BOTANY SCIENCE

BRIEF AND INTRODUCTION
• Botany is the branch of biology that studies
plants, their life, structure, growth, classification,
etc
USES OF THE PLANT TO HUMAN
• for fuel, clothing, shelter, and, particularly, food
and drugs.
• The guys Theophrastus wrote the De Historia
plantarum and De Causis plantarum With many kind
of plant and how are used in medicine

Through careful and accurate observation the
sciences of taxonomy and morphology were
developed,
providing the basis for the first systematic
classification of organisms,
chiefly in the work of Linnaeus.
With the microscope came the development of
plant anatomy and research on the cell
notably the early work of Stephen Hales on the
sources and manufacture of plant food, which led to
studies of such basic processes as photosynthesis

Modern botany has expanded into all areas
of biology, including molecular biology,
and has developed such specialties as
ethnobotany,
ETHNOBOTANY : which studies the use of
plants in societies
work of Mendel in plant breeding at the
middle
ofrom which grew the science of genetics.

ETHNOBOTANY : ethno=people, botany=herbs
At the first the human use the plant as medicine while
seeing chimpanzee eating them
What kind of critical thinking the human has at that
time?????.
Answer: consult the traditional medicine lecture note
ETHNOBOTANY is the studies of relationship between
human and plant , this relations are
food, shelter, dyes, cosmetics, clothing, medicine etc

question
• Generation to generation , people passing the
use of the plant
How this is not forgettable while human still use
instead of reject and forget
Answer : this is learnt generation to generation
as writings or as the herbal
Otherwise , without documentations , some plant
use should be ignored and disappear

Ethnobotany
Ethnobotany is a multidisciplinary
subject.
It incorporates the culture or
practice of ancient knowledge
deals with the interaction between
peoples and plants.

Ethnobotany
Ethnobotany has its roots in botany,
 the study of plants. “Each human population
classifies plants through their culture, develops
attitudes and beliefs and learns the use of plants,
while human behavior has a direct impact on plant
communities with which they interact; the plants
themselves also impose limitations on humans.
These mixtures of interactions are the focus of
Ethnobotany.

Ethnopharmacology: Ethno=people, Pharmacology=study Of Drug Effect To The Body
The observation,
identification,
description and
experimental investigation of the
ingredients and the effects of
indigenous drugs is a truly
interdisciplinary field of research.
The term ethno pharmacology has been
used to describe this field.

Scientists like Rudolf Buchheim,
 Thomas Fraser and Rudolf Kobert devoted a great part
of their active life to the study of the pharmacological
effects of natural products.
• Ethno pharmacologic research is based on botany,
pharmacology and chemistry, but other disciplines have
made vital contributions.

Review
What is the difference and the
similarity between the ethnobotany
and Ethnopharmacology in ecological
aspects????
Answer: check note above slide
analysis

PLANT SYSTEMATIC
Plant systematic is the branch of botany that
is concerned with
the naming,
identification,
evolution, and
classification (arrangement into groups with
common characteristics) of plants
In a strict sense, plant taxonomy is the science
of naming and classifying plants

Questions
What is the difference
between the plant systemic
and plant taxonomy
Answer:check note above and
below slides analysis

however, the terms
 taxonomy and
systematics are sometime used interchangeably
but
systematic involves a broader discipline of discovering
phylogenetic relationships through modern experimental
methods using
 comparative anatomy,
cytogenetics,
ecology,
morphology,
molecular data, or
other data .

What are the rational for biological taxonomy
to understand the world about us and to
conceptualize and order this through classifications;
to have classifications for identification and
communication for;
a convenient information retrieval system;
to use stable names that maintain continuity of the
literature;
to construct a predictive classification; and
to construct a useful framework to understand
phylogenetic relationships.

Taxonomy special rational use of conservators
to provide a useful reference
system for biodiversity
conservation
to aid gene bank managers to
rationally organize collections;
to aid germ plasm collectors to plan
expeditions based on gaps in a gene
bank.

System of classification
artificial systems : based on one or
two easily recognizable characters
Example : Theophrastus classified the plant
into
Trees
Shrubs
Undershrub
And herbs

.Natural system : based on
natural similarities of vegetative &
floral characters
Example: George Bentham & Joseph
Dalton Hooker classified plants
into:
Cryptogams (non flowering plants)
Phanerogams (seed bearing plants)

Phylogenetic system (cladistics):
based on evolutionary & genetic relationship of organisms in
addition to natural characters.
Example Whittaker proposed a “five kingdom” system in which
three kingdoms were added to the animals and plants: Monera
(bacteria), Protista, and Fungi
• early humans undoubtedly classified plants into
edible, poisonous,
medicinal, and
hallucinogenic categories, etc.
but the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature has rules
that govern the assignment of names and define the taxonomic
hierarchy.

TAXONOMY HIERRARCHY OF PLANT CLASSIFICATION
Why plant are considered to be the individual kingdom
Answer:
Carl Linné proposed a system that has dominated
classification for centuries. Linné gave each species two
names, denoting genus and specie
He then grouped genera into families, families into orders,
orders into classes, classes into phyla, and phyla into
kingdoms.
Linné identified two kingdoms: Animalia (animals) and
Plantae (plants).

The first major break from the Linnean model came from
Thomas Whittaker.
 In 1969 Whittaker proposed a “five kingdom” system in
which three kingdoms were added to the animals and plants:
Monera (bacteria), Protista, and Fungi on the basis of
following four criteria:
Complexity of cell structure ( prokaryotic or eukaryotic)
Complexity of body structure ( Unicellular or multicellular)
Mode of nutrition – autotrophic ( photosynthesis) and
heterotrophic (absorption) and ingestion)
Major ecological role ( Producer, Decomposer and Consumer)

• QUESTION
The cell undergo cell division process to
make them greater in number
According to this theory, differenciate
the plant cell from animal cell
Answer : analyse the figure above

In the years since Whittaker’s system fails tomake
clear biodiversity, and the new evidence come
Microbial biologists became aware of these limitations as they
discovered :
unicellular organisms that appeared to be prokaryotic, but
were extremely distinct in ultrastructure and other
characteristics from the traditional bacteria.
Some of these unusual prokaryotes lived in hot springs and other
places where the temperatures were near, or even above, the
boiling point of water (the thermophiles).
The halophile were able to tolerate salt concentrations as high
as five Molar and is also unlike traditional bacteria

As final scientific conclusion microbilogist
microbial evolutionist Carl Woese proposed a radical
reorganization of the five kingdoms into three domains.
Woese placed all four eukaryotic kingdoms into a single domain
called Eukarya, also known as the eukaryotes.
He then split the former kingdom of Monera into the
Eubacteria (bacteria) and the Archaea (archaebacteria)
domains.
Woese then placed most of the “unusual” prokaryotes in the
Archaea, leaving traditional bacteria in the Eubacteria.
 The Woese classification represents a demotion of the animals
and plants as individual kingdoms.

Phylogeny and Cladistics
Phylogeny refers to the evolutionary and genetics
relationships between organisms
Three Domain System proposed by Woese is an evolutionary
model of phylogeny
based on differences in the sequences of nucleotides in the
cell's ribosomal RNAs (rRNA),
the cell's membrane lipid structure
its sensitivity to antibiotics.
Comparing rRNA structure is especially useful
Because rRNA molecules throughout nature carry out the
same function, their structure changes very little over time
Therefore similarities and dissimilarities in rRNA nucleotide
sequences are a good indication of how related or unrelated
different cells and organisms are.

The cell evolutions
There are various hypotheses as to the origin of prokaryotic
and eukaryotic cells.
 cells are similar in nature, it is generally thought that all
cells came from a common ancestor cell termed the last
universal common ancestor (LUCA).
These LUCAs eventually evolved into three different cell
types, each representing a domain.
The three domains are
the Archaea,
the Bacteria, and
the Eukarya

Challenges on the cells origins
More recently various fusion hypotheses have begun to
dominate the literature.
 One proposes that the diploid or 2N nature of the
eukaryotic genome occurred after the fusion of two
haploid or 1N prokaryotic cells.
Others propose that the domains Archaea and Eukarya
emerged from a common archaeal-eukaryotic ancestor
that itself emerged from a member of the domain
Bacteria.
Some of the evidence behind this hypothesis is based on
a "superphylum" of bacteria called PVC, members of
which share some characteristics with both archaea and
eukaryotes

Two domain from Monera kingdom
The Archaea (archaebacteria)
prokaryotic cells.
membranes composed of branched
hydrocarbon chains with ether
linkage as reason of high tem res
containing rings within the
hydrocarbon chains) attached to
glycerol by ether linkages
cell walls of Archaea contain no
peptidoglycan
not sensitive to some antibiotics
that affect the Bacteria
but are sensitive to some
antibiotics that affect the Eukarya
contain rRNA that is unique to the
Archaea
The Bacteria (eubacteria)
prokaryotic cells.
membranes composed of
unbranched fatty acid chains
attached to glycerol by ester
linkages
cell walls contain peptidoglycan
Bacteria are sensitive to
traditional antibacterial antibiotics
but are resistant to most
antibiotics that affect Eukarya.
Bacteria contain rRNA that is
unique to the Bacteria as indicated
by the presence molecular regions
distinctly different from the rRNA
of Archaea and Eukarya.

Archaea often live in extreme environments and include
methanogens,
extreme halophiles, and
hyperthermophiles.
One reason for this is that
the ether-containing linkages in the Archaea membranes is
more stable than
the ester-containing linkages in the Bacteria and Eukarya and
are better able to withstand higher temperatures and stronger
acid concentrations.
Bacteria include
mycoplasmas,
cyanobacteria,
Gram-positive bacteria, and
Gram negative bacteria

The Eukarya (eukaryotes)
Eukarya (also spelled Eucarya)
have eukaryotic cells.
membranes composed of unbranched fatty acid chains attached to
glycerol by ester linkages.
Not all Eukarya possess cells with a cell wall,
but for those Eukarya having a cell wall, that wall contains no
peptidoglycan have cellulose like plant and x for fungi
Eukarya are resistant to traditional antibacterial antibiotics
but are sensitive to most antibiotics that affect eukaryotic cells.
Eukarya contain rRNA that is unique to the Eukarya
indicated by the presence molecular regions distinctly different from
the rRNA of Archaea and Bacteria

QUESTIONS
What are the key used to distuinguish the 3
domain of living things??
Mention 3 similarity between the 3 domain in
ecological aspect?
What are 7 general characteristics of each
domain and give 4 example
Answer : check well table in lecturer syllabus page
16/64

A. What are the kingdoms fall into the
Domain of EUKARYA???
I. Describe one by one in half page of
paper with specifying examples
 Answer : check the lecturer note page
17 to 18/64

Cladistic analysis
Cladistic analysis=cladistics=phylogenetic systematics is
the main approach of classification used in contemporary evolutionary
biology
Cladogram is the branching hierarchical trees(family tree or
genealogy) that evolutionary and genetically specify the relationship
between organisms
This cladogram or phylogeny involve in confirmations or rejections of
some organism from family due to new evidence when the hypothesis is
not testable
In cladistics analysis, groups of organisms, known as taxa, are
arranged into clades that are then nested into larger clades.
The term “taxa” (singular “taxon”) can be applied to groups of any size.
Taxa that are each other’s’ closest relatives are called sister taxa

Types of clades: organism arranged in same taxa
Monophyletic:
all members share a single common ancestor, and all
descendants of that ancestor are included in the clade.

a polyphyletic group is one in which the members are
derived from more than one common ancestor.

• What if all of a particular clade’s members share a common
ancestor but not all taxa that share that common ancestor
are included in that group? Such a group is called
paraphyletic.

Taxonomic categories
Eukarya
 Kingdom : Plant
 Division or Phylum : (-phyta)
 Class : (-eae, opsida)
 Subclass : (-ae)
 Order : (-ales)
o Family : (acea)
€ Subfamily : (-ae)
 Genus
 Species

• In the angiosperms, floral and fruit features are often used
to characterize a family
Kingdom Plantae – Plants
Subkingdom Tracheobionta – Vascular plants
Superdivision Spermatophyta – Seed plants
Division Magnoliophyta – Flowering plants
Class Liliopsida – Monocotyledons
Class Magnoliopsida – Dicotyledons

Species have a central place in taxonomy
form the basic units of biological classification
Many accept the biological species concept first proposed
by Ernst Mayr in 1942,
which defines a species as “a group of interbreeding
populations reproductively isolated from any other such
group of populations
but this statement have failure
This definition presents problems when defining plant
species. Many closely related plant species that are distinct
morphologically are, in fact, able to interbreed; this is
true for many species of oaks and sycamores

The ecological species concept meaning
The availability of molecular sequence data for nucleic
acids and proteins had led to the development of the
genealogical species concept.
the concept of “species” facilitates
the naming,
describing, and
classifying of plants in a uniform manner.
An inventory of the world’s species is the first step in
preserving and using biodiversity

Fundamental components of taxonomy
classification necessitates the procedures of
Description
eg habit, stem, leaves, flowers, sepals, petals, stamens, carpels, fruits, etc;

Classification
assigning in different groups below
Taxonomic hierarchy
Kingdom
Phylum (formerly Division in plants)
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species

Identification,
Identification or determination is recognizing an unknown specimen with an
already known taxon, and assigning a correct rank and position in an existing
classification.
 In practice, it involves finding a name for an unknown specimen using identified
herbarium specimens, dichotomous keys, etc
menclature : a name is a binomial, literally two names, and is always italicized or
underlined; for example, Persea Americana is the scientific name for Avocado.
• kind of organism is known as a species
• Each species has a scientific name in Latin that consists of two elements; the
first is the genus and the second is the specific epithet
• Sp mean one uknown species and
• Spp means more unknownspecies
• More than one genus to different species exist. example note page 32.

A complete scientific name also includes the name or names of
the author or authors (often abbreviated) who first described
the species or placed it in a particular genus.
 For example, the complete scientific name for corn is Zea
mays L.; the “L” indicates that Linnaeus named this species.
On the other hand, the complete name for osage orange is
Maclura pomifera (Raf.) Schneid.
This author citation indicates that Rafinesque-Schmaltz first
described the species, giving it the specific epithet pomifera,
but Schneider later put it in the genus Maclura

Other names
• Names in Commemoration
• Names That Describe Physical Qualities
• Names from Aboriginal or Classic Origins
• Names That Indicate Use
• Names That Indicate Location
constructing affinities

IV.PLANT KINGDOM
Normally the people ask where does the plant
develop
The scientists evidence say that the plant
develop from the algae where the buoyancy was
absent and or gravity and dryness
Major character of plant
Development of roots, shoots, vascular system :
absorption and transport
Increasing the diploid phase of the life cycle,
and decreasing the haploid phase to conserve gene
Protection and dispersal of reproductive
structures to protect the decussation of the pollen and
meet right

Plant kingdomThe two taxa of the Kingdom
bryophytes avascular : have dominant gametophye and dependent sporophyte
(including mosses and liverworts)
vascular plants =higher plant:
(plants with a vascular system of xylem and phloem)
 Pteridophytes seedless plant ,dominant sporophyte and fragile gametophyte
 Spermatophyte seeded plant
Spermatophytes
Gygmnosperms : seed and pollen
Angyosperms : seed,flower,pollen and fruit
Summary the 4group of plants are
 Bryophyte
 Pteridophyte
 Gymnospermae and
 angyosperma

Seedless vascular and avascular plant
bryophytes
a waxy cuticle on their leaves to
prevent desiccation (dryness).
no internal vascular system.
body of the moss plant is haploid.
only diploid structure is a stalk and
spore capsule
Peat moss is used to help soil hold
water
Peat bogs are very acidic
haploid gametophyte plant bodies
are either male or female
The eggs are encased within the
female gametophyte’s body.
haploid spores disperse in the wind
(as pollinator agent
pteridophytes
vascular system to
distribute nutrients
diploid sporophyte grows
out of the fertilized egg,
attached to the
gametophyte
diploid sporophyte is much
larger than the haploid
gametophyte
sperm have flagella and
swim to the eggs through
drops of water (just like the
bryophytes).

Seeded vascular plant
Gymnosperms
A major key in plant evolutions is
pollen grains and seeds.
Pollen grains are the male gametophyte
packaged in a hard coat that allows it
to reach the female without having to
swim through water. This is a large
advantage on dry land.
Seeds are diploid sporophyte embryos
Gymnosperms were the first plants to
have pollen grains and seeds.
Cones are the reproductive structures:
male and female are separate.
Male cones produce pollen, which is
carried to the female cones by the wind.
Each scale of a female cone contains a
single ovule, which develops into a seed.
Gymnosperm=naked seed
Seed of gym exposed to environment
Most importa to day is conifer
angyosperm
Angiosperms are flowering plants,
angiosperms produce seeds; enclosed
within a “fruit”.
Fruit and flower structures vary
enormously Angiosperms, or flowering plant
angiosperms are often fertilized with the
aid of animals: insects, birds, bats, that
carry the pollen from one plant to
another
The plants and pollinators live symbiosis
Flowers produce the visual signals and the
scents that pollinators use to find the
plants
Flowers secrete nectar which is eaten by
the pollinators
• The pollen is carried from flower to flower
on the body of the pollinator

gymnosperms
• 4phylum
Phylum Cycadophyta, cycads ,
dominant during mezoic era
Phylum Gingkophyta, gingko
Phylum Gnetophyta, gnetophyte
Phylum Coniferophyta(pinophyta).
Confifers is the most common and used
in paper manufacturer and wood
sources
angyosperms
Some angiosperms have wind-
dispersed pollen
Flowers on these plants are usually
small and inconspicuous.
Angiosperms have double
fertilization
The endosperm continues to divide
by mitosis to produce a 3n tissue
that serves as nourishment for the
developing embryo.
embryo develops into a seed
Male gamet:pllen gr, femal:ovule

Two taxa of angyosperms
monocotyledon=liliopida
only one cotyledon
flower parts in multiples of threes
could have three, six, or nine
petals, or they could have sepals
that make up their flowers.
adventitious roots
veins of the leaves are parallel.
• Examples:
Typha (genus) domingensis (species
Typha latifolia
Paspalum:
Bambousa vulgaris
Cyperus
Dicotyledon=magnoliopsida
two cotyledon
flowers are pentamerous
leaves show reticulate venation
Flower part is multiple of 4 or 5
Have the pivot root
Example
oBeans
oMomordica foeida
oMangoes
oEtc,……

3 Subclass of the dicot
Polypetaly=petal are free in the flower
Thalamiflorae: Thalamus is dome
shaped.
This series includes 6 orders and
many families
ex. Hibiscus rosa sinens
Disciflorae: Thalamus is disc
shaped.
This series includes 4 orders with
several families
Calyciflorae: Thalamus is cup
shaped.
This series includes 5 orders and
many families.
Ex. Rosa indica
Gamopetalae:
Petals are fused in the flowers
• Inferae: Ovary is inferior.
many families
• Heteromerae: ovary is superior.
several families
• bicarpellatae: Carpels are usually
two in number.
many families

Monochlamydeae: Flowers usually possess
one whorl of perianth.
Ex Bougainvillia spectabilis

Preparation of botanical specimen
What is botanical specimen
Answer pressed plant sample deposited for future reference.
Where does the plant specimen is deposited
Answer in Herbarium
What is an herbarium
Answer = collection of botanical specimens which have been pressed, dried, mounted,
described, named, preserved and classified systematically
What are the type of herbarium
answer International, National, Regional, Local and Special herbaria

What are the use of herbarium
Herbarium specimens are used
as references for comparison and
identification with unknown samples,
documenting species distribution and
variation within species, and
identifying times of fruiting and
flowering, etc…

How to prepare good botanical specimen
Vigorous, typical specimens are to be selected.
Avoid insect damaged plants as well as exceptionally small or large plants.
Specimens should be representative of the population, but should include the
range of variation of the plants
Roots, bulbs, and other underground parts should be carefully excavated and the
dirt removed with care.
In most cases flowering and/or fruiting materials are necessary for
identification purposes.
Many collectors prefer to add extra flowers and fruits to their collections when
possible to avoid dissection of the specimen proper
 Each specimen should consist of a stem with attached leaves and, if at all possible, flowers and/or
fruits
 The roots of herbaceous plants should also be included

Plants too large for a single sheet may be divided and pressed
as a series of sheets
In collecting large herbs, shrubs and trees, different types of
foliage, flowers and fruits should be collected from the same
plant.
Collect sufficient material to fill a herbarium sheet and still
leave enough room for the label.
Bark and wood samples are often desirable additions when
collecting woody plants.
Proper identification of many plants depends on several
different characteristics; some roots, others seeds or mature
fruits, some flower color (which should be noted in the field
book).

Pressing Plant Specimens and favor ventillations
The objective of pressing plants is to extract moisture in
the shortest period of time,
while preserving the morphological integrity of the plant,
and to yield material that can be readily mounted on
herbarium paper for long-term storage.

Mounting botanical specimens
Use of the mounting paste on mounting sheet
Then give scientific names, date,label ,names of
expermanter
Habitat
Plant habit and locations etc

Question: what are the
major plant uses in the
biodiversity(ecological
aspects)
Answer : note page 58to60

MEDICINAL PLANTS
Suppose you are the current researcher on the medicinal
plant ,what are the aspects can lead you physically identified
the medicinal plants???
Normally the medicinal plant are differ from the other plant
by smelling,testing,appearance and texture
This specific characters is differ from one to another and is
caused by the secondary metabolite of the plants .
Growth form ,plant maturity and plant origin&location can
contribute to this issues

Primary metabolite vs secondary metabolite
are organic compounds produced in
the plant which
Have metabolic functions
essential for plant growth and
development
Are Produced in every plant
Include carbohydrates
amino acids
nucleotides
fatty acids
steroids and lipids
Secondary metabolites are organic
compounds produced which:
• Don’t have apparent functions in
plant growth and development
• Produced in different plant
families, in specific groups of plant
families , in specific tissues, cells
developmental stages throughout
plant development.
• Include terpenoids,
• special nitrogen metabolite
(including, non-protein amino acids,
amines, cyanogenic glycosides,
glucosinolates, and alkaloids), and
phenolics and so on

Some African medicinal plant on
market in the world . Notes last pages
the end . For more check the syllabus lecturer
notes
Prepared by MINANI Theobald
Pharmacy II
Accademic year 2016-17

BOTANY SCIENCE

More Related Content

What's hot (20)

Similar to BOTANY SCIENCE (20)

More from MINANI Theobald (19)

Recently uploaded (20)

BOTANY SCIENCE