C8 1 Communication Skills

Pathways to Higher Education Project
Center for Advancement of Postgraduate
Studies and Research in Engineering Sciences,
Faculty of Engineering - Cairo University
(CAPSCU)

Communication
Skills

Dr. Inas Mohamed Abou Youssef

Communication
Skills

by
Dr. Inas Mohamed Abou Youssef
Associate Professor,
Faculty of Mass Communication,
Cairo University

Cairo
2005

Communication Skills

First Published 2005

Published by Center for Advancement of Postgraduate Studies and Research
in Engineering Sciences, Faculty of Engineering - Cairo University (CAPSCU)
Tel: (+202) 5716620, (+202) 5678216
Fax: (+202) 5703620
Web-site: www.capscu.com
E-mail: capscu@tedata.net.eg

Deposit No. 2373/2005

ISBN 977-223-956-6

All Rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means; electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written
permission of the publisher.

Acknowledgment
On behalf of Pathways to Higher Education Management Team in Egypt, the Project
Coordinator wishes to extend his thanks and appreciation to the Ford Foundation (FF)
for its full support to reform higher education, postgraduate studies and research
activities in Egypt. The Management Team extend their special thanks and
appreciation to Dr. Bassma Kodmani, Senior Project Officer at the Ford Foundation
office in Cairo, who helped initiate this endeavor, and who spared no effort to support
the Egyptian overall reform activities, particularly research and quality assurance of
the higher education system. Her efforts were culminated by the endorsement to fund
our proposal to establish the Egyptian Pathways to Higher Education project by the
Ford Foundation Headquarters in New York.

The role of our main partner, the Future Generation Foundation (FGF), during the
initial phase of implementation of the Pathways to Higher Education Project is also
acknowledged. The elaborate system of training they used in offering their Basic
Business Skills Acquisition (BBSA) program was inspiring in developing the
advanced training program under Pathways umbrella. This partnership with an NGO
reflected a truly successful model of coordination between CAPSCU and FGF, and its
continuity is mandatory in support of our young graduates interested in pursuing
research activities and/or finding better job opportunities.

The contribution of our partner, The National Council for Women (NCW), is
appreciated. It is worth mentioning that the percentage of females graduated from
Pathways programs has exceeded 50%, which is in line with FF and NCW general
objectives. The second phase of the project will witness a much more forceful
contribution from the NCW, particularly when implementing the program on the
governorates level as proposed by CAPSCU in a second phase of the program.

We also appreciate the efforts and collaborative attitude of all colleagues from Cairo
University, particularly the Faculties of Commerce, Art, Mass Communication, Law,
Economics and Political Sciences, and Engineering who contributed to the success of
this project.

Finally, thanks and appreciation are also extended to every member of the Center for
Advancement of Postgraduate Studies and Research in Engineering Sciences
(CAPSCU), Steering Committee members, trainers, supervisors and lecturers who
were carefully selected to oversee the successful implementation of this project, as
well as to all those who are contributing towards the accomplishment of the project
objectives.

Pathways Steering Committee Members
SN Member Name Title Institution
1 Dr. Ahmed Aboulwafa Professor and Chief of the Department of CU
Mohamed Public International Law, Faculty of Law
and Ex-Vice Dean for Postgraduate
Studies, Faculty of Law
2 Dr. Ahmed Farghally Professor of Accounting and Dean of the CU
Faculty of Commerce
3 Dr. Ali Abdel Rahman President of Cairo University CU
4 Dr. Bassma Kodmani Senior Program Officer, Governance and FF
International Cooperation, Ford
Foundation, Cairo Office
5 Dr. Fouad Khalaf Ex-Project Manager, Project Consultant CU
and Local Coordinator of TEMPUS Risk
Project
6 Dr. Hoda Rashad Professor and Director of Social Research NCW
Center, American University in Cairo
(AUC)
7 Dr. Kamel Ali Omran Professor of Human Resources and CU
Organizational Behavior, Business
Administration and Ex-Vice Dean for
Postgraduate Studies, Faculty of
Commerce
8 Dr. Mahmoud Fahmy Professor of Social Science and Ex-Vice CU
El Kourdy Dean for Students Affairs, Faculty of Arts
9 Mr. Moataz El-Alfy Vice Chairman of Future Generation FGF
Foundation
10 Mr. Mohamed Farouk Secretary General and Board Member, FGF
Hafeez Future Generation Foundation
11 Dr. Mohamed K. Bedewy Dean of the Faculty of Engineering and CAPSCU
Chairman of CAPSCU Board
12 Dr. Mohamed M. Megahed Director of CAPSCU CAPSCU
13 Dr. Mohsen Elmahdy Said Project Coordinator CU
14 Dr. Salwa Shaarawy Gomaa Professor of Public Policy and Ex-Director NCW
of Public Administration Research & & CU
Consultation Center (PARC), Faculty of
Economics Political Sciences
15 Dr. Sami El Sherif Vice Dean for Students Affairs, Faculty of CU
Mass Communication
16 Dr. Sayed Kaseb Project Manager CU
17 Dr. Zeinab Mahmoud Selim Professor of Statistics and Ex-Vice Dean CU
for Students Affairs, Faculty of Economics
and Political Sciences
CU Cairo University NCW National Council for Women
FF Ford Foundation FGF Future Generation Foundation
CAPSCU Center for Advancement of Postgraduate Studies and Research in
Engineering Sciences, Faculty of Engineering - Cairo University

Publisher Introduction
The Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University is a pioneer in the field of learning and
continual education and training. The Center for Advancement of Postgraduate Studies
and Research in Engineering Sciences, Faculty of Engineering - Cairo University
(CAPSCU) is one of the pillars of the scientific research centers in the Faculty of
Engineering. CAPSCU was established in 1974 in cooperation with UNIDO and
UNESCO organizations of the United Nations. Since 1984, CAPSCU has been
operating as a self-financed independent business unit within the overall goals of Cairo
University strategy to render its services toward development of society and
environment.

CAPSCU provides consultation services for public and private sectors and
governmental organizations. The center offers consultation on contractual basis in all
engineering disciplines. The expertise of the Faculty professors who represent the pool
of consultants to CAPSCU, is supported by the laboratories, computational facilities,
library and internet services to assist in conducting technical studies, research and
development work, industrial research, continuous education, on-the-job training,
feasibility studies, assessment of technical and financial projects, etc.

Pathways to Higher Education (PHE) Project is an international grant that was
contracted between Cairo University and Ford Foundation (FF). During ten years, FF
plans to invest 280 million dollars to develop human resources in a number of
developing countries across the world. In Egypt, the project aims at enhancing
university graduates' skills. PHE project is managed by CAPSCU according to the
agreement signed in September 22nd, 2002 between Cairo University and Ford
Foundation, grant No. 1020 - 1920.

The partners of the project are Future Generation Foundation (FGF), National Council
for Women (NCW) and Faculties of Humanities and Social Sciences at Cairo
University. A steering committee that includes representatives of these organizations
has been formed. Its main tasks are to steer the project, develop project policies and
supervise the implementation process.

Following the steps of CAPSCU to spread science and knowledge in order to
participate in society development, this training material is published to enrich the
Egyptian libraries. The material composes of 20 subjects especially prepared and
developed for PHE programs.

Dr. Mohammad M. Megahed
CAPSCU Director
April 2005

Foreword by the Project Management
Pathways to Higher Education, Egypt (PHE) aims at training fresh university graduates in
order to enhance their research skills to upgrade their chances in winning national and
international postgraduate scholarships as well as obtaining better job.

Pathways steering committee defined the basic skills needed to bridge the gap between
capabilities of fresh university graduates and requirements of society and scientific research.
These skills are: mental, communication, personal and social, and managerial and team work,
in addition to complementary knowledge. Consequently, specialized professors were assigned
to prepare and deliver training material aiming at developing the previous skills through three
main training programs:
1. Enhancement of Research Skills
2. Training of Trainers
3. Development of Leadership Skills

The activities and training programs offered by the project are numerous. These activities
include:
1. Developing training courses to improve graduates' skills
2. Holding general lectures for PHE trainees and the stakeholders
3. Conducting graduation projects towards the training programs

Believing in the importance of spreading science and knowledge, Pathways management team
would like to introduce this edition of the training material. The material is thoroughly
developed to meet the needs of trainees. There have been previous versions for these course
materials; each version was evaluated by trainees, trainers and Project team. The development
process of both style and content of the material is continuing while more courses are being
prepared.

To further enhance the achievement of the project goals, it is planned to dedicate complete
copies of PHE scientific publications to all the libraries of the Egyptian universities and
project partners in order to participate in institutional capacity building. Moreover, the
training materials will be available online on the PHE website, www.Pathways-Egypt.com.

In the coming phases, the partners and project management team plan to widen project scope
to cover graduates of all Egyptian universities. It is also planned that underprivileged
distinguished senior undergraduates will be included in the targeted trainees in order to enable
their speedy participation in development of society.

Finally, we would like to thank the authors and colleagues who exerted enormous efforts and
continuous work to publish this book. Special credit goes to Prof. Fouad Khalaf for playing a
major role in the development phases and initiation of this project. We greatly appreciate the
efforts of all members of the steering committee of the project.

Dr. Sayed Kaseb Dr. Mohsen Elmahdy Said

Project Manager Project Coordinator

Table of Contents

Chapter 1: Communication Concepts and Process 1
1.1 Introductory Note 1
1.2 Definitions of Communication 2
1.3 Communication Components 2
1.4 Factors in the Definition 3
1.5 Communication Model 3
1.6 Basic Elements of Communication Model 5
1.7 Forms of Communication 12
1.8 Communication Context 17
1.9 Culture and Communication 19
1.10 Conclusion 20

Chapter 2: Persuasion and Effective Communication 21
2.2 Persuasion 21
2.3 Definition of Persuasion 21
2.4 Process of Persuasion 22
2.5 Definition of Attitude 25
2.6 Formation of Attitude 26
2.7 Functions of Attitudes 26
2.8 Measuring Attitudes 28
2.9 Persuasive Communication 29

Chapter 3: Communication Skills 33
3.2 Transmission Skills 35
3.3 Understanding the Audience 61
3.4 Feedback 65
3.5 Reception Skills 70

References 76

C8/1: Communication Skills Communication Concepts and Process

Chapter 1: Communication Concepts and Process
Introductory
Note
1.1 Introductory Note
This chapter presents the communication process. It describes
the basic elements of the communication process and defines
concepts. It also sheds light on forms of communication and basic
characteristics of each form.

Lastly, the chapter reviews the contents that communication
process is functioning within.

Our ability to communicate and the different forms our
communication takes are very often taken for granted. The
communication process is fundamental for human survival. It is
essential to the development of the individual, to the formation
and continued existence of groups and to the interrelations
among groups.

Communication is as old as human history; many indicators prove
that effective communication is the main factor enhancing
civilization through history. This is why communication is
considered multi-culture phenomena, Ancient–Greeks, Ancient–
Egyptians, Ancient–Chinese, Arabs, Europeans and Americans
have got their impact on communication.

On the other hand, the study of human communication is inter-
disciplinary. It began with the mathematically theory of
communication by Claude E. Shanon and Warren Weaver in
1949, scientists considered as strictly mathematical. Their aim was
to measure the amount of information, in the mess ages, that is
transmitted through the media on the telephone; however, as
years passed by, inter-disciplinary approaches to study human
communication came up. They rely on psychology, sociology,
speech communication, political, journalism, anthropology
management, education, marketing and philosophy. Thus, we can
say that every discipline concerned with human behavior must deal
with communication.

The question here is
What is communication?
There are many definitions of communication:

Pathways to Higher Education 1


Definition of
Communication
1.2 Definitions of Communication
Schramm defines communication as "a tool that makes societies
possible and distinguish human from other societies”.
Berelson and Steiner define communication as the transmission
of information, ideas, emotions, skills through the use of
symbols, words, pictures, figures, and graph.

Rogers says, “Communication is the process of transmitting
ideas, information, and attitudes from the source to a
receiver for the purpose of influencing with intent”.

Kar defines communication as "all those planned or unplanned
processes through which one person influences behavior of
others."

A more comprehensive suggested definition to define
communication would be: “a process of transmitting ideas,
information, attitudes (images which we have formulated for
ourselves) by the use of symbols, words, pictures, figures from
the source (who is the originator of the message) to a receiver, for
the purpose of influencing with intent”. So communication is
considered as a process through which senders and receivers of
messages interact in a given social context.

The concept of communication simply relies on four basic
components.

Communication 1.3 Communication Components
Components
As shown in Figure 1.1, we have a sender who produces a
message to receivers Depending on the previous definitions, we can
conclude that communication is a process used to timely and
properly exchange information between a sender and a
receiver to achieve a desired goal.

Message

Feedback

Sender Receiver

Figure 1.1: Communication component



Factors in the
Definition
1.4 Factors in the Definition
A) Process A) Process: It suggests that the components of interaction are
dynamic in nature. They can not be regarded as unchanging
elements in time and space. This simply means that no single
aspect of communication can be meaningfully understood apart
from the other elements, as shown in Figure 1.2.

Communication

Is a process used to timely and properly exchange
information to achieve a desired goal?

Figure 1.2: Definition of communication

B) Interaction B) Interaction: It is the process of linking between senders and
receivers of the message. The process specifies interaction or
linkages between or among countless factors, so that the changes
in any set of forces affect the operation of all other processes to
produce a total effect.

The concept of interaction is central to an understanding of the
concept of process in communication. Communication is an
attempt to bridge the gap between two individuals through
producing and receiving messages which have meaning for both.

C) Social C) Social Context: Human communication is, to a great extent,
Context
influenced by the social context in which it occurs. The context
or the situation that consists of a set of rules which govern the
origin, flow and effect of the messages.

Communication
Model 1.5 Communication Model
It describes what is necessary for an act of communication to
take place. A model represents the major features and eliminates
the unnecessary details of communication.



Functions of 1.5.1 Functions of Communication Models
Communication
Models
1. To clarify the scope of human interaction showing it to be
a circular, complex, continuous dynamic, or a coding
process.
2. To point out where to book and under what conditions to
analyze different responses.
3. To show the variables in human communication.
4. Used as a frame work in researches.
Communication
Model
1.5.2 Communication Model
Aristotle said that a researcher has to look for three communication
ingredients:
1. The person who speaks.
2. The speech that he produces.
3. The person who listens.

One of the most used
The contemporary models was developed in 1949 by Claude
Shannon, a mathematician and explained by the non-
mathematician, Warren Weaver.

Shannon and Weaver were not talking about human
communication but about electronic communication.

In fact, Shannon was working for the Bell telephone laboratory,
but his model was found useful in describing human communication.
Shannon–Weaver model is consistent with Aristotle’s position,
see Figure 1.3. If we translate the source into the speaker, the
signal into the speech and the destination into listener, we have the
Aristotelian model, plus two added ingredients: a transmitter which
sends out the source’s message and a receiver, which catches the
message from destination. However, if we choose to draw a
diagram of human communication, we must remember that the
process itself is more complicated than a picture or description of it,
which are likely to draw. Most of the communication process is in
the black box of our central nervous system, the content which we
understand vaguely.

Most of our current communication models are similar to
Aristotle’s, though some what more complex. They differ partly in
terminology and partly in differences in the point of view of the
disciplines out of which they emerged.



Source

Encoder

Message

Decoder
Feed Back

Destination

Figure 1.3: Shannon – Weaver model

Basic Elements 1.6 Basic Elements of Communication Model
of
Communication Researchers call our attention to several elements in the
Models
communication process: source, message, channel, receiver,
effect, feedback and more. The communication process remains
basically the same for interpersonal and mass communication.
The psychology of communication is basically the same in both, see
Figure 1.4.



Face to Face
Medio Media
Source Message Channel Receiver Effect

Noise

Effect Receiver Channel Message Source

Feed back
Device

Figure 1.4: Elements of communication model

Source/ 1.6.1 Source/Encoder
Encoder
We can say that all human communication has some source,
some person or group of persons with a purpose for communicating.
The source has ideas, needs, intentions, information and a
purpose for communication, which he translated into a code, a
language. This is performed by the encoder who is responsible for
taking the ideas of the source and putting them in a code,
expressing the source’s purpose in a form of a message. As
source encoder, our communication skill levels determine on
communication fidelity in two ways:
1- They affect our ability to analyze our purpose and
intentions, our ability to say some thing when we
communicate.
2- They affect our ability to encode messages which
express what we intend.
3- There are at least four kinds of factors within the source,
which can increase the fidelity in communication. These
are:
1- Communication skills.
2- Attitude.
3- Knowledge level.
4- Socio-cultural system.



Receiver/ 1.6.2 Receiver/Decoder
Decoder
The receiver is the most important link in the communication
process. If the source does not reach the receiver with his
message, he might as well have talked to himself. The receiver is
the target of communication that we want to have the positive
response.

Both the source and the receiver can be analyzed in terms of four
factors: their communication skills, attitudes, knowledge levels,
cultural contexts and social systems. The receiver always has to
be kept in mind when the source makes decisions concerning
different communication variables.

The relationship between the source and the receiver may include:

- Stimulus - Response
- Sender - Receiver
- Encoder - Decoder
- Source - Destination
- Actor - Audience
- Communicator - Communicate

The left column represents the part of guiding the act of
communication. The right–column represents those participants
who by their receiving the message allow the communicative act
to be completed and thus have an effect.

Messages
1.6.3 Messages
The message is the translation of ideas proposes and intentions into
a code and a systematic set of symbols. Berlo says that there are
three factors that should be taken into account considering the
message:
A. Message code: which has to do with the way in which
symbols are structured?
B. Content: the selection of material to express the
purpose.
C. Treatment: the way in which the message is presented,
that is frequency and emphasis.

Another factor is the filter or frame of reference through which the
audience receives the message which includes meanings that may
enhance or cripple the effect.

Meanings are references (ideas, images and thoughts) expressed
in symbols. For communication to occur at all, the source and
receiver must have at least some minimum degree of prior
experience, some level of similarity and some level of shared
meanings at the other extreme, no two individuals have exactly the



same experience. Hence, the symbols in the message have
somewhat different meanings for the source and the receiver.

Furthermore, the individual experience is continuous, so does
his meaning related to some symbol which will change over time.
Many failures in communication are due to mistaken
assumptions by source, or receiver, about the correspondence of
the meaning of the symbol they exchange.
The source and receiver have to have a minimum degree of
common experience, and a common frame of reference. This
fact led Berlo to state: “Meanings are in people not in
messages”.

Frame of 1.6.4 Frame of Reference
Reference
It is the degree by which the sender and receiver overlap in
various frames of communication. The communicator, who is
addressing different personalities at the same time, cannot adjust an
appeal to meet their individual reaction. An approach that
convinces one part of the audience may not agree with another
part. The successful communicator is one who finds the right
method of expression to establish empathy, with the largest number
of individuals in the audience. The receiver filters the message in
terms of frame of reference.

Each person has stored experience, consisting of beliefs and values
related to himself and to his group. A message that challenges
these beliefs or values may be rejected, distorted or misinterpreted.

In case where beliefs are firmly fixed, the communicator finds it is
often more effective to try to redirect existing attitudes slightly than
to attack them, as shown in Figure 1.5.

Source Encoder Signal Decoder Destination

Figure 1.5: Frame of reference

Dimension of 1.6.5 Dimensions of the Message
Message
1) Elements: The ideas that is included in the message.
2) Structure: The organization of the message.
3) Production: Which means the length and placement of
the message?



Characteristics 1.6.6 Characteristics of the Message
of the Message

a) The Amount of Communication
It includes the total volume of information as well as content
covered. Too little information may not answer all questions to the
receiver and result in a rejection of the message. Too much
information may not be efficiently integrated and may confuse the
receiver. In general, people tend to forget details of communication;
this is why sender needs to level the message and needs
sharpening which emphasizes a limited number of details.

b) The Frequency of Communication
Repeated exposure to varied communication messages
reinforces the tendency of act in those receivers. Repetition
may irritate the audience but varying the content of the message
serves the purpose of reminding the receiver of the general ideas
that are being discussed.

Communication
1.6.7 Communication Channel
Channel
It is the medium utilized to convey a message; it is the means by
which a message travels between the communications senders to
the communication receiver.

Channel 1.6.8 Channel Dimension
Dimension
These dimensions permit the investigator to evaluate the
effectiveness of different communication channels these dimensions
include:
1. Channel
Credibility 1. Channel Credibility: It is the expertness and trustworthiness
of a channel as perceived by the receivers. Channel credibility is
directly linked to communicator and audience characteristics
however print media are perceived by member of upper socio–
economic grouping as being more credible, while television is
perceived as more credible by lower socio-economic groupings.

2. Channel 2. Channel Feedback: It is known as the opportunity a channel
Feedback provides for the receiver to respond immediately and to affect the
source of the message in communication process. Face-to-face
communication tends to facilitate feedback, while mass
communication tends to restrict it.

3. Channel 3. Channel Involvement (or participation): It is the effort required
involvement by all senses in order to receive information from a communication
channel, face-to-face communication offers the greatest possibility
for involvement where print media offer the least possibility for
involvement.



4. Channel 4. Channel Availability: The frequency and extent to which a
Availability channel may be used to reach a given audience. In some
geographic areas, some channels may not be available such as
television in mountained areas or print media in highly illiterate
areas.

5. Channel Permanency (or ability to preserve a message): The
5. Channel
Permanency ability of a communication channel over time to carry the message.
Print media have this dimension but contrast radio does not.

6. Channel Multiplicative Power: The channel ability to cover
6. Channel areas with speed and timeliness. The mass media can multiply a
Multiplicative
Power message and make it available to large numbers of people while
face-to-face communication is low in this dimension.

7. Channel Complementary: The channel ability to supplement the
7. Channel communicative work of another channel. Both mass media and
Complementary
interpersonal channels have proven to be high on this dimension.

Effects 1.6.9 Effects
Communication effects represent the changes in the receiver
behavior that occur as a result of transmission of the message. So,
when we speak of “Effective Communication,” we mean
communication that result in changes of receiver’s behavior that
were intended by the source.

There are few propositions about communication effects, these are
as follows:
1- There are many levels of effect: attention to inner
confirmation to inner change to, overt action.
2- Much of the effect and its mechanism is hidden in our
cognitive structure. It can be recognized from visible
behavior or physical manifestations.
3- Complex behavior usually has complex causes. The
effects are the goals of all communication processes.

Feedback 1.6.10 Feedback
Feedback is an idea derived from engineering communication
theory. It means a return flow from the message. In human
communication, a speaker hears his words at the same time, or
approximately at the same, that the other party hears them. He can
then judge for himself how well he has spoken.

Therefore, feedback is a response by the receiver to the source’s
message, which the source may use to modify his further message.
From that perspective, feedback may be thought of as message
conveying “knowledge of communication effectiveness.



Tow kinds There are two kinds of feedback:
1- Positive Feedback: Confirms the source that the intended
effect of the message was achieved. Positive feedback tells the
source that every thing is going in the desired way.
2- Negative Feedback: informs the source that the intended effect
of the message was not achieved, as shown in Figure 1.6.

Source Feedback Receiver

Message

Figure 1.6: Feedback

1.6.11 Communication Noise
Communication
Noise Communication channels are subject to noise. Noise can be
identified as the loss of meaning during the transmission.

There are two major types of noise:

1. Channel Noise: This type of noise includes any disturbance,
1. Channel
which interferes with the physical transmission of the message. In
Noise mass communication channel noise includes static on the radio, ink
in the newspaper, a rolling screen in television, or type too small to
read in a magazine. In interpersonal communication, some one
speaking in a room over another conversation, a door shutting etc.

2. Semantic Noise: This type of noise results in the wrong
2. Semantic interpretation of messages, even though the message is received
Noise exactly as it was sent such as words too difficult, subject too difficult
for receiver to understand also differences of selected meaning of
O
words between the message sender and a receiver, for example
receiver thinking that the words prints to something different than
that is intended by the sender. One word may have many
different interpretations, see Figure 1.7.



Office
Equipment

Figure 1.7: Semantic noise

Forms of 1.7 Forms of Communication
Communication
There are various classifications of forms of communication.
Basically we can distinguish between two main forms of
communication.

1. Verbal 1. Verbal communication: which includes:
Communication a) Oral communication such as talking to oneself, dialogue,
discussion between two people, telephone calls.
b) Visual communication such as maps, graphic, traffic
signals, advertisement …etc.
c) Written communication such as memos, letters reports,
papers.
d) Electronic which is communication facilitated by an
interface with a computer, modem, telephone fax, E-mail
…etc, as shown in Figure 1.8.

Oral communication Visual communication

Written communication Electronic communication

Figure 1.8: Forms of Verbal Communication



2. Non-verbal 2. Non-verbal communication: Such as body movement facial
Communication expression and voice etc.

Depending upon these basic forms of communication, many
researchers agreed to classify forms of communication as:

1. Intrapersonal Communication: It is a communication
1. Intrapersonal
Communication transaction that takes place within the individual, this is the silent
talking all of us do to ourselves such as thinking, remembering,
dreaming and deciding. Intrapersonal communication is made
possible because man become object to himself. That is he both
produces and receives to same message. This type of
communication fills more time in our experience because in every
communication are always subject to our own private interpretation.

2. Interpersonal 2. Interpersonal Communication: It is the process of face-to-face
Communication interaction between sender and receiver such as group
meetings, interviews, conversations among individuals. It has the
advantage of a two-way communication with immediate feedback.

Characteristics of interpersonal communication:
1- There is a perceptual engagement on the part of two or
more people in physical proximity.
2- Perceptual engagement allows focused interaction
between a single focus of cognitive and visual attention
as in a conversation. In focused interaction, each participant
supplies cues supplies by other participant.
3- In this focused interaction, there will be an exchange of
messages. In this exchange, the participants represent to
each other cues they think the other will interpret as
intended.
4- The interaction is face to face, therefore all senses may be
utilized and participants confront each other totally.
5- The interpersonal setting is unstructured; few rules govern
form or content of interpersonal messages.

Interpersonal communication is very effective in influencing
attitudes and behavior. Hazarded focused in its characteristics in
that field:

1- Personal contacts are casual, difficult to avoid.
2- People are likely to put their trust in the judgment and
view point of persons whom they know, like and respect.
3- Personal communication influence people through what is
said and by personal control in which the source is as
important as the content itself.
4- There is a great flexibility in the content of interpersonal
communication. If the communication meets resistance
from the receivers, he can change the line to meet their
reaction.



5- In face-to-face communication a person can ask questions,
help direct the communication and make some control over it.
6- In face-to-face situation, there is a chance for quick
exchange of information. Two-way communication that
gives a chance for immediate feedback to evaluate the effect
of the signs one puts out, to correct to explain and to answer
objections.
7- In face-to-face communication it is possible to stimulate all
the senses. It is also possible to communicate more for
complete information.
8- In face-to-face communication high percentage of the
available information is non-verbal. The silent language of
culture, gesture, body movement constitutes a large part of
interpersonal communication.

Medio 1.7.1 Medio Communication
Communication

It is the area of communication which interfaces between
interpersonal communication and mass communication. It is an
intermediate level of communication. Medio is derived from Latin,
meaning middle.

Medio communication is distinguished by the presence of
technical instrument used under restricted conditions.

Medio communication is similar to mass communication in the
following:
1. Participants in media can be heterogeneous.
2. Participant also can be in different physical locations.
3. The presence of a technical channel.

Medio communication is similar to interpersonal communication in:
1. Source and receiver are known to each other.
2. The message is private more than public.
3. Message receivers are small in number.
4. The interaction pattern is to a fair degree, unstructured.

Medio communication includes point-to-point tele-
communication, surveillance telecommunication, closed circuit
television and home movies.

Tele- 1.7.2 Telecommunication:
communication
It is a special type of communication that uses electromagnetic
devices to cover distance. It has similar audience characteristics
with interpersonal communication. Point-to-point communication
includes telephone, teletype, telegraph, mobile, radio, air-to-
ground radio.



Surveillance 1.7.3 Surveillance Telecommunication
Tele-
communication
It is used for “scanning the horizon” for danger signals.
Surveillance telecommunication includes radar, atmospheric
pollution monitoring, weather satellite and other such
telecommunication systems.

Mass 1.7.4 Mass Communication:
Communication
It is the process through which communication is directed
simultaneously (immediately) to a large, heterogeneous
(different) and anonymous (unknown) audience on a massive
scale.

Messages are transmitted publicly and are transient in nature. The
communicator works in a complex organization.

The mass media includes the following:
A. Print media: news papers magazines, books etc.
B. Electronic media: radio programs, audio recordings, T.V.
programs.

The mass media advent required two developments:
1- A relatively advent technology to produce the necessary
instruments.
2- An accompanying level of literacy among large numbers
of people to utilize the disseminated information.

The mass media may also be compared on the following
dimensions:

1- The medium fidelity (objectivity) in presenting the following
dimensions of an original event:
A. Verbal symbols.
B. Picture symbols.
C. Color.
D. Sound.
E. Emotions.
2- The medium’s delivery speed, the length of time between an
event and when the medium is able to inform people about it.
3- The medium’s portability, the ease with which the medium can
be moved about the environment, both to cover news stories
and to reach its audience.
4- The extensiveness of the medium's coverage of the
environment, the extent of information of interest the media
transmits to its receivers.
5- The medium’s access to feedback.
6- The possibility of having a message repeated to satisfy
receivers needs.



Non Verbal 1.7.5 Non Verbal Communication:
Communication

It is a fundamental human interaction where speech alone is unable
to deal with it. It is communication that can occur without words
at all.

The sender has at least four main sets of physical non – verbal
cues: face, eyes, body, and voice.
a) The face includes frowning, smiling and grimacing.
b) The eyes can signal by direction of gaze.
c) The body offers posture positions of arms and legs
and distancing.
d) Voice includes tone and speech rhythm.

The receiver has five primary senses: vision, hearing, touch,
taste and smell. There are five functional categories of non-
verbal communication:
a) Emblems movements that are substituted for words.
b) Illustrators movements that accompany speech and accent.
c) Regulators movements that maintain or signal a change in
speaking and listening roles.
d) Adaptors movements related to individual need or emotional
state.
e) Effect particularly the facial expressions showing emotions.

Kinds of Non 1.7.6 Kinds of Non-Verbal Language:
Verbal
Language 1. Language of facial expression: In general a smile, a scowl or
a frown has a universal meaning. A frown may be dislike, or
disapproval, or puzzlement. A smile may be love, happiness,
amusement, or kindness.
2. Language of eye contact: There are a number of messages
communicated by glances such as: involvement, hostility,
command and others.
3. Language of posture: The more the person leans towards the
individual he is talking to, the more positively he feels about the
person and vice versa.
4. Language of voice: Voice variations may convey anger, fear,
grief … etc.
5. Language of apparel: The way we dress communicates
something about us all of us wear uniforms such as work clothes,
play clothes, formal dress, .. etc. Our dress reflects our respect for
those whom we visit, or go out with. Also it is assumed that young
people who wear glasses tend to be judged as more seniors and
intelligent.
6. Language of color: Warm colors – such as yellow, orange, and
red – stimulate creativity and make people feel outgoing, and
responsive to others. Cool colors encourage meditation and also
may discourage conversation.



7. Language of odor: Odors have a profound ability to recall
memories out of one’s past. Food smells remind one of his mother’s
cooking, flowers of springtime … etc.
8. Language of time: People and culture have a unique culture
clock. In Egypt you can be for half an hour late for a party, or
business appointment. On the other hand, in Europe you can’t be
late for neither of them.
9. Language of space: Every individual seems to develop a
distance at which he prefers to interact with others Latin Americans
like to talk with each other closely while North Americans maintain a
considerable distance.

Organization 1.7.7 Organizational Communication:
Communication
It is a form of interpersonal communication that takes place
within definite boundaries. It is concerned with the achievement
of the goals of that organization. It has the characteristics of inter
personal. Each member of the organization is obliged to
communicate in certain ways.

Different organizations share similar characteristics:
1- They all have members interacting with each other occupying
various social positions and playing social roles.
2- Norms of appropriate behavior members with standards of
appropriate methods of communication some patterns are
rewarded and reinforced others are disapproved.
3- Communication through organizations becomes predicted
because of the direction, frequency form and content of
messages exchanges.
4- Organizational communication act remains dyadic or a two-
person interaction. The messages exchanged are transmitted
from one person to another then from that person to another
and so on.
5- Major transmission in organizational communication is oral, yet
it also include print in form of memos and cards.
6- The official routes of organizational communication are formal
channels of communication. It is concerned with the
dissemination of information to the members of the group.

Communication 1.8 Communication Context
Context
Communication transactions always occur within, and are
constrained by, several critical contexts. By contexts, we mean
the environments where communication takes place, including
the there are four critical communication contexts, other
communicators involve in the transaction.



Cultural Context 1.8.1 The Cultural Context
Cultural influences are an inherent aspect of all communicative
transactions. The term “Culture” refers to the sum of language,
values, beliefs, habits, and practices shared by a large group of
people. These characteristics comprise the cultural context of
communication. Understanding the cultural context contributes
greatly to effective environmental management, for without some
appreciation of the cultural milieu, communication is doomed to
failure.

Sociological
1.8.2 The Sociological Context
Context
Just as every one belongs to a culture, each person also belongs
to many groups within the culture. The sociological context of
communication refers to the sum of the individual’s group
memberships as well as the roles as societal with those
memberships.

Physical 1.8.3 The Physical Context
Context
Does the communication transaction occur over coffee during a
hurried 15 minute break? Or, does it occur over a leisurely dinner at
one of the town’s nicest restaurants? Depending on the specific
location where the communication occurs, there will be varying
degrees of competing stimuli as well as varying degrees of
“openness” on the part of the communication participants.
Within the general location of the communication transaction,
studies have indicated that specific arrangement of seating affects
the communication process. In large group meetings, rows of seats
facing a single speaker will create a very different context than
concentric circle seat with a speaker standing in the center of the
circle.

The total number of receivers involved in the communication
transaction must be considered. In general, interaction both
verbally and nonverbally decreases as the number of receivers'
increases.

Does the communication occur in the morning, in the
afternoon, or in the evening? If the communication occurs too
early in the morning, receivers may not be as alert as they will
be later in the day, on the other hand, communication very late in
the day may be influenced by listeners who are simply too
exhausted to accurately receive and understand the message.

In reality, it is difficult to separate the physical from the
psychological context, for they operate interdependently.



For example, the numbers of receivers influence the
psychological as well as the physical communication context.
If only fifteen people attend a meeting for which over a hundred
were anticipated, interaction between speaker and audience may
increase, but the effectiveness of that interaction may be negated by
the psychological impact of the low attendance. On the other hand,
if many more people attend a meeting than were anticipated, a
feeling of excitement and satisfaction about the excellent response
may enable communicators to more than compensate for problems
created by the physically crowded conditions.

Culture and 1.9 Culture and Communication
Communication
Culture is the way people think, act, live and communicate. On
other hand, culture is communication; the two are very much bound
together. A culture develops as the result of interpersonal
communication – the communication between people that we are
concerned with. At the same time, the form, the nature, the make
up of the culture results from the interaction of the people and the
place and time in which they live. The “interaction of people” is just
another way of saying “communication”. Living together, working
together, relating to one another is communication, we are always
communicating – or attempting to communicate.

Perhaps the simplest way to explain culture and its relationship to
communication is to say that people are different: we live, work in
different societies, environment and climates, and we adapt to these
in different ways.

As a result of living in different societies, environments, and
climates, people develop special needs, acquire habits and
customs peculiar to themselves, and have experience which, in
general result in particular patterns and methods and forms of
expression and relating with one another. Many examples of this
could be given.

People in a warm, tropical climate, for example, live quite
differently from people in a northern urban area. They live in a
much more relaxed style from what we are accustomed to – life is
much simpler.

We need to know about people and their background if we are to
understand their communication. It is important for you to remember
that people in different cultures and countries do not do things as we
do them in our country, for example. Before you do business with
foreigners, you should check carefully on local customs,
cultures, and communication.



Remember that people do things differently remember, too, that
people communicate in term of their own experiences. Do not be
offended and communicate offensively when something out of the
ordinary happens. The situation may appear unusual to your frame
of reference because it is not within the range of your experience;
the situation may be perfectly “normal” to everyone else.

Our communication is surrounded by barriers of human behavior
and language, our communication attempts also are complicated by
cultural barriers.

Many cultural differences take the form of nonverbal
communication. If a person frowns while listening to your speak, it
may indicate doubt or disagreement; on the other hand, the person
may have a headache or the light may be bothersome. It is
important for you to remain alert to nonverbal signals, but it is also
essential that you understand them accurately.

Conclusion 1.10 Conclusion
In this chapter we focused on communication as human
phenomena. We proposed definitions, forms, contexts in with
communication process function. According, to all above topic one
can recognize the comprehensive communication model as shown
in Figure 1.9.

Receivers
Transmitters Feed Back

Sender Signal Destination
(Verbal & Nonverbal)
Past Past
experiences Media experiences
Knowledge, Knowledge,
Feelings, Feelings,
Attitude, Attitude,
Etc. Etc.

Noise Sources
Message (Internal and Message
External)
Environment Culture
Figure 1.9: Communication Model:


C8/1: Communication Skills Persuasion and Effective Communication

Chapter 2: Persuasion and Effective Communication
Introductory
Note
We live in a world of persuasion. It is useless nowadays getting
people to do what we want them to. Various tactics are being used
by persuaders to change the attitudes of receivers. Seeing what
works, in what circumstances, with what kinds of people, will be useful
as you prepare to become a persuader.

This part will include:
1- Definition of persuasion.
2- Process of persuasion.
3- Attitudes, its formation, and the component approach to the
study of attitude change which makes use of the
communication model.
4- The persuasive communication model. Achieve
desired action

Persuasion 2.2 Persuasion
The act of persuasion is as old as man. In Ancient Greece,
persuasion was the main means of achieving power and winning in
the courts.

Aristotle was the first to study persuasion in depth. He linked
communication with persuasion. He identified communication as
all available means to reach persuasion. Aristotle focused on three
ways to reach persuasion:

1- The use of evidence in rational discussion.
2- The use of personal characteristics.
3- The use of emotions.

Definition of 2.3 Definition of Persuasion
Persuasion
There are many definitions of persuasion. Some emphasized on
internal motive of the audience more than using logic. Birembeck
and Howell said “Persuasion is the conscious attempt to modify
thought and action by manipulating the motives of men towards
predetermined ends”.

Fotheringham affirmed “Persuasion is that body of effects in
receivers that has been caused by persuader’s message".



Scheidel began more nearer to the type of persuasion we are familiar
to, he defined persuasion as: "The activity in which the speaker and
the listener are conjoined and in which the speaker consciously
attempts to influence the behavior of the listener by transmitting
audible and visible symbolic."

Central to this definition is the notions of conscious internet, message
transmission and behavioral change.

It also includes sender and receiver which make the components
of definition resembling the components of communication.

Persuasion, from this point of view, depends upon two main aspects:
1- Communication.
2- Intending planning of persuader to affect audience.

Depending on previous clarification, we can define persuasion as:
“The intended use of communication to form a desired response
from receivers to their social environment”.

Elements of 2.3.1 Elements of Persuasion
Persuasion

We can underline five elements of persuasion:
1- The invention or discovery of evidence and argument, and
their
2- Organization,
3- Artistic stylizing,
4- Memorization, and
5- Skillful delivery.

Process of 2.4 Process of Persuasion
Persuasion

Models
2.4.1 Models of The Persuasive Process
The foregoing theories of the way in which communication content
influences individual conduct, have led numerous attempts to
capitalize on these conceptualizations for the purpose of
deliberately manipulating human behavior by communicated
messages.

In attempting to describe the nature of these formulations, two things
will be made clear:
1- These models of the persuasive process are the extension
and utilization of the contemporary theories of
communication.
2- These models are roughly formulated. There are a number
of other models of the persuasion process that could be
formulated instead.



The first of these two conceptualizations is called the
psychodynamic model of the persuasion process. The essence of
the idea is that an effective persuasive message is said to be one
which has properties capable of altering the psychological
functioning of the individual in such a way, that he will respond
overly with modes of behavior, recommended by the communicator. It
has been assumed that effective persuasion is the change of the
internal psychological structure of the individual, so that the
psychodynamic relationship between the latent internal process and
manifest overt behavior, will lead to acts, intended by the source of
the communication.

Extensive use has been made of persuasive messages aimed at
individual attitudes, under the assumption that there is a close
relationship between a person’s attitudinal structure and his behavior
in social situations, see Figure 2.1.

In simple graphic terms, the psychodynamic model of the
persuasive process would be as follow :

Persuasive
message

Figure 2.1: Psychodynamic Model

The psychodynamic model rests upon an extensive theoretical as
well as an empirical base. Important theories of motivation,
perception, learning and even psychoanalysis have suggested ways
in which, attitudes, fears, self-conceptions, reinforcement, and many
other variables, are related to persuasion.

The psychodynamic model of the persuasion process are attempts
to use the theory for practical purposes, this mode has by no
means been the only one, that has been tried. A somewhat more
complicated alternative stems from a combination of the social
relationship perspective and the cultural norm theory. For the lack of
a better term, we will refer to this as the sociocultural model of the
persuasion process.

Social and cultural variables have been widely recognized by
communication researchers and other social scientists, as
playing an important part in determining the way, in which people
adopt new ideas and things. However, sociocultural variables have
been used as a basis for appeals in persuasive communication.
The sociocultural variables from which the individual derives
interpretation of reality as well as being significant forms of social
control are important sources determining the direction of the
individual’s attitude.



Asch & Sheriff show how the influence of norms plays a powerful
role in guiding, defining and modifying the behavior of the individual,
somewhat independently of the state of his internal predisposition.
Sociological studies have supported this generalization. The work of
Lohman and Reilzes, Merton, Kit, Mead, De Fleur and Westic,
Minared and Newcomb, indicate the way in which such variable as
organizational membership, work roles, reference groups, cultural
norms, and primary group norms can play a part in channeling overt
action, in ways that are, to some extent uninfluenced by internal
psychological predispositions. It must be recognized, however, that
the behavioral patterns of the individual can not be interpreted on the
basis of psychological predispositions. It must be recognized,
however, that the behavioral patterns of the individual can not be
interpreted on the basis of psychological factors only, especially when
the individual is acting within special social setting. Reference must
be made to the variables that surround the action, in order to predict,
explain and manipulate such a behavior effectively.

The sociocultural factors existing in an individual setting are
important determiners of the direction the individual’s behavior
that will take. This behavior can be contrary to that intended since he
may find certain social and cultural constraints, which will make him
compelled to conform under condition. This situation would cause the
individual a social and psychological conflict in following the behavior
prescribed by the communicator. Represented schematically, such a
model of the persuasive process is Figure 2.2.

Defines Changing Achieves
Persuasive Sociocultural social changes in
Message process behavior behavior

Figure 2.2: Sociocultural Model

These two concepts suggest that the persuasive messages
presented via the mass media may provide the appearance of
consensus with respect to a given object, or goal of persuasion.

The communicator can also show how the non-adopter is a deviant
and a non-conformist. He may also show simultaneously, the way in
which social rewards, group integration, and social approval, are
bestowed upon the individual for obeying the communicator’s goal.

There are undoubtedly numerous ways in which persuasion
process could be conceptualized. The psychodynamic and the
sociocultural strategies, however, seem to be rather clear links to
the attitudes and their formation.



Definition of
Attitude
2.5 Definition of Attitude
The concept of “attitude” has been variously defined by social
scientists so that there has been a good deal of ambiguity regarding
the concept. But, perhaps, the most acceptable is that of Rokeach:
“An attitude is a relatively enduring
organization of beliefs around an object or
situation predisposing one to respond in some
preferential manner."

This definition of attitude specifies at least five factors or meets five
conditions:
1. An attitude is 1. An attitude is relatively enduring over time: The concept of
relatively attitude is reserved for enduring persistent organizations of
enduring over
predispositions round a central belief. Attitudes are formed by past
time
experiences and are learned responses to particular objects, things or
processes.

2. An attitude is 2. An Attitude is an organization of beliefs: It represents a cluster
an organization
or syndrome of two or more interrelated beliefs. A belief is any simple
of beliefs
proposition, conscious or unconscious inferred from what a person
says or does. Each belief has three components: a cognitive
component (person’s knowledge), an affective, component (capable
of, leads to some action when suitably activated).
3. An attitude is
organized 3. An attitude is organized bound an object or a situation: An
bound an attitude object may be concrete or abstract while an attitude situation
object or a is a dynamic event around which a person organizes a set of
situation interrelated beliefs about how to behave.

4. An attitude is 4. An attitude is a set of interrelated predisposition to respond: A
a set of response may be either a verbal expression or a non-verbal behavior,
interrelated an attitude is an “agenda for action” that is, it specifies the response a
predisposition person will make to a given object within a given situation.
to respond
5. An attitude leads to a preferential response: An attitude
5. An attitude predisposes one to respond in a preferential manner to individuals or
to a groups who agree with or oppose us with respect to that particular
preferential attitude.
response
Many persons tend to use the terms attitude and opinion
interchangeably as if there were no distinction between them.
Opinion is the overt expression (verbal or non-verbal) of an attitude
which is only internal to the individual. Thus when we measure
opinions, we only infer that they refer to an internal attitude of the
individual.



Formation of
Attitude
2.6 Formation of Attitude
One of the most important matters to be discussed is how attitudes
are formed. More than ever before it is now necessary to know why
people hold the views they do. In other words, how their attitudes
have been formed? First, let us consider how attitudes arise and
where do their origins lie. One can trace three sources:
1- In the child rearing experience of the first five or six years
of life from the parent-child relationship.
2- By association between individuals or the formal and
informal groups met with in later life.
3- From unique and isolated experiences or similar
experiences repeated throughout life.

But those three sources must be considered within the framework
of society and its culture or way of life to which the individual
belongs. In the earlier years a parent tries to plant this culture into the
child and this process is known as mediated social-cultural influence.
Later on, the process becomes self-incubated and this is known as
direct social-cultural influence.

Functions of 2.7 Functions of Attitudes
Attitudes
This is a point that has been subject to a great deal of arguments, and
consequently contradictions. One of the main questions asked is this
“does an attitude possess drive-producing properties or do
motives come from sources other than the attitude itself?" To
answer this question one must develop a more comprehensive
formulation of the functions of an attitude. A certain line of thinkers,
Lasswell, Formm, Maslow and others believe that attitudes serve
mainly irrational, ego-defensive functions. Another group of
thinkers, students of culture and sociology went further to say that
attitudes have an adjustive function, meaning by this the adjustment
of primitive and modern man to their specific cultures and subcultures.
This gives attitudes positive functions which were formulated by Katz
as follows:
1. Instrumental 1- The instrumental adjustive function involves such values as
adjustive security, achievement, competence, success and loyalty in
function
group. It is served when people strive to maximize the
rewards and to minimize the penalties of their external
environment.
2. Ego- 2- The ego-defensive function: in which a person protects
defensive
function himself from acknowledging the basic truth about himself or
the harsh realities in his external world. It may be reflected in
positive values as, honor, chivalry, racial purity or the
extensive condemnation of such negative values as lust,
intemperance.



3. Value 3- The value expressive function: in which the individual
expressive derives satisfactions from expressing attitudes appropriate to
function
his personal values and his concept of himself. This function is
central to doctrines of ego psychology which stress the
importance of self-expression, self-development and self-
realization.

4. Knowledge 4- The knowledge function: based upon the individual’s need to
function give adequate structure to his universe. It refers to a person’s
central values concerning truth, understanding and the search
of meaning, also serving self-expression, self-development
and self-realization.

Determinant of 2.7.1 Determinants of Attitude Formation,
Attitude
Formation, Arousal and Change in Relation to Type of
Arousal and Function
Change in
Relation to
Type of Function Origin and Arousal Change conditions
Function dynamics conditions
Adjustment Utility of 1- Activation of 1- Need deprivation.
attitudinal object needs. 2- Creation of new
in need 2- Salience of needs of aspiration.
satisfaction need 3- Shifting rewards
maximizing satisfaction. and punishments.
external rewards 4- Emphasis on new
and minimizing and better paths to
punishments need satisfaction.
Ego Protecting 1- Posing of 1- Removal of
defense against internal threats. threats.
conflicts and 2- Appeals to 2- Catharsis.
external dangers hatred and 3- Development of
repressed self-insight.
impulses.
3- Rise in
frustration.
4- Use of
authoritarian
suggestion.
Value Maintaining self- 1- Salience of 1- Some degree of
expression identity- cues associated dissatisfaction with
enhancing with values. self.
favorable self- 2- Appeals to 2- Greater
expression and individuals to appropriateness of
self- reassert self- new attitude for
determination. image the self.
3- Control of all
environmental
support to
undermine old
values.



Knowledge Need for under- 1- Reinstatement 1- Ambiguity created
standing of cues by knowledge of
meaningful associated with change in
cognitive old problem or of environment.
organization and old problem 2- More meaningful
consistency and itself. information about
clarity problems

Measuring 2.8 Measuring Attitudes
Attitude
Attitude measurement is a process whereby one assesses an
individual’s response to a set of social objects of situations. This
is done by observing a sample of behavior from an attitude universe.
Each behavioral element in the attitude universe in the response to a
particular situation or object that evokes the response together with a
specified set of response categories is called an item. The set of
behavior comprising an attitude is called an attitude universe. There
are several methods available for measuring attitudes among them.
1. Judgment 1. Judgment methods: There are two major aspects of this method.
methods
Firstly, each item is scaled to give its degree of favorableness
towards the issue. Secondly, the respondents must be scored on the
basis of their responses to the items.

2. Method of 2. The method of summated ratings: Techniques similar to
summated techniques used in the mental-testing field. In this method, five
ratings categories of responses are provided for each item: strongly
disapprove, with scores 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, respectively. An individual’s
scale score is the sum of his scores on the items.

3. Scalogram 3. Scalogram analysis: In 1944 Guttmann proposed a nonmetric
analysis method for scaling monotone attitude items. In a Guttmann
scale, the items have a special cumulative property. For example,
a person who responds positively to the third item on the scale is
almost sure to have responded positively to the first and second
items.

The basic idea of the scalogram is that items can be arranged in an
order so that an individual who agrees with, or responds positively
to, any particular item also responds positively to all items of lower
value order. The rank order of the items is the scale of items; the
scale of persons is very similar, people being arranged in order
according to the highest rank order of items checked, which is
equivalent to the number of positive responses in a perfect scale.



Conclusion 2.8.1 Conclusion
Attitudes can be formed toward “objects” and “situations”, and in
many cases the two are not compatible which creates the problem of
correspondence.

Persuaders are always trying to appeal to attitudes that we hold or
values that we have. Though not clearly linked to behavioral change,
attitudes and opinions are important to persuaders. Whether attitudes
affect behavior or not, persuaders think that they do and build their
messages accordingly.

Persuasive 2.9 Persuasive Communication
Communication
The question that rises here is: "how can we effectively
communicate and reach persuasion?"

We can identify persuasive communication as “The communication
process where the communicator uses his tactics to affect a
group of target audience attitudes and their behavior."

The 2.9.1 The Persuasive Communication Model
Persuasive
Communication
Model Carrel Hovland and his colleagues were the first to make a
persuasive communication model. This model depends upon three
sets of factors in order to reach the intended attitudes and behavior.
These factors are:

1. Factors Related to The Communication Process
Factors Related
to The
These factors include the three main key factors in the communication
Communication process which are:
Process
A. Factors related to the source: They include:
A. Factors Source specialization
related to the
source
Source credibility
Source status
Audience love to the source

The source plays the key role in the persuasive communication
process. He can easily transfer his ideas when he is specialized in
the topic he is talking about. David Berlo said that the
communication skills such as talking, writing, reading, listening,
thinking and level of knowledge are variables behind the success of
communication process.



Source Source Credibility
Credibility Is the experience and trustworthiness that receivers give to the
source. Many communication researches demonstrated that an
individual response to new ideas and information depended, at least
in part on “who said it": social scientists, point out the characteristics
of a message source enhance his communication effectiveness.
Though Hovland & others calculated that source credibility whether
high or low do not affect the amount of information transferred to
the audience, yet the high credible source is more effective in
changing attitudes than low credibility sources.

Other factors such as the sources demographic characteristics
and to what extent do they match the audience, also the audience
love to the source affect the process. This why sometimes, actors are
chosen for certain persuasive messages.

B. Factors related to the message: Hovland pointed out some
B. Factors
related to factors that must be included in the message in order to be
message effective. He focused on factors such as; the way ideas, evidence
are arranged, the organization of the arguments used in support
of the position advocated. In addition to the meaning contained
there in, the organization of the message may vary along many
dimensions.
Also the message can present the favorable arguments that the
source is advocating or it can recognize the opposing positions as
well. If both sides are presented, it has to be decided which argument
should precede the other, should a conclusion be presented or should
it be left to the receivers to draw their own conclusion, what kind of
appeals should be used. Such questions have generated interesting
studies on the role of the message component in changing attitudes.
The answers will be discussed in detail in the chapter dealing with
written communication.

C. Factors C. Factors related to the audience: Individuals vary greatly in their
related to personal psychological organization. This will be discussed later, but
audience this model focuses on variables in the audience that affect their
readiness to be persuaded. The model figured out personality
characteristics and other predisposition factors that enable
communicators to predict which type of persons or audience members
will respond to new information or emotions appeals. These
characteristics are:
1. An 1- An individual’s readiness to accept a favorable or
individual's
readiness
unfavorable position on the particular topic that is being
discussed. This category deals with personalities who show
anxiety from deviating from accepted norms.
2. An 2- An individual’s susceptibility to particular types of
individual's arguments and persuasive appeals. This category refers to
susceptibility
the predisposition factor which takes into account that
audience are exposed to different types of communication that
makes them respond to some appeals and neglect others.



3. An 3- An individual’s overall level of susceptibility to any form of
individual's persuasion or social influence.
overall level of
susceptibility
This category includes those personality characteristics of
people, who are most resistant to all forms of persuasion, as well as
those who are moderately responsive and those who are highly
persuasible.

Personality A number of personality factors have been suggested as
factors affecting persuasibility.
a) Overt a) Overt Hostility: People who display overt aggressiveness or overt
Hostility
anti-social behavior are considered very difficult to react to any form of
persuasion.
b) Social b) Social Withdrawal: People under this category have a tendency to
Withdrawal remain aloof with a marked preference for seclusive activities. They
are considered to be resistant to any form of persuasion.
c) Richness of c) Richness of Fantasy: It is believed that people with a rich fantasy
Fantasy tend to be more receptive to persuasive communication.
d) Self Esteem: Men with low self esteem are more responsive to
d) Self Esteem persuasive communication than others. These persons are passive
dependant and can adopt at least temporarily, whatever ideas are
being promoted.
e) Other e) Other Directness: This refers to people with others directed. They
Directness are likely to be influenced by an educational or promotional campaign
designed to change any type of belief or attitude. However, their
change is likely to be short lived if exposed to counter propaganda.
f) Sex f) Sex Differences: It is assumed that women in impersonal matters
Differences are more persuasible than men. Thus, women are more responsive to
attitudes change than men in matters related to political or social
issues.
Factors
Related to 2. Factors Related to Cognitive and Psychological Reaction
Cognitive and These set of factors indicates the status of reaction and feedback
Psychological either in the inner perception or an overt behavior. It is the middle
Reaction stage that leads to types of effect including attention, understanding
and persuasion.

Factors related 3. Factors Related to Effect on The Receiver
to Effect on the
Receiver These factors are the goal of the persuasive communication. It is
what we call the K.A.P. scale where we know to what extent did we
affected our audience. Did we reach the “K” goal; “K” refers to
knowledge.



This simply notifies that we affected the receiver’s knowledge by
giving him information that might help him to form an opinion on the
issue we are talking about. The second point on the scale is forming
or changing attitudes. This is where the “A” stands. The third on
the scale is the “P” that refers to practice which means succeeding
in changing the receiver’s behavior and helping him to adopt our
desired behavior.

The Persuasive Communication Model

Factors related to source:
Source specialization Attention
Source credibility
Source status Understanding Knowledge
Audience love to the source

Factors related to message:
Arrangement of ideas
Organization of arguments Emotional Attitudes
One-side or both sided acceptance
Stating conclusion

Factors related to audience:
Audience characteristics
Hostility
Social withdrawal Persuasion Practice
Richness of fantasy
Self-esteem

There are many barriers to persuasive communication such as
language, defense mechanism, misinterpretation, inconsistency
with beliefs educational barrier, status barrier and lack of trust.
How to overcome these barriers? We are going to discuss in the next
chapters concerning communication skills.


C8/1: Communication Skills Communication Skills

Chapter 3: Communication Skills
Introductory
Note
The preceding section shows the communicative process as starting
with the transmission of ideas and ending with their reception by
another person. Your role as sender or receiver is an
interchangeable one. For every speech you give in a speech class,
you listen to perhaps fifteen or twenty others. Just think of the
volumes that you read, in School, college and out, compared to the
amount that you write. Obviously, reading and listening skills are as
important to you as writing and speaking.
This chapter will discuss the transmission skills that
include verbal communication like special skills of speaking,
written communication and various approaches to effective
written communication. This chapter will also focus on
understanding your audience, different perspective in
understanding your audience, the feedback model and verbal and
non verbal clues from your audience.

At the end we'll discuss the reception skills focusing on guides to
active listening and strategies for improving listening skills.

Transmission Transmission Skills: Speaking and Writing
Skills: Speaking
and Writing
Speaking and writing are alike in many important ways. Each
requires the same clarification of the purpose you want to
accomplish, the same ability to keep always in mind the nature
and needs of the audience, and the same thoughtful development
of the ideas with which you must supply the audience in order to
accomplish your purpose. Both require an adequate command of
language.

However, there are important differences which result from the
different situations in which the communication occurs.

The speaker is face-to-face with his audience; the writer is not.
This physical presence can be a great advantage to the speaker.
His mannerism and facial expressions can express his personality to
the audience and can help him remain in contact with them.
The qualities of his voice animate the words he uses and hence, the
ideas they express.



In contrast, the writer depends solely on a masterful command of
the written language. Careful construction of sentences, precise
choice of words, and such typographical devices as punctuation and
paragraphing are all he has to take the place of the marvelously
communicative qualities of the human voice.

However, the speaker's physical presence before the audience
imposes some difficulties. A writer who isn't sure just what he
wants to say can stop, think, scratch and revise.

A speaker, once he faces his audience, had better be sure of his
material. Of course he can watch the reaction of the audience and,
in a sense, revise what he intended to say if he sees he is not
making himself clear; but this requires quick thinking. Careful
thinking and preparation are important to the writer too; but they are
absolutely essential for the speaker.

Facing the audience directly places the speaker in a different
psychological situation, also one that has both advantage and
disadvantages. The direct contact may stimulate him to produce
more direct and lively expression of his ideas.

At the same time, he is acutely aware of his own presence before the
audience. He may feel that they are examining him far more
critically than they actually are and that they are far more conscious
of his little mistakes than they actually are.

Reception Skills: Reception Skills: Reading And Listening
Reading and
Listing Because they are both receptive skills and because they are both
communication skills reading and listening have much in common.
Mere assimilation of ideas is often not enough for effective reading
and listening, because the value and validity of the ideas may be
open to question. Passive acceptance of everything you read or hear
is as undesirable as the opposite extreme, cynical refusal to believe
anything. The intelligent course is to learn when to be critical in your
reading and listening and how to use the tools of critical thinking to
place the proper evaluation on what you read or hear. In short, both
reader and listener are involved in the complicated processes of
assimilating and critically evaluating ideas, and they make use of
the same basic knowledge and ways of thinking. However, the
important differences between speaking and writing imply similar
differences between reading and listening.

One difference is the amount of unbroken and concentrated
attention required. Listening, especially in any situation in which
you are not the only listener, is an instantaneous experience that
generally cannot be repeated. If your mind wanders off for a few
minutes on a reverie about last night, you lose what the speaker has



offered during that time and the omission may make it difficult to pick
up the thread of ideas again. If you spend too much time taking
notes by failing to distinguish between main ideas and details, the
speaker will leave you behind. Concentrated attention is also
important in reading, of course, but the situation is different. If your
attention is distorted, you can always return.

Usually the reader has more control over distractions, too. He can
shut the radio off or move to a quieter spot, if other people distract
him.

Transmission 3.2 Transmission Skills
Skills

Speaking
3.2.1 Speaking
What is a presentation?
"Presentation is a way of communicating ideas and information to a
group"

A good presentation should have the following ingredients:
Content Content: It contains information that people need. Unlike reports, it
must account for how much information the audience can absorb in
one sitting.
Structure
Structure: It has a logical beginning, middle, and end. It must be
sequenced and paced so that the audience can understand it. Where
as reports have appendices and footnotes, the presenter must be
careful not to loose the audience when wandering from the main
point of the presentation.

Packaging Packaging: It must be well prepared. A report can be reread and
portions skipped over, but the audience is at the mercy of a
presenter.

Human Element Human Element: A good presentation will be remembered much
more than a good report because it has a person attached to it. But
you still need to analyze if the audience's needs would not be better
met if a report was sent instead.

How do I How do I prepare for an oral presentation?
prepare an oral Like good writing, good oral presentation must be clearly and
presentation logically organized. Once you have your material organized,
however, presenting it orally is quite a different matter from
presenting it in writing. Make the most of the advantages inherent in
speaking, the four main steps that make preparing an oral
presentation different from preparing a written document: 1)
structure, 2) select visual aids, 3) practice, and 4) make
arrangements.



Structure your A. Structure your Presentation
Presentation
Presenting information orally differs from writing it. An effect
presentation structure includes: (1) an opening, (2) a preview, (3)
focus major points, and 4) a closing. Decisions regarding each of
the characteristics will defend on your managerial style.

1) Use an 1) Use an effective opening: The Audience Memory Curve
effective emphasizes the importance of your opening. In speaking,
opening however, your opening is even more crucial than in writing, you
must arouse your listener's interest; you must establish
credibility. An affective opening stimulates your listener vital interest
answer their questions, "Why should I be listening to this anyway?"
Regardless of the kind of opening you select, always start with a
"grab".
2) Include a 2) Include a preview: Listeners need orientation because, unlike
review
readers, they cannot skim the general outline of your speech. A
preview will answer their question, "Just what am I going to learn
or do during this presentation?" Always state a preview explicitly
before you begin discussing your, points.
3) Make your
own major 3) Make your own major points clearly
points clearly Listeners cannot process as much information as readers can, do
not get oriented as easily as readers do, and do not remember
information heard only once. Therefore, make the points in your
presentation very clear by:
(1) limiting your main points
(2) using explicit transitions
(3) using internal summaries
(4) Use an effective closing.

Your audience is likely to remember your last words. So avoid the
"that's all I have to say", "I guess that's about it" syndrome. Use an
obvious transitional phrase - such as "to summarize" or "in
conclusion to introduce your closing remarks. If you have a question
period, be sure to save a few minutes at the end for your closing. In
any event, use effective closing.



The following tables summarizes the four structural
characteristics of effective presentation:

Effective Effective Opening
opening
Managerial Refer to the Opening
Style unusual
Any style Refer to the - Rhetorical question.
familiar - Anticipator promise of what
you will discuss.
- Vivid image.
- Starting example or story.
- Important statistics.
- Audience (who they are).
- Occasion (why you are here).
- Relationship between the
audience, and the subject.
- Something or someone
familiar to the audience.

Effective Effective Previews
Previews
Managerial Style Preview
Tell List your three to five main points:
listeners definitely remember better if they
hear an overview first.
Sell State the problem or need you will
remedy: state your organizational
structure.
Consult /join State major objectives, areas of
discussion, an approximate amount of
time you will spend on each area.

Clear Major Clear Major Points
Points
Managerial Style Major points
Tell / Sell Limit to three to five major points for an hour
presentation
Consult /join Separate clearly the two typical major points:
1. Discussion :
Draw out listeners.
Postpone evaluation and criticism.
Encourage free and creative thinking.
2. Debate and consensus:
Encourage critical thinking, argument,
debate.
Reach consensus.
Determine next action.



Managerial Style Explicit Transitions
Tell/Sell Use between your major points, to reinforce
learning:
Say, "The second recommendation is", not
"Second".
Say "Another benefit of the systems is", not
"in addition".
Consult /join Use between your major sections:
Say, "The third area we need to discuss this
morning is", not "Next".
Managerial Style Explicit Summaries
Tell/Sell Summarize between your major points or
sub points.
Consult /join Summarize consensus between your two
major organizational sections.

Effective Effective Closings
Closings
Managerial Style Closings
Tell List your three to five major points. (You
may feel as though you're being repetitive
but this kind of reinforcement is extremely
effective for explaining instructing).
Refer to the rhetorical question, promise
image, or story you used in your opening.
Sell Call for action based on what you have
presented; make the what next?
Refer to the benefits your audience will
receive from following the advice in your
presentation.
Consult /join List the main points you have come with as
a group; make sure you reach consensus;
make sure your audience see the results of
the time they spent.

Strategies for Improving Your Presentation
Strategies for
Improving your To sum-up the previous the main points of previous chart you can
Presentation focus on:
- Clarifying your ideas before communicating.
- Examining the true purpose of communication.
- Considering the environment of the communication.
- Consulting with others, whenever appropriate.
- Conveying something of value to the receiver.

Follow up to Follow Up Your Communication to Confirm It
Confirm it - Communicate both for the short run and for the long run.
- Be sure your actions support your communications.
- Be a good and empathetic listener.
- Be flexible to other's views, conditions, circumstances, etc.



How to Help How to Help Others Understand You
Others to - Talk specifics.
Understand You
- Go directly to the subject.
- Build self-esteem.

Summary of Summary of Presentation Structure
Presentation
Structure Managerial style:
Tell Sell Consult / Join
Opening Gmb audience's attention
Presentation Preview State your Establish Establish main
structure main need for discussion area
points change;
outline
general
structure
Body Provide Explain First, discuss
information how you ideas uncritically,
will satisfy 5 second, debate
needs and argue ideas.
Use explicit transitions and internal
summaries
Conclusion Restate Appeal Reach group
main for consensus and
points or audience recommendations
tie to action
opening
Desired Audience Audience Speaker and
result learns acts audience learn
Goals for Using
Aids
Goals for Using Aids
♦ Clarify your structure: such as an agenda chart at the
Clarify beginning of your presentation or main topic slide merged out
as you speak.
Emphasize ♦ Emphasize your important ideas: such as a list of your
recommendations.
Demonstrate ♦ Demonstrate relationships: such as pie charts to show
relationships
components or line charts to show changes over time. Visual
pictures are generally more effective than overwhelming lists
of numbers or statistics. (Of course, your data may be
summarized on a handout and passed out at the end of the
presentation.)
Types of
Occasions Types of Occasions
Formal: These are aids created before the presentation - such as
Formal finished clip charts, chart cards, desk-top charts, 35mm.
slides, and overhead transparencies. They may be
professionally printed, often in color. They assure you of a
great deal of control over your presentation, with relatively
little audience involvement.



Semi-formal Semi-formal: These are aids created partially before, and partially
during, the presentation - such as flipcharts or overhead
transparencies. You may want to elicit some audience
response, you would write on a partially prepared chart, or
you may want to cross out something on a prepared slide and
write over it in a different color to emphasize a change.
Informal Informal: These are aids created during the presentation - such
as chalk-boards, blank flipchart, or blank overhead
transparencies. They are more flexible, spontaneous, and
audience-involving than other aids, but you exert less control
over their content.

Practice your B. Practice your presentation
presentation
Unfortunately, many business and professional speakers neglect
this step. But you should remember that credibility of your content is
not enough you must also establish credibility as a speaker.
Practicing in advance will increase your self-confidence and poise,
improve your wording so it flows naturally and spontaneously,
identify any gaps in your speech, deal with distractions, and make
sure your visual aids are smoothly integrated into your speech.

1) Use cards 1) Use cards: Getting your speech onto cards has three main
advantages: (1) cards are easy to hold; (2) they allow you to add,
subtract, or rearrange your material easily; and (3) they force you to
prune your speech down to outline, so you cannot read it word by
word. In general, outline at least five minutes worth of material on
each card.
2) Become 2) Become familiar with your presentation: Instead of memorizing
familiar with your or reading your speech, become familiar with it practicing.
presentation Rehearse out loud on your feet with your aids. Time yourself Do not
practice by sitting at your desk and reading your speech. Stand
up and practice aloud. As you do, you may find some of the
rehearsal methods useful.
3) Practice with 3) Practice with your visual aids: As you rehearse, practice with
your visual aids your aids. This includes rehearsing physical details and controlling
the sequence.
♦ Rehearse the details: You don't want to spoil the effect of
your aids and your presentation performance: "How do you
turn this thing on?"; just a minute while this thing set up"; "Oh,
sorry, I guess its upside down".
♦ Control the sequence: Always assume your audience will
read whatever is in front of them regardless of what you are
saying For example, do not pass out a handout at the
beginning of your presentation and expect your audience to
read ahead; do not pull up a slide with your conclusion visible
until you your allow audience to see it



4) Memorize 4) Memorize your opening and closing only: Since good eye
your opening contact is crucial both for establishing audience rap at the beginning
and closing only
of your speech, and for confirming it at the end, memorize your
opening and closing. Then, you will be able to look to your listeners
during the first and last moments.

Repeat the two sections over and over so you will not hesitate during
the first minutes or conclusion of your presentation.

Rehearsal Rehearsal Methods
Methods

Simulate the Simulate the Situation
Situation 1. Practice in the place where you will be speaking.
2. Practice in front of chairs set up, as they would be when
you give your speech.
3. Practice while bouncing a ball (or performing another
routine task to improve your ability to withstand distractions).
Improve your
Delivery Improve your Delivery
1. Speak into a mirror to improve facial expressions and
animation.
2. Speak into an audio tape-recorder to improve vocal
expression animation, rate, and enunciation.
3. Speak to a friend or colleague.
4. Best of all, speak in front of a videotape recorder,
evaluating the playback

Rehearsing the Rehearsing the Details
Details Positioning: flipping the chart paper; turning the projector on and off
positioning the slides on the screen; or writing on the board,
flipchart, or transparency.
Teamwork: working with a partner of one will be manipulating while
the other speaks.
Volume: speaking a bit more loudly than usual (speakers tend to
decrease their volume when they use aids).
Eye contact: maintaining eye contact with your audience (speakers
tend to get engrossed in their machines or charts and lose
audience rapport).
Controlling the
Sequences Controlling the Sequence
Meter Meter: Meter out material when, and only when, you want your
audience to see it. With formal aids, cover up lines until you
start discussing them; with informal aids, write information
Stop only as you discuss.
Stop: Cover up, turn off or erase all aids before and after you
discuss their content.
Avoid
Avoid: Avoid detailed handouts, perhaps all handouts except
agendas until the end of your presentation.



Make the D. Make The Necessary Arrangements
Necessary
Arrangements
1) Make sure your audience is notified: For any presentation,
Make sure answer the following questions;
audience is Who? Precisely should be informed?
notified How? Should you notify by speaking with people individually
(more personal, more flexible, more immediate
response), writing (more formal, less likely to be
forgotten), or both?
By whom? Should the notification go out under the name of the
speaker, an authority figure, a group, a department,
company?
What? Exactly what advance information do you want your
audience to have?
Check room 2) Check your room arrangements:
arrangements
• Chair configuration: Base your chair configuration on the facility,
the size of your group communication objective, and the
management style you have chosen for presentation. The Figure 3.1
illustrates the four basic configuration courses, you may use or to
modify, or combine them.

CHAIR CONFIGURAIONS

Typical of
Informal brainstorming
sessions or informal
meetings

Informal with Tables

Typical of briefing
Formal sessions or formal
meetings

Formal with Tables

Figure 3.1: The four basic configuration courses

• Room set-up: The following chart provides a checklist for your
room set-up.
Check visual
aids
3) Check your visual aids: When the room has been arranged
satisfactorily, check your visual aids.



Special Skills in 3.2.2 Special Skills in Speaking
Speaking

1- Types of Oral 1- Type of Oral Presentation
Presentation The speaking situation will determine the suitability of each of
the various types of oral presentation. The following classification
is based upon the speaker's method of presenting his material and
not upon the various kinds of audiences or speaking occasions.

A. A- Extemporaneous speaking: This type of oral presentation is
Extemporaneous characterized by complete preparation of material without any
speaking memorization of the words. The speaker will plan his speech
carefully and may use some speaker's notes to guide him through
the speech, but he will not memorize the exact phrasing of his ideas.
He will probably have memorized his main points and supporting
material, but the act phrasing of these will be accomplished at the
time he gives the speech. extemporaneous speaking is
advantageous in its flexibility and allows for adaptation to the
audience as the speech, is presented. What should you do to
condition yourself to become a better extemporaneous speaker?
Here are a few suggestions:
a) Keep your mind on your purpose.
b) Control your intensity. Be sure that your conversational
speech shows a balanced enthusiasm. Avoid on the one
hand, any tendency to become too intense to speak too
loudly or too fast.
c) Keep your speech appropriate to situation. As in writing,
so too in speaking. The language and mood appropriate to
one situation may not be appropriate to another. Informal
joking, laying on off-hands-all of these can be helpful in
some conversations, but destructive in others.
d) Work on the quality of your voice. Whenever you can find
the chance listen to your own voice on a tape recorder.
Speak extemporaneously into it, talk with someone while the
microphone is on, read a page of your favorite book into it. If
the voice you hear coming back to you is pleasing you , it
will be pleasing to other people.

B. Impromptu B- Impromptu Speaking: Impromptu speaking is recognized by a
Speaking complete absence of specific preparation by the speaker. This
type of presentation is encountered when without prior warning a
person finds himself in a position where he must speak.

C. Memorized C- Memorized Speaking: As the label indicates, this type of oral
Speaking presentation is based upon memorizing word for word the
material to be presented. Superficially examined, this type may
seem simpler than extemporaneous speaking, but it is not.

D. Reading from D- Reading from Manuscript: At professional meetings, state
Manuscript occasions, and other situations where oral presentation must be



very precise. The speaker may be most effective if he reads his
manuscript aloud. The chief difficulty is encountered in maintaining
contact with the audience while reading from the manuscript.
Effective reading can best be obtained if the speaker is very
familiar with his material, and if he has practiced reading the
words so as to increase the size of the word groups he can see in a
glance.

2. The Product 2- The Product
Your fear: The first problem of presentation is fear and at least
Your fear three quarters of that fear is fear of the unknown. You can never
get rid of all your fear, but you can enormously reduce it by reducing
the area of the unknown. The small amount that is left is necessary
and valuable - it concentrates your mind and sharpens your
performance. And even if you are one of those who feels no fear at
all, the technique for conquering fear is also the best technique for
improving any presentation.

Preparation Preparation: We can start by breaking the unknown down into
five areas: Why are you making this presentation?
What are you going to say?
Who are you saying it to?
Where will you be saying it?
How will you say it?

a) Why a) Why?
Every presentation has an objective, and the objective is almost
always some form of persuasion. You want the audience to place
an order, commission a survey, accept a proposal, agree to a
budget, develop a product, accept reorganization plan - the list is
endless. Two points are particularly important.
a) Make your objective as precise as you can - with fall-
back objectives as well - and put it into words.
b) Keep referring back to the objective whenever you are
wondering what to include or where to cut.

b) What b) What?
Make a note of all the information illustrations and arguments
you could possibly need - and jot them down. Do not bother too
much about order at that stage.

c) Who?
C) Who Find out all you can about the people you will be presenting to.
Not just how many will be there and their names and jobs. But why
they are interested, what method/equipment/supplier they are using
at the moment, what bad or good experiences they have had in the
past with whatever you are trying to persuade them to do. What
objections they might feel threatened by, and which of their worries
your proposals might remove. This will probably suggest more facts,
arguments and visual aids to add to the list. Find then if, on the day,



you can possibly arrange to chat to them informally, over coffee say,
for a few minutes before the presentation, do so. It is not only an
invaluable extra research opportunity - it is also a marvelous way to
break the ice and create an early rapport.

d) Where d) Where?
Not as important as the others, and you can't always do it., but if
"where" is unfamiliar territory it helps on the day if you have been
there before. And as you look round the room you may spot
something important: wrong kind of electric socket, or too distant for
you, windows that won't black out, no table, excessive noise - you
never knew till you look, and if there's nothing wrong it gives you a
little more of what you need most; confidence.

e) How
e) How?
Once you know what you want to say, whom you will be saying
it to, where and why, you can work out how. Now is the time to
think yourself into the mind of your audience. What anxieties can you
relieve, what needs can you identify and satisfy? That will guide you
to introduction, something to make them sit up and think "Yes, that
really is our problem", "Yes, they've put their finger on what we were
worried about". "Yes, that would be a great advantage if it really can
be done at that price"., Following from that, you can start to arrange
your facts and arguments into the best order - best for their
understanding and also best for persuasion. Then devise or select
the illustrations you are going to need. Then when all the material is
assembled and marshaled make your notes and make them clear
and large enough. Ii is preferred to write out the whole presentation;
after all, (and especially if time is limited) there is always a best way
of putting something - best arguments, best order, best phrase -
and you are more likely to think it up and work it out by making
yourself write it in advance than by thinking on your feet. But even if
you do not, you should always have at least the opening and closing
sentences committed to memory in their entirety.
And finally, in front of a colleague if possible, on your own if
necessary, rehearse. It is rare indeed to find an over-rehearsed
presentation, and nothing is one quarter as effective in removing
nerves or at least minimizing their effect on your presentation, as a
lot of rehearsal. As we agreed, fear is largely fear of the
unknown, and if the unknown includes what you are going to
say you have every reason to fear.

3. Presenting
3- Presenting The Content
The Content The IT! Method is an exercise to help you develop the content of
your presentation. The IT! Method is a five-step process.
1. Brain IT!
2. Group IT!
3. Trim IT!
4. Spice IT!
5. Do IT!



Brain IT Brain IT!
This is your chance to brainstorm: capture ideas, concepts and
information. Brainstorming is a method for developing creative
solutions to problems your goal is to think freely; putting everything
that you may want to say down on paper. You can brainstorm on
your own, but often a small group brainstorming together can really
augment this creative process.

Yellow sticky notes (such as Postiks) give the creative process
great fertility. You can brainstorm more freely when not hampered
by a linear outline or a sequentially generated form.

With your topic identified, and the yellow sticky notes in hand,
capture any and all:
• Ideas
• Facts
• Related stories
• Examples
• Miscellaneous

Yellow-sticky everything and anything that relates to your
subject, perhaps flavored by the particular audience. Don't be
concerned about relating all of your ideas or whether you even plan
to use all of the generated ideas. Just capture all of the ideas - one
per yellow sticky! Collect the ideas and stick all of them on a
flipchart.

Try to keep your left brain (your internal editor) out of this
brainstorming process. This activity is strictly a right-brain function
- pure free-association, idea-generation.

TIP TIP: Brainstorming works best when a time limit is established.

Group IT!
Group IT
Now step back mentally from this field of yellow sticky notes and do
what you would naturally do - put the notes in groups!

Group your ideas on the notes according to the natural
associations you see in the material. Do not force every idea into a
category: some will be left over.

TIP TIP: If you find that a category has more than 10 notes, consider
whether it should really be more than one category!

After you group the sticky notes, give each group a name or title.

Next, ask yourself the question "Given this particular audience,
which of these groups do I want them to hear about first, in the body
of the presentation, second, third," and so on. Try to keep the
number of groups relatively small.



Many people believe that three is the ideal number of points
around which to organize your presentation. This is not an
absolute! Just try to keep it simple.

Save the unused groups. They may provide input for other parts of
the presentation. These groups also can provide a source for the
question-and-answer period of the presentation and may be used in
future presentations on the same subject to other audiences.

Look at all of the sticky notes generated from the brainstorming
and see what categories or groups you can come up with. Write
these in large circles on the flipchart. Ask the group to help decide
which ideas go into which group.

Trim IT!
Trim IT Applying sound simplicity principles trim the ideas within each
group and put them into a logical order. Remember, even though
many experts believe three is the ideal number, you are not bound to
it.

Go back to your presentation strategy and review your position,
desired actions and listener benefits. Make sure you define these
items in your presentation.

Usually, the desired actions and listener benefits should be stated
and restated in the introduction and in the conclusion.

Spice IT Spice IT!
You are now ready to add spice to your presentation
framework! The purpose of spice is to add memorability, enliven,
aid retention and otherwise provide interesting relief.

Spice it all! Don't forget to spice the beginning and then ending –
remember that the opening and the closing are the most important
items in the presentation.

Identify where the "peaks" of the presentation are, and what type
of spice could be added to the "new" presentation. These are the
contents of your "Spice Cupboard”:
♦ Stories
♦ Quotes

Delivery is Your Delivery is Based on Structure
based on Hold your breath and wait for a massive generalization. Ready?
structure Right. All good presentations have the same structure.
It is simple three-part structure, and the same as a symphony or a
play: Exposition, Development, and Recapitulation. First
movement, Second movement Third movement. Act I, Act II, Act III.
Order, demonstrated, order challenged, order re-established. You



can embroider it in all sorts of ways, but if you abandon it - resorting,
for example, to a string of unstructured and unconnected assertions
– you will not hold your audience's attention for long.

For the purposes of a presentation, you can call the structure
"Situation, Complication, Recommendation" and you will find
what everything you have to say fits into one of those three sections.

Situation a) Situation. The audiences at the start of a presentation are
like the horses before the start of the race - scattered all
over the place and facing in different directions. The starter at a
race meeting has to bring them all up to the line together so that
they start level and all go off in the right direction at the same
time. A presenter has to do much the same, and the way to
do it is to outline the present situation: describe the way
overseas distribution is currently organized, or the way we order
stationery at the moment, or the way the pattern of home
demand has been changing - whatever the purpose of your
presentation it is essential that everyone should start with the
same knowledge, and important that you should demonstrate to
them all that you know the situation and background. It also
enables everyone to focus on the specific part of the present
situation to which you are addressing yourself. This part of the
presentation, establishing common ground, may take only a
couple of sentences, or it may need quite long analysis of how
things came to be the way they are, but some statement of "the
present situation has to be made and agreed upon.
By all means, ask them questions about the present situation
and past history: it helps you to angle the rest of your
presentation more precisely to their needs; end a bit of two-way
communication in the early stages is a valuable icebreaker
Complication
b) Complication. This is where you introduce the need for
change by showing why the present situation cannot
continue or why it would be unwise to continue it. Demand
is shifting, technology is changing, staff are leaving, delays are
lengthening, competitors are gaining, costs are rising, profits
are falling, building are leaking - there must be some significant
change or danger or worry or opportunity or you would not be
making the presentation. This is the stage at which you dig the
hole in which you intend to plant your idea.
Recommend- c) Recommendation. The other two sections may be brief. This
action one forms the bulk of the presentation, and it is also the
one you are least likely to omit. It may include evaluating
alternatives, demonstrating products, describing services,
meeting objections, comparing prices adducing evidence,
quoting examples, and is in fact what most people mean when
they talk about "a presentation". But its success may well
depend on how well you have prepared the ground in those first
two sections which it is all too easy to omit.



How to Start How to Start?
Almost every presentation requires some sort of preface.
Exactly what elements it should contain will obviously depend on
circumstances - you do not have to explain who you are if you are
addressing your department (or if you do have something wrong that
your presentation will put right). The preface has a double value - it
establishes certain important facts, and it also helps to ease the
presenter into their relationship with the audience by means of
"neutral" material that they can all accept and agree with. The longer
you keep everyone nodding the better, so long as they don't nod off.

There are five elements to a full preface: a single sentence may
be enough for each.
a) Welcoming a) Welcoming courtesies - simply thanking people for giving up
time and hoping they will feel it is well spent etc.
b) Self- b) Self-identification - your name and job, your background if
identification relevant (I worked in exploration myself for two years, though
not of course at your exalted level..") and any details about
colleagues who are with you.
c) The intention c) The intention - what you are proposing to explain, suggest or
demonstrate at this presentation. This has to be angled
toward the benefits they can expect from what you are
presenting - not "Tell you about our new office procedures",
but "Show you how our new office procedures will enable you
better organize your time". Everything should be presented in
terms of their interest, not yours: not "what I am going to tell
you", but "what I thought you would like to know".
d) The route d) The route map - how long the presentation will last, whether it will
map be in sections, will it all be here or will we be moving to
another part of the building, does it include film, will there be a
break for coffee?
e) The rules of e) The rules of the road - in particular, do you want people to
the road
interrupt if they have a question, wait till the end of the
section, or hold all questions until the end? They cannot know
unless you tell them.

Creative Openings (Attention Grappers)
Creative
There are as many openings as there are speakers. One well
Openings
(Attention known speaker entered looking as if he'd had a rough night:
Grappers) rumpled, unshaven and bleary eyed from too much drinking. He
caused and looked around, seeming confused, then he exited and
made a quick transformation in his appearance and returning well
groomed and as bright as any smart businessman should be. He
then began to talk on First Impressions.

Creating a fun Creating a fun gimmick or a dramatic opening to grab your
gimmick audience's attention is not difficult, if you take time, think it
through and plan it carefully. But make sure you choose one to suit
the situation and the audience. A gimmicky opening can be



dangerous, especially if the audience is made to feel foolish as
opposed to being captivatingly fooled. There is a science to
opening a presentation. It's a simple science, or should we say
one based on simple precepts, but it's a science nevertheless.

Make no Make no mistake, the opening is critical. Just like the first pages of
mistake a book or the opening scenes of a movie the reader/audience can be
captivated early if it is done well. Once captivated, of course, you
must still deliver the goods. But if you fail to "get" them early, the
opportunity may be lost. So, the first goal of a public speaker is to
create a positive magnetic relationship with the audience and nothing
works better than sharing something about oneself. If humor is the
chosen opening tone, then self-deprecation works best. If an
anecdotal beginning is the choice, make it about yourself, but without
even a hint of braggadocio. Some of the best-credentialed speakers
we know make light of their own accomplishments and pedigrees by
creating humor about them. We know of one college professor, for
instance, who opens his public speaking engagements with a put-
down of his own profession: "A Professor is someone who is
often wrong, but seldom in doubt".

What this does is bridge the gap between the speaker and the
audience. In other words, it's a humanizing process. At the same
time it gives the audience time and encouragement to relax and to
reach out with their emotions toward the speaker in unspoken
acceptance. The positive energy this generates also helps the
speaker relax and so a genuine relationship can develop— a
relationship of trust and openness.

One of the One of the reasons sports heroes are successful in speaking
reasons assignments— even those who are not great orators— is that they
are well received even before they begin. This is true of popular
figures in other fields, too, but sports heroes are especially revered.
If your name is not well known to your audience you have to do
something to endear them to you. Hopefully, unlike many a famous
athlete, you have something substantive to offer, but first you have to
get their attention and then their affection; yes, affection.
The way The way in which you are introduced can set the stage for a great
opening, naturally, so when asked for information, such as your bio,
try to be creative and add something heartwarming, and basic:
you are a cat lover or you work with some charitable organization or
other. Don't overdo it, it can be very brief, but this kind of thing
lightens the hearts in /your audience, especially if they have just
heard that you have a PhD. in Biophysics, or something. It
counterbalances the bland feelings they have about you before you
start.

You may want to see what we suggest in our tips on body
language but briefly, your posture during your introduction and how



you respond to the polite applause is critical. Unless you are the
sports figure mentioned earlier, the applause at this stage is exactly
that: polite. You haven't done anything to deserve it yet, to accept it
graciously but using your hands acknowledges it and asks for it to
end. When the applause stops, polite or responsive— as it may be,
later— pause and let it soak in (to you and to your audience.) The
audience needs to get a sense of your vulnerability and your
sensitivity to the gift they are giving you. When you receive a gift
from someone you would not tear it open instantly. You would pause,
reflect and show humility and appreciation, not at what the gift is,
merely that there is one. The same is true with applause for you as
the speaker.

The "bridge" The "bridge" having being built, the next goal for your opening is to
having being clarify why you are there and what you are going to be speaking
built about. This allows listeners to prepare themselves They need to
open certain cognitive channels within their mind. They may know
something about your topic, or have had experience with some
aspect of it (this makes the best kind of audience) and they need to
have their thoughts channeled appropriately. When an audience has
felt your humanity (goal number one) and they have started to
receive you as a person and as an expert, they feel ready to open
their minds to your ideas if you give a little preview of what you are
"up to." It's a kind of road map.

the final goal So now we come to the final goal for your opening. A vital part of
any opening is telling listeners why and how the information
you have will benefit them. No matter what we do, we do it more
wholeheartedly when we have something to gain. Your audience
needs to know what they can gain from listening to you. This is why
you should never accept a speaking engagement for which you do
no perfectly fit, flattering as it may be to be asked to speak,
anywhere. Make sure you ask enough about the assignment, the
audience and the circumstances that you can deliver something
of value to them. If you can't, then pass up the opportunity.

A final word... An important one: you should accomplish your
opening as defined, above, in less than five minutes. Then get down
to the business of delivering what you promised.

Body Language The Power of Body Language

Research shows that over half of human communication takes
place on the nonverbal level through body language. If your body
language communicates earnestness, enthusiasm, and sincerity,
people will tend to believe your message. If you send different verbal
and nonverbal messages, they will inevitably trust what they see and
not what they hear! To be effective, body language must confirm and
support your words and graphics.



In a presentation situation, body language is so powerful because
your audience your audience empathizes with you as the speaker and mirrors
empathizes with
you your emotions and feelings. If you appear relaxed, confident, and
smiling, your audience will relax, feel confidence in you and
usually smile back at you. If you appear nervous or frown (even
unconsciously) they'll get fidgety and frown back at you.

Besides communicating your feelings and attitudes body language
does several things:
1. It makes messages more meaningful and memorable.
People are easily bored with things that don't move and
Makes naturally focus on things that do. People remember more of
messages more
meaning what they see than hear and even more of what they see and
hear.
2. It punctuates your presentation.
Gestures, body movement, and facial expressions are to
speech what periods, commas, and exclamations points are to
Punctuate your written language.
presentation 3. It relieves nervous tension.
Public speaking activates the adrenal gland, creating an
overabundance of energy which tends to sneak out as nervous
mannerisms. Gestures and body movement, however, harness
Relieves this nervous energy and make it work for you.
nervous
tension Following are the five main elements of body language and key
points about each.

Posture Posture
Without a word or even a movement, your speaking posture
communicates whether or not you're confident, enthusiastic,
and in control of the situation. Good posture enables you to
breathe properly and project your voice effectively. It also
minimizes nervous tension.

To achieve an effective speaking posture, stand erect but not
stiff, relaxed but not sloppy. Relax your shoulders and knees. Let
your arms hang naturally at your sides with your fingers relaxed. You
should feel alert and comfortable. Immediately before your
presentation, take a few deep, slow breaths and consciously relax
your shoulders, neck, and jaw.

Gestures Gestures
Gestures, used correctly, are the most evocative form of body
language and can tremendously enhance your words. There are four
basic types of gestures: Descriptive gestures clarify or illustrate
your words. Emphatic gestures emphasize your words, e.g. clench
your fist or pound the podium. Suggestive gestures create a mood
or express a thought, e.g. shrug your shoulders to indicate ignorance
or perplexity. Prompting gestures evoke a response, e.g. raise your



hand or applaud if you want the audience to do the same. Gesturing
reflects each speaker's personality; what works for Zig Zeigler
probably won't work for you. Here are six things to keep in mind
about gesturing:

1. According to 1. Gesture naturally according to what you think, feel and say.
what you think, Regardless of your personality or cultural background, you
feel and say
have a natural impulse to gesture to emphasize things you
feel strongly about. Don't inhibit that impulse. Be genuine and
spontaneous. Don't concoct artificial gestures or your
audience will peg you as a phony. If you're naturally reserved,
try emphasizing your gestures a bit more than seems natural.
2. Create the
conditions for 2. Create the conditions for gesturing -not the gesture.
gesturing –not Involve yourself totally with your message-not in thinking
the gesture about your body movement-and your gestures will arise
naturally from your thoughts, feelings, and attitudes.
3. Suit the 3. Suit the gesture to the word or occasion.
gesture to the
word or Make your gestures appropriate for the words you're
occasion expressing or you'll appear artificial or even comical. Match
the frequency and vigor of your gestures to your message,
and don't overdo it. Powerful, vigorous animated gestures are
fine for young audiences but may threaten or irritate older or
conservative audiences.
4. Make your 4. Make your gestures convincing.
gesture Each gesture should be a distinct, clearly visible movement.
convincing Hand gestures should involve the total arm and shoulder.
Keep your wrists and hands relaxed. Use broad, slow,
expansive gestures for large audiences.
5. Make your 5. Make your gestures smooth and well-timed.
gesture smooth Timing is as important in gesturing as it is in comedy. The
and well-timed gesture must come on the correct word-not before or after.
Don't memorize your gestures or they will appear canned.
Simply practice your presentation until the gestures become
natural.
6. Make natural, 6. Make natural, spontaneous gesturing a habit
spontaneous Relax your inhibitions, and practice gesturing during informal
gesturing a habit conversation with friends. Have fun with it, and soon gesturing
will be a natural part of your presentation toolbox.

Facial Facial Expression
Expression Audiences scrutinize speakers, faces, eager for visual data to add
meaning to their words. Your face-more clearly than any other part of
your body-reflects your attitudes, feelings, and emotions. Your
audience wants you to be confident, friendly, and sincere and
watches your face for evidence of these qualities. Effective
speakers must communicate these qualities. The key to
conveying a warm, sincere attitude is smiling throughout your
presentation, not constantly-or you'll be labeled a lightweight- but
every time it's appropriate.



Be sure to remove expressions which don't belong on your face,
those nervous mannerisms which distract from your message. These
include licking, biting, or clicking the lips, tightening the jaws,
frowning, or switching any part of the face. Audiences attribute these
expressions to nervousness or unfriendliness and become less
receptive to your message. To reduce your apprehension about
speaking, believe your message, practice it thoroughly, relax, and let
your face reflect your good thoughts, attitudes, and emotions.

Eye Contact Eye Contact
After your voice, your eyes are your most powerful tool for
communicating. Your eyes either bind you to, or separate you
from, your audience. Every listener wants to feel you are talking to
him or her. Eye contact accomplishes this. In most cultures, direct
eye contact signals sincerity; lack of eye contact signals insincerity,
disinterest, or lack of confidence-all message killers. Your eye
contact directly influences the attentiveness and concentration of the
audience. If you don't look at them, they probably won't look at you
or listen to you.

Here are three keys to using your eyes effectively in presentations:
1. Know your 1. Know your material.
material Practice your verbal message until; you don't need to strain to
remember the sequence of ideas and words. Doing so frees you to
concentrate on the audience, notion an inner mental turmoil.
2. Establish a personal bond with each listener.
2. Establish a Every audience will have energizers-those people who are with
personal bond you, alert, and usually smiling in agreement. Choose energizers
with each in every section of the audience and focus on them. Maintain eye
listener contact with and speak directly to each one for the time it takes
to say a sentence or complete a thought, then shift to the next.
Doing so will energize and encourage you, and everyone around
these energizers will think you're looking at them.
3. Monitor visual feedback.
If the audience isn't looking at you, they're probably not listening,
3. Monitor visual
and you need to regain their attention. Do they look puzzled?
feedback Bored? Can they hear you? Is the microphone on? Visually
monitoring your listeners enables you to make adjustments
necessary to most clearly communicate you message.

Conclusion Conclusion
Videotaping one of your presentations is an excellent way
to discover your strong, effective body language as well as any
unconscious, nervous mannerisms. Watch great speakers for
ideas of how to maximize your own body language. Develop a strong
message you firmly believe in and are excited about. Practice it
thoroughly. Relax, be natural, and let your enthusiasm and sincerity
project naturally to your listeners. Finally, have fun, and you'll do fine
as a presenter!



A Guidelines for A Guideline for Verbal Skills Used By Presenter
Verbal Skills
Used by
Presenter Inflection
Do speak: • With expressiveness and enthusiasm in your
voice.
Do not • In a boring monotone.
speak:
Qualify
Do speak: • In a warm, pleasant tone.
Do not • In a distracting tone, for example, too nasal too
speak: high, too rough, or too whiny.
Volume
Do speak: • Audibly
Do not • Too quietly aware of this pitfall especially (1) you
speak: are using visual aids, (2) you are woman. Or (3)
your volume tends to drop tow the ends of your
sentences.
Speed
Do speak: • At the correct speed: slowly enough so you can be
understood, quickly enough to maintain energy:
• Varying your rate to avoid droning;
• With effective pauses, such as, before or after key
term, separating items in a series, indicating a
major break in your thought
Do not • Too slowly (which may bore your listeners) too
speak: quickly (which may lose them),
• At a completely consistent speed, droning with no
variation or pauses.
Enunciation
Do • Clearly
enunciate • Mumble (which may be associated with talk, too
quietly);
Do not • Use run-on words (which may be caused with
talking too quickly);
• Drop final consonants, such as "thousand" "ju" and
"goin".



A Guidelines for A Guideline for Non Verbal Skills Used By Presenter
Non-verbal Skills
Used by
Presenter Full body
movement
• To change mood or pace;
Do more • To draw attention to and from your visual aid;
deliberately • To reinforce an idea (such as, make a transition by
Do not move stepping to the side or emphasize important point
randomly by leaning forward).
• Nervously;
• Continually, such as constant pacing or swaying

Hand and arm
gestures
Do gesture:
• Naturally, as you would in conversation;
• To reinforce your content (such as describing size
or shape, emphasizing an important pointing
enumerating a list, or pointing to a special item on
Do not move your visual aid).
• Nervously, such as ear tugging, scratching,
and lip licking (you will probably find it fairly easy
to correct distracting gestures once you know you
are using them);
• Into one position for too long, especially: the figure
leaf" hands clasped in front), the (hands clasped in
back) , the " Jingle'
• With stylized, artificial, unvaried, constant repeated
gestures.
Facial
expression
Do maintain
• Relaxed, animated, conversational facial
Do not maintain expression.
• Stony, deadpan, expression.
Eye contact
Do look at
• The entire group, rather than at just one side of the
room;
• The key decision-makers in the group;
Do not look at: • Good listeners who nod and react.
• A prepared script, which you read word by word,
showing your audience a constant of the top of
your hand;
• The middle of the back of the room;
• The bad listeners who may distract you;
Posture

Do stand • In a relaxed, professional manner,
• Comfortably upright, with your weight
distributed evenly;
• With your feel, neither too close nor too far apart.



• In a formal militaristic "Attention" pose;
• In an informal slouch (keeping weight to one side
or swaying side to side;
• In a narrow-angle, ankles together reciting school-
Don't stand child stance; or In a wide-angle "Cowpoke
straddle".
Dress
• Appropriately for the occasion and the audience.
Do dress • Comfortably and in good taste;
• To project an image consistent with you
communication objectives.
•In any clothing that will distract from you message,
Don’t dress e.g. exaggerated dangling Jewelry, cloud ties.
Approach (to the
speaker’s • Calmly and unhurriedly;
position) • With a brief pause for eye contact before launching
Do approach into your presentation.

Handle C. Handle Conversational Situations Effectively
Conversational
Situations Good speaking is always based on the effective delivery. Beside
Effectively
good delivery, however, you may need some additional techniques
or situations that involve more give than with you audience:
(2) Question and answer periods,
(3) Listening and discussion sessions
(4) Impromptu conversations,
(5) Telephone conversations, and
(6) Media presentations.

1) Questions 1) Question and answer periods
and answers
periods
Presentation often involves more than your prepared remarks.
In fact, your ability to answer questions immediately is one of the
main advantages speaking has over writing. Here are some
procedures to help you deal "with those occasional problem
questioners", and have to buy time if you are momentarily stymied.

2) Listening and 2) Listening and discussion sessions
discussion Your ability to listen well and to elicit information from others is
sessions crucial to your professional success. The benefits you gain from
good listening are tremendous: you receive more detailed
information, enabling you to make better decisions; you increase
your understanding so you can solve problems better; and you
increase cooperation so you can improve working relationship and
improve your chances for effective implementation. The following
techniques that deal with how to look, feel, and speak are designed
to make you a better listener.



3) Impromptu 3) Impromptu conversations
conversations Impromptu speaking is talking on the spur of the moment,
without, advance preparation. For example, your boss may
suddenly ask you to bring us up-to-date on a certain project; or a
client may ask you to explain a certain service. Usually, of course,
you will not be asked to make impromptu remarks unless you have
some knowledge in the area.

4) Telephone 4) Telephone conversations
conversations People tend to waste time on the telephone because they don't
prepare. Just because phone conversations do not demand
intensive preparations does not mean you should not prepare at all.
To use the phone to the best advantage, you need to:

A. Listen carefully, and
B. Use your voice effectively.
5) Media
presentations 5) Media presentations
Speaking on television and radio is becoming increasingly important
for business and professional people.

Written
Communication Written Communication
Effective written communication has its simple and clear rules. In
order to reach your readers, you should bare in mind the following
steps:
1. Define the 1- Define you subject: You must go to the point as early as
subject possible. It is always better those readers know what your subject is
about from the first paragraph, the second maximum.
2. Know your
2- Know your reader: Of course, you must have a target audience
reader
while writing your message. Reader's characteristics determine your
language, the way you present your ideas, the kind of arguments you
are going to stress on.
3. Organize your 3- Organize your national: Every message should be organized by
national
an opening, introductory comment, underlining the main subject,
including your recommendations in the conclusion. We will talk later
about approaches to persuasive messages.

Here are some recommendation you should put in consideration:
1- Be clear.
2- Be natural.
3- Be concise.
4- Be precise and accurate.
5- Diversify your style.
6- Check understanding of your written message before delivery.
7- Improve your writing skills by reading.



Organizations of Organizations of Persuasive Message
Persuasive
Message
The Effects of One-Sided Versus Two-Sided Messages
A one-sided message sets forth the source’s claim to the receiver,
whereas a two-sided message not only sets forth the source’s claim,
but also recognizes opposing positions on the issue.

1. Presenting both sides of the argument is more effective if the
individual addressed is initially opposed to the issue, but the
one-sided argument is more effective with those initially
favoring the communicator's position.
2. A two-sided message is more effective if the subjects are
likely to be exposed to subsequent counterpropaganda. The
two-sided message "immunizes" the audience against future
counterpropaganda. This was attributed to the fact that such a
message presents the opposite point of view and thus builds up
the subjects resistance to that point of view when he is
confronted with it again,
3. Communication giving both sides of the argument was more
effective with the better educated group, regardless of their
initial position, whereas the one-sided presentation was
primarily effective among the less educated group who were
already in favor of the communicator's position.

The Effects of
Stating a
The Effects of Stating a Conclusion
Conclusion Many researchers explored the differential effects of stating a
conclusion versus not stating it. The presentations used in their
experiments were identical except for the stating of the conclusion to
one group. The message dealt with current economic issues and the
conclusion presented to one group stated that it was desirable to
devaluate American currency.

The investigators found that when the conclusion was explicitly
drawn, more than twice as many respondents changed their opinion
in the direction advocated by the communicator.

A later study by Thistle Waite, qualified this by finding that the
message with a conclusion was more effective in changing the
attitudes of the less intelligent subjects than those of the more
intelligent. Subsequent research has been unable to confirm the
finding regarding the role of intelligence.

However, the strategy of stating a conclusion may not always be
superior since a number of factors are thought to influence opinion
change. The factors that contribute to the differential effects of
the conclusion drawing include:
1. Credibility of the source
2. The intelligence, personality type, and sophistication of the
audience



3. The complexity of the argument
4. Familiarity of the topic

The Effect of The Effects of Order of Presentation
Order of The organization of the arguments in the message provides another
Presentation interesting aspect of persuasive communication. Studies have
focused on two questions; (1) whether the climax of the argument
should be presented at the beginning or at the end, and (2) when the
two different views are presented, which view has the advantage, the
first view presented (the primary effect), or the second view
presented (the recency effect).

After reviewing, the evidence as to the difference between a climax
(important arguments reserved until the end) and an "anti-climax"
order (major arguments presented at the beginning and weaker ones
at the end) Hovland and Mandel concluded that neither order of
presentation had a substantial advantage over the other. More
important, for different audiences, are other factors such as attention,
learning and acceptance, which may contribute to making one order
of presentation superior to the others

With regard to the primary versus recency issue, the
investigators pointed out that the law of primacy is not always
superior. Primacy may occur when the audience is asked to make a
public commitment in favor of the first viewpoint between
presentation of the first and second viewpoints. Also, primacy may
occur if the second view presented by the same source contradicts
the first view just presented. However, primacy may not be effective
if the audience is forewarned of the fallibility of the first viewpoint, or
if activities intervene between the two presentations, or if different
sources present the two viewpoints.

When the message contains only one viewpoint, it is desirable
first to arouse the subject's needs and then to present
information that may satisfy such needs. This order is more
effective in inducing attitude change than presenting the information
first, and later arousing the needs. Further, attitudes change more
when communications highly desirable to the subject are presented
first, followed by the less desirable ones, than when the less
desirable ones come first. However, if attitude change is measured
after a period of delay, recency is more likely to be superior due to
the forgetting function. Researchers conclude that there is no
universal principle of primacy in persuasion, and that either primacy
effect or recency effect depends on a number of other factors.
These are time of measurement, similarity of issues, earlier positive
experience with the communicator, warnings against premature
commitment, arouse of needs before presentation of information,
ambiguity inherent in the sequence of communications.



Repetition, 3.2.3 Repetition, Variation and Cumulative Exposure
Variation and
Cumulative
Exposure Communication researches assume that repetition in itself
helps to make persuasion successful. However, analyses of the
successful persuasive campaigns suggest that although repetition is
of value, sheer parrot like reiteration may irritate the audience.
Repetition with variation, on the other hand, serves both constantly
to remind the listener or reader of the goal of persuasion, and
simultaneously, to appeal to several of his needs and drives.

Merton believes that the success of Kate Smith's war bond
marathon was due in large part to repetition with variation.
Merton identifies some 60 appeals, each of them unique from any of
its fellows, and all aimed at the same goal?; thus persons given more
than one type of reason to buy bonds were found more likely to do
so.
Regarding cumulative exposure, Annis and Meier found that
exposure to seven editorials was precisely as effective as
exposure to fifteen? and Hovland, Lumsdain and Sheffield found
that exposure to two Army orientation films produced no consistently
greater results than exposure to a single (but different) film in the
same series. On the other hand Peterson and Thurston found that
the effect of cumulative exposure to films on the same topic is to be,
in all respects, greater than the effect of a single exposure. Klapper
states that these contradictory findings regarding cumulative
exposure are difficult to reconcile with the consistent findings
regarding repetition with variation.

Understanding 3.3 Understanding the Audience
the Audience
Communicators, presenters must be aware of their audience needs
levels. They may capitalize on need levels if they know that the
audience has certain needs that must be fulfilled relying on this
process, the persuader shapes messages directed towards particular
needs. The idea of a need state is like a premise in an argument.

As persuaders, we are right to examine the current needs of those
we wish to influence. If we do that, not only are we likely to succeed,
but also we are more likely to render our audience a service by
giving them means to satisfy their needs.

Persuaders must direct their messages towards audience
needs, promising for, perhaps, hinting that by following our advice,
the need can be filled or reduced. In this section we are going to
discuss the main variables that have impact on audience behavior,
audience or human needs and the psychological process that
audience experience during receiving communicative messages.



There are many variables that combine together and form
audience behavior. We can divide these variables into two set of
group.

Individual 3.3.1 Individual Variables
Variables
Figure 3.2 illustrates the individual variables
A) Physiological variables: This refers to basic needs for individual
like thirst, hunger.
B) Psychological, Social variables: Those variables are classified
into three categories:
1- Motives that includes desires and needs.
2- Attitudes including emotions.
3- Personal characteristics.
C) Cognitive variables: Which include concepts that refer to his
frame of reference that individual rely upon in understanding and
reacting to his environment. The second aspect is thinking, and
deciding and the third aspect is learning meaning the ability to utilize
from previous experiences.
The model of individual’s behavior

Individual variables basic Environmental variables
Psychological needs – - Impact of environment
psychological needs – social on individuals, norms,
needs. attitudes, behavior.
- Communication
methods.
- Social, geographical
environment.

Cognitive variables
Concepts Thinking rationalizing Learning

Figure 3.2: model of individual’s behavior

Environmental 3.3.2 Environmental variables
variables
These variables include:
A- Correlation between local community and the people
and their impact on individual attitudes (values sources
of communication, sources of effect).
B- Communication methods in the environment.
C- Characteristics of communication messages in the
environment individual.
• Geographic environment.
• Individual social environment.
• Nature of individual community (liberal, conservative).
• Economic standard.



Human needs Human needs
Maslow’s Pyramid

Abraham Maslow, a noted psychologist, developed a clear and
understandable model of human needs which organizes and
lists, in a pyramid form, as shown in Figure 3.3, various levels of
Maslow’s
Pyramid needs which are a part of all of us. Some are weak, others strong,
but various ones must be met from time to time to keep us alive and
growing. The important thing is to identify these needs, for they
often serve as the first premise in persuasive argument, for example,
a person dying of thirst can be easily persuaded to take drastic
action in order to get water to fulfill the need for liquid.

Maslow argues that these needs have a prepotency, that is, they
are tied together in such a way that weaker needs, like self-respect,
emerge only after strong needs, like the need for food, have been
fulfilled. He arranges the various needs in a clear and
understandable model. He says that needs are arranged in a
pyramid style with lower levels having the stronger needs, and the
higher levels having the weaker needs.

Further, it should be noted that higher needs are not any better
than lower ones. They are just different and likely to emerge until
stronger needs are met.

Figure 3.3: The Maslow Pyramid Of Needs
A) Basic Needs
A) Basic Needs
On the bottom level of the strongest needs we have are basic
needs. They are usually taken as the straight points for motivation
theory and are also called 'psychological drives'.

The body makes automatic efforts to maintain a constant, normal
state of the blood stream. Hunger, thirst, sleep, etc…, are part of
these needs. It is possible to satisfy the hunger need in part by
other activities such as drinking water or smoking cigarettes.



Therefore, these psychological needs are only relatively isolable.
Until basic needs are met, we cannot concern ourselves with other,
higher needs. They are too strong to be forgotten in favor of other
needs.

B) Security B) Security Needs
Needs
The second level of Maslow’s pyramid contains our needs
connected with security and safety. If the first set of needs is
relatively gratification, then there emerges a new set categorized
roughly as safety and security needs.

Adults have been taught to inhibit reaction to threat or danger
whereas children express it freely. A child who, because of some
bad food is taken ill to the hospital, may for a day or two, develop
fear, look at need for security.

If we feel that our job may end shortly, we have a strong need to
get income security. We might want to get another more secure
job, or we might want to save money for hard times. In other words,
this need for security emerges and reemerges as various threats to
our security become evident and must be met. Once the need is met,
it redefines itself and thus is always present to some degree.

C) Belonging C) Belonging Needs
Needs The third level of needs is belonging needs. We become aware of
them once our security and safety needs are satisfied. Usually the
individual seeks groups with which to fill this need. Many
people relate to no group other that at their jobs or families. Cities
are filled with persons who seem to have a strong need for
belonging. They are joiners of societies. Usually, we keep the
number of groups we join small, and though we may be members of
a number of groups, we are active members in only a few. We
continue to join groups throughout our lives, for this need is also a
reemerging one.
D) Love And
Esteem Needs D) Love And Esteem Needs
If the belonging needs are satisfied, we will start wanting other
needs. This is level four of Maslow’s model, the need for love and
esteem. As human beings we want to be wanted and valued. We
are happy when our families understand and admire the things we
do. However, this need is never fully satisfied, and we try to seek
other circumstances in which we can achieve status and rank that
will help meet our need for love and esteem by others.
E) Self
Actualization E) Self Actualization
At the peak of the pyramid is the need for self-actualization. Stated in
another way, this need might be called the need to live up to what
we think is our true self-potential. Although this need is weaker
than the other need levels, yet in some cases lower needs are



displaced to fulfill the need for self-actualization. Some artists have
gone cold and hungry just so they could continue painting or
composing music. These persons define their self-actualization
level as a basic need. To those artists, creative activity is as basic
as breathing or eating or sleeping. Some of these needs are truth,
goodness, beauty, individuality, perfection, justice.
Emotional
Needs Packard’s Emotional Needs:
In his bestselling book "The Hidden Persuaders", Packard identified
emotional needs that are still considered a description of the kinds
of appeals we see on T.V., in magazines, and in the world of
politics and ideas.

Selectivity Model Selectivity Model
Audience is always interacting with what we call the selectivity
process. This process acquires four main stages:

1. Selective 1. Selective Attention: it refers to audience trends to pay attention
Attention by hearing or reading only the messages they prefer or select that
matches with their needs interest, culture and attitudes.
2. Selective
2. Selective Perception: Referring that audience may expose to the
Perception message but they select only codes or ideas or messages as
analyzed by frame of reference.
3. Selective Retention: Referring to audience ability to either
3. Selective remember or forget specific messages according to their values,
Retention
interests and variables explained before.
4. Selective Decision: According to all that differences in variables
4. Selective
and factors audience differs in their reaction to messages and their
Decision
response to various appeals. The lost decision on reaction to
everyone of the audience is affected according to many social,
psychological, economic variables as shown in the comprehensive
behavioral model.

Feedback 3.4 Feedback
Feedback is very important to the communication. It tells us if we
are on course or off-course. The least powerful position in the
world is to keep doing the same thing over and over without knowing
its impact. Sometimes criticism will hurt our feelings but our
success in the workplace and in life is directly correlated with
our ability to hear criticism. That is how we learn, feedback gives
us indications to what extent did receivers understand our
messages. Communicators are always asked to stimulate the
audience and encourage them to provide their feedback during the
communication process. This is why communicators should be
aware with different types of questions.



Types of 3.4.1 Types of Questions
Questions

There are two classifications under which types of questions are
identified. Traditional classification of questions is divided into three
categories.

A) Closed A) Closed: It is identified by the dead-end questions because these
questions limit the answer to yes or no.
B) Open ended: It is called the finishing questions that type of
B) Open questions let people respond as extensively as they please.
C) Direct C) Direct questions: Or shooting question that ask very specific
information. Of course, while seeking feedback you mainly depend
on the open-ended questions. Such questions require answers
and can be considered as very good indicators of the reaction
to your message.

Some types of those smart questions are:

1. seeking 1. Questions seeking information: they are the type of questions
information that can obtain information for receivers such as: what was the
result of the meeting yesterday?
2. encouraging 2. Questions encouraging discussion: These questions can open
discussion discussion on many aspects of the messages such as: what was
your feedback about this meeting? How do you think we should
improve this process?
3. Probing
(Follow-up) 3. Probing questions (Follow-up): These questions are designed
to follow-up another question for additional information.
4. Hypothetical 4. Hypothetical: These are questions which present a
hypothetical situation to stimulate creativity.
5. stimulating 5. Questions stimulating thoughts: These are questions that can
thoughts
be used to reveal opinion such as: What in your opinion? What do
you think?
6. showing 6. Questions showing interest or expressing feelings: Such
interest or questions are used to reveal attitudes such as: what do you feel
expressing about this decision? What was the employees' reaction on the
feelings
change of policy?

All of these questions can stimulate many responses that can
help you modify your message or emphasize it. There are
different styles of responses such as paraphrasing, enriching,
judging, analyzing supporting or withdrawing, see Figure 3.4.



Paraphrasing

Enriching Internal

Judging Analyzing

Withdrawing Supporting

Figure 3.4: Styles of Responses

Communicator should not be annoyed by interruptions but he
should always be prepared for them and ready to modify his
messages accordingly.

There are many productive interruptions such as: clarification,
elaboration, bringing to focus reinforcement and
encouragement. All of these types can facilitate the flow of the
messages. On the other hand, communicator should be aware of
non-productive interruptions such as put-downs, objection, joking,
corrections, judgments, jumping to conclusion and changing the
subject. The communicator receiving that type of interruptions
should be ready to modify his message and gain audience attention
once more.
Productive
Interruptions Productive Interruptions
• Clarification.
• Elaboration.
• Bringing to focus.
• Feedback.
• Reinforcement, encouragement.
Non-Productive
Interruptions Non-Productive Interruptions
• Put-Downs.
• Objection.
• Joking.
• Corrections.
• Judgments.
• Jumping to conclusions.
• Changing the subject.



At that point, communicator should be fully aware of the verbal and
non-verbal clues of feedback from his audience.

Verbal Clues of 3.4.2 Verbal Clues of Feedback
Feedback
These clues are divided into two categories.

A) Positive Feedback: It can be recognized by having reinforcing,
productive constructive feedback or a balanced feedback from your
audience. That kind of indicators will help you proceed with your
ideas.
B) Negative Feedback: It can be recognized by having one of the
audiences attacking you or other people or their behavior.
Positive
Feedback Positive Feedback:
• Reinforcing.
• Providing constructive feedback.
• Providing balanced feedback.

Negative
Feedback Negative Feedback:
• Attacking people.
• Attacking behavior.

3.4.3 Non-Verbal Feedback
Non-Verbal
Feedback The Eyes Have It: The first clue you want to be aware of is the eyes
of each audience member. It may be hard to see the eyes of people
The Eyes
more than 20 feet away, so start with them. First, check to make
sure there eyes are open! Unless you give instructions to close
your eyes and imagine, shut eyelids mean a bored crowd. Check to
see if the people are following your actions with their eyes that
they are focused on your actions and that folks are making a
conscious effort to see the presentation. In other words, those eyes
aren't wandering about the room. Questions about not being able to
see your slide text, for instance, are a good sign of audience interest,
although it means your visuals are improperly prepared. "That's a
whole different article.

Actions Actions Speak Louder Than Words

Look for critical body language from the crowd. People ducking out
the back door is never a good sign, because it means you're not
interesting enough to keep them around or you're too long between
breaks and they have to go to the bathroom. Even how people sit in
their seats is important. You want to see people leaning forward
with erect posture, not leaning back getting comfortable enough
for a catnap. Watch out for crossed arms that are a clear portrait
that this person is resistant to what you are saying. Purposeful



positive head movement is an excellent signal, like nodding
indicating agreement or that a person has just had an "Ah-hah!"
experience. Shaking heads are not necessarily bad, depending on
other signals. It's OK to be controversial and get the audience
thinking, but not complete disagreement on all points, it is a bad
thing.
The
Engagement The Engagement Factor
Factor
The level to which your audience participates in your
presentation is a critical factor in determining how well they are
receiving you. This is the engagement factor. Even if you have told
them to save questions until the end, in every crowd there are
always one or two ham-actors who start asking questions during
the show. You have to deal with them and direct them to the
conclusion of your talk, but this is a great signal. They are telling the
rest of the audience that your subject matter, that you are engaging.
Are they laughing at your well-placed and relevant humor?
Good sign. Do you get a lot of questions during the Q&A?
Excellent! What about your audience involvement bits? It is
good to see people who play along and have answers when you ask
them questions. During group exercises you want to see people who
actually did what you asked them to do. They're engaged. If you stick
a microphone in front of someone's face and ask her opinion on what
she just heard, or ask her what she has learned so far, "I don't
know" is not a good answer. This lady is disengaged.

We can summarize the clues that audience might be giving in the
following table, along with what these signals mean and how can you
make adjustments in your presentation.

Notice how often in the adjustments that some form of humor can be
an appropriate remedy. People, even in the stuffiest of business
presentations like to laugh at you, at themselves, at life. Well-placed
and timed, tasteful, and relevant humor is something every presenter
should have in his arsenal of speaking weapons.

If you read the audience's eyes, watch what they do as you are
presenting, and check their engagement factor you'll be able to
make minor adjustments throughout any talk that will ensure it turns
out to be a home run event every time.



Clues that audience might be giving

The What it How to Adjust
Audience Means
Clue
Shut Boredom, Change pace, volume, and subject
eyelids tired crowd matter get them laughing with humor
Wandering Fidgety, Dramatic action, call attention to an
eyeballs distracted important point and ask for audience
focus, humor
Boredom, Change tactics, pointed humor (not
they've heard stupid), do something dramatic to re-
it before connect
move on to the next point, work on
content for next time, add
controversy
Leaning Apathy, Dramatic action, insert an exercise to
bad in waiting for involve them, humor
seats something
better
Shaking Disagreement Confront a selected head-shaker
heads ("You disagree? Tell us why?"), offer
an alternative viewpoint that others
embrace (even though you do not)
No Disinterested, Plant seed questions with several
questions confused, people in the audience ahead of time
during hesitant to get the ball rolling, directly call on
Q&A people who you read as being most
engaged during the presentation
People Disconnected, Better explain your exercises, have
aren't your other speakers check your material
doing your exercises to make sure exercises are relevant
exercises need work to your points, walk around during
the time they are doing the tasks and
help those who are inactive
“I don't Disconnected, Self-deprecating humor, lightening
know" drafting, shy tension, try again once, move on to
response someone else

Reception 3.5 Reception Skills
Skills

Listening
3.5.1 Listening
How to Prepare for Listening: In order to prepare yourself for
listening you should follow these guidelines:
a) Determine your purpose. We have said that the chief difference
between hearing and listening is that listening involves both the



mind and the ears. Another way of expressing this difference is
to say that listening has a purpose. This point is important
because different purposes in listening imply different kinds of
listening.
Your purpose in listening may be to act friendly and sociable as
would be the case in a party conversation; to obtain or to
analyze critically, as in listening to a political debate.
Listening in each situation calls for different skills and for
different degrees of attentiveness. In each situation the
demands are different because the purpose is different so you
must decide on your purpose for listening in every listening
situation. You will be a better listener as a result of knowing
why you are listening.
b) Get ready to listen; good listening implies a readiness to listen.
This requires that you prepare yourself for listening-physically,
mentally and emotionally. Literally, turn your back on distracting
sights and sounds, if necessary and always give your self
maximum opportunity for listening by sitting near enough to the
speaker to see and hear easily. 'If possible, read about a topic
in advance, because the more your know about a topic the
more interested you will be in what the speaker has to say
about it. Mental preparation, because it invariably supplies you
with a purpose for listening, automatically leads to emotional
involvement, and this in turn, increases your readiness to listen.

Job Success Listening and Job Success: Habits of efficient listening contribute
greatly to ones success in all areas of life, but particularly in
business.
a) Supervisors must know how to listen. They listen to their
employees to find out what they think so that management
can help to settle grievances and establish good employee
relationships. They also listen to their employees because
they know that their employees often contribute time-and-
money-saving ideas to those employers which prove to be
sympathetic and appreciative audiences.
b) All employees must know how to listen. Listening is also
extremely important at all levels of employment. Many
employees in business rely on listening skills to help them carry
out their daily assignments. The employees working, in travel
and tourism must listen just as carefully to determine the wishes
of customers. One large retailing- organization found that two
out of every three former customers had taken their business
elsewhere because its sales personnel were indifferent to
customer's needs. Moreover, the organization found that much
of the indifference was expressed through poor listening.
Among others who are greatly dependent upon effective
listening for success in their jobs are service department
managers. When a customer brings a car into an automobile
service department, the service manager must listen and record
what the customer thinks is wrong with the automobile.



All employees who provide service of any kind and that include
most are partially, if not mainly dependent upon their listening
ability to carry out their duties,

A person listening will express his attitude to other people as surely
as the way in which he speaks to them. Indeed, writes Robert T.
Oliver, "for the real master of communication... listening and talking.

Nine Symptoms of Poor Listening:
1- Condemning the subject as uninteresting without a hearing.
There is no such things as an uninteresting subject there are
only uninteresting people. A variation on this symptom is to
prejudge a speaker as uninteresting for some reason or
another.
2- Criticizing the speaker's delivery or aids. One way of
expressing ones non-listening ability is to fasten on the
speaker's delivery or the quality of his audio-visual aids. Some
trick of pronunciation, involuntary movements or mannerisms,
all these can be sized upon as excuses for not listening to the
meaning.
3- Selective listening. Selective listening should not be confused
with listening in waves of attention which is in fact
characteristics of the good listener. Selective listening means
that you are programmed to turn a deaf ear to certain topics or
themes. AdoIf Hitler achieved a unique mastery in this field: he
only wanted to hear good news. Those who brought him bad
news, or told him the truth, encountered a personal insult. The
danger in selective listening is that it can become habitual and
unconscious, we become totally unaware that we only want to
listen to certain people or that we are filtering information. But
our friends and colleagues know better and they start
predigesting the material for us, omitting vital pieces, you can't
tell him the truth he doesn't want to know.
4- Interrupting. Persistent interrupting is the most obvious signs of
the bad listener. Of course, interrupting is an inevitable part of
everyday conversation, springing from the fact that we can think
faster than the other person can talk.
The interrupter, however, either gets it wrong or else-even worse-he
allows in with a remark which shouts out the fact that he has not
been listening to the half-completed part of meaning. He may
often be working on his own next piece of talk, and therefore be
literally too busy to listen. Once the remark is ready, he lets it
fly and starts winding up for the next one.
5- Day Dreaming. Day dreaming may be a natural escape from an
intolerable situation but it can also be a symptom of poor
listening. It is difficult to think two things at the same time. The
day dreamer has switched off and his attention is given to an
inner television screen. Some in her agenda has gained
precedence over what is being said to him.



6- Submit to External Distractions. Uncomfortable chairs, noise,
heat or cold, sunlight or gloom: the situation can master the
listener and drown the speaker and the content. The good
listener will try to deal with the distraction in some helpful way;
the poor one allows it to dominate his mind and rob him of
attention.
7- Evading the difficult or technical. Such is our addiction to the
clear simple and vivid that none of us cares for the difficult. The
lazy listener gives up at the first obstacle.
8- Submitting to emotional words. Symptom of the poor listener is
his vulnerability to trigger words. Words enter the atmosphere
carrying certain associations, pleasant or unpleasant.
9- Going to sleep. Sleep can be a symptom of a poor listener for the
art of listening requires a background. Sufficient sleep is a fact
which the poor practitioner habitually ignores. His late nights
and impressive tiredness may be signs that he has not
understood the importance of listening. Tiredness does affect
our listening.

Guides to Good 3.5.2 Guides to Good Listening
Listening
Ten guides to food listening: Based on a study of the 100 best and
the 100 worst listeners Ralph G. Nicholas has produced ten useful
guides to listening. They can be described briefly, as most of them
are positive versions of the negative symptoms of poor listening

1. Find Area of Interest: It is a rare subject which does not have
any possible interest or use for us; we naturally screen what is
being said for its interest or value.
2. Judge content, not delivery: Many listeners loose attention to a
speaker by thinking to themselves: "who would listen to such a
character? What an awful voice! Will he ever stop reading from
his notes? The good listener moves on to a different
conclusionary thinking "But wait a minute... I'm not interested in
his personality or delivery. I want to find out what he knows. Does
this man know some things that I need to know?"
3. Hold Your Fire: Over stimulation is almost as bad as
underestimation and the two together constitute the twin evils of
inefficient listening. The over stimulated listener gets too excited
or excited too soon by the speaker.
4. Listen for Ideas: The good listener focuses on the main ideas.
He does not focus on to the peripheral themes or seize of some
fact or other which may block his mind from considering the
central ideas.
5. Be flexible: The good listener should be flexible and moderate
not biased to certain ideas or color facts to his own interest.
6. Work at Listening: Good listening takes energy. Attention is a
form of directed energy. We ought to establish eye contact and
maintain to indicate by posture and facial expression that the



occasion and the speaker's effort are a matter of real concern to
us. When to express himself more clearly and we in turn profit by
better understanding the improved communication we have
helped him to achieve.
7. Resist Distractions: A good listener instinctively fights
distraction. Sometimes the fight is easily won by closing a door,
shutting off a radio moving closer to the person talking, or asking
him to speak louder. If the distractions cannot be met that easily
then it becomes a matter of concentration.
8. Exercise Your Mind: Good listeners regard apparently difficult or
demanding presentations or speakers as challenges to their
mental abilities.
9. Keep your mind open: Effective listeners try to identify their
own prejudices. Instead of turning a deaf ear, they seek to
improve upon their perception and understanding precisely in
those areas.
10. Capitalize on thought speed: Most persons talk at a speed of
125 words per minutes. There is good evidence that if thought
were measured in words per minute, most of us could think easily
at about four times that rate. The good listener uses his thought
speed to advantage; he constantly applies his spare thinking time
to what is being said.

Active Listening 3.5.3 Active Listening
Requires listening to all verbal and the nonverbal interact with
the feeling behind the message. Active listening means the search
for the real meaning of the message.

We can focus on four listening categories:
1) Selective
Listening
1) Selective Listening: When you prepare your self to select certain
topics of your interest to concentrate in listening to it avoiding other
topics of less interest.
2) 2) Comprehensive Listening: This refers to listening with
Comprehensive concentration to information, opinion, emotions and feelings. The
Listening
comprehensive listening include listen to verbal and watching non-
verbal clues of the presentation.
3) Critical 3) Critical Listening: This refers to listening with analyzing to the
Listening presentation in order to conclude positive negative aspects of the
presentation.
4) Appreciative
4) Appreciative Listening: This type of listening is linked to type of
Listening information and the credibility of the communicator where you
appreciate the kind of information and the communicative skills of the
communicator.



Strategies for 3.5.4 Strategies for Improving Listening Skills
Improving
Listening Skills
There are several strategies we should bare in mind for improving
our listening skills:

- Prepare to listen.
- Limit your own talking.
- Be patient, provide the time needed.
- Concentrate.
- List interjections.
- Clarify and confirm your understanding.
- Rephrase in your own words.
- Avoid jumping to conclusion.
- Practice listening.
- Listen to verbal, watch non-verbal.
- Listen for emotions and feelings.


C8/1: Communication Skills References

References
References
Bernrd Berelson & Gray Stenier, Human Behavior, New York:
Harcount, Brace and World Inc.

1. Everett Rogers, and Floyd shoemaker, Communication of
Innovation – A Cross Cultural Approach, New York Free
Press.

2. Snohendukar, Dianne Demogone and Barbra Rar,
Communication Research in Family Planning, Paris,
UNESCO.

3. Charles Cooley, Social Organization, New York, Cherls
Scrinbneks Sons.

4. Glany and lkang, Mass Communication and Public Opinion
Strategies for Research in M. Rosenberg and R Turner (ed.)
social Psychology, Psychological Perspective. New York
Bas & Books.

5. Ibtsaam ElGendy, Inas Abou Youssef – Introduction to
Communication, Cairo University, 1999.

6. Shahimaz Talaat – Introduction to Communication, Mass
communication Faculty, Cairo University, 2000.

7. Shahinaz Talaat, The Effects of Mass Media on Society –
Open University, Mass Communication Program – Cairo
University, 2001.

8. Yehia Dawish, Effective Preventative Skills Workshop,
unpublished paper – GUPCO – Oct. 2002.


Pathways to Higher Education Project

Pathways Mission Publications of Training Programs
1- Planning and Controlling
Training fresh university graduates in
2- Systems and Creative Thinking
order to enhance their research skills to 3- Research Methods and Writing Research
upgrade their chances in winning Proposals
national and international postgraduate 4- Statistical Data Analysis
scholarships as well as obtaining better 5- Teams and Work Groups
job. 6- Risk Assessment and Risk Management
7- Argumentation: Techniques of
Measurement and Development
Partners 8- Communication Skills
− CAPSCU, Cairo University 9- Negotiation Skills
10- Analytical Thinking
− Ford Foundation, USA
11- Problem Solving and Decision Making
− Future Generation Foundation, FGF 12- Stress Management
− National Council for Women, NCW 13- Accounting for Management and
− Cairo University Faculties of Decision Making
Commerce, Arts, Mass Communication, 14- Basics of Managerial Economics
15- Economic Feasibility Studies
Law, Economics & Political Science, 16- Health, Safety and Environment
and Engineering 17- Wellness Guidelines: Healthful Life
18- Basic Arabic Language Skills for
Training Programs Scientific Writing
19- General Lectures Directory
− Enhancement of Research Skills 20- Enhancement of Research Skills
− Training of Trainers Graduation Projects Directory
− Development of Leadership Skills

Project Web-site
www.Pathways-Egypt.com

Published by: CAPSCU – Center for Advancement of Postgraduate Studies and
Research in Engineering Sciences, Faculty of Engineering - Cairo University
Tel: (+202) 5716620, (+202) 5678216 Fax: (+202) 5703620
Web-site: www.capscu.com E-mail: capscu@tedata.net.eg

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