Chapter 1 computer fundamentals

UNIT-1
Computer Fundamentals
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UNIT-1 Computer Fundamentals
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 Introduction to Computer
A computer is an electronic device, operating under the control of instructions stored
in its own memory that can accept data (input), process the data according to specified rules,
produce information (output), and store the information for future use
 Components of a Computer
Components of Computer
Hardware Software

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Components of a Computer
 Hardware are the physical components of a computer.
Example : motherboard, memory devices, monitor, keyboard etc
Motherboard

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Memory Devices

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Monitor keyboard

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 Software is the set of programs or instructions
Example : Microsoft Office , Adobe Reader, VLC Media Player etc
Microsoft Office
Adobe Reader
VLC Media Player

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 Basic Structure of the Computer
 Every task given to a computer follows an Input- Process- Output Cycle (IPO cycle).
 It needs certain input, processes that input and produces the desired output
 The input unit takes the input
 the central processing unit does the processing of data
 Output unit produces the output

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 Input Unit
The input unit consists of input devices that are attached to the computer. These devices
take input and convert it into binary language that the computer understands. Some of
the common input devices are keyboard, mouse, joystick, scanner etc
Input Unit

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 Central Processing Unit
 Once the information is entered into the computer by the input device, the processor
processes it. The CPU is called the brain of the computer because it is the control centre
of the computer. As the CPU is located on a small chip, it is also called the
Microprocessor.
 The CPU has three main components
which are responsible for different functions – Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) , Control
Unit (CU) and Memory registers
CPU

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 Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
 The ALU, as its name suggests performs mathematical calculations and takes logical
decisions. Arithmetic calculations include addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division
 Logical decisions involve comparison of two data items to see which one is
larger or smaller or equal.
 Control Unit
The Control unit coordinates and controls the data flow in and out of CPU and also
controls all the operations of ALU, memory registers and also input/output units. It is
also responsible for carrying out all the instructions stored in the program.
 Memory Registers
 A register is a temporary unit of memory in the CPU. These receive data/information
and then this data/information is held in them as per the requirement
 each register inside the CPU has a specific function like storing data, storing an instruction,
storing address of a location in memory etc

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 Memory
 A memory is just like a human brain.
 It is used to store data and instructions.
 Computer memory is the storage space in the computer, where data is to be processed
and
 instructions required for processing are stored.
 The memory is divided into large number of small parts called cells.
 Each location or cell has a unique address, which varies from zero to memory size minus
one.
 For example, if the computer has 64k words, then this memory
unit has 64 * 1024 = 65536 memory locations. The address of these locations varies from 0 to
65535.
 Types of Computer Memory
i) Cache Memory
ii) Primary Memory/Main Memory
iii) Secondary Memory

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 Interconnection between Functional Components
A bus is a transmission path (set of conducting wires) over which data or information in the
form of electric signals, is passed from one component to another in a computer.
The following are a few points to describe a computer bus:-
 A bus is a group of lines/wires which carry computer signals.
 A bus is the means of shared transmission.
 Lines are assigned for providing descriptive names. — carries a single electrical signal,
e.g. 1-bit memory address, data bits series, or timing control that turns the device on or off.
 Types of Bus in computer
The bus can be of three types
i) Address bus ii) Data bus iii) Control bus

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 The address bus, a one-way pathway that allows information to pass in one direction only,
carries information about where data is stored in memory.
Fig : address bus

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 The data bus is a two-way pathway carrying the actual data (information) to and from
The main memory.
Fig : data bus

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 The control bus holds the control and timing signals needed to coordinate all of the
computer’s activities.

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 Concept of Booting
 In computing, booting is the process of starting a computer.
 It can be initiated by hardware such as a button press, or by a software command.
 After it is switched on, a computer's central processing unit (CPU) has no software in
its main memory, so some process must load software into memory before it can be executed.
Fig: Computer Booting

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 Types of Booting
i) Warm Booting ii) Cold Booting
 Cold Booting When the system starts from initial state i.e. it is switched on, we call it
cold booting or Hard Booting. When the user presses the Power button, the instructions
are read from the ROM to initiate the booting process
Fig : Warm Booting

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 Warm Booting When the system restarts or when Reset button is pressed, we call it
Warm Booting or Soft Booting. The system does not start from initial state and so all
diagnostic tests need not be carried out in this case. There are chances of data loss and
system damage as the data might not have been stored properly.
Fig: Warm Booting

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 Classification of Computers
 Digital Computer
 A Digital computer can be considered as a digital system that performs various computational
tasks.
 The first electronic digital computer was developed in the late 1940s and was used primarily
for numerical computations.
 By convention, the digital computers use the binary number system, which has two digits:
0 and 1. A binary digit is called a bit.
 A computer system is subdivided into two functional entities: Hardware and Software.

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 Analog Computers
Analog computer, any of a class of devices in which continuously variable physical quantities
such as electrical potential, fluid pressure, or mechanical motion are
represented in a way analogous to the corresponding quantities in the problem to be solved.
Fig :Analog Computers
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 Hybrid Computers
These use both analog and digital technology. It has the speed of analog computer and
the accuracy of a digital computer. It may accept digital or analog signals but an
extensive conversion of data from digital to analog and analog to digital has to be done
Fig: Hybrid Computers
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 Classification of Digital Computers
 Micro Computer today we are using many computers at home is also the most common
microcomputer.
 With this invention of the microprocessors in the year 1970, it became
Possible to use computers for people personally at a low cost and reasonable price known as
Digital Personal Computer.
 the design of microcomputers is minimal in size and storage capacity. These computers
consist of many parts like Input and Output devices, Software, operating systems, networks,
and Servers all these need to connect to form complete Personal Digital Computer.
Examples: IBM PCs and Apple Macintosh.
Fig : IBM PCs Fig : Apple Macintosh.
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 Mini Computer Minicomputer is a digital and multi-user computer system with the
connection of more than one CPU. Thus, many people can work on these computers
simultaneously instead of a single person. Also, it can process with other accessories like a
printer, plotter, etc.
Examples: PDP 11 IBM (8000 Series)
Fig: PDP 11 IBM
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 Mainframe Computer Mainframe computers are multi-programming, high-performance
computers, and multi-user, which means it can handle the workload of more than 100 users
at a time on the computer.
 The storage capacity of the mainframe is enormous, with a high-speed data process as well.
As well as handling hundreds of input and output devices at a time.
Examples: IBM Es000 series, ICL39 Series, and CDC 6600.
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 Super Computer A Supercomputer is the very fastest and powerful, and expensive type of
computer for processing data. Supercomputers’ size and storage capacity are also huge
(can occupy huge premises) designed to process vast amounts of data in a short time with
high productivity.
 These are specially made to perform multi-specific tasks. Therefore, many CPUs work in
parallel order on these supercomputers. This function of a Supercomputer is called
Multiprocessing or Parallel Processing.
Examples: IBM Roadburner, IBM Blue Gene, Intel ASI Red. PARAM-1000, and
CRAY-XMP-14 are Indian Supercomputers.
Fig: IBM Roadburner
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 Computer - Data and Information
 Data: It is the term used for raw facts and figures. For example, 134, + 9, ‘Raju’, ‘C’ are
data. Definition of information should start from next line as given in the word file. In
composed file it is starting from the same line immediately after the definition of data.
 Information: Data represented in useful and meaningful form is information. In simple
words we can say that data is the raw material that is processed to give meaningful,
ordered or structured information.
For example Raju is 9 years old. This is information
about Raju and conveys some meaning. This conversion of data to information is called
data processing.
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 Generation of Computers
 Growth in the computer industry is determined by the development in technology.
 Each phase/generation of computer development is characterized by one or more
hardware/software developments
 The First Generation (1942-1955)
 The first generation computers used the concept of ‘stored program’ and were
characterized by vacuum tubes.
 A vacuum tube is a delicate glass device that can control and amplify electronic
signals.

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 The main features of the first generation are −
 Vacuum tube technology
 Unreliable
 Very costly
 Need of AC
 Huge size
 Consumed a lot of electricity
 Some computers of this generation were −
 IBM-701
 IBM-650

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IBM-701
IBM-650

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 The Second Generation (1955–1964)
 The period of second generation was from 1959-1965. In this generation, transistors were
used that were cheaper, consumed less power, more compact in size, more reliable and faster
than the first generation machines made of vacuum tubes.
 In this generation, magnetic cores were used as the primary memory and magnetic tape and
magnetic disks as secondary storage devices.
 In this generation, assembly language and high-level programming languages like FORTRAN,
COBOL were used. The computers used batch processing and multiprogramming operating system
 The main features of the second generation are −
 Use of transistors
 Reliable in comparison to first generation computers
 Smaller size as compared to first generation computers
 Faster than first generation computers
 Supported machine and assembly languages

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 IBM 1620
 IBM 7094
 CDC 1604
IBM 1620 IBM 7094

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 The Third Generation (1964-1975)
 The computers of third generation used Integrated Circuits (ICs) in place of transistors.
 A single IC has many transistors, resistors, and capacitors along with the associated circuitry.
 The IC was invented by Jack Kilby. This development made computers smaller in size
ransistors
he transistor is the primary building block of all microchips, including your CPU.
is what creates the binary 0's and 1's (bits) your computer uses to communicate and deal
with Boolean logic.

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Resistors
As the name implies their job is to resist or oppose the flow of current. They are meant to
control the flow of electric current to the circuit by automatically bringing down the voltage in
the device.

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Capacitors
Capacitors can store energy in the electric field located between plates. They are commonly
used in electronic circuits for storage

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 The main features of third generation are −
 IC used
 Smaller size
 Costly
 Consumed lesser electricity
 Supported high-level language
 IBM-360 series
 Honeywell-6000 series
 IBM-370/168

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IBM-360 series
Honeywell-6000 series

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 The Fourth Generation (1975-1980)
 Computers of fourth generation used Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits.
 . VLSI circuits having about 5000 transistors and other circuit elements with their
associated circuits on a single chip made
 All the high-level languages like C, C++, DBASE etc., were used in this generation.
 The main features of fourth generation are −
 VLSI technology used
 Very cheap
 No AC required
 Concept of internet was introduced

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 DEC 10
 CRAY-1(Super Computer)
 CRAY-X-MP(Super Computer)
DEC 10
CRAY-1

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 Fifth Generation Computers (1980- till)
 This generation is based on parallel processing hardware
 AI (Artificial Intelligence) software.
 All the high-level languages like C and C++, Java, .Net etc., are used in this generation.
 The main features of fifth generation are −
 Development of true artificial intelligence.
 More user-friendly interfaces with multimedia features
 Availability of very powerful and compact computers at cheaper rates
 Desktop
 Laptop
 NoteBook NoteBook

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 Von Neumann architecture
 In 1945, Dr. John Von Neumann proposed the concept of a stored program computer.
 stored program concept the program and data could be stored in the same memory unit
 It consisted of a Control Unit, Arithmetic, and Logical Memory Unit (ALU),
Registers and Inputs/Outputs
Processor Program + Data
Storage (Memory)
Communication
channel

Chapter 1 computer fundamentals

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Chapter 1 computer fundamentals