Chap 12 tcp

Chapter 12
Transmission
Control Protocol
Objectives
Upon completion you will be able to:
• Be able to name and understand the services offered by TCP
• Understand TCP’s flow and error control and congestion control
• Be familiar with the fields in a TCP segment
• Understand the phases in a connection-oriented connection
• Understand the TCP transition state diagram
• Be able to name and understand the timers used in TCP
• Be familiar with the TCP options
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 1

Figure 12.1 TCP/IP protocol suite

12.1 TCP SERVICES
We explain the services offered by TCP to the processes at the application
layer.
The topics discussed in this section include:
Process-to-Process Communication
Stream Delivery Service
Full-Duplex Communication
Connection-Oriented Service
Reliable Service

Table 12.1 Well-known ports used by TCP

Example 1
As we said in Chapter 11, in UNIX, the well-known ports are
stored in a file called /etc/services. Each line in this file gives
the name of the server and the well-known port number. We
can use the grep utility to extract the line corresponding to the
desired application. The following shows the ports for FTP.
$ grep ftp /etc/services
ftp-data 20/tcp
ftp-control 21/tcp

Figure 12.2 Stream delivery

Figure 12.3 Sending and receiving buffers

Figure 12.4 TCP segments

12.2 TCP FEATURES
To provide the services mentioned in the previous section, TCP has
several features that are briefly summarized in this section.
Numbering System
Flow Control
Error Control
Congestion Control

Note:
The bytes of data being transferred in
each connection are numbered by TCP.
The numbering starts with a randomly
generated number.

Example 2
Suppose a TCP connection is transferring a file of 5000 bytes.
The first byte is numbered 10001. What are the sequence
numbers for each segment if data is sent in five segments, each
carrying 1000 bytes?
Solution
The following shows the sequence number for each segment:
Segment 1 ➡ Sequence Number: 10,001 (range: 10,001 to 11,000)

Note:
The value in the sequence number
field of a segment defines the number
of the first data byte contained
in that segment.

Note:
The value of the acknowledgment field
in a segment defines the number of the
next byte a party expects to receive.
The acknowledgment number is
cumulative.

12.3 SEGMENT
A packet in TCP is called a segment
Format
Encapsulation

Figure 12.5 TCP segment format

Figure 12.6 Control field

Table 12.2 Description of flags in the control field
I

Figure 12.7 Pseudoheader added to the TCP datagram

Note:
The inclusion of the checksum in TCP
is mandatory.

Figure 12.8 Encapsulation and decapsulation

12.4 A TCP CONNECTION
TCP is connection-oriented. A connection-oriented transport protocol
establishes a virtual path between the source and destination. All of the
segments belonging to a message are then sent over this virtual path. A
connection-oriented transmission requires three phases: connection
establishment, data transfer, and connection termination.
Connection Establishment
Data Transfer
Connection Termination
Connection Reset

Figure 12.9 Connection establishment using three-way handshaking

Note:
A SYN segment cannot carry data, but
it consumes one sequence number.

Note:
A SYN + ACK segment cannot carry
data, but does consume one
sequence number.

Note:
An ACK segment, if carrying no data,
consumes no sequence number.

Figure 12.10 Data transfer

Note:
The FIN segment consumes one
sequence number if it does not carry
data.

Figure 12.11 Connection termination using three-way handshaking

Note:
The FIN + ACK segment consumes
one sequence number if it does not
carry data.

Figure 12.12 Half-close

12.5 STATE TRANSITION DIAGRAM
To keep track of all the different events happening during connection
establishment, connection termination, and data transfer, the TCP
software is implemented as a finite state machine. .
Scenarios

Table 12.3 States for TCP

Figure 12.13 State transition diagram

Figure 12.14 Common scenario

Note:
The common value for MSL is
between 30 seconds and 1 minute.

Figure 12.15 Three-way handshake

Figure 12.16 Simultaneous open

Figure 12.17 Simultaneous close

Figure 12.18 Denying a connection

Figure 12.19 Aborting a connection

12.6 FLOW CONTROL
Flow control regulates the amount of data a source can send before
receiving an acknowledgment from the destination. TCP defines a
window that is imposed on the buffer of data delivered from the
application program.
Sliding Window Protocol
Silly Window Syndrome

Figure 12.20 Sliding window

Note:
A sliding window is used to make
transmission more efficient as well as
to control the flow of data so that the
destination does not become
overwhelmed with data.
TCP’s sliding windows are byte
oriented.

Example 3
What is the value of the receiver window (rwnd) for host A if
the receiver, host B, has a buffer size of 5,000 bytes and 1,000
bytes of received and unprocessed data?
Solution
The value of rwnd = 5,000 − 1,000 = 4,000. Host B can receive
only 4,000 bytes of data before overflowing its buffer. Host B
advertises this value in its next segment to A.

Example 4
What is the size of the window for host A if the value of rwnd is
3,000 bytes and the value of cwnd is 3,500 bytes?
Solution
The size of the window is the smaller of rwnd and cwnd, which
is 3,000 bytes.

Example 5
Figure 12.21 shows an unrealistic example of a sliding
window. The sender has sent bytes up to 202. We assume that
cwnd is 20 (in reality this value is thousands of bytes). The
receiver has sent an acknowledgment number of 200 with an
rwnd of 9 bytes (in reality this value is thousands of bytes). The
size of the sender window is the minimum of rwnd and cwnd or
9 bytes. Bytes 200 to 202 are sent, but not acknowledged. Bytes
203 to 208 can be sent without worrying about
acknowledgment. Bytes 209 and above cannot be sent.

Figure 12.21 Example 5

Example 6
In Figure 12.21 the server receives a packet with an
acknowledgment value of 202 and an rwnd of 9. The host has
already sent bytes 203, 204, and 205. The value of cwnd is still
20. Show the new window.
Solution
Figure 12.22 shows the new window. Note that this is a case in
which the window closes from the left and opens from the right
by an equal number of bytes; the size of the window has not
been changed. The acknowledgment value, 202, declares that
bytes 200 and 201 have been received and the sender needs not
worry about them; the window can slide over them.

Example 7
In Figure 12.22 the sender receives a packet with an
not sent any new bytes. The value of cwnd is still 20. Show the
new window.
Solution
The value of rwnd is less than cwnd, so the size of the window
is 12. Figure 12.23 shows the new window. Note that the
window has been opened from the right by 7 and closed from
the left by 4; the size of the window has increased.

Example 8
In Figure 12.23 the host receives a packet with an
sent bytes 206, 207, 208, and 209. The value of cwnd is still 20.
Show the new window.
Solution
The value of rwnd is less than cwnd, so the size of the window
is 5. Figure 12.24 shows the situation. Note that this is a case
not allowed by most implementations. Although the sender has
not sent bytes 215 to 217, the receiver does not know this.

Example 9
How can the receiver avoid shrinking the window in the
previous example?
Solution
The receiver needs to keep track of the last acknowledgment
number and the last rwnd. If we add the acknowledgment
number to rwnd we get the byte number following the right
wall. If we want to prevent the right wall from moving to the
left (shrinking), we must always have the following
relationship.
new ack + new rwnd ≥ last ack + last rwnd
or
new rwnd ≥ (last ack + last rwnd) − new ack

Note:
To avoid shrinking the sender window,
the receiver must wait until more
space is available in its buffer.

Note:
Some points about TCP’s sliding windows:
❏ The size of the window is the lesser of rwnd and cwnd.
❏ The source does not have to send a full window’s
worth of data.
❏ The window can be opened or closed by the receiver,
but should not be shrunk.
❏ The destination can send an acknowledgment at any
time as long as it does not result in a shrinking window.
❏ The receiver can temporarily shut down the window;
the sender, however, can always send a segment of one
byte after the window is shut down.

12.7 ERROR CONTROL
TCP provides reliability using error control, which detects corrupted,
lost, out-of-order, and duplicated segments. Error control in TCP is
achieved through the use of the checksum, acknowledgment, and time-out.
Checksum
Acknowledgment
Acknowledgment Type
Retransmission
Out-of-Order Segments
Some Scenarios

Note:
ACK segments do not consume
sequence numbers and are not
acknowledged.

Note:
In modern implementations, a
retransmission occurs if the
retransmission timer expires or three
duplicate ACK segments have arrived.

Note:
No retransmission timer is set for an
ACK segment.

Note:
Data may arrive out of order and be
temporarily stored by the receiving TCP,
but TCP guarantees that no out-of-order
segment is delivered to the process.

Figure 12.25 Normal operation

Figure 12.26 Lost segment

Note:
The receiver TCP delivers only
ordered data to the process.

Figure 12.27 Fast retransmission

Figure 12.28 Lost acknowledgment

Figure 12.29 Lost acknowledgment corrected by resending a segment

Note:
Lost acknowledgments may create
deadlock if they are not properly
handled.

12.8 CONGESTION CONTROL
Congestion control refers to the mechanisms and techniques to keep the
load below the capacity.
Network Performance
Congestion Control Mechanisms
Congestion Control in TCP

Figure 12.30 Router queues

Figure 12.31 Packet delay and network load

Figure 12.32 Throughput versus network load

Figure 12.33 Slow start, exponential increase

Note:
In the slow start algorithm, the size of
the congestion window increases
exponentially until it reaches a
threshold.

Figure 12.34 Congestion avoidance, additive increase

Note:
In the congestion avoidance algorithm
the size of the congestion window
increases additively until
congestion is detected.

Note:
Most implementations react differently to
congestion detection:
❏ If detection is by time-out, a new slow start phase
starts.
❏ If detection is by three ACKs, a new congestion
avoidance phase starts.

Figure 12.35 TCP congestion policy summary

Figure 12.36 Congestion example

12.9 TCP TIMERS
To perform its operation smoothly, most TCP implementations use at
least four timers.
Retransmission Timer
Persistence Timer
Keepalive Timer
TIME-WAIT Timer

Figure 12.37 TCP timers

Note:
In TCP, there can be only be one RTT
measurement in progress at any time.

Example 10
Let us give a hypothetical example. Figure 12.38 shows part of
a connection. The figure shows the connection establishment
and part of the data transfer phases.
1. When the SYN segment is sent, there is no value for RTTM , RTTS , or
RTTD . The value of RTO is set to 6.00 seconds. The following shows the
value of these variables at this moment:
RTTM = 1.5 RTTS = 1.5
RTTD = 1.5 / 2 = 0.75 RTO = 1.5 + 4 . 0.75 = 4.5
2. When the SYN+ACK segment arrives, RTTM is measured and is equal to
1.5 seconds. The next slide shows the values of these variables:

Example 10 (continued)
RTTM = 1.5 RTTS = 1.5
RTTD = 1.5 / 2 = 0.75 RTO = 1.5 + 4 . 0.75 = 4.5
3.When the first data segment is sent, a new RTT measurement
starts. Note that the sender does not start an RTT measurement
when it sends the ACK segment, because it does not consume a
sequence number and there is no time-out. No RTT
measurement starts for the second data segment because a
measurement is already in progress.
RTTM = 2.5
RTTS = 7/8 (1.5) + 1/8 (2.5) = 1.625
RTTD = 3/4 (7.5) + 1/4 |1.625 − 2.5| = 0.78
RTO = 1.625 + 4 (0.78) = 4.74

Note:
TCP does not consider the RTT of a
retransmitted segment in its
calculation of a new RTO.

Example 11
Figure 12.39 is a continuation of the previous example. There
is retransmission and Karn’s algorithm is applied. The first
segment in the figure is sent, but lost. The RTO timer expires
after 4.74 seconds. The segment is retransmitted and the timer
is set to 9.48, twice the previous value of RTO. This time an
ACK is received before the time-out. We wait until we send a
new segment and receive the ACK for it before recalculating
the RTO (Karn’s algorithm).

12.10 OPTIONS
The TCP header can have up to 40 bytes of optional information.
Options convey additional information to the destination or align other
options.

Figure 12.40 Options

Figure 12.41 End-of-option option

Note:
EOP can be used only once.

Figure 12.42 No-operation option

Note:
NOP can be used more than once.

Figure 12.43 Maximum-segment-size option

Note:
The value of MSS is determined
during connection establishment and
does not change during the
connection.

Figure 12.44 Window-scale-factor option

Note:
The value of the window scale factor
can be determined only during
connection establishment; it does not
change during the connection.

Figure 12.45 Timestamp option

Note:
One application of the timestamp
option is the calculation of round trip
time (RTT).

Example 12
Figure 12.46 shows an example that calculates the round-trip
time for one end. Everything must be flipped if we want to
calculate the RTT for the other end.
The sender simply inserts the value of the clock (for example,
the number of seconds past from midnight) in the timestamp
field for the first and second segment. When an
acknowledgment comes (the third segment), the value of the
clock is checked and the value of the echo reply field is
subtracted from the current time. RTT is 12 s in this scenario.

Example 12 (Continued)
The receiver’s function is more involved. It keeps track of the
last acknowledgment sent (12000). When the first segment
arrives, it contains the bytes 12000 to 12099. The first byte is
the same as the value of lastack. It then copies the timestamp
value (4720) into the tsrecent variable. The value of lastack is
still 12000 (no new acknowledgment has been sent). When the
second segment arrives, since none of the byte numbers in this
segment include the value of lastack, the value of the
timestamp field is ignored. When the receiver decides to send
an accumulative acknowledgment with acknowledgment
12200, it changes the value of lastack to 12200 and inserts the
value of tsrecent in the echo reply field. The value of tsrecent
will not change until it isreplaced by a new segment that
carries byte 12200 (next segment).

Example 12 (Continued)
Note that as the example shows, the RTT calculated is the time
difference between sending the first segment and receiving the
third segment. This is actually the meaning of RTT: the time
difference between a packet sent and the acknowledgment
received. The third segment carries the acknowledgment for
the first and second segments.

Note:
The timestamp option can also be used
for PAWS.

Figure 12.47 SACK

Example 13
Let us see how the SACK option is used to list out-of-order blocks. In
Figure 12.48 an end has received five segments of data.
The first and second segments are in consecutive order. An accumulative
acknowledgment can be sent to report the reception of these two segments.
Segments 3, 4, and 5, however, are out of order with a gap between the
second and third and a gap between the fourth and the fifth. An ACK and a
SACK together can easily clear the situation for the sender. The value of
ACK is2001, which means that the sender need not worry about bytes 1 to
2000. The SACK has two blocks. The first block announces that bytes 4001
to 6000 have arrived out of order. The second block shows that bytes 8001 to
9000 have also arrived out of order. This means that bytes 2001 to 4000 and
bytes 6001 to 8000 are lost or discarded. The sender can resend only these
bytes.

Example 14
The example in Figure 12.49 shows how a duplicate segment
can be detected with a combination of ACK and SACK. In this
case, we have some out-of-order segments (in one block) and
one duplicate segment. To show both out-of-order and
duplicate data, SACK uses the first block, in this case, to show
the duplicate data and other blocks to show out-of-order data.
Note that only the first block can be used for duplicate data.
The natural question is how the sender, when it receives these
ACK and SACK values knows that the first block is for
duplicate data (compare this example with the previous
example). The answer is that the bytes in the first block are
already acknowledged in the ACK field; therefore, this block
must be a duplicate.

Example 15
The example in Figure 12.50 shows what happens if one of the
segments in the out-of-order section is also duplicated. In this
example, one of the segments (4001:5000) is duplicated. The
SACK option announces this duplicate data first and then the
out-of-order block. This time, however, the duplicated block is
not yet acknowledged by ACK, but because it is part of the out-of-
order block (4001:5000 is part of 4001:6000), it is
understood by the sender that it defines the duplicate data.

12.11 TCP PACKAGE
We present a simplified, bare-bones TCP package to simulate the heart of
TCP. The package involves tables called transmission control blocks, a
set of timers, and three software modules.
Transmission Control Blocks (TCBs)
Timers
Main Module
Input Processing Module
Output Processing Module

Figure 12.51 TCP package

Figure 12.52 TCBs

Chap 12 tcp

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Chap 12 tcp