5. cool/store, 6. sell -7 (!) -G). A single-storey shop is
advantageous, possibly with hanging and sliding rail system, be-
cause sides of pork or quarters of beef weigh 50 kg. Processing
and cold rooms must be 1.5-2 times the size of the shop. Walls:
tiled, mosaic etc. and washable. Counter tops: marble, glass,
ceramic.
Ci) Pavement sales to 'passers-by' on wheeled stand or at shop front with goods
displayed for advertising purposes
f---1.50 ---1
wide service passage
for peak times
(!) Counter with chopping block for
butcher
4D Normal counter for butcher-> f) and for fishmonger
261
RETAIL
OUTLETS
Guidelines and
typologies
Retail regulations
Entrances and
shop windows
Checkout and
waiting zones
Waiting zones -
examples
Routeing,
escalators
Fittings-
dimensions
Food shops
Self-service
shops

RETAIL
OUTLETS
Guidelines and
typologies
Retail regulations
Entrances and
shop windows
Checkout and
waiting zones
Waiting zones-
examples
Routeing,
escalators
Fittings-
dimensions
Food shops
Self~service
shops
II
perfumery
Etd I
II
II II
non~food items
IEH391
non-food items
confectionery
Ll I I I 0
confectionery
confectionery
ITT! ! I I!
confectionery
II II
II
II I I I II
non-food items
i?D
II FII
E
i)
0
0 ~
0
0
1-+-'"-'--'-J' ~·~t~~
~ D
~
Dg
.,
~.~
c
.,
:~
e
0"0
c.
E3 .Elij
D ~
<00 c"' ·;;;
C) C.
~~ .,
.gB
D
l[ll~l*a:JI~ ~
dried food EID
.!!; a.
I[EI~~~~~~113
cocoa tea .!!! g
~B~~coff~•·iJl"~
U I I !_
pastries ·~ g
rr1 brd1J n
<> oj
<> <>l:>
entrance
0 Supermarket
262
RETAIL OUTLETS
Self-Service Shops
Self-service shops mostly sell food. The staff is responsible for ad-
vice, assistance and service. The butchery, cold meats, fruit and
vegetable sections are staffed. The goods are displayed clearly in
packaging according to type. It is important to design practical
routeing. The round trip starts at the basket stack or trolley park
and ends at the checkout or packing table. Wall shelves extend
up to reach height (top shelf is 1.80 m high and lowest 0.30 m
above the floor).
Important design up to 400-499 500-599 600-- 800-899 1000-
parameters 399m2 m> m> 799m2 m> 1499m2
1. full-time staff needed 10.6 12.9 15.3 17.7 22.1 30.2
range 7-14 10--16 12-18 16-20 18-25 25-33
2. fresh and cold meat
department
a) turnover share(%) 22 21 20 19 18 17
19-28 20-32 20-28 17-25 16-24 14.5-24
b) counter length (m) 6.50 7.60 8.75 9.08 9.75 11.75
6.0-7.0 7.0--8.2 7.5-9.0 1.5-10.5 9.0--10.5 10.0-13.5
c) preparation room 14 19 24 26 30 36
(m') 8-20 13-25 18-30 20-32 23-38 23-50
d) cold room (m3) 11 13.5 15 15 22 25
7-15 9-18 10-20 10-20 14-30 16-35
3. dairy and fats
department
a) cool wall shelves 6.75 8.0 8.75 10.25 11.25 15.7
(running m) 6.3-7.3 6.5-9.5 7.5-11 9-12 10-13.5 12-18.5
b) cold room (m2) 6.0 7.6 10.0 12.0 13.0 15.0
4.0-8.0 5.0-10.5 8.0--12.0 8.0-15.5 8.0-18.0 10.0-20.0
4. frozen food (without
ice cream)
a) normal island (m) 5.5 6.1 7.5 8.75 10.1 13.5
5.0-8.0 5.5-7.0 6.5-8.5 7.5-10.0 7.5-12.0 12.0-15.0
b) wide island (m) 3.85 4.1 5.5 6.75 7.75 8.75
2.6-4.6 3.0-5.0 4.0--7.0 4.0-7.5 5.5-10.0 6.0-10.0
c) cabinets (m) 2.4 2.75 3.6 4.4 5.8 6.6
2.3-2.5 2.3-3.2 3.2-4.0 4.0-4.8 5.0-8.5 5.5-8.0
d) freezer room (m2) 2.4 3.25 5.0 5.75 8.25 8.5
2.0-2.8 2.0-4.5 4.0-8.0 4.0-7.5 6.0-10.5 6.0-11.0
5. fruit and veg wall 6.5 7.5 7.5 8.75 10.0 10.75
shelving (with 5.0-8.0 6.5-8.5 7.0-8.0 7.0--10.5 8.0-12.0 9.0-12.5
2 shelves) (m)
6. no. cash desks
- at checkout 2.5 2.9 3.4 3.9 4.9 6.3
2-3 2-3 3-4 3-4 4-5 6-7
- in the departments 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 1.3 1.3
0-1 0--1 0-1 0--1 1-2 1-2
7. no. shopping trolleys 85 105 120 150 180 240
required 70--100 85-130 100-160 100-200 150--220 200-300
Note: first line= average values; second line= range of the parameter
f) Planning data for the design and fitting out of self-service shops and supermarkets
e Service counter in self-service shop, section

0 Planning diagram of a factory
Environmental protection
federal emissions protection law with criteria for an approval process,
possibly including environmental impact assessment (EIA)
technical instructions for the avoidance of noise nuisance
technical instructions for clean air preservation
groundwater protection law
Workplace Regulations
Workplace Regulations
Workplace Guidelines, revised to 2010, newly available are A 1.3 (2007)
and A 2.3 (2007)
guidelines of the federal association of commercial accident insurers
accident prevention regulations of the accident insurers and the federal association
of accident insurers
German engineers' association (VDI) standards
Fire protection
industrial construction guideline with minimum requirements for fire protection in
industrial buildings -> p. 500
structural fire protection in industrial building
technical rules for flammable liquids
technical rules for hazardous substances
f) Basic planning regulations for the construction of industrial and commercial
buildings (selection)
Store
I
I
I
I
I I
1 I
L
__J
I
1 1 Extension :
1
I I I I
I I I 1
L--L------------------L-ri
0 Additive typology: Fagus Werk, Alfeld Architect: Walter Gropius
J, Car park ,..
~----------
T 't
II Adrriin./subsid. ~oom
I
l :
8 Integrated typology: 'open workspace'
INDUSTRY
Basics
Industrial buildings, directly or indirectly, are designed for
the production of goods. In addition to the actual production
buildings (preparation, manufacture, consignment, packag-
ing) these are also warehouses (raw materials, finished prod-
ucts), technical and administration buildings and transport
systems. The spectrum of production ranges from labour-
intensive heavy industry to 'smart' low-emission and highly
automated light industry. The requirements for the design are
accordingly varied: if the traditional factory hall is little more
than a tool, the requirements extend to 'corporate identity',
from recognition value to sympathetic and communication-
oriented workplaces.
Layout planning
The layout is the classic basis of factory building. The various
parameters of the planned production plant are defined and sys-
tematised in the layout -0 0. It is processed in various stag-
es (ideal, trial, rough and precise layout). One of the results of
layout planning is the room allocation plan as a scaled functional
scheme of the planned plant and as the basis for the design
of the building. The structure designed in line with the layout is
product-specific. In the course of the various non-specific de-
sign work (e.g. start-up centres) and the simultaneous develop-
ment of product and production plant, the layout becomes ever
less significant as a design basis, being replaced by more flexible
concepts.
Design basis
The design of industrial buildings is subject to numerous laws,
guidelines, standards and regulations. In addition to the public
planning law -0 p. 56, these are mainly environmental, health and
safety, and fire protection requirements -0 f). Further, there are INDUSTRY
various state laws and product-specific regulations. Basics
Life cycles
Analogous to the life cycles of the product, industrial building is
subject to various economic phases -0 0. Ever shorter product
cycles (5-7 years) are not in accord with the life of a normal build-
ing. Aspects of adaptability, suitability for letting and resale value
are therefore becoming increasingly significant in the design of
industrial buildings.
Product 5 years
product market growth maturity market decline
development introduction saturation
idea design construction use rebuilding demolition
Building 25 years
9 Life cycles of products (above) and buildings (below)
Typologies
The basic types of industrial building can be split into additive and
integrative plants.
In additive plants, the individual functional units are shaped
according to their purpose and added to planar or linear struc-
tures (often along a production line). The units can be extended,
developed and exchanged separately -0 0.
In integrative plants, the functional units are assembled to form a
neutral structure -0 0. The advantages here are the minimisation
of access areas and reusability. Possibilities for extension have to
be planned into the building structure.
263
Shed
construction
Multi-storey
industrial
buildings
Transport
Warehousing
Subsidiary rooms
Examples

INDUSTRY
Machine Person
,··················~
0 Human performance- mechanical performance
A maximum possible reach (:::::65 em)
B physiological limits of reach (~50 em)
C normal reach (~32 em)
D physiological inner limits of
reach (16-20 em)
f) Reach zones at a workplace (according to Stier)
flow diagram
£ g
g product _g ~
'E! work group Ql
c
fro~ovo·g ,;
.,
1
2 I.T 4 11
3 12
4 II._ 6
5 33
e I'( 4
7 10 23
8 ~ 18
9 ,.. 10 2
101 <: 16
I;.
planning symbols w
(/)
0
no. action :2
..: >
1 process 0
2 store 16
3 delay D D
4 test DO
5 transport ¢>
6 handle 0
7 finish + test OD
The VOl (Association of Gennan Engineers)
symbols apply in Germany; the ASME
(American Society of Mechanical Engineers)
symbols are recommended for international
use.
Basics 0 Production flow chart for an item
Shed (example)
e Planning symbols
construction
Multi-storey
industrial
buildings
Transport
Warehousing
Subsidiary rooms
Examples
Work bench
production
Work bench
Complete single
production of work pteces
t t t t
Working steps
Linear performance of all
working steps on single
work pieces
0 Types of production (examples)
264
Painting
Workshop
production operations
1 2
0 0
• !.........!.....:I
0 0
4
Production island for the
Island production complete processing of
workplaces
The production type is the spatial/temporal
implementation of production principles.
It makes decisions regarding the arrangement
of work places and equipment and therefore
represent an essential basis for the layout
of the production area.
INDUSTRY
Basics
Production
Production is the assembly over space and time of work, mat-
erial and tools (machines, raw material etc.) to produce products
and services. The performance required for production (work/time
unit) is described as relevant performance and is a combination of
human performance (motor and exploratory skills) and machine
performance.
Human and machine collaborate in the production cycle ~ 0.
This comprises various forms of production ~ 0 and can be
planned using flow charts ~ 8. Human performance is not con-
stant, but is subject to numerous individual and collaborative
factors (strain -tiredness -recovery, age, sex, health).
The general requirements for workplaces are collected in the
Workplace Regulations (2004) of the Federal Ministry for Indus-
try and Employment ~ 8, of which detailed expansion is laid
down in the Workplace Guidelines (~ p. 263 8).
Buildings in general Construction and strength according to type of use
Dimensions of sufficient floor area and clear height (depending on
workplaces, air space size of floor area) for the performance of the work
without impairment of safety, health or well-being;
air space measured depending on the number of
employees and the type of physical effort.
Floors, walls, ceilings, surfaces must be formed according to the
roofs requirements of the business and be easy to clean,
with sufficient insulation against heat, cold and damp
at the workplace:
floor without unevenness, tripping hazards,
dangerous slopes; must be load-bearing, safe for
walking, not slippery;
glass wails near workplaces must be clearly
marked, non-breakable or shielded, and roofs which
are not safe must be walked on only when adequate
safety equipment is provided.
Windows, fanlights must be safe to open, close, adjust and fix, must
pose no danger in the opened position, and be safe
to clean.
Doors, gates location, number, construction according to type
and use of the rooms and areas, transparent doors
are to be marked at eye level, non-breakable or
constructed with protection against breakage;
construct hinged doors to see through with a view
window; secure doors against levering out and failing
out or over;
provide highly visible doors for pedestrians in
the immediate vicinity of gates for vehicle traffic;
powered doors and gates must be safely usable,
and in emergency capable of being opened
automatically or manually.
Transport routes must be easily and safely usable (including stairs,
access ladders and ramps), sized according to
number of users and type of business; where
vehicles are used on access routes, sufficient space
for pedestrians;
transport routes for vehicles must run with
sufficient distance from doors, footpaths, stair exits,
etc. if necessary mark borders of transport routes.
Escape routes and number, size and arrangement according to use,
emergency exits equipment and size of workplace and number of
people present, shortest possible route into the
open air/into a safe area, permanent marking in
suitable form, if necessary safety lighting, escape
doors easily operable at any time, open outward,
revolving and sliding doors are not permissible as
emergency exits.
e General requirements for building (elements), Workplace Regulations 2004
(excerpts)

~
l 1
l 1
0 Single-span beam: cable-trussed,
trussed, web girder
C) Tension bracing, cable structure,
pneumatic construction
three-pin portal (arched)
d b
I I I
f) Multi-span system: addition,
staggering, continuous beam
1
Cross section Long section
l 1
e Space frame, folded structure,
beam grillage
"~!i< r:::J.
~~ ''''''~F="
three-hlngearchedgtrder ~~
9 Laminated timber shed construction 0 Fixed-joint frame, two-hinge frame
:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:
two-pin portal
,,,,.,_.0,.,.,,.,
three~pin portal
f) Laminated timber sheds with ridge
rooflight
r:t
:-:~:
cantilever shells with skylight
:~-~~~:·~~:~r:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:-:-:-:-:·:·:·:·:·=·:·:·:·:
e Pond roof with fixed-end columns
INDUSTRY
Shed Construction
Production and warehouse buildings are often built as indus-
trial sheds without internal floors but with large spans and room
heights.
Construction, spans and heights
Timber, steel or reinforced concrete construction with spans of
5-50 m according to client requirements (arrangement of ma-
chines, access routes and turning circles of vehicles) and room
heights of 3-6 m. Built as solid, trussed or cable-trussed struc-
tures with fixed-end columns -t 0, frames -t 0 - 0 or as a
framed construction stiffened with bracing, often as added or
staggered buildings. Shed height and load assumptions are often
dependent on the proposed overhead crane -t p. 287.
Advantages of shed construction
Low construction cost due to light roof construction and omission
of expensive floor slabs; uniform natural lighting with rooflights,
even for very deep spaces; heavy floor loading possible; few(er)
fire protection requirements; flow of materials and people on one
level.
Disadvantages of shed construction
Large area of land required; unfavourable ratio of plan area to vol-
ume; unfavourable thermal behaviour (heat loss, heat build-up in
summer).
Lighting, ventilation, building services
Lighting and ventilation (and smoke extraction) are provided by
light bands, north lights or light domes in the roof construction -t
0 - 0 or also strip windows in the fagade.
Heating is normally (central/decentralised) air heating or overhead
radiant heating (temporary heating of single areas).
cross·section
30.0-40.0
~
longitudinal section
C) Vaulted northlight roof
I I ~/ '
:iff
-,~.,,.,.,,
vertical sawtooth roof glazing (45•; 60")
~
I I I
~·~i·r:;~~~~~·i~·~·~~;:f~..f~~·~·~..~~~f...................
4D Sheds with northlight glazing
5.0 20.0 5.0
:1 fr I
,)::·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·::::~
three--columned shed
30.0-60.0 5.0
Shed with transverse light band,
frame with cantilevered beams
section through north light roof
(self-supporting) like lattice girder
light.A"JTTTTTTTl/l<:rrTTrrT
/
Longitudinal section through
northlight roof with cross-bracing
in the glazing
265
INDUSTRY
Basics
Shed
construction
Multi-storey
industrial
buildings
Transport
Warehousing
Subsidiary rooms
Examples

INDUSTRY
Basics
Shed
construction
Multi-storey
industrial
buildings
Transport
Warehousing
Subsidiary rooms
Examples
0 Joists running along the external
wall; uneven, weak lighting
0
.;
1.75
s.oo 1 3:00 1 s.o
C) Building depths for given storey
heights
north
BEl
I
I
'
L- 15-17.5
2a __,
distance in from window:
-normal daylighting: 2a
-vlf=:ery
good dayligh:ing: 1.5a~
/; T :::;::;
••••·••• F iE:[
~ss;:.
f) Optimal spacing of buildings for
good lighting
~!:
F.,....~!:
south north 1.0
G Truss spanning room, free use of
floor space
wind
bracing
outer pin-
jointed ~
columns
EEB!
20-22.5
9 Central column determines layout 0
of middle passage with columns to
Cantilever beams offer structural
advantages1 but the columns
mostly obstruct the working area
right or lett; larger space to the north
Q Deepest space with two internal
columns providing bracing. External
pin-ended columns
Cl) Floor slab supports: TT section
266
M
lf
0
.;
e Multi-storey building with crane
shed, also acting as lilting shalt
for transporting work items to the
offset balconies projecting on the
upper floors
~:.-
~ 200
€!) Joist/cross member support,
rectangular cross-section
INDUSTRY
Multi-Storey Industrial Buildings
Production facilities can be located over a number of storeys if
required for town planning, development or operational reasons:
this type of structure is particularly suitable for breweries, paper
mills, warehouses and other buildings, where the working mat-
erial is conveyed once to the uppermost floor and then descends
under gravity, and also electronic, precision mechanical and other
branches of light industry.
Advantages/disadvantages of multi-storey buildings
Compact, space-saving but expensive construction method,
limited floor loadings, short (installation) routes through vertical
connections, good operating costs, simple ventilation, good light
from side.
Construction, spans, room heights
Room heights should be determined depending on building depth
and working room height (guideline 3.00 m for working rooms
larger than 100 m2).
A good ratio is 2:1 (plan depth : room height) for free-standing
multi-storey factory buildings with windows without visible lin-
tels (traffic routes in centre of building not included 'in calculation)
-70.
Economic building depths are 12.0-15.0 m (3 m clear height)
for rooms without columns -7 8-0, 15.0 or 17.5 m (4 m clear
height) with 1 or 2 columns -7 0, 20 or 22.5 m (5 m clear height)
with two columns -7 e.
Lighting
Multi-storey buildings with windows on one side should face
northeast, and, with windows on both sides facing north and
south, they should be oriented east-west. The summer sun thus
only shines into the interior to a limited extent and is easy to shade
with blinds (possibly continuously motorised sun awnings), but in
winter the room is pleasantly sunlit (no disturbing shadows in the
working area) -7 0. The distance of the working area from the
window should be twice as long as the clear window height -7 e.
Stairs and toilets (cool) can be located on the north side.
The best lighting is provided by free-standing buildings which are
twice as far from each other as they are high (ground floor angle
of light =27°) -7 e; single-storey buildings with rooflights can be
located between these.
Approx. figures for window areas: 1/1 0 of the floor area for rooms
up to 600m2 (Workplace Guidelines 7/1 -7 p. 263); for fine work,
provide 1/5 of the floor area.
If the room depths are large, a scattering of the light coming in is
advantageous (sun shades, venetian blinds, light-scattering glass
etc.), in which case the spanning direction of the main supporting
beam is significant -7 0- e.
~·>··
E; 200
~:>···
~ 200
$ Joist supports, inverted T
dR 300 400 500 600 700
b Tcrlt > 450"C 190 180 170 160 150
" Tcnt350-450"C230 220 210 200 190
d
~ pre-cast for
~
?;;: 1oo Pre-cast for
:::0: 5u cast in situ for
F90-A
0 TT-section pre-cast concrete
elements, floor slabs

IJ
Two-wheeled Tricycle cart
II
cart
~
~~
0 Floor conveyors
screw conveyor troughed conveyor
C) Continuous conveyors for bulk
materials
electrically
assisted
fork-lift truck
f) -->0
endless chain
conveyor
platform conveyor
conveyor
-~--
Q Continuous conveyors for unit
loads
~~~
belt conveyor steel belt
~-~··
plate conveyor mesh conveyor
.....
}~:~
~:::b!!l===Tv=~
.....
:::::
.....
:·i: ..................................
:::::.·:.·:.·.·::::::::::::::::::::::::::::.
plan
f) Wall-mounted swivel crane
0 Simple-girder gantry crane,
permissible load: 0.5--6.0 t
chain conveyor roller conveyor
2-So/~~
)
incli~e ~
1::
skate wheel conveyor
«<!) Double-girder gantry crane,
permissible load 2-20 t
INDUSTRY
Transport
Transport is a part of the material flow process. Transport planning
is the definition of the transport relationships or tasks within the
material flow and the planning of the interactions with storage ->
p. 268. Essential terms in transport planning are:
transported goods (material, transport unit)
transport performance (quantity, times, deadlines)
transport type (course of the transport routes) and
means of transport (or conveyance) technical equipment for the
direct and indirect transport of goods.
Means of transport can be divided into continuous and discon-
tinuous conveyors:
Continuous conveyors
Continuous conveyors are mechanical, hydraulic or pneumatic
systems with a defined transport route (permanent or mobile),
along which the transported goods are continuously (regularly, in
cycles or with variable speed) moved between loading and un-
loading locations. Continuous conveyors are particularly suitable
for the transport of similar goods over a fixed route, but the high
automation and transport capacity comes at the cost of high in-
vestment and low adaptability.
Continuous conveyors include:
Conveyor belts -> 0, track and chain conveyors -> 0, screw
conveyors, slides -> 0, endless overhead chain and rope con-
veyors, moving tables -> 0, pneumatic (pressure and suction)
conveyors (bulk goods and liquids), centrifugal conveyors and
bucket chain conveyors.
Discontinuous conveyors
Discontinuous conveyors work discontinuously. They can be dif-
ferentiated into industrial trucks (running on wheels on a floor) and
lifting devices (mostly cranes).
Floor conveyors
Industrial trucks are manually or mechanically driven, mostly with-
out being on tracks, for stacking heights up to 6 m, in special cas-
es up to 10 m. The advantages are the low plant costs and good
suitability for medium distances between unloading and loading
locations on a flat road or floor.
Floor conveyors include hand sack trucks, platform trolleys, pallet
trucks and fork lift trucks ...... 0- e ...... p. 269.
Cranes
Cranes are machines for the vertical lifting of large and heavy
goods. Horizontal mobility can also be provided through wheeled
trolleys or winch trolleys -> 0 - «E).
Swivel cranes -> 0 - 9 enable the lifting of objects from any
point in their radius of operation.
~:l-'0
i-.6
-
0
---s.oo-ao.oo---
0
·..,
60
c-J:
~0.40 ~ 2:010 >
;;;o.1o"il =-I • H ~o.1o
9llif'r~
H H
~ 0.50 ~0.40
G) Runway catwalks and safety
dimensions
"'
:c
·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:
f) Gantry crane (with driver's cabin)
and safety dimensions
267
INDUSTRY
Basics
Shed
construction
Multi-storey
industrial
buildings
Transport
Warehousing
Subsidiary rooms
Examples

INDUSTRY
Basics
·Shed
construction
Multi-storey
industrial
buildings
Transport
Warehousing
Subsidiary rooms
Examples
Production
Store for
Raw material
Consumables
Bought-in parts
Intermediate
production
Finished goods
Waste
Supplier 1
Supplier2
SupplierS
Consumer
Waste disposal
0 Warehouse as a buffer between market and production
(FOhrer, Stormer--> refs)
f} Classification of warehouse systems (excerpt)
0 Comparison of possible uses of a warehouse
consignment system consignment system
static assembly dynamic assembly
one-dimensional movement one-dimensional movement
manual picking manual picking
decentrallsed oheck·out centralised check-out
e Alternative systems of picking
268
push·through
rack store
consignment system
dynamic assembly
two-dimensional movement
manual picking
decentralised check-out
INDUSTRY
Warehousing
Basics
Storage is part of the material flow process and logistically forms
the connection between production and marketing --7 0. Storage
is cost-intensive and does not create economic value, leading to
attempts to minimise the storage quantities and times or effec-
tively combine the storage and transport of materials and goods
through flexible 'just-in-time production'.
There is a wide range of different static and dynamic storage
systems available for each storage situation and the goods need-
ing storage --7 f). The spatial arrangement of the different ware-
houses in the production process can also be dealt with in various
ways --7 e.
~~Production
:,o Store ,o:.
=~::::::::.'.'.'..........
A
B
c
Store and production
Store and production
0 Storage requirements and material flow within the production process
warehousing
good use of space and land
low cost of disposition
high equipment costs
low labour costs
good opportunities for automation
good for building adaptation
use of special equipment
prompt fulfilment of orders
Advantages of centralised and decentralised storage
traffic routes inside warehouses
pedestrians min. 1.25 m
pedestrians and powered stackers vehicle width + 2 x 0.50 m
passage widths between racks
with manual operation min. 0.75 m
with forklift operation (swivelling forks) forklift width + 2 x 0.50 m
with forklift operation (rigid forks) forklift+ fork+ 0.50 m
rack heights (depending on equipment)
hand shelves single-storey (two-storey) up to 3.0 m (up to 6.0 m)
pallet warehouse with forklift operation up to 6.0 m
high-bay warehouse with high-bay forklifts up to 9.0 m
high-bay warehouse with stacking crane up to 25.0 m
8 Basic dimensions in warehouses (MBO, Workplace Regulations, Industrial
Building Guidelines, ZH, Health and Safety Regulations)
Picking
Picking, or order assembly, denotes collecting articles out of the
warehouse and making them ready for dispatch in accordance
with an order. This can be single-stage picking (specific to one
order) or two-stage picking, with an intermediate picking zone for
temporary storage and assignment of the articles to a number of
orders.
The work is performed flexibly and with no technical support, or
very little, as a 'man to goods' system --7 0, left, or for more ca-
pacity with partly or fully automated transport vehicles and com-
plex infrastructure as a 'goods to man' system --7 0, centre and
right.

Flat pallet
(DIN 15141, RAL RG 993)
Flat pallet collars
(DIN 15148/49)
Flat pallet with a stack frame
0 Pallets and accessories
I
~
r8o1 1-1.20--1
I
0
<ri
I
0
"l
I
b;
1
Collapsible pallets
(DIN 15155)
Box pallet with detachable
lid and removable side wall
(DIN 15142)
I::~;:~~~·~~!:~:~; :;:;:;:~~~~~~~~~;~~;~-~~r~l~t;~~h~;~~~:;:;:;:;
f) Pallet rack for forklift operation (swivelling fork), elevation, section
1
'"'
!Ill
!Ill
"''
"'"'"""!I
I..~---!18§~1•~
~ 1 ,.. ~N
~ l :J~.- ..L
~ '.........................._.....
1 r; 1.80-3.90 ......~
Lifting load 1-8 t
1.00- Lifting height: up to 6 m
-1.80 -t--2.00- 3.90 ----i (high-bay forklift up to 9 m)
e Forklifts with rigid and swivelling forks (elevation, plan)
a)
,iiillD.:3:~ C)
1.--- 25.00 _____j
l
11111::1:
10-25m
....::::::::::::::.:.·.·::::::::::.·:::::::::::.·:.·:.-.·:
I
G a) universal warehouse with stacking crane, b) warehouse with installed pallet
racking, c) high-bay system
INDUSTRY
Warehousing
Storage and shipping containers
Storage containers serve to combine the goods into loading
units with the purpose of maximising the exploitation of space
and transport capacity and the avoidance of handling. The most
common storage containers for unit goods are stackable crates
made of timber or plastic, pallets (flat pallets, pallets with side
rails and additional equipment) and also increasingly containers.
On order to simplify international transport, the European pal-
let pool has introduced the standardised transport pallet (Eu-
ropallet, Pool pallet, 800 X 1200 X 144 mm) with various stacking
attachments -1 0.
Standardised pallets can be exchanged within the pool without
reloading. Numerous standard sizes for packaging, transport and
storage have been derived from the dimensions of the Europallet.
On account of the variety of uses and the rough handling and
loading, storage pallets are subject to many quality standards.
0
0
~
"'
j
9 Flat shelving system
Warehouse equipment
=~--jjj---1!- dividers separate
small articles
System: Hofe
The selection of warehouse equipment has a similar importance
in the design of warehouses. This depends on the quality, quan-
tity, weight and handling frequency of the stored goods and also
warehouse organisation and means of transport. Warehouse
equipment is subject to numerous regulations (an overview can be
found, for example, in Association of Commercial Accident Insur-
ance Companies 234 -1 p. 263). The traditional storage system
in industrial warehouses is flat shelves -1 0 as manual shelving
for small parts. These are constructed as bolted or slot-in systems
(e.g. angle profiles with holes) with inserted steel shelves, wire
mesh compartments, drawers or doors. These systems can be
up to approx. 4.50 m high (with accessible hop-up level) and are
suitable for loadings of 250 kg/shelf.
For larger loadings and heights, pallet racks are available as stan-
dardised modular systems made of channel and 1-beam profiles.
Bays with an axial spacing of approx. 2.80 m (for three Europallets
horizontally) have become established. Using forklift trucks,
heights of up to 6.00 mare practical-1 f). The passage width be-
tween the racks depends on the size and type of the forklift truck
to be used (rigid forks, swivelling forks) and the requirements of
Health and Safety Regulations I ZH 1 (vehicle width + 2 X 50 em)
-18.
In order to store items still more densely, fully automated high-
bay warehouses are used, often independent of production
location. These have special swivelling stacking cranes that
stack at heights of up to 25.00 m. They are normally supplied
by specialist firms as an integrated system (racking and building
envelope) -1 0.
269
INDUSTRY
Basics
Shed
construction
Multi-storey
industrial
buildings
Transport
Warehousing
Subsidiary rooms
Examples

construction
Multi-storey
industrial
buildings
Transport
Warehousing
Subsidiary
rooms
Examples
Workplace
Regulations
Workplace
Guidelines 37/1
area served ~ 100 m
unit ~ 250 men
we ~ 160 women
0 Area served by toilet facilities
D
T
B5 D
l
l--1.25--j-1.55---1
1--i: 1.10---t
8 Single-row WCs, doors open
outward
f--1.25--+-- 2·00----1
4:) With urinals, doors open outward
f--1.25--f---2.00-+-
D
f) Arrangement of toilet facilities
DC
T
B5 D
1

f---1.50----t--1.15-l
f---6: 1.35---l
G Doors open inward
f---1.50--+---1.65----l
DC
TH-0--;:::::::g
~ilOO
1 D

0 As-> 9 but doors open inward
f---1.50----t--1.25-+---
8 Two-row WCs, doors open outward e Doors open inward
T
"'
+
lll
+
lll
+
t
1
f-1.50 --t-1.25 -t-1.50 -+l--1.50 --t-1.25 -t-1.50 --i
f-1,65---j
C!) Toilet facilities for 100 women and men (example)
270
INDUSTRY
Subsidiary Rooms
Toilets
These are to be provided at a distance from each workstation of
not more than 100 m or, at the farthest, one storey height (if no
escalator is available}. Toilets should also be provided near so-
cial, readiness, washing and changing rooms ---1 0. If there are
more than five employees, separate toilets must be provided for
women and men and these should be available exclusively to em-
ployees. The number of necessary toilets depends on the number
of employees ---1 @!): the site and arrangement are shown ---1 0 -
4). Disability-friendly toilets are to be provided in accordance with
regulations ---1 p. 21 ft.
Toilet facilities consist of a lobby with washbasins (at least
one washbasin per five wes) and a completely separate
room with at least one we (unless the facilities contain only
one toilet and have no direct access to a work, social, chang-
ing, wash or sanitary room). Toilet cubicles must be lockable
and, if light partitions (incompletely separated we cubicles)
are used, the partition should have a height of at least 1.90 m,
and at the bottom a gap of 10-15 em. Urinals must be placed
so as not to be visible from the entrance. Toilet facilities
should not contain more than 10 WC cubicles and 10 uri-
nals. Further details of the requirements for toilets are con-
tained in Workplace Guidelines 37/1. With natural ventilation,
the minimum ventilation sections are: with window ventilation
on one side 1700 cm2/We, 1000 cm2/urinal; with through
ventilation (ventilation shaft and opening window opposite)
1000 cm2/We, 600 cm2/urinal. Ventilation equipment is to
be designed for 30 m3
/We and 15 m3
/urinal (altogether at
least five air changes/h).
Men Women
'"
rn
'" '"
c
'" '"
o m
0
:!! 0
.§
'0 !fi
0
:!! 0
s :§: rns s rns '"
·u; ]! 'iii c
ill~ Cl
"' ~.~ ID ~ Cl
"' c Cl :a
.o..Q c !!1
~
_Q 0
.o..Q c _Q 0 c
2
:c
"'
.c
~ :c .c E:C
E c. c
'" :g~ E c.
'" '"
<!l '" " '"
=> E .§
"' " => E =>
"' " => "'
c "' 'i= Cl ;,
"'"' "' c "' 'i= ;,
"'"'
;,
10 1 1 0.6 1 1 1 10 1 1 1 1
25 2 2 1.2 1 1 1 20 2 1 1 1
50 3 3 1.8 1 1 1 35 3 1 1 1
75 4 4 2.4 1 1 2 50 4 2 2 1
100 5 5 3.0 2 1 2 65 5 2 2 1
130 6 6 3.6 2 2 2 80 6 2 2 1
160 7 7 4.2 2 2 2 100 7 2 3 1
190 8 8 4.8 2 2 3 120 8 3 3 1
220 9 9 5.4 3 3 3 140 9 3 4 1
250 10 10 6.0 3 3 4 160 10 3 4 1
0 Required number of WC fittings (according to Workplace Guidelines 37/1,
_, p. 263 f))
Tat
53
~ []+
_L
1--47--1 I
~@:0
~:~~
1181
;J;~c;;i /~
~ 'tJ ~ I ....L.LL.
CD WC: wall-mounted - fioor-mounted
1-37-1
-"
c
·u;
"
-"
0
=>
_Q
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Urinal

f- 35 ___.;
Tt~
1.oo 35--,.. ::;:..U
fromfloor ~
I
0 Drinking fountain for free drinking,
activation by lever, <100 m from
workstation
0 Foot washing system
9 Footbaths
t-351---1.00 ___,
1---21.35--i
f) Row washing trough, Rotter
system
0137 em 6--8 people
T~~I
~l
71
1 pedal
Washing fountain: 25% space
saving compared to rows of
basins -; f)- (i)
1
76
l
0 Paper towel dispenser, shelf and
soap dispenser
1-- 55-1501---1.00-1
4!) Washing facilities with washbasins (l'j) Washing facilities with foot baths
T
"'
~
l.
~ I[ _;j ,D
l'trouo t!
D D
D D
D D
1r 1If l
f--1.05-+- 1.50 -+1.05-+1.05--i
1------ 3.60 -------1
trough
drain
separate
drain
(9 Semi-open showers ~ Single showers with changing
booth
INDUSTRY
Subsidiary Rooms
Washrooms
Washrooms are to be provided for employees engaged in
activities dangerous to health or with strongly odorous sub-
stances, or who are subjected to the effects of heat or damp.
Washing and changing rooms ---7 p. 273 must be easily acces-
sible from each other.
For every four employees (or in case of only moderately dirty
activity every five employees), one washroom is to be provided,
dimensions and layout ---7 0 - 4D, designed for the largest shift.
Special washrooms are to be provided for disabled people ac-
cording to regulations ---7 p. 21 ff. Permissible washing equip-
ment: wash places (sluice, washbasin, washing fountain) and
showers. Wash places: width and depth min. 70 X 55 em, upper
edge 70-80 em above floor level, equipped with towel holder,
soap dish, disposable towels (for hand drying) and waste bins.
Provide at least one shower, and in the case of very dirty ac-
tivity 30% of the washing facilities as showers; for employees
engaged in activities dangerous to health or with strongly odor-
ous substances, one shower per four employees. Provide a foot
wash for every 10 wash places. With natural ventilation, mini-
mum sections are to be observed: for ventilation from one side
400 cm2 /m2 floor area; or with through-ventilation from oppos-
ing windows 120 cm2 (80 cm2 with ventilation shafts) for supply
and extract openings. Ventilation equipment is to be designed
for at least 10 air changes/h.
f) Clear height of shower heads
~
r=
tat .1R
60
t
If :o:
60
t
60
l.
f35f--1.10-l35~
4D Washing facilities with washing
trough
T ...,.. .!l!llilm!!MJI'!Imf
90
i t-lilPI~mlllilll
t1----J:j:j:j:j:j:j:j:j
90
+---!+!1ml:t1/
90
l ------lfl+ffit11
t-60+-1.00-+- 90-+-90--1
4D Open showers with drying places
T
1.10:
r@)
... _j +
)i( 1.50
/-~..... 1
(®
I *
I I
' /35
1.10-f'"--/ .......
l :........................
e Space required for circular
washbasins
If; 70t--- 1.05 ---...f$;70~
1------------- ~ 2.05 -------1
'f) Washing facilities with foot
washing trough
T ( I
1.40
l
~17n
~--+-
T ( li
Jlng
1.40
1 r----·.70- OU·
0 Bath cubicles
271
INDUSTRY
Basics
Shed
construction
Multi-storey
industrial
buildings
Transport
Warehousing
Subsidiary
rooms
Examples
Workplace
Regulations
Workplace
Guidelines 3511-4
see also:
Industry/Basics
-; p. 263 f)

INDUSTRY
Basics
Shed
construction
Multi-storey
industrial
buildings
Transport
Warehousing
Subsidiary
rooms
Examples
Workplace
Regulations
Workplace
Guidelines 34/1-5
see also:
Industry/Basics
p. 263 f)
II~-·I rIll I r
>--50+--1.30--+- 90 ---1 ·u I-50+- 1.10 --+- 80 ---1
0 Changing room with simple rows
of hooks
f) Racks of coat hangers
1111 r111!r
r-so-+-so-1 rso-+-90--1 t-so+S0-1 rso+-- eo --1
circulation route circulation route
0 Changing rooms with simple rows of 0 Changing rooms with racks of coat
hooks, self-service hangers, self-service
changing
cubicles
with
benches
I IWI rffil r
t-1.10---l 1------ 1.80 -------i 1---1.10---!
changing
cubicles
with pull-out
stools
I §!F 0 §3 tf
t-90-i 1.00 t---1.60--i 1.00 1-1.10----1
II- 90 -i 1.00 I- 90 -i t- 90 --+ 1.00 ,_ 90 -;
Minimum dimensions for changing rooms
e Staffed cloakroom, single rows of hooks
lE
.<4.00---+- 75 n90
· Hi1+ >o.03 m'
: Q; per hook
. c
. ~
~ Ju_ 8
f) Staffed cloakroom, double rows of coat hanger racks, with service
I
1.70
l
30
.!:.._
l
1.80
l
67
'y
Trapezoidal changing cubicles,
System Rotter
~
:~OD[
,~ -nr
i"'~OUL
ventilation
Two-level row of lockers
272
exhaust
air
I
1.60
1
40
...
e Double row of ventilated clothes
lockers with benches
~
.
1,: oDD[
,tQoDC
1.95
j ,J,, ooBB
:',OLl
0 Smalllockers
INDUSTRY
Subsidiary Rooms
Changing rooms, clothes storage/lockers
Changing rooms are intended for changing clothes and the stor-
age of house, street and working clothing, by the employees of a
company. They are required when the employees wear working
clothes at work and changing elsewhere is not reasonable.
Changing rooms should be on the direct route between entrance
to the site and the working area. Separate washing and changing
rooms should be easily accessible from each other: there must be
room for unobstructed changing in light of the number of users at
the same time. If changing rooms are not required, clothes storage
must be provided for each employee --; 0 - ~-
They must be separate for men and women and be secure against
draughts and view from outside.
Changing rooms are to be equipped with seating, lockers (for
storing the clothing of all employees), waste bins, mirrors and, if
appropriate, a shoe cleaning machine. It is a good idea to align
rows of cupboards and racks at right angles to the window wall.
Window sills should if possible be at locker level.
Minimum dimensions for changing rooms --; 0 - Q. Passage
widths between changing rooms --; e.
No. people Width ap1l
1 up to 5 0.88
2 up to 20 1.00
3 up to 100 1.25
4 up to250 1.75
5 up to 400 2.25
1) building guideline
e Width of passages
40
...
4D Clothes locker with sloping roof and 4f) Narrow clothes locker
ventilation pipe
l
1.80
t
r
2.05
l
Clothes locker, two compartments
20 and 40 em wide, for street and
worl<ing clothes

Main gate
Lavout olan 1:4.000
0 B. Braun Melsungen AG, Pfieffewiesen works
--)o--
Shelf
warehouse
Ground floor plan
f) Industrial shed for Aug. HOlden GmbH in DOren
Ill
Store
e Section --> f)
Administration (phase 2)
INDUSTRY
Examples
,------------Commissioning
,.--------Packaging
,.-----Dispatch
Production Energy
station
I
Administration Social rooms
Arch.: (1st section): James Stirling, Michael Wilford and Associates in assoc. with Walter Nageli INDUSTRY
Arch.: (2nd section): Wilford Schupp Architekten GmbH Basics
---------------------------------------------------~
Road in
Road out
....1.ol~-""-,~'--+--"-+---t-----t- Stairs to
Customer
car park
offices
Jll 1 1 111 Offices
ll~k II 1111 Sales
scale 1:1250
Additive industrial plants -> 0:
The functional units (administration,
production, multi-storey car park,
high-bay warehouse, picking, goods
dispatch) are developed according
to their requirements, architecturally
independent and grouped in a natu-
rally laid out landscape. The units
are connected by a branching ac-
cess system (material route, access
bridge).
Integrated industrial plants -> f):
Warehouse, status two-storey sales
and administration area, and deliv-
ery at the back are combined in a
cubical block. This consists of a
free-standing steel structure (span
length 40 m) with diamond-shaped
beam grillage on fixed-end columns
projecting on the entrance side and
diamond-shaped grillage of secon-
dary beams.
273
Shed
construction
Multi-storey
industrial
buildings
Transport
Warehousing
Subsidiary rooms
Examples

WORKSHOPS
Joinery
Carpenter's shop
Metalwork
Vehicle repairs
Bakery
Meat processing
plant
Other trades
Laundry
Fire station
CM chain mortiser
SIB slot boring
OM dovetailing/mortising
PO pin drill
CPS circular panel saw
PT thickness planer
PS surface planing
ES edging circular saw
CCS cross-cut machine
M milling machine
SB belt sander
BS band saw
0 Relationships of equipment and rooms in a joinery. Line thickness denotes
internal traffic density
~ -j storing Jogs and cut timber I
~~ marking and cutting
~ ~ sorting en
~ E '-=,::;
ld=re=ss':;i=ng======!....,l ;.,: ·-~
.,;?:-
~ ~ 1thickness planing ~ 'e
0
~ rebating, profiling I .g c.
~ro I ~ ,~
1
i ~ Icutting to size _r---r- N·~
... ~''E llaminating veneers l -*~
E
~ 5 ::'=v~e;:n;::e~er~in~g~====~l c1 ci
O~E n :~~
~ ~ g; laminating Cdges l 1::: -
" O>·= 0 ~
~ E] edge gluing I E,
Q.., .c Imarking and cutting I
-
._____ i storing finished boards I
f) Production sequence, approximate
WB
WORKSHOPS
Joinery
The development of plan forms from long sheds to more compact
buildings ---> 0 has been altogether more economical (better ex-
ploitation of the site, shorter working routes for mixed production,
shorter supply pipework and cables, lighting also from above).
Multi-storey buildings are not appropriate for production areas,
but can be recommended for offices, subsidiary rooms, stores for
small parts and valuable furniture.
Predominant construction types: framed construction of steel, re-
inforced concrete or timber. Walls and roof of large-format building
elements,with good thermal and sound insulation. Double-glazed
windows, mostly without opening lights, with a smaller proportion
of opening windows according to regulations for ventilation and
to see out.
The space requirement for the illustrated examples is approx. 70-
80 m2 per employee (without open storerooms).
General production flow: in small businesses with up to approx. 10
employees: linear, angled-shaped. In medium-sized businesses
with over 10 employees: U-shaped or circular (square) layouts are
better for workflow.
Working sequence: timber store, cutting area, drying room, mach-
ine room, bench workshop, surface treatment, storage, packing.
The machines are placed according to working sequence: door,
loading and unloading, ramp, supervision, testing, acceptance,
delivery.
There is separation between machine and bench rooms consist-
ing of a wall with doors. Company office and foreman's office are
glazed with a view of the workshop. Workshop flooring: wood,
wood-block paving or magnesite/sawdust screed. It should be
possible to work against the light in all places. Continuous strip
windows, high sills (1.00-1.35 m).
In order to deal with chips, sawdust and fine dust, an extraction
system is required in almost all cases, even in the smallest join-
eries, for working in accordance with workplace regulations and
for operational reasons. Reduce excessive noise from machinery
with rubber-bonded metal bearings.
~ Rooms •nd work areas
1 timber store
2 board store
Operations/equipment
FS frame saw
CS circular saw
CPS panel saw
§'!Ms
I~
~
3 finishe~ product store
4 finished furniture store
5 timber cut to size
6 boards cut to size
CCS CTOSS·CUt SBW
BS band saw
PS surface planing
PT thickness planer
BM bench milling
0 Section-->8
274
------------ ..... -
1 I
7 machine room-
parts production
8 gluing- veneering
9 production- assembly
10 surface treatment
I 11 staining, bleaching
I 12 spraying, casting/rolling
t .I;;;;;;;~~~ 13 drying, finishing
I -~!!"'"____..Jr'[j"-......:........• 14 final assembly/dispatch
t- D I 15 boiler room
CJ
SE
SBB AS
I
I
RS recessing/shaping
PO pin drill
SIB slot boring machine
MS mountings setting
SBB broad-belt sander
SB belt sander
SE edge sander
ED edging machine
Cr crane
Sp spraying
0 -----~-----------------
WB work bench
VP veneer press
GS glue spreader
1
•
0[11
~ DGS
~s
OJ D
PD BS
~- D D
c=Jv-;" cs
7
~ ~ED
DRs EEI:al
c::::::::Jps
[1::1
0BM 0 PT
SIB
e Example of a joinery

Q Functional scheme of a carpentry and woodworking business
1-4 Lathes ·:· .. ·.
5 Stave lathe
6 Autotathe
7 Round bar machine
8 Spraying stand
9 Storage bench
10
~~~g~~~ ~~f~~9
c~~b~~~s
11
12 Polishing drum
D Drill
LD Long~reach drill
COP Combined dressing
and planing machine
BM Bench milling machine
cs Cut~off saw
BSR Band sander
BS Band saw
CRS Circular saw
WB Work bench
HB Heating boiler for
waste wood
f) Example of a turnery
0I
CD
t
Cll
.J: ®
c::
0
:g
<])
(j)
...
6
WORKSHOPS
Carpenter's Shop
The layout of the carpenter's shop can be planned on the basis of
the following operational data:
Equipment, utilisation, cost-effectiveness, power requirements,
floor loadings, space requirement, cost, production process, pro-
duction times, number of employees, technical organisation of the
business, operating procedures and working sequence
Materials: types, quantities, weights, space requirement
Stores: size, space requirement
Energy supply: heat, electricity, compressed air.
Waste products: types, space requirement, waste disposal.
.. ··..:·
.·:.
·.. ·
·.:
[I3 ,:~ ~ -~~ w
~·;~
..
.'
07 - -·- -·-·-·-·-·-·-
COP
g;::j
rn ......
§BSR BM
8 •
is
/
setting out floor
•
0 0 Example of woodworking business, ground floor--> 8 + 0
D Drill
LD Long-reach drill
® CD
COP Combined dressing
and planing machine
BM Bench milling machine
CM Cut-off saw
BSR Band sander
BS Band saw
CRS Circular saw
WB Work bench
HB Heating boiler for
.mJ-llll
waste wood ..
CHB Combined heating • "!
boiler for oil and ~
waste wood
(j) Solid wood store
CD
® Board store
® Small machine store
~
Machine production
®
Bench production
@ Heating room
(J) Sawdust silo
® Foreman's office
~
Break room
Washroom 11.80 11.80 --tt-- 5.80 ---;
"First floor--> 8- 8
275
WORKSHOPS
Joinery
Carpenter's
shop
Metalwork
Vehicle repairs
Bakery
Meat processing
plant
Other trades
Laundry
Fire station

WORKSHOPS
Joinery
Carpenter's shop
Metalwork
Vehicle repairs
Bakery
Meat processing
plant
other trades
Laundry
Fire station
1T · - ·
· ...... ll!!l
1,65 ; ' I; ;
1
1.190
elevation --0.
. .l
....,j.!;I;;Q;;;j;l~---
23
plan
2oi k:iia£E I I I I
0 Upright storage of rods sheet metal stored on shelves
1-60+60-1 t----1.20---l
Vertical storage of sheet metal
f) Store for short metal pieces loading by hoists
1-----33.75---- 31.25
12.50 ______,
1
D
D
forge
0
0
~
locksmith's shop
l
machines
D D
fil
I I t
store for 0
finished products :;l
DO
welding shop
-o:o: o
:
ooooo
assembly
I
I j
0
0 ~
~
0 ~
0 0 = D
u
sheet metal shops
o D 0 0
store for
1
raw materials
CJ
work bench
18.75 15.00 ----1
33.75
8 Metalwork shop with machine location and arrangement of stores
I
I
I
I
I
I
I

,~
/
/
' ' ....
f - - - - 8.00 16.50
----
G Architectural ironmongery and precision metalwork construction businesses
276
WORKSHOPS
Metalwork
A large business is divided into workshops for gas welding, fitting,
construction and repair, a smithy for ornamental ironmongery, plus
construction and mechanical metalwork areas. The room relation-
ships correspond to the functional scheme -:> e.
The company office and foreman's office should if possible be
located in the centre, with a view of all workshops if possible.
Welding and forging should take place in rooms enclosed by steel
doors, even in medium-sized workshops. The workshops should
be lit from above, and additional lighting is required for individual
machines (provide socket boxes in the floor).
The floor should be of concrete, preferably on a concrete base
slab. The welding bench is fitted with fire bricks. A charcoal pit is
required for pre-warming before welding of metal and cast iron,
with a small chimney above it; it is also suitable for brazing, forg-
ing and annealing. There should be water and oil containers next
to this for annealing.
e Room relationship plan for large business in steel treatment and metal
construction
e Example of working sequence for architectural ironmonger's
l
l
Equipment:
PD: Pillar drill
SM: Straightening
machine
SP: Surface plate
SSM: Section shearing
machine
HSM: Hack sawing
machine
WB: Work bench
CF: Crimping/flanging
machine
f) Section --> G

8
.,;
3.50
lifting frame
for cars
0 One-jack car hoist, lifting height
1.0m
~ four-column
car lifting
frame
C) Wheel alignment bay for optical
wheel alignment
600
r
hi
-,
I I
H / I
I
I
Ht- I
t- tool cupboard I
r
l
~ - -- -----
H
r-+I
f-t
"
r
L
D- electricity I
supply pillar
I
I
-- --'
:
I
I
I
I
1/
I
I
I
J
~
1
frame
straightening
system
Bodywork straightening stand
..............····e~r-;:~;·~~~~~~:~..
· electricity
supply pillar ·
3.50
two-column
car lifting
frame
f) Two-column car hoist, lifting height
0.70--1.10 m
g
mobile
n~aightening
r-.: two-column
car lifting
frame
e Bodywork straightening bay
0 Work bay for painting preparation
with/without car hoist
main drain:
---------- ----_f-gutter has 1.5% gradient
:·:·:·:·.~~ r:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·.~;:~;·;~~;~~;:;~:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·...;.;.:.:.:-:-:·:-~::::-..:.........;.;.....;.;...........:...........
f) Schematic diagram of a work bay with grating for painting preparation -> C)
I L_j L_j L.J L.J
+trucks/
:;J
buses
3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5
I
~
I
1' : ,. I
... I
J
cars
e Truck work area, 6.0 m X 14.0 m, consisting of 4 standard work bays, each
3.5 mx6.0 m
WORKSHOPS
Vehicle Repairs
A customer-service business should be located with a good road
connection (even if this results in higher access and building
costs). In a location on the edge of town, advertising and cus-
tomer loyalty require particular attention.
Basic rule: site % built, % unbuilt. Take possible later extension
into account. For larger businesses, the average is 200 m2 per
employee for workshop operation. In addition to this, rooms are
required for sales, office, customer waiting room and social rooms
etc.
The building will be mostly steel construction, single-storey. Free-
spanning shed construction without obstructive columns is pre-
ferred. Possible future extension should be taken into account in
the spacing of the bays.
The workshop floor should be sealed against penetration of
oil and grease, and grease separators installed in the drainage
system. Provide extract duct for exhaust gases. Design automati-
cally opening doors with air curtain. Installation ducts for elec-
tricity, compressed air, waste oil and water are recommended.
Check utility supply connections. Carwash equipment has high
water consumption.
Examples of vehicle repair workshops of various sizes ---7 0 - Cli).
1 repair shop
2 spare parts store
3 general office,
reception, cash desk
4 manager's office
.,__ _ _ _ _ _...
-=.20.001 -------t
5 customers' we
6 heating
7 compressor
8 lounge
9 changing room
10 washroom
11 staffWC
12 tools
C) Design example for a business with four employees: site with wide road
frontage
1 repair shop
2 spare parts store
3 general office,
reception, cash desk
4 heating
5 compressor
6 lounge
7 changing room
12 meeting room
13 showroom
4Ii) Design example for a business with eight employees: carwash shed and
showroom
277
WORKSHOPS
Joinery
Carpenter's shop
Metalwork
Vehicle repairs
Bakery
Meat processing
plant
Other trades
Laundry
Fire station

WORKSHOPS
Joinery
Carpenter's shop
Metalwork
Vehicle repairs
Bakery
Meat processing
plant
other trades
Laundry
Fire station
flour store
raw materials store
yard
0 Functional scheme
dough
preparation
kneading
machines
..~og%dients social and
ancillary
dough
processing
fermentation
baking
··~~f
-,;;. : .·..
cooling
room
finished
products
processing I store
f) Room connection plan
8 Example: floor plan of a bakery
manager's
office
0 Example: floor plan of a large bakery
278
rooms
shop
I sales
WORKSHOPS
Bakery
Systematic design includes the anticipation and recording of all
future technical and operational processes to which the building
will have to adapt. An investigation of the location should always
be part of the design work.
Room allocation plan
Basic division: storerooms, production rooms, sales rooms, build-
ing services rooms, administration and business rooms, social
and subsidiary rooms ~ 0. Work processes in or between the
individual rooms ~ f). Storerooms for raw materials, ingredients
and packaging. Daily supplies are stored in work areas.
Basic types of storage
Raw material store: grains, sugar, salt, baking agents, dry goods in
sacks, flour in silos or sacks.
Ingredients room: fruit, toppings, dry fruit, fats, eggs.
Packaging store: space requirement for containers {shelving,
racks, cupboards), stacking, counters. Space for traffic (pas-
sages).
Minimum area for stores 15 m2 ; approx. 8-1 0 m2
per employee
for all stores.
Short routes between stores and work areas.
Separation of workrooms for bakery and pastries
Bakery requires warm and humid room climate; pastry room
should be cooler. Bakery has following areas: dough preparation,
dough processing, baking, storage of finished products. Pastry
room: cold area - cream, creme, chocolate, fruit; warm area -
ready mixes, kitchen, fine pastries.
Workroom area is sum of:
Space required for equipment, handling and processing, interme-
diate storage (trolleys) and side counters. Space for traffic (pas-
sages); lost space.
Working from the internal operational plan (layout), the necessary
space requirements can be determined.
noodle
silo room
o-e key
1 dough preparation
1.1 kneading machine
1.2 kneading bowl
1.3 suspended or floor scales (flour)
1.4 basin- for mixing and measuring water
1.5 ingredients table
1.6 work table with flour trolley
1.7 work table
1.8 mixer
2 dough processing ,
2.1 dough portioning and kneading machine
2.2 rolling machine
2.3 croissant machine
2.4 dough portioner (by weight)
2.5 rotary kneading machine
2.6 rolling machine
2.7 bread roll machine
2.8 dipping machine
2.9 hydraulic portion cutter
3 baking area
3.1 oven
3.2 fermentation room
3.3 soaking machine
3.4 metal covered finishing table {icing etc.)
3.5 hand basin
3.6 baking tray washing machine
3.7 finished goods store
4 confectionery
4.1 confectionery cooling table
4.2 mixing and whipping machine
4.3 orbital paddle mixer
4.4 gas cooker
4.5 deep fat cooking
4.6 sink with floor drain
4.6.1 dishwasher
4.7 cream cooler
4.8 froster
4.9 fermentation interrupter
5 miscellaneous
5.1 floor drainage
5.2 shelving

On the ground floor --> 0, sausages, cold meat, ham and deli-
catessen goods are produced in an area of 4500 m2• Offices,
laboratories, canteen, kitchen, washing and changing rooms are
located on the first floor--> f). Daily production is about 25 t. The
building requires various groups of rooms with different room tem-
peratures: social rooms, offices, WC, 20°C; production rooms,
0 Section-> f)- 0
f) First floor
II I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I II I
II II I II I I I I I I I I I I I I I
I II I I II I I I I I II I I II I I
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
11111111 w IIIlO
IIIIIIIIIIUIIW
cold room for packaged goods
llllllllllllllll
WJIIIIIIIIIIII
oo
o~s:wn
00 El
o~c::: I IIC21 !
0
1n
oopacliing 8
oC':ls:x::Jn
oo 0
=0
o~c::::dl 1
8
@ @
DD cartons
DO
88
cooling
equipment
DD
DDDDDD
6.00 6.00
C) Ground floor, Thuringer Fleischzentrum
WORKSHOPS
Meat Processing Plant
18°C; air-conditioned rooms, 14-18°C; cool rooms, 10-12°C; cold
rooms, 0-8°C; deep-freeze, -20°C. High physical requirements for
construction and materials.
Production building: raw material is delivered in form of halves
of pork, quarters of beef and coarsely dismembered, wrapped
pieces.
CD managing director
® WC/showers
® freezer store
@ delivery cold room
@ freezer room
@ meat cold room
(D offal processing
® alkaline solvents
® acid solvents
@) cleaning room
@ first aid room
@workshop
@boot room
@foreman
@office
@· computing
@foreman
@)WCs
@entrance
@>kitchen
@ production
spices
Electrlcs: Jena GmbH
ZPN Rhinstr. 149 Berlin
Planning: AG Neufert, Mittmann, Gref.
279
WORKSHOPS
Joinery
Carpenter's shop
Metalwork
Vehicle repairs
Bakery
Meat processing
plant
Other trades
Laundry
Fire station

WORKSHOPS
Joinery
Carpenter's shop
Metalwork
Vehicle repairs
Bakery
Meat processing
plant
Other trades
Laundry
Fire station
yard
1 overhead track with
electric hoist
2 scalding vat with
rollers
3 skinning table
4 hoist
5 carcass hanging
6 low-level track
7 splaying saw
B high-level track
9 chute
10 combined basin/
table
11 sinks
12 chopper rack
13 support
14 liver examination
table
15 work table
16 overhead track
weighing machine
17 conveyor
0 Example of a butcher
0 workshop
Os
0
0
0
6
E8
G
0
shop
~
1 technician's work bench
2 general work bench
3 work bench with vice
4 counter
5 record bar
6 shelving for
repair work
1 shelving for parts
8 display shelves
9 sales counter
10 shop window and
display shelves
f) Example of a radio and television shop with workshop
E
~
hextension
.I
lj
il
ii
i'
entrance
extension
e Example of a paint spraying workshop
280
t-------7.00 m--t
rr-~~i
ii i1
!i i!
II
·j
I-
I'
I!
u
ground floor
WORKSHOPS
Other Trades
Butcher~ 0: example ground plan for 6-7 employees
Functional scheme for in-house sausage and cold meat pro-
duction: meat arrives in sausage machine room (cutting/mincing),
into smoke house, then boiler (sausage kitchen) and from there to
the cool store or the shop.
Height of workrooms (according to size of business) ;;;4.0 m,
width of passages for goods transport ;;;2.0 m. Work space at
sausage machine, in front and every 1.0 m at side =3.0 m2 each.
Machine spacing from walls (for repairs) 40-50 em.
Sound insulation is required for cooling plant, which works day and
night. Provide water taps with hose fittings in the sausage kitchen,
machine room and salting room. Floor rough and waterproof, ide-
ally of rough or ribbed tiles with gully. Walls tiled completely. Good
general lighting of 300 lx at the work spaces. Provide social room,
clothes cupboards, we and showers for employees.
Radio and television shop with workshop ~ 0
Workrooms: clear height ;;;3 m and 15 m3 minimum air volume per
employee. On account of the great danger of electrocution, the
workshop should have well-insulated flooring, or at least the work-
benches of the employees should be insulated. Recommended
light intensity: 500 lx. For the assembly of very fine electronic
components, 1500 lx is required.
Workbench must have a spacious worktop, ideally 1.00 x 2.00 m.
2 shelves under desk for storage of circuit plans, appliance de-
scriptions etc. and tools in easily accessible drawers.
Paint spraying workshop ~ 8
Tailor~ 0 example plan for 10 employees
SM sewing machine
IBE ironing board
with extractor
system
ITE ironing table
with extractor
system
TC cutting table
TW work table
TWI work and Ironing
table
FD fabric display
FR fabric rack
0
shop
G Example of a tailor
~ SM ladies' ~!BE
[Q]SM workshop
~ E:J., I
TC
--l
I
I
11'--c::-u"'n"'in"'g---'-·
1
room
SM 0
TWI
changing/wash room
changing/wash room
Ground floor
-

0
.,;
X
0
.,;
store
0 Small laundry for hotel
f) Medium-sized laundry
~ pressing/repairing
~®t®
f) in two separate rooms
washing and spin
drying
drying
ironing
<D trolley
® soaking sink
® storage surface
0 {~o0nJ~g1~fard
Medium-sized
laundry 0
<D + ® washers
®dryers
G) ironing
®+®sorting
CD+® pressing
®bench
@)storage
In two rooms C)and
self-service G
<D + ® washers
®+G) dryers
®ironing
®+CD sorting
®pressing
® +@) ironing, bench
@repairs
@+@ storage
r§fu~-=~~-111 T
~
~~----------~..--.d~----------IL
H .20-t--- 3.85 -----j
Q Self-service launderette
Single-door washing machines in
the disinfection cubicle
1--- 4.00 ----1
soiled
......,!
G) washing
--7 ®washing
' ®disinfecting/
changing
clean
normal
washing
Washing with room separation into
clean and soiled
WORKSHOPS
Laundry
Laundries for hospital washing are to be separated into two areas
for soiled and clean, each with their own entrance ---7 0 - 0, e.
In the soiled area, it must be possible to damp-clean and disinfect
the floor, walls and external surfaces of built-in equipment and
machines.
Passages between the dirty and clean sides of the laundry are to
be equipped with personnel control lobbies plus hand disinfection
and a place for protective clothing. The doors of the staff control
lobby must be fitted with devices making it impossible to open
both doors at once ---7 e.
gents Weight(g)
shirt 170
light vest 100
heavy vest 150
short underpants 75
long underpants 180
pyjamas 450
handkerchief 20
pair of socks 70
ladies
blouse 140
underclothes 140
petticoat 75
night dress 350
night shirt 170
handkerchief 10
apron 170
blouse 130
children
small dress 110
underclothes 80
jacket, pullover 75
dungarees 25
handkerchief 15
pair of socks 70
pair of tights 100
f) Average weights of clothes for washing
@> work table
@ storage table
@ pressing table ...-=.__..--
@ trolley shelf
ll® sewing machine .
l:l® personnel air-locks
@ partition wall
soiled side
washing
'1
e Laundry in centre for the elderly
bathing Weight(g)
bathrobe 900
towel 800
beach towel 400
hand towel 200
bathing trunks 100
bathing costume 1-pce 260
2-pce 200
bed linen
bed cover 850
under-sheet 670
top sheet 600
pillow cover 200
table linen
table cloth 370
long table cloth 1000
serviette 80
hand towel 100
tea towel 100
working clothes
protective suit 1200
dungarees 800
apron 200
man's overalls 500
lady's overall 400
pressin:EJ"o~
G
~.__®_--1
281
WORKSHOPS
Joinery
Carpenter's shop
Metalwork
Vehicle repairs
Bakery
Meat processing
plant
Other trades
Laundry
Fire station

WORKSHOPS
Joinery
Carpenter's shop
Metalwork
Vehicle repairs
Bakery
Meat processing
plant
Other trades
Laundry
Fire station
20 20
H--595--tl
I ''I
_l_
8<1141>0
0
D
"'
r
~
+
~
0 Automatic washer/spin dryer
20 20
ft-- 595 --ti
a• o
0
8 Automatic dryer
50 50
1-1--1085---i-1
D
e
r
~
t
~
I
51
;!
~l
9 Automatic washer/dryer
extracted air r
l
~
r--- 1350-------;
Q Rotary iron
f - - - 24001240012690
I
~
I
' '
t._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _J
'=
1.!§]
0 Flatbed iron
282
I
!
l
1--680 -1-330-1
coin slot machine
!--700-----i
f----1100~
f) Side view--> 0
1-- 680 --+-410-!
IJ coin slot machine
extrac~i~
r::::ile-
1
-·-,1
i
----'i-
~
~
1-- 700 ----1
f-----1100 ----i
G Side view -> 0
1--1075----i
(
L
0 Side view-> 0
socket
M501--390-l
e Side view -> 0
r-- 146711540/1540--I
,·,
I '
II
II
Cl) Side view --> Cl)
WORKSHOPS
Laundry
Dry laundry produced per week:
Household: approx. 3 kg/person (ironing share approx. 40%)
Hotel: approx. 20 kg/bed (daily sheet and towel changing)
approx. 12-15 kg/bed (4 changes/week)
approx. 8-1 0 kg/bed (2-3 changes/week)
approx. 5 kg/bed (1 change/week)
(above values include hotel restaurant)
Guesthouse: approx. 3 kg/bed
Restaurant: approx. 1.5-3 kg/place
(for hotels, guesthouses and restaurants, ironing share
approx. 75%)
Home for elderly: approx. 3 kg/bed (residential)
approx. 8 kg/bed (care home)
approx. 25 kg/bed (incontinent)
Children's home: approx. 4 kg/bed,
Baby home: approx. 10 kg/bed
Nursing and care establishments: approx. 4 kg/bed
approx. 25 kg/bed
(incontinent)
(for the above homes, ironing share approx. 60%)
Hospitals, clinics (up to approx. 200 beds):
general hospital: 12-15 kg/bed
maternity clinic with births: approx. 16 kg/bed
children's clinic: approx. 18 kg/bed
(for hospitals and clinics, ironing share approx. 70%)
care staff: approx. 3.5 kg/person
Required washing capacity= ___
w_a_s_hi_n..:::g:_q_,_u_a_n_ti....:ty:_/_w_e_e_k__
washing days/week x washes/day
Example calculations:
1. Hotel with 80 beds (utilisation 60% = 48 beds)
4 bedding changes/week
daily towel changes (approx. 12 kg/bed)
table and kitchen washing
576 kg/wash
approx. 74 kg/week
650 kg/week
required washing capacity= 650 kg = 18.6 kg/wash
3x7
2. Hotel with 150 beds (utilisation 60% = 90 beds)
daily bed and towel changes (20 kg/bed)
90 beds @20 kg washing
required washing capacity=
1800 kg/week
approx. 200 kg/week
2000 kg/week
2000 kg = 57.1 kg/wash
3x7
3. Home for elderly (50 residents, 70 care patients)
70 care places@ 12 kg washing 840 kg/week
50 residential places @3 kg washing
4. Block of flats with 90 residents
840 kg = 33.6 kg/wash
5x5
150 kg/week
approx. 100 kg/week
250 kg/week
250 kg
3x6
= 8.3 kg/wash
approx. 3 kg dry washing per person and week
90 people x 3 kg = 270 kg
(6 days x 5 washes) = 9.0 kg/wash
5 kg/washing machine = 1.8 machines
1.8 machines will be needed = 2 machines

Distance to the last
ladder rescue location
___,,;
.- 1'
E:3
~9
~3.5
Strip without
solid obstacles
Setting~up area
Vehicle access passage
clear height ~ 3.5 m if the passage
length 5:; 12 m, width~ 3.5 m
Setting-up area ~
C1·''·''
m
VII
External diameter
of curve
21-24m
24-30m
30-40 m
40-80
80--140
140
0 Examples: areas for a fire station on a site
lane
Width
min.
s.om
4.5m
4.0
3.5
3.2
3.0
f--" 3.0----j Axle 10 t
f) Through passage: changes in slope C) Fire service access
~1.0-j
G Fire service access 9 Pedestrian access
w, 0.5min
clear width of H .
thoroughfare 0.5 nlln
(essential only if
pillars are present)
Q Parking places and gaies-> 0
Parking place
w,
Size1) Width Length Gate (drive-through width
b1 L b2 x drive-through height)
min. min.
1 4.5 8 3.5 X 3.5
(avoid if
possible)
2 4.5 10 3.5 X 3.5
3 4.5 12.5 3.5 X 3.5
4 4.5 12.5 3.5x4
1lsee also--+ 0 notes; 2lcorresponds to !4 of parking place
f) Dimensions of parking places -> 0
O.Smin
Unit(U)
Calculated ace. to
-> (i)'l m'
9
11.25
14
14
WORKSHOPS
Fire Station
a) Fire sub-station for local call-outs can consist of: fire engine
parking, equipment room, store for special equipment, training
room (multi-purpose room for administration and control centre),
social rooms, building services.
b) Fire station for local and regional call-outs, for example for
preventative fire protection and technical assistance, with central
workshop, repair, training and exercise rooms, can consist of:
fire engine parking (with additional places if ambulances are also
stationed), equipment room, store for special equipment, training
room, staff rooms like washroom, showers, WC, changing room,
drying room, social rooms (like on-call lounge, kitchenette), admin-
istration, chief's office, vehicle and equipment workshop, building
services, room for ABC (disaster) service, central workshop (if re-
quired). Unless there are centralised hose maintenance and breath-
ing equipment maintenance workshops, these will also be required.
If the workshops are centralised, then appropriate stores will still
be needed at each station.
equipment room
store room for special equipment
training room
associated side room
staff rooms:
washroom, showers, WC, changing room, drying room
on-call lounge, kitchenette
administration
unitsfl
1 u
1 u
4U
1 u
3U
3U
roam for fire service chief 1 U
control room 1 U
workshops: hose maintenance workshop, hose washing and testing room 8 U
(min. 26m long and 3m wide)
hose store 1 U
hose drying tower with exercise wall (clear height of tower 23m) 1 U
(If a horizontal hose drying installation is intended instead of a hose drying room, then
this should be accommodated in the hose washing and testing room, whose min. area
must then be 9 U and clear height min. 3 m)
breathing equipment workshop 4 U
maintenance, repair, storage incl. radiation protection, diving2)
room for ABC (disaster) service 4 U
vehicle and equipment workshop including:
battery charging station, next door to existing parking place 2 U
washing hall 4 U
building services:
heating, fuel room 1 U
I) units (U) according to -7 f) determine the floor area of rooms. For fire stations with parking
places of various sizes, the unit is based on the largest. The floor areas determined through
the units give the minimum size of the rooms.
2) this does not include breathing equipment exercise facility.
e Floor areas of rooms --) 0
Fire service vehicles Actual total Wheelbase Turning circle Length Width Greatest
weight (kg) (mm) B (mm) (mm) (mm) height
(permissible) (mm)for
4WDvehic!es
with roof!ights
fire engine with pump 5450 (5800) 2600 11,700 (2WD) 5650 2170 2800
and crew LF 8
fire engine with pump 7490 (7490) 3200 15,050 (4WD) 6400 2410 2950
and crew LF 8
fire engine with pump 11,300 (11 ,500) 3750 16,100 (4WD) 8000 with 2470 3090
and crew LF 16 hose reel
trailer
fire engine with pump 10,200 (11,000) 3750 16,100 (4WD) 7600 2470 3100
and crew LF16~TS
water tender with tank 7490 (7490) 3200 14,800 (4WD) 6250 2410 2850
and pump TLF 8/18
water tender with tank 10,700 (11,500) 3200 14,400 (4WD) 6450 2470 2990
and pump nF 16/25
water tender with tank 15,900 (16,000) 3500 15,400(4WD) 6700 2500 3270
and pump TLF 24/50
foam tender with tank 11,500 (12,000) 3750 16,100 (4WD) 7000 2470 2990
and pump TLF16
foam tender with tank 7300 (7490) 3200 14,800 (4WD) 6100 2410 3250
and pump 1000
foam tender with tank 10,100 (11,600) 3200 14,400 (4WD) 6450 2410 3300
and pump 2000
turntable ladder 12,550 (13,000) 4400 18,600 (2WD) 9800 with 2430 3250
DL30 hose reel
trailer
turntable ladder 20,200 (21,000) 3800x 19,900 (4WD) 9800 2490 3300
L830/5 with cradle 1320
equipment truck RW1 7200 (7490) 3200 14,800 (4WD) 6400 2420 2850
equipment truck RW2. 10,850 (11,000) 3750 16100(4WD) 7600 2480 3070
hose truck SW2000 10,200 (11,000) 3200 14,400(4WD 6500 2500 2980
C) Usual dimensions of current fire service vehicles from one of the largest German
manufacturers
283
WORKSHOPS
Joinery
Carpenter's shop
Metalwork
Vehicle repairs
Bakery
Meat processing
plant
Other trades
Laundry
Fire station

WORKSHOPS
Joinery
Carpenter's shop
Metalwork
Car repair
workshop
Bakery
Meat processing
plant
Other trades
Laundry
Fire station
0 First floor of fire station -> 8
7~---------].
I I
I I
f) Ground floor Of fire station --'> e
8 Basement of flre station 4, Munich
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
61
I
1 watch room
2 bedroom
3 washroom
4 station commander
1 battery charging room
2 fire~appliance hall
3 bedroom
4 control centre
5 apparatus room
6 passage
7 yard
B oil store
1 underground garage
2 day stores
3 hose room
4 cellar
5 ventilation
6 sluice
7 main control room
8 emergency power supply
9 pump room
10 changing room
11 store
12 gas and water supply
13 generator and central
heating room
Arch.: Ackermann + P.
0 First floor -> f) e Second floor-> f)
f) Basement and (right} ground floor of fire station
284
WORKSHOPS
Fire Station
Fire station: is used for the accommodation of vehicles and other
equipment.
Staffed fire station: is used for the accommodation of personnel,
vehicles and other equipment in readiness for emergency services
and also in some cases the constantly staffed control centre for
the centralised receipt of reports, alarming, coordination and con-
trol of emergency personnel. A flat should ideally be provided. The
crews are either in readiness or on call for call-outs by telephone
or fire alarm, either entirely or as reinforcement. Emergency call,
warning and fire alarm equipment.
Functions before the call-out: Parking of private cars. Changing
near the vehicle and fitting of equipment. Getting into vehicle.
After the call-out: Vehicles returning from a call-out are parked
forwards into the vehicle hall via the yard. The vehicles are then
re-equipped and fire-fighting water and fuel filled up. The crew
change and wash. The plot should be in a position central to all
parts of town or suitable for risk hotspots. Provide clear and un-
obstructed access and exit routes and sufficient open areas, e.g.
consider the turning circles for vehicles. Vehicle washing area with
sand trap and petrol separator, tanks for diesel and petrol. The
yard should be suitable for heavy vehicles (about 16 t). Under-
ground and overground hydrants. Space is required for additional
vehicles, perhaps also a helipad (50 x 50 m) with an additional
15 m of free space. Sport facilities and green areas.
1 landing
2 flat
3 training room
4 training material
5 meeting room
6 garage
7 oil store
8 vehicle wash
9 fire-appliance hall
10 hose wash
11 hose store
12 parts store
13 workshop
14 breathing apparatus
15 courtyard
16 station commander
17 duty room
18 changing room
19 washroom
20 locker room
21 porch
22 lobby
e Cross-section ~ f)
23 recreation room
24 practice room
25 breathing apparatus
training room
26 heating plant
27 ventilation plant
28 store
29 battery room
30 telephone/radio room

QT~
rn
0 Lectern f) Font
+---1.10 T
0
0
0
0
,t
Altar with toe-kick, section
ITabernacle I
+
Altar with tabernacle, plan
~so+-2.oo-t-so~
0000
0
0
Concealed~''"""'-"--'-'
strip light
I
0
"'
+
0
q
e Pulpit with acoustic ceiling to
reflect the sound towards the
congregation
e Tabernacle integrated into the wall
Q Altar without tabernacle, plan
~6ot-1.so-f6o~
0
T
0
0 0 ol
0
"'
0
o;
"' 0
l
0 0
0000
e Variants of area around altar
Choir
-
-
0 Arrangement of seating in chancel
and choir
CD Three-sided arrangement
"l
j_
0000
Altar
41!) Rhombus-shaped arrangement
4f) Central arrangement in %circle
CHRISTIAN CHURCHES
Liturgical Elements
Guidelines for church building
The individual state Churches and bishoprics have special
guidelines for the churches to be built in their areas. In addition,
the Places of Assembly Regulations also apply to spaces which
are not predominantly intended for church services. For new
building, alteration and refurbishment, the advice of the diocesan
commission should be requested. Approvals are issued by the
bishop's representative.
Because churches serve religious faiths, the form of the building
should be developed from the belief and the liturgy.
Liturgical elements
Religious elements required for all regular acts of worship.
Pulpit---7 0
Raised enclosed platform for preaching and the proclamation of the
Word. The pulpit stands in a close liturgical relationship to the altar,
but there are no precise regulations regarding its location. This is
frequently to the right of the altar as seen from the nave. The height
of the pulpit is 1.00-1.20 m (pulpit floor level) above the church floor.
Lectern ---7 0
In early Christian churches this was a mobile reading desk called
the ambo for the reading of the Gospels and Epistles. The lectern
should, despite being mobile, be placed in the immediate vicinity
of the altar.
Altar
'God's table', focus of the celebration of the Eucharist. Fixed
and mobile altars or sacrament tables are possible. The shape
and material are not regulated. The altar is mostly rectangular,
0.95-1.00 m high and free-standing, so that it is possible to walk
around it without difficulty ---7 8. In reformed churches, however,
other shapes are possible. An altar should not be used before it is
consecrated by the bishop.
Altar steps
There should be an at least 1.50 m level area in front of the altar,
next to and behind the altar min. 0.80 m (if the altar can be walked
around). This area is often raised by one or two steps.
Tabernacle ---7 0
Shrine for the storage of the reserved sacrament. Tabernacle and
altar are in a close liturgical and spatial relationship to one another.
Pulpit
0
Font
;:::::1
u
Pulpit
@) Layouts of altar, pulpit and font
QFontby
entrance
Pulpit
1:::'1
LJ
Pulpit
0
Font
285
CHRISTIAN
CHURCHES
Liturgical
elements
Furnishing
Vestry
Bell towers

CHRISTIAN
CHURCHES
Liturgical
elements
Furnishing
Vestry
Bell towers
hat hook
0 Church pew with kneeler f) Church pew without kneeler
1nLn11 1lfnl'
iJI ll_!ll
Ct €1 f.lll
e -e Arrangements of pews
f) Church building shared by two denominations
e Movable partitions create a common space in a double church for two
denominations, Freiburg Arch.: Kister Scheithauer Gross
Arrangement of seating
Space requirement for pew without kneeler (Protestant) ---7 0
= 0.4-0.5 m2
(without aisles}, for pew with kneeler (Catholic) ---7 0
= 0.43-0.52 m2
(without aisles).
286
CHRISTIAN CHURCHES
Furnishing, Vestry
The layout and form of seating is of great importance for the
dimensions and effect of the space, quality of hearing and view.
In smaller churches (chapels}, an aisle of 1.00 m width is sufficient
---7 e with pews containing 6-10 seats, or a central aisle of 1.60 rn
width with seating both sides as ---7 e.
Because of possibly noticeable cold emanating from the external
walls, two side aisles with pews in between ---7 0 containing 12-18
seats is normal.
Wider churches will have correspondingly more aisles. The total
space requirement for each seat is therefore approx 0.63-1.0 rn2•
For standing places, 0.25-0.35 m2 each is sufficient; for these a
large part of the aisles, particularly in front of the back wall, is
occupied. The width of the exit doors and steps must comply with
the Places of Assembly Regulations.
A central aisle on the altar axis is often desired for weddings,
processions etc.
Confessional ---7 G)
Three-compartment enclosed booth made of wood, in the central
part of which the Catholic priest sits to hear confession. The
person confessing speaks to the Catholic priest through one of
the two side compartments through a grille of approx. 30 x 40 em.
The lower edge of the opening should be approx. 1.00 m above
floor level. The confessional should be situated inside the church
at a location which is not too bright. Sufficient ventilation and
extraction should be provided.
Today, a confessional room is possible as an alternative.
Vestry---7 0
The vestry (also known as sacristy) is a side room in the church
for the clergy, vestments and equipment for the service. It is best
placed near and to the side of the altar.
0
T
0
"'
~
"'
c.i
;,25 10-25
f-H
built-in
Altar rail, various forms
?,25 to-25
~
JJl
T
"'
t-
1
~
detached level
r------2.50-----1
f---ss-j---so-f-ss---1
l
T :=== Kneeler
0
I,- r----t
~so-t!
41!) Two-sided, enclosed confessional, vertical and horizontal sections
G)
®
G) Example of a vestry
G) Main room with altar
for robes, altar
hangings etc.
®Sexton
® Vestibule
@we
® Entrance hall
@ Access to altar area
CD Access to nave

radius of
revolution V axisof
revolutlon
~ w...m.g {m=mass)
0 Dimensional relationships depending f) Terms
on the wall thickness
f-- D
e Returned steel yoke
I
vertical thrust Hmax =1.55 x bell weight
.----<~~~~~------.-~
/
,.....---
o~~
2.5
vertical thrust
Vma~=3.1 X bell
1---D ::::..._.; weight
0 Horizontal thrust
1-- D --!
e Straight yoke
HITBll=0.25 X
bell weight
V~=1.5x
1---
0
~I weight
o~2xA
1.8
0 Suspension near centre of gravity
v3t
--·~"' ..~"
f) Sound shutters
'f~1:~
~~~D,
OW/20?/)W&fl/Algf
sound openings 0 In places
where there is no clapper stroke
e Belfry (plan)
~-
good distant sound;
muffled near sound
louvres of prefabricate<
concrete elements
section
length of panels
E; 53 =swing diameter, bell3
""2.6 x 03
~s, =ofbe111 =2.6 x 0 1
G Belfry (section)
CHRISTIAN CHURCHES
Bell Towers
Design
The standards on bell towers should be complied with.
A bell specialist can provide advice about the size and pitch of
the bells, acoustics and weights. A bell founder designs the bell
frame as the basis for the dimensions and layout of the belfry and
sound openings, and also contributes loadings for the structural
engineer, who has to consider static and dynamic loadings.
Bells
Weight, alloy and wall thickness determine the sound. Electric
ringing machines are often used today.
Bell tower --> 0 - 0
According to regulations, this is a 'solo musical instrument' and
forms an 'orchestra' together with the neighbouring bell towers.
The desired audible range determines the height of the belfry
(or bell loft) in the tower, which should be above the surrounding
buildings. The quality of the bell tone depends on the tower's
construction materials and the acoustic design.
The belfry is a resonance and mixing space which decides the
musical quality of the sound transmission. The room is fully
enclosed apart from the sound ope

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