Cell structure and function

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Cell – Structure and Function
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4
CELL – STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
INTRODUCTION
All organisms are composed of structural and functional units of life called ‘cells’.
The body of some organisms like bacteria, protozoans and some algae is made up
of a single cell while the body of fungi, plants and animals are composed of many
cells. Human body is built of about one trillion cells.
Cells vary in size and structure as they are specialized to perform different functions.
But the basic components of the cell are common to all cells. This lesson deals
with the structure common to all types of the cell. You will also learn about the
kinds of cell division and the processes involved therein. in this lesson.
OBJECTIVES
After completing this lesson, you will be able to :
justify that cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all organisms;
list the components of the cell and state cell theory;
differentiate between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells;
differentiate between plant and animal cells;
illustrate the structure of plant and animal cells by drawing labelled diagrams;
describe the structure and functions of plasma membrane, cell wall, endoplasmic
reticulum (ER), cilia, flagella, nucleus, ribosomes, mitochondria, chloroplasts,
golgi body, peroxisome, glyoxysome and lysosome;
describe the general importance of the cell molecules-water, mineral ions,
carbohydrates, lipids, amino acids, proteins, nucleotides, nucleic acids, enzymes,
vitamins, hormones, steroids and alkaloids;
justify the need for cell division;
describe various phases of cell cycle;
explain the term karyotype and mention the karyotype analysis and its
significance.

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4.1 THE CELL AND CELL THEORY
4.1.1 Landmarks in cell study
Soon after Anton van Leewenhock invented the microscope, Robert Hooke in 1665
observed a piece of cork under the microscope and found it to be made of small
compartments which he called “cells” (Latin cell = small room). In 1672,
Leewenhock observed bacteria, sperm and red blood corpuscles, all of which were
cells. In 1831, Robert Brown, an Englishman observed that all cells had a centrally
positioned body which he termed the nucleus.
4.1.2 The cell theory
In 1838 M.J. Schleiden and Theodore Schwann formulated the “cell theory.” The
cell theory maintains that
all organisms are composed of cells.
cell is the structural and functional unit of life, and
cells arise from pre-existing cells.
The cells vary considerably, in shape and size (Fig.4.1). Nerve cells of animals have
long extensions. They can be several feet in length. Muscle cells are elongated in
shape. Egg of the ostrich is the largest cell (75 mm). Some plant cells have thick
walls. There is also wide variation in the number of cells in different organisms.
4.1.3 The Cell
A cell may be defined as a unit of protoplasm bounded by a plasma or cell
membrane and possessing a nucleus. Protoplasm is the life giving substance and
includes the cytoplasm and the nucleus. The cytoplasm has in it organelles such
as ribosomes, mitochondria, golgi bodies plastids, lysosomes and endoplasmic
reticulum. Plant cells have in their cytoplasm large vacuoles containing non-living
inclusions like crystals, pigments etc. The bacteria have neither organelles nor a
well formed nucleus. But every cell has three major components
plasma membrane
cytoplasm
DNA (naked in bacteria and covered by a membrane in all other organisms
Two basic types of cells
Cytologists recognize two basic types of cells (Fig. 4.1). Their differences have been
tabulated below in table 4.1. Organisms which do not possess a well formed nucleus
are prokaryotes such as the bacteria. All others possess a well defined nucleus,
covered by a nuclear membrane. They are eukaryotes.

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Table 4.1 Differences between Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic cells
Eukaryotic cell (eu = true, karyon = nucleus) Prokaryotic cell (Pro = early/primitive)
1. Nucleus distinct, with well formed 1. Nucleus not distinct, it is in the form
nuclear membrane. of nuclear zone ‘nucleoid’. Nuclear
membrane absent.
2. Double-membraned cell organelles 2. Single-membraned cell bodies like
(Chloroplasts, mitochondria nucleus) mesosomes present. Endoplasmic
and single membraned (Golgi apparatus, reticulum and Golgi body absent.
lysosomes vacuole endoplasm reticulum)
are present
3. Ribosomes - 80 S 3. Ribosomes - 70 S
4. Distinct compartments in the cell 4. No compartments.
i.e. the cytoplasm and the nucleus
Fig. 4.1a Eukaryotic Cell Fig. 4.1b Prokaryotic Cell
(As seen in an electron micrograph.)
Svedberg unit
When the cell is fractionated or broken down into its components by
rotating in an ultracentrifuge at different speeds the ribosomes of eukaryotic
and prokaryotic sediment (settle down) at different speeds. The coefficient
of sedimentation is represented in Svedberg unit and depicted as S.
The plant cell and the animal cell also differ in several respects as given in Table
4.2 and shown in Fig. 4.2.
Table: 4.2 Difference between plant cell and animal cell
Plant cell
1. Cellulose cell wall present around cell
membrane.
2. Vacuoles are usually large.
3. Plastids present.
4. Golgi body present in the form of units
known as dictyosomes.
5. Centriole absent.
Animal cell
1. No cell wall.
2. Generally vacuoles are absent and if
present, are usually small..
3. Plastids absent.
4. Golgi body well developed.
5. Centriole present.

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Fig. 4.2a Generalised plant cell Fig. 4.2b Generalised animal cell
INTEXT QUESTIONS 4.1
1. From where do new cells arise?
............................................................................................................................
2. Name the scientists who proposed the cell theory.
............................................................................................................................
3. Name an organelle which a plant cell has but an animal cell does not.
............................................................................................................................
4. Give two points of difference between a prokaryotic cell and a eukaryotic cell
............................................................................................................................
4.2 COMPONENTS OF THE CELL
The major components of the cell are (1) cell membrane, (2) cytoplasm, and (3)
nucleus.
4.2.1 Cell membrane (Plasma membrane)
Each cell has a limiting boundary, the cell membrane, plasma membrane or
plasmalemma. It is a living membrane, outermost in animal cells but next to cell
wall in plant cells.
It is flexible and can fold in (as in food vacuoles of Amoeba) or fold out (as in
the formation of pseudopodia of Amoeba)
The plasma membrane is made of proteins and lipids and several models were
proposed regarding the arrangement of proteins and lipids. The fluid mosaic model
proposed by Singer and Nicholson (1972) is widely accepted. It is represented in
Fig 4.3.

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According to the fluid mosaic model,
(i) The plasma membrane is composed of a lipid bilayer of phospholipid
molecules into which a variety of globular proteins are embedded.
(ii) Each phospholipid molecule has two ends, an outer head hydrophilic i.e. water
attracting, and the inner tail pointing centrally hydrophobic, i.e. water repelling
(iii) The protein molecules are arranged in two different ways:
(a) Peripheral proteins or extrinsic proteins: these proteins are present on the
outer and inner surfaces of lipid bilayer.
(b) Integral proteins or intrinsic proteins: These proteins penetrate lipid
bilayer partially or wholly.
Fig. 4.3 The fluid mosaic model of cell membrane.
Functions
(i) The plasma membrane encloses the cell contents.
(ii) It provides cell shape (in animal cells) e.g. the characteristic shape of red blood
cells, nerve cells, bone cells, etc
(iii) It allows transport of certain substances into and out of the cell but not all
substance, so it is termed selectively permeable.
Transport of small molecules (such as glucose, amino acids, water, mineral ions
etc).
Small molecules can be transported across the plasma membrane by any one of
the following three methods:
(i) Diffusion : molecules of substances move from their region of higher
concentration to their region of lower concentration. This does not require
energy. Example : absorption of glucose in a cell.
(ii) Osmosis : movement of water molecules from the region of their higher
concentration to the region of their lower concentration through a semipermeable
membrane. There is no expenditure of energy in osmosis. This kind of
movement is along concentration gradient.

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(iii) Active Transport : When the direction of movement of a certain molecules
is opposite that of diffusion i.e. from region of their lower concentration
towards the region of their higher concentration, it would require an “active
effort” by the cell for which energy is needed. This energy is provided by ATP
(adenosine triphosphate). The active transport may also be through a carrier
molecule.
Transport of large molecules (bulk transport)
During bulk transport the membrane changes its form and shape. It occurs in two
ways:
(i) endocytosis (taking the substance in)
(ii) exocytosis (passing the substance out)
Endocytosis is of two types :
Endocytosis
Phagocytosis
1. intake of solid particles
2. membrane folds out going round the
particle, forming a cavity and thus
engulfing the particle (Fig. 4.4a)
Fig. 4.4 Diagrammatic representation of (a) phagocytosis; (b) pinocytosis
Cell membrane regulates movement of substance into and out of the cell. If the
cell membrane fails to function normally the cell dies.
Cell wall
In bacteria and plant cells the outermost cell cover, present outside the plasma
membrane is the cell wall about which we shall study now.
Bacterial cell wall is made of peptidoglycan. Given below is the structure and
function of the plant cell wall.
Pinocytosis
1. intake of fluid droplets
2. membrane folds in and forms
a cup like structure sucks in
the droplets (Fig. 4.4b)

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(a) Structure
– Outermost non-living, layer present in all plant cells.
– Secreted by the cell itself.
– In plant, made of cellulose but may also contain other chemical substance such
as pectin and lignin.
– The substance constituting the cell is not simply homogenous but it consists
of fine threads or fibres called microfibrils.
– It may be thin (1 micron) and transparent as in the cells of onion peel. In some
cases it is very thick as in the cells of wood.
(b) Functions
– The cell wall protects the delicate inner parts of the cell.
– Being rigid, it gives shape to the cell.
– Being rigid, it does not allow distension of the cell, thus leading to turgidity
of the cell that is useful in many ways
– It freely allows the passage of water and other chemicals into and out of the
cells
– There are breaks in the primary wall of the adjacent cells through which
cytoplasm of one cell remains connected with the other. These cytoplasmic
strands which connect one cell to the other one are known as plasmodesmata.
– Walls of two adjacent cells are firmly joined by a cementing material called
middle lamella made of calcium pectate.
1. Define diffusion and osmosis.
............................................................................................................................
2. What does active transport mean?
............................................................................................................................
3. Give one point of difference between phagocytosis and pinocytosis.
............................................................................................................................
4. Match the following :
(i) hydrophilic end (a) cell wall
(ii) microfibrils (b) inner ends of lipids
(iii) fluid-mosaic model (c) fluid droplets
(iv) hydrophobic end (d) outer ends of lipids
(v) pinocytosis (e) Nicolson and Singer
5. Give two functions of the plant cell wall.
(i) ................................................... (ii) ......................................................

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4.3 THE CYTOPLASM AND THE CELL ORGANELLES
The cytoplasm contains many cell organelles of which we shall learn about :
1. those that trap and release energy e.g. mitochondria and chloroplasts;
2. those that are secretory or involved in synthesis and transport e.g. Golgi,
ribosomes and endoplasmic reticulum
3. the organelles for motilily - cilia and flagella
4. the suicidal bags i.e. lysosomes
5. the nucleus which controls all activities of the cell, and carries the hereditary
material
4.3.1 Mitochondria and chloroplast - the energy transformers
Mitochondria (found in plant and animal cells) are the energy releasers and the
chloroplasts (found only in green plant cells) are the energy trappers.
Mitochondria (Singular = mitochondrion)
Appear as tiny thread like structure under light microscope. Approximately 0.5 -
1.00 µm (micrometer)
Number usually a few hundred to a few thousand per cell (smallest number is just
one as in an alga (Micromonas)).
Structure: The general plan of the internal structure of a mitochondria observed
by means of electron microscope is shown in Fig. 4.5. Note the following parts.
Fig. 4.5 structure of a mitochondron
– Wall made of double membrane
– The inner membrane is folded inside to form projections called cristae which
project into the inner compartment called matrix.
Function : Oxidises pyruvic acid (breakdown product of glucose) to release energy
which gets stored in the from of ATP for ready use. This process is also called
cellular respiration.

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A highly simplified flow-chart of the fate of glucose to in the release energy is
shown below :
Plastids
Plastids are found only in a plant cell. They may be colourless or with colour. Based
on this fact, there are three types of plastids.
(i) Leucoplast-white or colourless
(ii) Chromoplast – blue, red, yellow etc.
(iii) Chloroplast – green
4.3.2 Chloroplast
Found in all green plant cells in the cytoplasm.
Number 1 to 1008
Shape: Usually disc-shaped or spherical as in most plants around you. In some
ribbon - shaped as in an alga spirogyra or cup - shaped as in another alga
Chlamydomonas.
Structure: the general plan of the structure of a single chloroplast is shown in
Fig. 4.6.
Fig. 4.6 Structure of a single chloroplast
Note the following parts :
Wall made of double membrane i.e. outer membrane and inner membrane
numerous stack-like (piles) groups or grana (singular = granum) are
interconnected by lamellae.
Sac like structures called thylakoids Placed one above the other constitut
granum.
In mitochondria
Oxidised into
CO2, H2O and
ATP
Broken into two
Pyruvic acid
molecules
(containing 3
atoms of carbon)
In cytoplasm.
glucose enters
cells (containing
6 atoms of
carbon)

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Inside of the chloroplast is filled with a fluid medium calleds stoma.
Function: chloroplasts are the seat of photosynthesis (production of sugar, from
carbondioxide and water in the presence of sunlight).
Chloroplast versus mitochondria
Can you now visualize how these two organelles are opposite to each other, one
traps the solar energy locking it in a complex molecule (by photosynthesis), the
other releases the energy by breaking the complex molecule (by respiration).
Similarities between mitochondria and chloroplasts : both contain their own
DNA (the genetic material) as well as their own RNA (for protein synthesis). Thus,
they can self duplicate to produce more of their own kind without the help of
nucleus.
Since chloroplasts and mitochondria contain their own DNA the hereditary
molecule and also their own ribosomes, they are termed semi-autonomous only
because they are incapable of independent existence though they have ribosomes
and DNA.
1. What is a cell organelle?
............................................................................................................................
2. Name the chemical which provides energy trapped in its bonds to the cell.
............................................................................................................................
3. Which part of the chloroplasts is the site of light reaction?
............................................................................................................................
4. Name the sac like structure which form the grana?
............................................................................................................................
5. Why is mitochondria called the “energy currency” of the cell?
............................................................................................................................
6. Which organelle contains enzymes for cellular respiration?
............................................................................................................................
7. State two similarities between mitochondria and chloroplast.
............................................................................................................................
8. Which plastids impart colour to flower petals?
............................................................................................................................
9. Which plastid is green in colour?
............................................................................................................................
10. Why are mitochondria and Chloroplast called semi-autonomous?
............................................................................................................................

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4.3.3 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER), golgi body and ribosomes
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and Golgi body are single membrane bound structures.
The membrane has the same structure (lipid-protein) as the plasma membrane but
ribosomes do not have membranes Ribosomes are involved in synthesis of
substances in the cell, Golgi bodies in secreting and the ER in transporting and
storing the products. These three organelles operate together.
Fig. 4.7 and Fig. 4.8 show the diagram of ER and Golgi body under an electron
microscope. Note the ribosomes present in ER.
Fig. 4.7 Golgi body Fig. 4.8 Endoplasmic reticulum
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
Structure
A network of membranes with thickness
between 50 - 60A°. It is of two types–
rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
i.e. when ribosomes are attached to it
and Smooth-endo-plasmic reticulum
(SER) when no ribosomes are present.
Throughout the cytoplasm and is in
contact with the cell membrane as well
as the nuclear membrane.
Function
Provides internal framework,
compartment and reaction surfaces,
transports enzymes and other materials
through out the cell. RER is the site for
protein synthesis and SER for steroid
synthesis, stores carbohydrates.
Gogli body
Is a stack of membranous sacs
of the same thickness as ER.
Exhibit great diversity in size
and shape.
In animal cells present around
the nucleus, 3 to 7 in number.
In plant cells, many and present
scattered throughout the cell
called dictyosomes.
Synthesis and secretion as
enzymes, participates in
transformation of membranes
to give rise to other membrane
structure such as lysosome,
acrosome, and dictyosomes,
synthesize wall element like
pectin, mucilage.
Ribosomes
Spherical about 150 - 250
Å in diameter, made up of
large molecules of RNA
and proteins (ribonucleo
proteins)
Present either as free
particles in cytoplasm or
attached to ER. Also found
stored in nucleolus inside
the nucleus. 80S types
found in eukaryotes and
70S in prokaryotes (S-
svedberg unit of measuring
ribosomes).
Site for protein synthesis.

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1. Given below is a list of functions, relate them to their respective organelles:
(a) synthesis of some enzymes .....................................
(b) synthesis of steroids .....................................
(c) storage of carbohydrates .....................................
(d) Intracellular transport .....................................
(e) Synthesis of proteins .....................................
2. Name the equivalent structure of Golgi body in plants. Mention two differences
between their structures.
(i) ………………………....…. (ii) ………….....................…………
3. Mention any two advantages of the extensive network of endoplasmic reticulum?
(i) …………………………….. (ii) ……………….....………………
4. What are the three places where ribosomes occur in a cell?
............................................................................................................................
5. Name the membrane system that connects the nuclear membrane with the cell
membrane?
............................................................................................................................
4.3.4 The microbodies (tiny but important)
These are small sac-like structures bounded by their membranes. These are of
different kinds of which we will take up three like lysosomes, peroxisomes and
glyoxysomes.
1. Lysosomes (lysis = breaking down; soma = body)
Lysosomes are present in almost all animal cells and some non - green plant cells
(Fig 4.9). They perform intracellular digestion.
Fig. 4.9 Lysosomes

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Some main features of lysosomes are as follows :
(i) Membranous sacs budded off from golgi body.
(ii) May be in hundreds in single cell.
(iii) Contain several enzymes (about 40 in number)
(iv) Materials to be acted upon by enzymes enter the lysosomes.
(v) Lysosomes are called “suicidal bags” as enzymes contained in them can digest
the cell’s own material when damaged or dead.
Importance of intracellular digestion by the lysosomes
(i) help in nutrition of the cell by digesting food, as they are rich in various
enzymes which enable them to digest almost all major chemical constituents
of the living cell.
(ii) Help in defence by digesting germs, as in white blood cells.
(iii) Help in cleaning up the cell by digesting damaged material of the cell.
(iv) Provide energy during cell starvation by digestion of the cells own parts
(autophagic, auto : self; phagos: eat up).
(v) Help sperm cells in entering the egg by breaking through (digesting) the egg
membrane.
(vi) In plant cells, mature xylem cells lose all cellular contents by lysosome activity.
(vii) When cells are old, diseased or injured, lysosomes attack their cell organelles
and digest them. In other words lysosomes are autophagic, i.e. self devouring.
2. Peroxisomes
Found both in plant and animal cells. Found in the green leaves of higher plants.
They participate in oxidation of substrates resulting in the formation of hydrogen
peroxide.
Thet often contain a central core of crystalline material called nucleoid
composed of urate oxidase crystals.
These bodies are mostly spherical or ovoid and about the size of mitochondria
and lysosomes.
They are usually closely associated with E.R.
They are involved in with photorespiration in plant cells.
They bring about fat metabolism in cells.
3. Glyoxysomes
The microbodies present in plant cells and morphologically similar to
peroxisomes.
Found in the cell of yeast and certain fungi and oil rich seeds in plants.
Functionally they contain enzyme of fatty acid metabolism involved in the
conversion of lipids to carbohydrates during germination.

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1. Why are lysosomes called suicidal bags?
............................................................................................................................
2. List the usefulness of intracellular digestion by lysosomes
............................................................................................................................
3. What is the function of peroxisomes in plant cells
............................................................................................................................
4.3.5 Cilia and flagella (the organelles for mobility)
(i) Some unicellular organisms like Paramecium and Euglena swim in water with
the help of cilia and flagella respectively.
(ii) In multicellular organism some living tissues (epithelial tissues) have cilia.
They beat and create a current in the fluid in order to move in a given direction
e.g. in the wind pipe (trachea) to push out the mucus and dust particles.
(iii) Cilia beat like tiny oars or pedals (as in a boat) and flagella bring about whip
– like lashing movement.
(iv) Both are made up of contractile protein tubulin in the form of microtubules.
(v) The arrangement of the microtubules in termed 9 + 2, that is, two central
microtubules and nine set surrounding them.
Cilia
shorter (5 to 10 µm)
several 100 per cell structure : protoplasmic
projection and membrane bound
consist of 9 sets of peripheral microtubules and
1 set of tubules in the centre
Centriole
It is present in all animal cells (but not in Amoeba), located just outside the nucleus.
It is cylindrical, 0.5 µm in length and without a membrane. It has 9 sets of peripheral
tubules but none in the centre. Each set has three tubules arranged at definite angles
(Fig. 4.10). It has its own DNA and RNA and therefore it is self duplicating.
Function : Centrioles are involved in cell division. They give orientation to the
‘mitotic spindle’ which forms during cell division
Fig. 4.10 Centriole
Flagella
longer (15 µm)
usually 1 or 2 in most cells
same as in cilia

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Basal bodies
These are structures similar to centrioles. They have the same nine sets of triplet
organization, as in the centrioles. The cilia and flagella appear to arise from the
basal bodies.
4.4 NUCLEUS (THE HEREDITARY ORGANELLE)
General structure of nucleus :
(i) It is the largest organelle seen clearly when the cell is not dividing.
(ii) It stains deeply, is mostly spherical, WBC have lobed nuclei.
(iii) It is mostly one in each cell (uninucleate, some cells have many nuclei;
(multinucleate).
(v) Double layered nuclear membrane enclosing nucleoplasm which contains
chromatin network and a nucleolus.
Functions
Maintains the cell in a working order.
Co-ordinates the activities of organelles.
Takes care of repair work.
Participates directly in cell division to produce genetically identical daughter
cells, this division is called mitosis.
Participates in production of gametes through another type of cell division
called meiosis.
The part of a nucleus are given here :
4.4.1 Nuclear membrane
Double layered membrane is interrupted by large number of pores.
Membrane is made up of lipids and proteins (like plasma membrane) and has
ribosomes attached on the outer membrane which make the outer membrane
rough.
The pores allow the transport of large molecules in and out of nucleus, and the
membranes keep the hereditary material in contact with the rest of the cell.
4.4.2 Chromatin
Within the nuclear membrane there is jelly like substance (karyolymph or
nucleoplasm) rich in proteins.
In the karyolymph, fibrillar structures form a network called chromatin fibrils,
which gets condensed to form distinct bodies called chromosomes during cell
division. On staining the chromosomes, two regions can be identified in the
chromatin material heterochromatin dark and autromaticn (light).
Heterochromatin has less DNA and genetically less active than euchromatin
which has more DNA and genetically more active.

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Numberofchromosomesisfixedinanorganism.Duringcelldivisionchromosomes
divide in a manner that the daughter cells receive identical amounts of hereditary
matter.
4.4.3 nucleolus
Membraneless,spheroidalbodiespresentinalleukaryoticcellsexceptinspermsand
in some algae.
Their number varies from one to few, they stain uniformly and deeply.
It has DNA, RNA and proteins.
Store house for RNA and proteins; it disappears during cell division and reappears
in daughter cells.
Regulates the synthetic activity of the nucleus.
Thus nucleus and cytoplasm are interdependent, and this process is equal to nucleo–
cytopalsmicinteraction.
1. Why cannot the cell survive without the nucleus?
............................................................................................................................
2. Explain the following terms:
(a) chromatin network......................................................................................
(b) chromosomes .............................................................................................
3. What is the function of the nucleolus in the cell?
............................................................................................................................
4.5 MOLECULES OF THE CELL
Thecellanditsorganellesaremadeoforganicchemicalssuchasproteins,carbohydrates,
nucleic acid and fats. These are aptly termed biomolecules. Inorganic molecules such as
water and minerals are also present in the cell.
A. Water
Water with unique physical and chemical properties has made life possible on earth.
It is a major constituent of protoplasm.
It is a medium in which many metabolic reactions occur.
It is universal solvent in which most substances remain dissolved.
It is responsible for turgidity of cells.

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B. Elements necessary for life
Elements Functions
Hydrogen, Carbon, Oxygen, Nitrogen, 1. Required for organic compounds of
Calcium, Potassium, Sodium, Magnesium, the cell and present as major
Phosphorous, Sulphur, Chlorine, Iron, constituents. Ca in plant cell wall, C,
Boron, Silicon, Manganese, Copper, H, O, N as organic compounds)
Zinc, Cobalt, Molybdenum, Silicon
2. Act as major cations (Na, K) and anions
(Cl) in most physiological process.
3. As cofactor of enzymes participate in most
of the biochemical reaction of a cell (Fe,
Cu, Mo, Zn, B)
4. Involved in energy transfer reactions
(P in ATP).
5. Green pigment chlorophyll in plants have
magnesium in the centre.
C. Biomolecules
(i) Carbohydrate
Structure Functions
1. Composed of C, H and O 1. Most abundant organic substance present
in nature in the form of cellulose in plant
cell wall.
2. Simple six carbon sugar (glucose) 2. In both plants and animals it is used as a
is called a monosaccharide. source of energy (sugar).
3. Two molecules or units join 3. An important storage form in plants is
together to form disaccharide starch and in animals it is glycogen.
(sucrose).
4. More than ten units of 4. Present in nucleic acids as five carbon
monosaccharides join in a chain to surgar (Ribose).
form a polysaccharide e.g. starch
and cellulose.
(ii) Amino acid
1. Basic amino acid structure shows 1. Plants have the ability to utilize inorganic
that the central carbon atom is nitrogen and synthesize amino acid.
attached with an amino group
(–NH2), a carboxylic acid group
(–COOH), one hydrogen and one
side group (R).
2. There are 20 different side groups 2. In animals principal source of amino acid
which give 20 different amino acids. is the plant or animals that it consumes
in its diet (pulses are rich in protein).
(iii) Proteins
1. Composed of C, H, O and N. 1. Structurally proteins form integral part
of the membranes

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2. Amino acids join together by 2. Functionally in the form of enzymes they
“peptide” bonds to form protein play a vital role in metabolic reactions.
moelcules.
3. Twenty different amino acids make 3. Synthesis of DNA is regulated by
numerous simple and complex protein.
proteins.
4. Based on the complexity of 4. Proteins are so important that nucleic
structure they can have primary, acids directly regulates protein synthesis
secondary, tertiary and quaternary
structures.
5. When proteins exist with other
molecules they are known as
conjugated proteins e.g. glycoprotein,
lipoprotein, chromoprotein etc.
(iv) Nucleic Acids
1. They are of two types : Deoxyribose 1. DNA is the main genetic material for
nucleic acid (DNA) and Ribosose almost all organisms except certain viruses.
nucleic acid (RNA)
2. They are long chain polymers 2. RNA molecules are involved in information
composed of units called nucleotides. transfer and protein synthesis.
3. Each nucleotide has pentose sugar,
nitrogen base and phosphate group.
4. DNA has one oxygen less in its sugar
molecule.
(v) Lipids
1. Composed of C, H, O. Amount of 1. Due to their low oxygen content, they
oxygen is very less. store and release more energy during
oxidation
2. They are synthesized from fatty acids 2. A molecule of fat can yield twice as much
and glycerol. Simple lipids are called energy as from carbohydrate.
glycerides.
3. Fats can be saturated or unsaturated. 3. Phospholipids are important component
of cell membranes.
4. Fats are solid at room temperature,
those that remain liquid at room
temperature are called oils.
(vi) Vitamins
1. Vitamins are organic compounds 1. Vitamins (from plant) are essential nutrients
required in the diet of animals for in animals diet as animals can not synthesise
their healthy growth. such compounds.
2. Vitamins are classified according to 2. Their deficiency cause various diseases in
their solubility into two groups : animal, like deficiency of vitamin B causes
Water soluble vitamin B and ascorbic “beri-beri” and that of vitamin C
acid and fat soluble vitamins (viz. A, causes scurvy.
D, E, K)

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3. Plants have the ability to synthesize 3. Vitamin A present in carotene pigment of
vitamines from CO2, NH3 and H2S. carrot. Vitamin D can be produced by man
with the help of sunlight. Vitamin K
produced by bacteria in human intestine.
(vii) Hormones
1. Hormones are specific organic 1. In animals hormones are produced in glands
substances effective in low concen- called endocrine glands which control all
trations, synthesized by cells in one the biochemical activities of the organism
part of the organism and then 2. In animals hormones may be proteins,
transported to another part of the peptides or steroids.
organism, where it produces 3. In plants hormones (growth regulators)
characteristic physiological responses. are generally produced in metabolically
active cells and control the vegetitive and
reproductive growth of the entire plant.
(viii) Alkaloids
1. Alkaloids are complex organic 1. The active principles of drugs from
compounds made of C, H, O medicinal plants are generally
and N. alkaloids e.g. Quinine from cinehona
plant. Ephedrine from Ephedra
Morphine from poppy plants
2. Alkaloid in plants are produced
from amino acids.
(ix) Steroids
1. These are fat soluble lipid
compounds synthesized from
cholesterol.
2. They are produced by the
reproductive organs like ovaries,
testes and placenta and also by
adrenal glands.
3. They include testosterone, estrogen,
cortisol etc.
1. What is the importance of water in a living cell.
............................................................................................................................

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Notes
2. What is the basic molecule in starch?
............................................................................................................................
3. What is a peptide bond and where do you find it?
............................................................................................................................
4. Which is the most energy containing biomolecule in living organisms?
............................................................................................................................
5. What are nucleotides?
............................................................................................................................
4.7 CELL DIVISION
A single cell divides many times and forms a multicelled organism. Unicellular bacteria
and protozoa divide and increase in number. Injured tissues are replaced by new cells
through cell division. Thus cell division is one of the most important activities in all
organisms. In this lesson you will study about the two kinds of cell division and the
processes involved in them.
Majority of cells in a multicellular organism grow and then can divide. But cells like the
nerve and muscle cells of animals and guard cells of plants do not divide.
Theprocessofcelldivisionisalmostsameinallorganisms.Acellpassesthroughphases
of growth after which are able to duplicate their chromosomes before they divide. These
phases in the life of a cell constitute the cell cycle.
4.7.1 The cell cycle
You can use the term mother or parent cell for the cell that undergoes division and the
daughter cells for the ones that are the result of this division. Before each daughter cell
undergoes division, it must grow to the same size as its mother cell. We can distinguish
two main phases in the life of a cell.
(i) Interphase - Non-dividing period (Growth phase)
(ii) Dividing phase -Also called M-phase (M for mitosis)
(i) Interphase - (Inter = in between)
The interval between two successive cell divisions is termed interphase (phase at
which the cell is not dividing). It is the longest period in the cell cycle (Fig.4.11).
The interphase is subdivided into three main periods - G1, S and G2.
G1 (Gap-1 ) Phase i.e. First phase of growth – This is the longest phase. Lot
of protein and RNA are synthesised during this phase.
S or synthetic Phase - It comes next. Lot of DNA is (synthesised). A
chromosome contains a single double helical strand of DNA molecule. After
S-phase each chromosomes has two molecules of DNA. Thus each chromatid

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containingonemoleculeofDNA.Thetwochromatidsarejoinedbythecentromere
to form a single chromosome.
Fig. 4.11 The cell cycle consists of various stages (G1, S, G2 and M)
G2 (GAP 2) phase - More protein is synthesised in this phase. Cytoplasmic
organelles such as mitochondria, golgi bodies get duplicated. Centriole also
divides into two centrioles contained in a single centrosome.
(ii) M-phase or dividing phase - Represented by the symbol M (Mitosis or
meiosis) (Fig. 4.l1). Mitosis occurs so that during this period the chromatids
separate and form daughter chromosomes. The daughter chromosomes go to
daughter nuclei and cytoplasm divides forming two identical daughter cells.
1. Explain in one sentence
(i) Interphase ..................................................................................................
(ii) Synthetic-phase .........................................................................................
(iii) Dividing-phase ..........................................................................................
2. What is the full form of the following in the cell cycle?
(i) Gl ....................................................................................................................................................
(ii) S ................................................................................................................
(iii) G2 ..............................................................................................................
(iv) M-Phase ....................................................................................................

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Notes
4.7.2 Kinds of cell division
There are two kinds of cell division- mitosis and meiosis.
1. Mitosis : Cell division for growth and replacement wherein the two daugher
cells are identical and similar to mother cell in all respects.
2. Meiosis : It occurs in the gonads for sexual reproduction to produce gametes.
The resultant cells, egg (in female) and sperms (in male), possess half the
chromosome number of the parent cell.
1. Mitosis (mitos = thread) Mitosis is divided into 4 phases or stages termed as
(i) Prophase (ii) Metaphase
(iii) Anaphase (iv) Telophase
These phase refer to the changes taking place in the nucleus (Fig. 4.12).
Fig. 4.12 Stages of Mitosis in an animal cell (presuming there is just one
pair of chromosome in groups).
The nucleus divides first and then the whole cell divides. Division of one
nucleus to give two daughter nuclei (karyokinesis). Division of cytoplasm
to give two daughter cells (cytokinesis).

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Prophase : It shows three subphases :
(i) Easly prophase
(a) Centrioles start moving towards opposite
poles of theNucleolus cell.
(b) Chromosomes appear as long threads.
(c) nucleus become less distinct (Fig. 4.13a)
(ii) Middle prophase
(a) Chromosomes conden-sation is complete
(b) Each chromosome is made up of two
chromatids held togeilier at their
centromeres.
(c) Each chromatid contains newly replicated
daughter DNA. molecule.
(iii) Late Prophase
(a) Centrioles reach the pole.
(b) Some spindle fibres extend from pole to the
equator of die cell.
(c) Nuclear membrane disappear
(d) Nucleolus is not visible.
Metaphase
(a) chromosomes move, towards the equator of the
cell.
(b) Each chromosome becomes attached to the spindle
fibre by centromere.
(c) The sister chromatids are not yet separated. (Fig.
4.13b)
Anaphase
(a) Centromeres divide
(b) Two daughter chromatids separate
(c) Each chromatid now contains a centromere and
is now termed a chromosome.
(d) Half the number of now chromosomes (daugher chromatids) move toward one
pole and the other half to the other pole.
(e) Cytokinesis begins as the cleavage furrow starts in animal cells.
Fig. 4.13a Prophase
Fig. 4.13b Metaphase
Fig. 4.13c Anaphase

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Notes
Telophase
(a) Chromosomes begin to form a chromatin
network as in a nucleus.
(b) New nuclear membrane is formed around
each daughter nucleus
(c) Nucleolus becomes visible again.
Cytokinesis
It is the process of the division of cytoplasm
into two. It is initiated in the beginning of
telophase and is completed by the end of
telophase. The cytokinesis is different in
plant cell and animal cell. In an animal cell,
invagination of plasma membrane proceeds
from the periphery of the cell towards the
interior. In plant cell phragmoplast (cell plate)
begins to form in the centre of cell and then
expands towards the periphery (Fig. 4.13e).
Siginificance of Mitosis
It is an equational division, and the two
daughter cells are identical in all respects.
They receive the same number and kind of
chromosomes as were in the mother cells.
It is the only mode of reproduction in unicellular organisms.
It is the process by which growth takes place in animals and plants by constantly
adding more and more cells.
It also plays a role in repair by growth, example in wound healing, regeneration
of damaged parts (as in the tail of lizard), and replacement of cells lost during
normal wear and tear (as the surface cells of the skin or the red blood cells).
Mitosis (Limited or unlimited)
Growth by mitosis occurs in a limited or controlled manner to the extent it is
required in the body. But at times due to some special causes it may continue to
unlimited situation which may cause Cancer.
In plant tissue culture, a cell from a plant can be grown in a nutrient medium, where
it divides repeatedly by mitosis to give an undifferentiated cell mass called callus
which differentiates into a plant. In animals, stem cell culture is also based on the
ability of a cell to divide.
Fig. 4.13d Telophase
Fig. 4.13e Cytokinesis

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1. Name the stage of cell cycle during which chromatin material is duplicated.
............................................................................................................................
2. Is the number of chromosomes reduced in the daughter cells during mitosis?
yes/no?
............................................................................................................................
3. Name the stage in nuclear division described by each of the following sentences:
(i) disappearance of the nuclear membrane
..................................................................................................................
(ii) The nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappear
..................................................................................................................
(iii) The centromere divides and the chromatids move to opposite poles due
to the shortening of spindle fibres
..................................................................................................................
(iv) The chromosomes arrange themselves at the equatorial plane of the
spindle with the spindle fibres attached to the centromeres.
..................................................................................................................
2. Meiosis (GK meioun = make smaller, sis = action)
This division is also known as ‘reduction division’. But why this name? This
is because, in this kind of cell division the normal chromosome number of
the mother cell is reduced to half in daughter cells. The normal chromosome
number in human being is 46 (23 pairs), but as a result of meiosis this number
is halved to 23 in daughter cells.
Where does it occur? It occurs in reproductive cells, e.g. in the testes of male
and in the ovaries of female animals; in the pollen mother cell of the anthers
(male organs) and in the megaspore mother cells of the ovary (female organ)
of the flowers.
Why does it occur? In meiosis the chromosome number is reduced to half so
that when doubled at fertilisation (zygote formation) during reproduction it once
again becomes full or normal.
The number of chromosomes remains constant in a species generation
after generation.
Cells divide mitotically in the organisms that reproduce vegetatively/
asexually. Thus, there is no change in the number of chromosomes, but
sexually reproducing organisms form gametes such as sperms in males
and ova in females. The male and female gametes fuse to form zygote
which develops into a new individual. .
If these gametes were, produced by mitosis, the offspring developing from
zygote then would have double the number of chromosomes in the next
generation.

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Notes
Everylivingorganismhasadefinitenumberofchromosomesinitsbodycells.
e.g. onion cell-16; potato-48; horse-64; man-46. Therefore to keep the
chromosome number constant the reproductive cells of the parents (ovaries
andtestisinanimals,andpollenmothercellsandcellsofovaryinplants)divide
throughmeiosis.
Fig. 4.14 : Cell wall formation after mitosis in a plant cell
How does meiosis occur?
Meiosis is characterized by two successive divisions of the nucleus (meiosis I and II)
andcytoplasm,whilethechromosomesdivideonlyonce.Thephasesofmeioticdivision
are given in the flow chart drawn here.
– Theinterphasewhichprecedestheonsetofmeiosisissimilartotheinterphasewhich
precedes mitosis.At S-phase, the DNAmolecule of each chromosome duplicates
togivetwoDNAmoleculeandhencetwochromatidsarefoundinonechromosome.
– Meiosis-I and meiosis-II are continuous and have sub-stages.
Meiosis-I
Like mitosis, meiosis also consists of four stages; prophase, metaphase, anaphase and
telophase.
Prophase-I
The prophase of meiosis-I is much longer as compared to the prophase of mitosis.
It is further sub-dividied into the following five sub-stages :

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(i) Leptotene (GK ‘leptos’ - thin; ‘tene - thread) (Fig.
4.15a)
Thechromosomesbecomedistinctandappear
as long and thin threads due to condensation
and thickening of chromosomes.
Each chromosome consist of two chromatids
held together by a centromere but these are
not easily visible.
(ii) Zygotene (GK. ‘Zygos’-pairing) (Fig. 4.15b)
Similar or homologus chromosomes start
pairing from one end. This pairing is known
as synapsis
Each pair of homologous chromosomes is
called a bivalent.
(iii) Pachytene (GK. ‘pachus’ - thick) : (Fig. 4.15c)
The chromosome become shorter and thicker
due to contraction.
Each paired unit called a bivalent consists
of four chromatids (hence bivalents are also
known as tetrads.
Crossing-over occurs at the end of pachytene
i.e. break and exchange of parts (genes)
occurs between non-sister chromatid
(chromatids of a homologous pair)
The point of interchange and rejoining
appears X-shaped and is known as chiasma
or points of crossing over.
(iv) Diplotene (‘Diplous’-double) (Fig. 4.15d)
The homologous chromosomes begin to
separate.
The two non-sister chromatids of a
homologous pair remain, attached at one or
two points, the chiasmata.
Fig. 4.15a Leptotene
Fig. 4.15b Zygotene
Fig. 4.15c Pachytene
Fig. 4.15d Diplotene

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Notes
Itisatthechiasmatathatexchangeofsegments
of chromatids (genes) between homologous
chromosomes has taken place. The proces of
gene exchange is known as genetic
recombination.
(v) Diakinesis(GKdia=through,indifferentdirections,
kinesis = motion) (Fig. 4.15e)
The homologous chromosomes of a bivalent
move apart from each other.
Nuclear membrane and nucleolus disappear.
Spindle formation is completed.
(vi) Metaphase-I (Fig. 4.15f)
The bivalents arrange themselves at the
equator.
The spindle fibres are attached at the
centromere of the chromosomes.
(vii) Anaphase-I (Fig. 4.15g)
The spindle fibres shorten.
The centromeres of homologous
chromosomes are pulled along by the spindle
fibres towards the opposite poles (no division
of centromere)
Thus, half of the chromosome (each with
two chromatids) of the parent cell go to one
pole and the remaining half to the opposite
pole.
Each set of chromosomes that moves to one
pole consists of a mixture of paternal and
maternal chromosome parts (new gene
combination).
(viii) Telophase-I (Fig. 4.15h)
The separated chromosomes form nuclei.
Fig. 4.15e Diakinesis
Fig. 4.15f Metaphase
Fig. 4.15g Anaphase
Fig. 4.15h Telophase

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The daughter nuclei have half the number of the parent nucleus. The full set
of chromosomes of a cell has paired chromosomes or a diploid set (2n).
The daughter cells are now called haploid (n) or having 1 set of chromosomes
The nucleous reappears and nuclear membrane forms
The daughter nuclei begin the second meiotic division.,
Second Meiotic Division has the same four stages;
(i) Prophase II (ii) Metaphase II
(iii)Anaphase II (iv) Telophase II
(i) Prophase II (Fig. 4.15i)
The chromosomes shorten and reappear. The
two chromatids are attached to the single
centromere.
Formation of spindle starts.
Nucleolus and nuclear membrane begin to
disappear.
(ii) Metaphase II (Fig. 4.15j)
The chromosomes arrange themselves along
the equator.
Formation of spindle apparatus is completed.
The centromere of each chromosome is
attached to the spindle fibre.
(iii) Anaphase II (Fig. 4.15k)
The centromere in each chromosome divides.
The chromatids get their centromore and
become daughter chromosomes and begin to
move towards the opposite poles.
(iv) Telophase II (Fig. 4.15l)
On reaching the poles the chromo-somes
organizethemselvesintohaploiddaughternuclei.
The nucleolus and the nuclear membrane
reappear.
Fig. 4.15i Prophase II
Fig. 4.15j Metaphase II
Fig. 4.15k Anaphase II
Fig. 4.15l Telophase II

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Notes
Cytokinesis
This may occur in two successive stages, once after meiosis I and then after
meiosis II, or in some instances it occurs only after meiosis II.
Meiosis results in four haploid cells.
Significance of Meiosis
(i) Ithelpstomaintainconstantnumberofchromosomesinaspeciesundergoingsexual
reproduction.
(ii) Meiosis occurs during gamete formation (gemetogenesis) and reduces the number
of chromosomes from diploid (2n) to haploid (n) in the gametes. These haploid
gametesfusetoformdiploidzygoteduringfertilization.Thediploidzygotedevelops
into a normal diploid individual.
(iii) Meiosis establishes new combination of characters due to
(i) mixing of paternal and maternal chromosomes and (ii) crossing over during
prophase I. As a result the progeny inherits the traits of both mother and the
father in new gene combinations.
Comparision of Mitosis and Meiosis
Mitosis Meiosis
1. Cell divides only once There are two cell divisions. First mitotic
division and the second meiotic division.
2. Takes place in somatic cells Takes place in germ cells.
4. Duration of prophase is short Prophase compartively longer.
(few hours) (takes many days).
5. Prophase simple. Prophase complicated having five sub-
stages namely leptotene, zygotene,
pachytene, diplotene and diakinesis.
7. Synapsis does not occur. Synapsis of homologous chromosomes
takes place during prophase.
8. No exchange of segments during Exchange of segments during crossing
prophase between two chromatids over between non sister chromatids of two
of chromosomes. homologous chromosomes.
9. Each chromosome consists of two Each bivalent has four chromatids and
chromatids united by a centromere. two centromeres.
10. Chromosomes are duplicated at the In prophase I, chromosomes appear single
beginning of prophase. although DNA replication has taken place
in interphase I.
11. In metaphase all the centromeres In metaphase I, the centromeres are lined up
line up in the same plane. in two planes which are parallel to one
another.
12. The metaphasic plate is made up The metaphasic plate is made up of paired
of duplicated chromosome. chromosome.
13. Centromere division takes place No centromere divisions during Anaphase I,
during anaphase. centromeres divide only during Anaphase II.

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14. Spindle fibres disappear Spindle fibres do not disappear completely
completely in telophase. during telophase I.
15. Reappearance of nucleoli at Nucleoli do not appear in telophase I.
telophase.
16. The chromosome number does not There is reduction in the chromosome
change at the end of mitosis. number from diploid to haploid.
17. The genetic constitution of The genetic constitution of daughter
daughter cells is absolutely identical cells is different as compared to the parent
to that of parent cells. cells. The daughter cell chromosomes
contain a mixture of maternal and paternal
genes.
18. Mitosis is of shorter duration. Meiosis is of longer duration.
19. It is the basis of growth It is basis of maintaining chromosome
and repair. number in sexual reproduction, as well as
for providing variation in the progeny.
What is a karyotype
Chromosomes can be seen only at metaphase. They are then photographed, cut and
arranged in pairs according to size. Such an arrangement is termed karyotype (see
human karyotype in lesson 21).
1. Name the sub-stage of meiosis-I in which the :
(i) Homologous chromosomes pair
..................................................................................................................
(ii) Tetrads are formed.
..................................................................................................................
(iii) Homologous chromosomes begin to move away from each other.
..................................................................................................................
2. Rearrange the following stages of meiosis I in their proper sequence :
zygotene, pachytene, leptotene, metaphase-I diakinesis, anaphase-I, telophase-I.
............................................................................................................................
3. Mention two major points in which meiosis I differs from meiosis II
............................................................................................................................
WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
A living cell is a self-sufficient unit.
Important cell organelles are mitochondria, Golgi complex ER, ribosomes,
peroxisomes, chloroplast, glyoxisomes, nucleus.

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Notes
With the exception of centrioles, ribosomes and nucleolus, all other organelles are
membrane-bound.
Althoughacellfailstolives,growandreproduceintheabsenceofanucleus,nucleus
all by itself is also ineffective.
Some organelles like mitochondria and chloroplast have the capacity to duplicate
themselves to some extent without the help of the nucleus i.e. they are termed
semi-autonomous.
The living cells divide to produce new cells.
Growth in body occurs due to increase in the number of cells.
The continuity of the chromosomal set is maintained by cell division.
The life cycle of a cell includes interphase (G1, S & G2) and M-phase (mitosis or
meiosis)
Mitosis occurs in somatic cells, results in the formation of the equal identical cells
Meiosis occurs in germ cells only i.e. testis and ovary. This is a reduction division
where chromosome number becomes half.
The significance of mitosis is growth.
The Significance of meiosis is in reproduction where ova and sperm both have half
the number of chromosomes i.e. 23 each in human gametes (but normal number of
chromosomeofhumanis46or23pair)andonfertilizationthechromosomenumber
becomes normal.
Meiosis also helps in mixing the paternal and maternal characters.
TERMINAL EXERCISES
1. Justifythestatementthatcellwallalthoughadeadmaterial,influenceslivingprocesses
inside the cell.
2. Differentiate between cell wall and cell membrane.
3. Draw Singer and Nicholson’s model of cell membrane.
4. Why is cell membrane vital for the cell?
5. Draw structure of mitochondria and chloroplast as seen by electron microscope.
6. List functions of mitochondria and chloroplast.
7. Name the self – duplicating cell organelles? Why are they called so?
8. Differentiate between functions of ER, ribosomes and Golgi bodies.
9. Mostorganellesaremembrane–bound.Whatistheadvantageofsucharrangement.
10. Differentiate between the structure and function of centriole and cilia/flagella.

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11. Why are lysosomes known as “suicidal bags”?
12. What are the functions of nucleus?
13. List the cell organelles.Write in one line each, about their functions and explain the
division of labour.
14. Give the point of difference between
(i) prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell.
(ii) plant and animal cell.
15. Why is cell termed the structural and functional unit of the organism?
16. Name the following :
(i) The condition in which a cell has the normal paired chromosomes.
(ii) The condition in which a cell contains only one member of each pair of
chromosomes.
(iii) The pairing of maternal and paternal chromosomes during meiosis.
(v) The exchange of parts in homologous (maternal and paternal) chromosomes
during prophase-I of meiosis.
(vi) The point by which a chromosome is attached to the spindle fibre.
(vii) The type of cell division that results in growth.
17. What are the sites of meiosis in a flowering plant and in a sexually reproducing
animal?
18. List the sub-stages of prophase-I.
19. What is the significance of meiosis?
20. Draw a schematic diagram of various stages of the life-cycle of a cell.
21. Draw labelled diagrams of various stages of mitosis.
22. Tabulate the main differences between mitosis and meiosis.
23. Why is prophase of meiosis so prolonged and elaborate?
24. What is the difference between cytokinesis in animal cell and cytokinesis in
plantcell?
ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS
4.1 1. Preexistingcells
2. Schleiden and Schwann
3. Chloroplast
4. Prokaryote - naked nucleus, no cell organelles
Eukaryote - distinct nucleus with a cell membrane, cell organelles present

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Notes
4.2 1. Diffusion : Movement of molecules from region of their higher concentration
to region of their lower concentration.
Osmosis : Movement of water molecules across a membrane from region of
their higher concentration to that of lower concentration.
2. Movement of molecules against concentration gradient that is region of lower
to higher concentration by expending energy.
3. Intake of solid particles (phagocytosis)
Intake of fluid droplets (pinocytosis)
4. (i) – d (ii) – a (iii) – e
(iv) – b (v) – c
5. (i) Protection/shape
(ii) Provide communication between cells through plasmodesmata
4.3 1. Membrane bound bodies in the cytoplasm
2. ATP
3. Grana
4. Thylakoids
5. Because energy as ATP is generated and stored in mitochondria
6. Mitochondria
7. (i) both are semiautonomous
(ii) both contain DNA or both contain ribosomes
8. Chromoplasts
9. Chloroplast
10. They have their own DNA for production of more of themselves but cannot
lead independent life.
4.4 1. (a) Golgi body (b) ER, (c) ER, (d) ER, (e) ribosomes
2. refer text
3. (i) internal framework, (ii) transport of substance
4. cytoplasm, ER, Nucleolus
5. ER
4.5 1. Beacuse the lysosome can devour organelles of the same cell
2. They help in cleaning up the cell by digesting useless matter
3. Fatmetabolism
4.6 1. Nucleuscontrolsallthefunctionsofthecellasithasthehereditaryinformation
2. (a) Chromosomes are present as a network when not dividing, that is at
interphase
(b) Bearers of hereditary information as genes on them
3. Site of RNA synthesis

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Notes
4.7 1. (i) It is a universal solvent and most chemical reaction of the cell occur in
aqueousmedium
(ii) It is a constituent of protoplasm
2. glucose
3. –NHCO–, between amino acid in a polypeptide bond and found in proteins
4. ATP
5. building blocks of nucleic acids, each containing a pentose sugar, nitrogenous
base and phosphate
4.8 1. (i) Interphase - stage between two cell division;
(ii) Synthetic phase - DNA is synthesised;
(iii) Dividingphase-Mitosisinsomaticcellsormeiosisinthegermcellstakes
place.
2. (i) First growth phase; (ii) Synthesis phase;
(iii) Second growth phase; (iv)Mitosis/meioticphase.
4.9 1. Interphase;
2. No;
3. (i) Prophase; (ii) Telophase; (iii)Anaphase; (iv) Metaphase
4.10 1. (i) zygotene (prophase I); (ii) Pachytene; (iii) Diplotene
2. Microspore/pollen mother cell and megaspore mother cell.
3. Leptotene, zygotene, pachytene, diplotene, diakinesis metaphase I, telophase
I.
4. Reduction in chromosome number to half exchange of genetic material in
meiosis I.

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