B. Foraging Behavior of animals Part MSc

ETHOLOGY
KRISHNAMOORTHY M.Sc., (Zoo), M.Sc., (Psy), M.A., (Phil & Rel),
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR IN ZOOLOGY,
GOVERNMENT ARTS COLLEGE,
COIMBATORE,
TAMIL NADU - 641 018.
krishnamoorthy1974@yahoo.com

ETHOLOGY – DEFINITION, HISTORY, SCOPE

ETHOLOGY - DEFINITION
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The study of animal behaviour is known as Ethology.
Ethos, a Greek word means habit or customs and Logos means to study.
Thus the word Ethology defines study of animal behaviour under natural
conditions.
Ethology is a new branch of biological sciences.
It is also known as Behaviourism. It describes the scientific and objective
study of animal behaviour.
Behaviour can be defined as the way an organism responses to stimuli in its
environment.
The stimuli can be as simple as the smell of a food or as complex as dance
of a bee.
Moving a bacterium towards higher concentration of sugar is an example of
simple behaviour
Dance of bee involves different kinds of dance express different meanings
which form the complex behaviour.
Nervous system of an animal involves key role in perceiving and process of
information from the environmental stimuli and generation of motor
responses. These responses decides the different pattern of that animal.

ETHOLOGY - CAUSES OF BEHAVIOUR
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Animals are behaving in two different ways. These are broadly divided as
How and Why questions of behaviour or causes of behaviour.
Proximate cause – It involves in How an animal manages to carry out an
activity. In this cause of behaviour the impulase activity or nerve cells or
hormone level of an animal is recorded.
Ultimate cause – It involves in Why an animal has evolved the proximate
mechanisms that cause it to perform an activity. In this cause of behaviour
the survival and reproductive success of the animal is determined.
How and Why questions involves,
1. Causation - What makes the behaviour to happen.
2. Development - How does behaviour machinery develops.
3. Survival value -How does a behaviour inﬂuences the survival of the animal.
4. Evolution - How the behaviour evolved to its present form.
The complete study of animal behaviour involves both proximate as well as
ultimate causes or explanations.

ETHOLOGY - HISTORY - BEGINNING
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Ethology is the study of natural history of animal behaviour.
Many naturalists and scientists have contributed for the development of
Ethology as a separate branch of biology. Throughout the history, different
naturalists have studied the aspects of animal behaviour.
Scientific study of animal behaviour was started in the work of 18th century
naturalists like white (1720-1793) and Leroy (1723-1789).
Ethology has its scientific roots in the work of Charles Darwin (1809-1882). His
theory of natural selection triggered the animal behaviour. He has been known
as the founder of classical Ethology. His own observations on behaviour of
animals and man were important. In his books “Descent of Man and Selection in
Relation to Sex” and “The expression of the Emotions in Man and animals” he
explained the various expressions and emotions of man.
George Romanes (1848-1894) continued the work of Darwin and published a
book titled “animal Intelligence in the year 1882.
John Watson (1878-1958) initiated a new approch to animal behaviour which
led to experiments on animal behaviour and interpretation of results.
Journal of animal behaviour in the year 1937 in Germany made the animal
behaviour studies as an academic field of study and promoted the behavioural
researches.

ETHOLOGY - HISTORY - GROWTH
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Dutch biologist and ornithologist Niko Tinbergen (1907-1988), German-
Austrian Ethologist Karl von Frisch (1886-1982) and Austrian zoologist,
Ethologist and Ornothologist Konrad Lorenz (1903-1989) were regarded as
the founders of the modern ethology.
Their research contributions in the ﬁeld of animal behaviour were widely
accepted and acknowledged. They together received the nobel prize in 1973
for their contribution to behavioural biology.
The book titled “The Study of Instinct” by Tinbergen in 1951 gave ideas on
innate behavioural reactions in animals and the adaptiveness and
evolutionary aspects of these behaviours.
Karl Frisch discovered that honey bees can distinguish the various
blossoming plants by their scent. His works were centered on investigations
of the sensory perceptions of the honey bees. He was one of the ﬁrst to
translate the meaning of the waggle dance of bees.
Konrad Lorenz has been called as the father of ethology. He studied the
instinctive behaviour in animals especially in graylag geese and investigated
the principle of imprinting.
Konrad together with Tinbergen developed the idea of an innate releasing
mechanism to explain the instinctive behaviours.

ETHOLOGY - SCOPE
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Ethology plays a vital in animal studies.
Ethology is the link between the organisms and the environment and
between the nervous system and ecosystem.
Animal behaviour is the beauty of the nature.
It improves the multiplication of the species.
It has much importance in the ﬁeld of psychology and social sciences.
Animal behaviour studies help to control the pest organism.
The behaviour of honey bees helps for the pollination, plant breeding.
Animal behavioural studies help to improve the forest regeneration.
It also improves the captive breeding methods.
Study of animal behaviour improves the welfare of animals.
Animal behavioural studies are valuable in terms of biodiversity.
The study of migration of animals particularly ﬁshes and birds helps to
improve their habitats.
Study of ethology prevents the extinction of species.

LEARNING BEHAVIOUR – TYPES,
NEURAL MECHANISM

LEARNING - DEFINITION
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Learning can be deﬁned as any relatively permanent change in the
behaviour of animals that occurs as a result of experiences and practice.
Simply, learning is a behavioural change for better or worse
Learning is a process which is obtained by experience and practice and not
by age.
Learning must last for fairly long days, months, years depending upon the
adaptations.
It is durable and it is adaptive.
It is a speciﬁc experience of individual’s life.
Individuals may forget learning but can’t say unlearned.
Learning occurs in a particular life stage of the animal.
It acquired during one’s life time.
Playing is an important way for learning.

LEARNING - NEED
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Learning is a process by which an integrated new knowledge generated as
a result of experience,
Changes in the environment will bring change in the behaviour of animals.
Animals learn,
- to avoid predator.
- to avoid harmful environment.
- to find food.
- to avoid harmful food.
- to find a suitable mate.
- to recognize important individuals.
- to find their home.

ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR – INSTINCT AND LEARNING
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Animal behaviour is the scientific study of the interaction of animals with the
environment and with other animals and plant.
It is the study of the motivated movement of animals.
Based on the origin of animal behaviour, that is whether it is natural or
learned through experience, it is broadly classified into two types namely,
1. Innate behaviour
2. Learned behaviour
1. Innate behaviour is otherwise called as natural or instinct or cognitive
behaviour. The innate behaviour of animals are also called as Fixed
action Pattern (FAP). It ia an inborn pattern of behaviour. This behaviour
is inherited through genes. It is inheritable through successive
generations. It is a specific response of a particular species to a stimuli
or environmental change.
2. Learned behaviour also called acquired behaviour is a behaviour that
is shaped through experience and practice. These behaviours are
acquired during one’s life time. They are inherited by genes. They are
derived through training, conditioning, reward, punishment.

ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR - TYPES
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At the beginning of the 20th century, much efforts were taken to study the
animal behaviour. Experiments with diverse models have produced many rigid
theories of learning.
Presently, the approach towards studying animal behaviour has changed a way
in which an animal attempts to identify key aspects of a ﬂuctuating environment.
As a result, a truly comparative and biological approach has developed through
contribution of psychologists and ethologists. In this aspect, learning is
classiﬁed into following types.
I. Simple learning
a. Sensitization
b. Habituation
2. Complex or Associative learning
a. Conditioning
i. Classical conditioning
ii. Instrumental conditioning
b. Latent learning
c. Insight learning
d. Imprinting

SENSITIZATION
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Sensitization is a non- associative learning process in which repeated
administration of a stimulus results in the progressive amplification of a
response.
Sensitization is a simple form of learning.
It is the increase in response strength with repeated exposure to a particular
stimulus.
It is essential to any learning.
If a stimulus is repeated for enough times an animal will learn.
This type of behaviour is very common for lower to higher animals.
A rat would normally show little or no response to a simple stimulus, like a
flash of light.
But if the rat has just received a small electric shock to its feet, it will jump in
alarm to this simple stimuli. This kind of phenomenon is called as
sensitization.
Sensitization is an amplified response to a stimulus resulting from repeated
exposure to it.
The neural basis of sensitization is not known clearly.

HABITUATION
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Habituation is the opposite to sensitization.
Habituation is the gradual decrease of response when the animal exposed to
repeated stimuli.
Habituation is a type of learning mechanism.
When the stimulus is repeated several times in absence of any significant
reinforcement, there is gradual decrease in responsiveness of the animal.
Though initially sensitized, an animal calms down and finally ignores the stimulus.
The cessation of responsiveness is called habituation.
In habituation, there is a gradual decline of behaviour.
It is a basic process in animal behaviour.
It is present in every species of animals including man.
The best known example of habituation is the scarecrow erected in crop fields.
The birds soon learn that there is no actual danger of the scarecrow.
Birds become sensitized to such stimulus.
Habituation enables an animal to concentrate on important signals and ignore
others.

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
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Classical conditioning is also known as Pavlovian learning.
This type of learning method of animals was ﬁrst studied by Ivan Pavlov, an
Russian physiologist and ethologist,
This is an example for Associated learning. In associated learning, animals form
an association between environmental events and their own responses.
A hungry dog was kept in a designed frame.
Pavlov gave the animal a small amount of food at regular interval which resulted
in salivation. Then he signaled the delivery of food by preceding it with a sound
of bell which is considered as an external stimulus.
The behaviour of the dog gradually changed and the animal began to orient
towards the bell by licking its lips and salivating. Now the animal started to
respond to sound of bell alone by dripping saliva before the meat powder
arrived.
In this experiment, Pavlov described that, The sound of bell as Conditioned
Stimulus (CS) and the food as the Unconditional Stimulus (UCS)
Secretion of saliva merely seeing the food is referred as Unconditioned
Response (UCR). This UCR was changed into Conditioned Response (CR) that
the experimental dog salivated even after hearing the bell sound . Here the UCR
was modiﬁed into CR.
This kind of experiments were later done in Mice, Monkey also.

INSTRUMENTAL CONDITIONING
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This type of learning process is otherwise known as trail and Error learning.
It is a form of associative learning. Hence, the animals are encouraged to
learn with the help of some forms of instruments, this learning type is also
called as Instrumental learning.
Thorndike, a famous ethologist designed a problem box, constructed with
vertical bars, so that an animal kept inside can see outside through the bars.
A door in the box could be opened by pulling a loop inside the box.
He kept a hungry cat inside the box and food outside.
At ﬁrst, the cat showed a number of activities. But it could not reach the food.
By chance, the cat pulled the loop and escaped from the box to get the food.
A second or third trial of the same experiment, the cat learning to pull the
loop was increased.
Finally the cat learned to perform the correct behaviour as soon as it had
been placed within the box.
Thorndick designated this type of learning as “trail-and-error” because the
animal learned to eliminate the rewardless behaviours and concentrated on
rewarding only.

LATENT LEARNING
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Latent is a form of learning tha tis not immediately expressed in an overt
response.
Latent learning is a form of learning that occurs without any obvious
reinforcement of the behaviour or associations that are learned.
This type of learning behaviour is also called as hidden learning.
It is a well known fact that learning of animals can be inﬂuenced by
reinforcement such as reward and punishment.
But the conventional reinforcement is not the only route of learning.
For example, an animal may explore a maze at will.
When an prior experienced rat and a new rat allowed to run in maize, the ﬁrst
runs faster, as it knows already.
The acquisition or a response remains hidden or latent and expresses later. This
kind of learning is called latent learning.
In latent learning, there is no involvement of reward or punishment at the time of
learning.
Latent learning also occurs in humans.
Children may learn by watching the actions of their parents but only
demonstrate it at a later date, when the learned material is needed.

INSIGHT LEARNING
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Insight learning is a sudden production of a new response not arrived at by trail-
and-error behaviour.
Insight learning is a problem by the sudden adaptive reorganization of
experience.
Thinking the solution for a particular problem has come is a flask as a result of
concentrated thinking for a few minutes.
Sometimes an animal may solve problem very rapidly.
It differs from the trail-and-error type of learning.
Well known ethologist Wolfgang Kokler performed a series of classic
experiments with chimpanzees.
In one experiment, a caged chimpanzee was given two bamboo poles, none of
which is long enough to reach a fruit outside the cage.
But the poles were in such a design, that they could be fitted together to make a
longer pole.
The chimp, at first, tried with either of the poles to reach the fruit but failed.
Later on accidentally the chimp joined the poles together by pushing the narrow
poles into the hollow end of the other and retrieved the fruit with the fitted
longer pole.
Insight learning is considered as higher form of learning. It allows animals to
obtain knowledge in one situation and to apply it to another.

IMPRINTING
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Imprinting is a form of learning in which individuals exposed to certain key
objects, usually at certain stage of life and form an association with the
object.
Development of attachment with other individuals or objects is regarded as
imprinting.
Ethologist Heinroth have made detailed studies about imprinting on various
species of ducks and geese. He reported that the incubated goslings were
developed a strong attachment with the person who handled them and saw
very ﬁrst rather than their parent geese.
Scientist Spalding made extensive observations on hatchlings of domestic
chicks and reported that two to three days old chicks would follow any
moving object and will develop an attachment to it.
Famous ethologist Lorenz reported much investigations regarding the
imprinting behaviour. He conﬁrmed that newly hatched goslings and
ducklings, separated from mother will follow almost anything moving, a
slowly walking man, a moving model of duck or even a black box.

IMPRINTING - TYPES
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Imprinting is generally grouped into two types.
1. Filial Imprinting
2. Sexual imprinting
Filial Imprinting
The social attachment formed between the offspring and their parents is
called Filial imprinting. It occurs in early life of the individuals.
Sexual imprinting
When an individual learns to direct its sexual behaviour to members or its
own species, the process is called sexual imprinting. It takes place after the
filial imprinting.
Significance of Imprinting
- Mpother figure is required for normal development of children.
- In the absence of mother, infants are deprived of normal social behaviour.
- Parent-offspring interactions are required during the early days.
- Imprinting helps for species recognition.
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NEURAL MECHANISM
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An animal perceives its surrounding world depending upon the structure of
its sensory system.
Behavioural patterns result from the complex interactions of external stimuli
and internal conditions.
The systems for internal information processing are established during the
course of development from fertilized egg to adult through embryonic
stages.
Neural mechanism of animal behaviour is descried as neuroethology,
Neural regulation is the coordinating influence of the nervous system on
cells, tissues and organs.
It adjusts the activities of the body based on the needs of the organisms and
the change in the environment.
Neurons play a vital role in the coordination and the control of behaviours.
Hormones and neurotransmitters also play a significant role in the various
form of behavioural modifications.
During development, the endocrine system plays a critical part in the
expression of age-appropriate behavioural patterns.

CHRONOBIOLOGY – BIOLOGICAL CLOCK,
CIRCADIAN RHYTHM

CHRONOBIOLOGY
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The formal study of biological rhythms such as daily, weekly, seasonal and
annual rhythms is called chronobiology.
Chronobiology is the study of biological rhythms.
It examines the effects of time on biological events and internal biological
clocks.
Chronobiology deals with rhythmic patterns that occur in all forms of life.
It has developed into a multidisciplinary ﬁeld of interest.
Chronobiology is a ﬁeld of biology that examines timing processes, including
periodic or cyclic phenomena in living organisms, such as their adaptation to
solar and lunar related rhythms. These cycles are known as biological rhythms.
The activities and behaviour of animals which are cyclical in nature and are
directly related to appropriate cyclic features in environment are called
biological rhythms
Many animals exhibit behaviour which vary with time in a regular fashions. For
example birds usually sing in early mornings, bats emerge from the caves at
dusk.
The repeating behaviour of animals which are based on internal cues are called
endogenous rhythms.
If they are by external stimuli, they are called as exogenous rhythms.

BIOLOGICAL RHYTHMS -TYPES
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Animals have developed a variety of endogenous rhythms in the course of
evolution.
They are many types.
Circadian rhythm - Biological cycle that occur about every twenty - four
hours. This rhythm is based on roughly 24 hour cycle or a day
cycle. It includes physiological and behavioural rhythms like
sleeping.
Circannual -They are based on yearly season or a year cycle. It is abased on
the rotation of sun.
Circalunar - It is based on 29 days. It is based on moon. It follows the lunar
month.
Circatidal - This cycle is based on the high and low tide of marine water. The
level of tides is modulated across the lunar cycle.

BILOGICAL CLOCK
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The behaviour of animals are driven by a timer or clock called biological
clock.
Biological clock is an internal timing device present in all living organisms.
It is an endogenous component. Many animals can maintain their rhythmic
activities even when they are isolated in laboratory conditions.
Biological clock is usually free running and can continue on a regular cycle
even in the absence of any environmental factors. The characteristic
features of the biological clock are,
It involves a self-sustaining timing mechanism
It is innate or inherent
They are not regulated by any biological reaction
Like mechanical clock, biological clocks may run fast or slow.
It is inseparable from life.
The biological clock brings rhythmic activities in plants and animals.
Biological clocks are not affected by environmental factors.

BILOGICAL CLOCK - EXAMPLES
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Sleeping in humans -The sleep-awake cycle is a well known daily rhythm in
human beings. People who move from one time zone to another quickly
suffer from jet lag. It is due to the functioning of free- sleep-awake cycle
according to the time schedule of the zone one has left. But the effect will be
temporary and after a few days of staying in the new place, the sleep-
awake clock of the person will be reset or entrained by the local time
schedule.
Sleeping movement in plants - The plants such as tamarind and Mimosa sp.
close their leaves at dark and spread at night.
Photosynthesis - During day time, photosynthesis process takes place.
Flowering - The white coloured flowers such as jasmine and lily bloom in
the night and close at the day.
Insects and secretion of nectar - Some plants secrete nectar at certain
specific time of the day. Insects, which have their own biological clocks, visit
these flowers at these time only.
Emerging adult silk moth - Adult silk moths emerge from their cocoon at a
particular time of the day, which is species specific.

CIRCADIAN RYHTHM
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A circadian rhythm is a natural, internal process that regulates the sleep-
awake cycle roughly every 24 hours.
This 24-hour rhythm are driven by a circadian clock, and have been widely
observed in plant and animals.
The term circadian comes from the latin word circa – around or
approximately and dies- day.
The term circadian was coined by Franz halberg in 1959.
Circadian rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise and
regular environmental changes.
It is important in regulating and coordinating internal metabolic processes.
The simplest known circadian clocks are bacterial circadian rhythms
exempliﬁed by the cyanobacteria.
It is now known fact that molecular circadian clock can function within a
single cell.
Circadian rhythmicity is present in the sleeping and feeding patterns of
animals and human beings.

VISUAL COMMUNICATION -
POSTURES AND GESTURES OF HUMANS

VISUAL COMMUNICATION
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Language is part of every culture and nation on this planet. It is diverse and
the sounds produced are the basis of the language spoken in different
countries and among different groups of people.
In addition to the spoken language, there is another important aspects of
communication and that is body language. This body language is called as
non-verbal communication or visual communication.
Visual communication is the transmission of information and ideas using
symbols, shape, colour, movement or body language.
Visual communication in human means transfer of information from one
man to another man by visually.
The non-verbal communication that uses posture and gesture as its basic
communication medium. Both, postures and gestures can cross language
barriers, but can also be found to be speciﬁc to particular culture.

POSTURES AND GESTURES
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Postures and Gestures are a non-verbal communication because it is translated
through human’s physical gestures and not through oral commucations.
A posture is a pose using the body as its communicator while a gesture is a
movement made to demonstrate an idea or sentiment.
They include facial expressions, hand movements, eye movements, seated and
standing poses as well as arm movements, shoulder and leg stances.
Both postures and gestures can signal sentiments.
Gestures use different parts of the body while a pose makes a larger movement
involving the whole body.
Mapping body postures and gestures help psychologists and other persons
interested in the signals sent out by the body language. People are constantly
sending out messages about themselves through their posture and gestures.
The skilled interviewer can learn a great data about the candidate by their body
language.
Understanding body language plays a key roll in employment.
Posture and gesture are an important part of acting and drama.

PHEROMONES - INTRODUCTION
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Communication in animals is by scents, odour and pheromones.
Pheromones are chemical substances secreted by an animal that influences
the behaviour of other animal of the same species. Pheromones have direct
effect on animal behaviour.
Pheromones are produced by special structures I invertebrates and special
glands in vertebrates. Their origin is from special glands or along with saliva,
urine and faeces.
Chemicals used for communication among the same species are called
Pheromones, those used to communicate with other species are called
Kairomones and if sender is benefited they are called Allomones.
Kairomones (from a Greek word kairos - oportunistic or exploitative) emitted
by one orgnanism that stimulate a response in an individual of other species.
The response is beneficial to the recipient. Kairomone may be allomomes or
pheromones.
Allomones 9from Greek allos - exite others) released from one organism that
stimulate a response in an individual of another species. The response is
beneficial to the emitter.

PHEROMONES - EFFECTS
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Pheromones act in two ways.
1. Releaser effect – if pheromone stimulates the central nervous system of
the recipient and produces an immediate change in its behaviour , it is
known as releaser effect
2. Primer effect – If it alters aset of physiological reactions in the recipient
which prepares the animal for a particular behavioural pattern, it is called as
primer effect.
Pheromones are acting outside of the body where as the hormones are
acting inside the body. Another differences is that the hormones are
secreted by endocrine glands and pheromones are secreted by exocrine
glands. Thus, pheromones are sometimes called as ecto-hormones.
Pheromones are usually wind-borne but may be placed on soil, vegetation or
various items.
Pheromones are highly species - species speciﬁc.
They are composed of mixtures of geraniol, farnesol, citral and other minor
compounds.

PHEROMONES - DEFINITION
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Pheromones can be deﬁned as An agent secreted by an individual that
produces a change in the sexual or social behaviour of the same species.
It is simply a volatile chemical that acts as a behaviour - altering agent.
The term pheromone was coined by Peter Karlson and Martin Luscher in
1959.
Phero - in Greek to bear and mone - hormone, thus, a pheromone is a
secreted or excreted factor that triggers a change in the recipient.
They are also called as informative molecules mainly play an important role
that conveys a speciﬁc chemical messages between animal and animal.

PHEROMONES - TYPES
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Pheromones are species speciﬁc chemical signals which enable
communication between life - forms of the same species.
Pheromones have been classiﬁed into many types.
They are,
1. Aggregation pheromones
2. Alarm pheromones
3.Trail pheromones
4. Sex pheromones
5. Royal pheromones
6. Oviposition - deterrent pheromones
7. Home recognition pheromones
8. Recruitment pheromones

AGGRESSION PHEROMONES
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A group of individuals at one location is referred to as an aggregation
whether consisting of one sex or both sexes.
Mlae produced sex attractants have been called aggregation pheromones.
Aggregation pheromons function in mate selection, overcoming host
resistance by mass attack, and defense against predators.
The aggregation pheromones attract nonspeciﬁc of both sexes.
The bark beetles start digging up into the bark of the host tree, thus
releasing a mixture of terpenoids which are long range aggregation
pheromones.
Depending on evoke aggregation pheromones, a great number of beetles
attack, leading to the killing of the host tree.
This type of pheromones have ound in members of the Coleoptera, diptera,
Hemiptera and Orthoptera.

ALARM PHEROMONES
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Alarm pheromones are chemical substances produced and released by an
organism, that warns another of their of the same species of impending
danger.
This pheromone is commonly produced by social insects.
This chemical substance induces the animals a ﬂight response.
Alarm pheromone is common in social insects such as ants, bees and
termites.

TRAIL PHEROMONES
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Trail pheromones are chemical substances which mark a trail laid by
pioneering an individual towards a source of food or refuge. Other members
follow it to reach the source.
Trail pheromones are popular in social insects.
The best known example of trail pheromone is ant trail pheromone.
Ants mark their paths with pheromones consisting of volatile hydrocarbon.
Certain ants lays down an initial trail of pheromones as they return to the
nest with food.
This pheromone requires continuous renewal because it evaporates quickly.

SEX PHEROMONES
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Sex pheromones are pheromones released by an organism to attract an
individual of the opposite sex to mate.
Sex pheromones speciﬁcally focus on indicating females for breeding,
attracting the opposite sex and conveying information on species.
Bombykol of the silk moth is the best known sex pheromone.
This pheromone is released by the female silkworm.
It released to attract the males.
The antennae of the males are very sensitive to bombykol.
In many mammals, sex pheromones also indicate the female availability for
breeding.
Some sex pheromones are used in pest monitoring and pest control.

REFERENCE
EVOLUTION, ADAPTATION, ETHOLOGY – DR.SANJIB CHATTOPADHYAY.
ETHOLOGY (ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR) – DR.P.NATARAJAN, DR.N.ARUMUGAM
EN.WIKIPEDIA.ORG.
THANK YOU

B. Foraging Behavior of animals Part MSc

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