Chapter 11 enlightenment

Editor's Notes

• #3: Enlightenment marks the divide between the medieval view of the world as dominated by religion and the principles of religious faith and the modern view of the world as governed by science and the principles of human reason. Enlightenment means “illumination”. 18th Century – revolutions erupted in France and America – ( French, American and Industrial Revolution in England all happened at the same time) Social and economic life dissolved. The Enlightenment was a new way to think critically about the world. To think independent of religion, myth and tradition. Questioning theories, God, and now experimenting with science. Voltaire and his writings were very important
• #4: Andreas Vesalius was a Flemish anatomist, physician, and author of one of the most influential books on human anatomy, De humani corporis fabrica. Vesalius is often referred to as the founder of modern human anatomy. Flemish – The scientific revolution took place over a period of 150 years – 1600- 1750. It was rooted in a long history of inquiry that began in ancient times and was advanced largely by Muslim scholarship. But it culminated in the union of 3 movements 1) the effort to arrive at scientific truths by means of direct observations of experimentation, that is, empirical methods; 2) the use of mathematical theory as a method of verification; 3) The development of new instruments by which to measure natural phenomena, test scientific hypotheses, and predict the operations of nature.
• #5: The Enlightment was a new way to think critically about the world. To think independent of religion, myth and tradition. Questioning theories, God, and now experimenting with science. Tools of science
• #6: On the evidence of mathematical calculations, he had discarded the traditional geocentric (earth centered) model of the universe in favor to the heliocentric (sun centered). One reason why both Protestants and Catholics opposed the heliocentric theory was because it contradicted Scripture. 50 years later. 1609 the German mathematician Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) published his New Astronomy which set for the laws of planetary motion and substantiated the heliocentric theory. Heliocentric contracted the bible – Hebrew hero Joshua is described as making the sun stand still, Joshua 10:12-13. an event that could have occurred only if the sun normally moved around the earth.
• #7: 50 years later in
• #8: His inquiries into motion and gravity resulted in his formulation of the law of falling bodies, which proclaims that the earth’s gravity attracts all objects- regardless of shape, size or density- at the same rate of acceleration. Perfected a telescope that literally revealed new celestial objects. His efforts aroused opposition form the church, but it was not until his publication of an inflammatory tract that poked fun at outmoded theories of astronomy that he brought to Rome on charges of heresy. In 1633 he was forced to admit his “errors” condemned to reside under “house arrest” in a villa near Florence.
• #9: Was an impassioned plea for objectivity and clear thinking and remains the strongest defense of the empirical method ever written. In his strategy for the acquisition of true knowledge, Bacon warned against for false notion which he condemned as hindrances to clear and objective thinking. Idols of the tribe-deceptive ideas that have their foundation in human nature, idols of the cave-privately held fallacies that derive from individual education and background , idols of the marketplace-ill or unfit choice of words, idols of the theater-false dogmas perpetuated by social and political philososphies and institutions. To purge the mind of prejudice and false thinking, argued Bacon, one must destroy the Idols.
• #10: “I have seen further,” “it is by standing on the shoulders of giants.” Astronomer and mathematician represents a practical synthesis of 17th century physics and mathematics and the union of the inductive and deductive methods. His monumental treatise, Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles) linked terrestrial and celestial physic under a single set of laws: the laws of motion and the law of universal gravitation(by which every particle of matter attracts every other particle of matter). English physicist and mathematician Sir Isaac Newton, most famous for his law of gravitation, was instrumental in the scientific revolution of the 17th century made discoveries in optics, motion and mathematics. Newton theorized that white light was a composite of all colors of the spectrum, and that light was composed of particles.  His momentous book on physics, Principia, contains information on nearly all of the essential concepts of physics except energy, ultimately helping him to explain the laws of motion and the theory of gravity. Along with mathematician Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz, Newton is credited for developing essential theories of calculus.  http://www.biography.com/people/isaac-newton-9422656
• #11: Principia offers an exact quantitative description of bodies in motion, with three basic laws of motion:  1) A stationary body will stay stationary unless an external force is applied to it. 2) Force is equal to mass times acceleration, and a change in motion (i.e., change in speed) is proportional to the force applied. 3) For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. made discoveries in optics, motion and mathematics. Newton theorized that white light was a composite of all colors of the spectrum, and that light was composed of particles. 
• #12: Newton's own copy of his Principia, with hand-written corrections for the second edition Further information: Writing of Principia Mathematica In 1679, Newton returned to his work on (celestial) mechanics, i.e., gravitation and its effect on the orbits of planets, with reference to Kepler's laws of planetary motion. This followed stimulation by a brief exchange of letters in 1679–80 with Hooke, who had been appointed to manage the Royal Society's correspondence, and who opened a correspondence intended to elicit contributions from Newton to Royal Society transactions.[43] Newton's reawakening interest in astronomical matters received further stimulus by the appearance of a comet in the winter of 1680–1681, on which he corresponded with John Flamsteed.[48] After the exchanges with Hooke, Newton worked out a proof that the elliptical form of planetary orbits would result from a centripetal force inversely proportional to the square of the radius vector (see Newton's law of universal gravitation – History and De motu corporum in gyrum). Newton communicated his results to Edmond Halley and to the Royal Society in De motu corporum in gyrum, a tract written on about 9 sheets which was copied into the Royal Society's Register Book in December 1684.[49] This tract contained the nucleus that Newton developed and expanded to form the Principia. The Principia was published on 5 July 1687 with encouragement and financial help from Edmond Halley. In this work, Newton stated the three universal laws of motion that enabled many of the advances of the Industrial Revolution which soon followed and were not to be improved upon for more than 200 years, and are still the underpinnings of the non-relativistic technologies of the modern world. He used the Latin word gravitas (weight) for the effect that would become known as gravity, and defined the law of universal gravitation. In the same work, Newton presented a calculus-like method of geometrical analysis by 'first and last ratios', gave the first analytical determination (based on Boyle's law) of the speed of sound in air, inferred the oblateness of the spheroidal figure of the Earth, accounted for the precession of the equinoxes as a result of the Moon's gravitational attraction on the Earth's oblateness, initiated the gravitational study of the irregularities in the motion of the moon, provided a theory for the determination of the orbits of comets, and much more. Newton made clear his heliocentric view of the solar system – developed in a somewhat modern way, because already in the mid-1680s he recognised the "deviation of the Sun" from the centre of gravity of the solar system.[50] For Newton, it was not precisely the centre of the Sun or any other body that could be considered at rest, but rather "the common centre of gravity of the Earth, the Sun and all the Planets is to be esteem'd the Centre of the World", and this centre of gravity "either is at rest or moves uniformly forward in a right line" (Newton adopted the "at rest" alternative in view of common consent that the centre, wherever it was, was at rest).[51] Newton's postulate of an invisible force able to act over vast distances led to him being criticised for introducing "occult agencies" into science.[52] Later, in the second edition of the Principia (1713), Newton firmly rejected such criticisms in a concluding General Scholium, writing that it was enough that the phenomena implied a gravitational attraction, as they did; but they did not so far indicate its cause, and it was both unnecessary and improper to frame hypotheses of things that were not implied by the phenomena. (Here Newton used what became his famous expression Hypotheses non fingo). With the Principia, Newton became internationally recognised.[53] He acquired a circle of admirers, including the Swiss-born mathematician Nicolas Fatio de Duillier, with whom he formed an intense relationship that lasted until 1693, when it abruptly ended, at the same time that Newton suffered a nervous breakdown.[54]
• #13: Members of the nobility and the middle class, they came together in gatherings organized by socially ambitious noblewomen, many of whom championed a freer and more public role for their gender. In the elegant salons of Paris, these thinkers and writers met to exchange views on morality, politics, science, and religion and to voice opinions on everything ranging from diet to the latest fashions in theater and dress.
• #16: John Locke (1632-1704) defended the empirical tradition – Concerning Human Understanding (1690) the human mind at birth is a tabula rasa “blank slate” Jefferson - adopted by the Continental Congress on July 4 , 1776, the American Declaration of Independence echoes John Locke’s ideology of revolt as well as his view that governments derive their just powers form the consent of the governed. Jefferson justified the establishment of a social contract between ruler and the ruled as the principal means of fulfilling natural law – the “unalienable right “ to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness http://www.chuckbraman.com/Writing/WritingFilesPhilosophy/locke.htm
• #17: men of letters who wrote for public consumption, using humor, wit, satire 4.Diderot’s Encyclopedia was a.written entirely by Diderot himself. b.the largest compendium of knowledge produced in the West. c.an attempt to limit access to technical knowledge and philosophical truth. d.All these answers are correct.
• #25: 1694 – 1778Admired Louis XIV and Frederick the Great - thought people unable to govern themselves French Enlightenment writer, historian and philosopher famous for his wit and for his advocacy of civil liberties, including freedom of religion, freedom of expression, free trade and separation of church and state. Voltaire was a prolific writer, producing works in almost every literary form, including plays, poetry, novels, essays, and historical and scientific works. He wrote more than 20,000 letters and more than 2,000 books and pamphlets. He was an outspoken supporter of social reform, despite strict censorship laws with harsh penalties for those who broke them. As a satirical polemicist, he frequently made use of his works to criticize intolerance, religious dogma and the French institutions of his day. Voltaire was one of several Enlightenment figures (along with Montesquieu, John Locke, Richard Price, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and Émilie du Châtelet) whose works and ideas influenced important thinkers of both the American and French Revolutions. “I have never made but one prayer to God, a very short one: ‘Oh Lord, make my enemies ridiculous.’ And God he granted it.” “Almost everything that goes beyond the adoration of a Supreme Being and submission of the heart to his orders is superstition. One of the most dangerous is to believe that certain ceremonies entail the forgiveness of crimes. Do you believe that God will forget a murder you have committed if you bathe in a certain river, sacrifice a black sheep…? … Do better miserable humans, have neither murders nor sacrifices of black sheep.” I may not agree with what you have to say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it. God is a comedian playing to an audience too afraid to laugh. It is dangerous to be right when the government is wrong.
• #30: Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797) applied Enlightenment principles of natural law, Liberty, and equality to forge a radical rethinking of the roles and responsibilities of women in Western society This self-educated British intellectual applied Enlightenment principles of natural law, Liberty, and equality to forge a radical rethinking of the roles and responsibilities of women in Western society. Attacked the persistence of the female stereotype (docile, domestic, and childlike) as formulated by misguided and tyrannical males.   CHAP. I. The rights and involved duties of mankind considered CHAP. II. The prevailing opinion of a sexual character discussed CHAP. III. The same subject continued CHAP. IV. Observations on the state of degradation to which woman is reduced by various causes CHAP. V. Animadversions on some of the writers who have rendered women objects of pity, bordering on contempt CHAP. VI. The effect which an early association of ideas has upon the character CHAP. VII. Modesty.—Comprehensively considered, and not as a sexual virtue CHAP. VIII. Morality undermined by sexual notions of the importance of a good reputation CHAP. IX. Of the pernicious effects which arise from the unnatural distinctions established in society CHAP. X. Parental affection CHAP. XI. Duty to parents CHAP. XII. On national education CHAP. XIII. Some instances of the folly which the ignorance of women generates; with concluding reflections on the moral improvement that a revolution in female manners may naturally be expected to produce
• #31: I attribute [these problems] to a false system of education, gathered from the books written on this subject by men, who, considering females rather as women than human creatures, have been more anxious to make them alluring mistresses than affectionate wives and rational mothers … the civilised women of this present century, with a few exceptions, are only anxious to inspire love, when they ought to cherish a nobler ambition, and by their abilities and virtues exact respect. https://www.bl.uk/collection-items/mary-wollstonecraft-a-vindication-of-the-rights-of-woman Mary Wollstonecraft’s A Vindication of the Rights of Woman was a ground-breaking work of literature which still resonates in feminism and human rights movements of today.  Wollstonecraft (1759-1797) wrote the book in part as a reaction to Edmund Burke’s Reflections on the French Revolution, published in late 1790. Burke saw the French Revolution as a movement which would inevitably fail, as society needed traditional structures such as inherited positions and property in order to strengthen it. Wollstonecraft’s initial response was to write A Vindication of the Rights of Men (1790), a rebuttal of Burke that argued in favour of parliamentary reform, and stating that religious and civil liberties were part of a man’s birth right, with corruption caused in the main by ignorance. This argument for men’s rights wasn’t unique – Thomas Paine published his Rights of Man in 1791, also arguing against Burke – but Wollstonecraft proceeded to go one step further, and, for the first time, a book was published that argued for women’s rights to be on the same footing as men’s.  A Vindication of the Rights of Woman was written in 1791 and published in 1792, with a second edition appearing that same year. It was sold as volume 1 of the work, but Wollstonecraft never wrote any subsequent volumes. Before this date there had been books that argued for the reform of female education, often for moral reasons or to better befit women for their role as companions for men. In contrast, in her introduction Wollstonecraft criticizes women’s education thus: I attribute [these problems] to a false system of education, gathered from the books written on this subject by men, who, considering females rather as women than human creatures, have been more anxious to make them alluring mistresses than affectionate wives and rational mothers … the civilised women of this present century, with a few exceptions, are only anxious to inspire love, when they ought to cherish a nobler ambition, and by their abilities and virtues exact respect.  She goes on to say, revolutionarily, that 'I shall first consider women in the grand light of human creatures, who, in common with men, are placed on this earth to unfold their faculties …'.  Wollstonecraft’s arguments were often far ahead of our time. For example, in Chapter 12 ‘On National Education’, she recommends the establishment of a national education system, to operate mixed sex schools. She also argues that it is essential for women’s dignity that they be given the right and the ability to earn their own living and support themselves.   The chapters of the book cover a wide range of topics, and the many digressions in the text support William Godwin’s report that Wollstonecraft wrote the book quickly over the course of only six weeks. Wollstonecraft’s tone conveys both her own sense of humour but also her anger at the enfeebled situation that the majority of women were forced into:  My own sex, I hope, will excuse me, if I treat them like rational creatures, instead of flattering their fascinating graces, and viewing them as if they were in a state of perpetual childhood, unable to stand alone.
• #32: In 1743–1745, William Hogarth painted the six pictures of Marriage à-la-mode (National Gallery, London), a pointed skewering of upper class 18th century society. This moralistic warning shows the disastrous results of an ill-considered marriage for money and satirizes patronage and aesthetics. This is regarded by many as his finest project, cert In Marriage à-la-mode, Hogarth challenges the ideal view that the rich live virtuous lives with a heavy satire on the notion of arranged marriages. In each piece, he shows the young couple and their family and acquaintances at their worst: engaging in affairs, drinking, gambling, and numerous other vices..In the first of the series, he shows an arranged marriage between the son of bankrupt Earl Squanderfield and the daughter of a wealthy but miserly city merchant. The son looks indifferent while the merchant's daughter is distraught and has to be consoled by the lawyer Silvertongue.In the second, there are signs that the marriage has already begun to break down. The husband and wife appear uninterested in one another, amidst evidence of their separate overindulgences the night before.These pictures were at first poorly received by the public, to the great disappointment of the artist. He sold them to a Mr. Lane of Hillington for one hundred and twenty guineas. The frames alone had cost Hogarth four guineas each, so his initial remuneration for painting this valuable series was only sixteen shillings over a hundred pounds.
• #33: In 1776, North America’s thirteen colonies rebelled against the British government, claiming it had made unreasonable demands for revenues that threatened colonial liberty. The American and French revolutions drew inspiration from the Enlightenment faith in the reforming power of reason. The French Revolution (French: Révolution française; 1789–1799), was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France that had a major impact on France and indeed all of Europe. The absolute monarchy that had ruled France for centuries collapsed in three years. French society underwent an epic transformation as feudal, aristocratic and religious privileges evaporated under a sustained assault from radical left-wing political groups, masses on the streets, and peasants in the countryside. Old ideas about tradition and hierarchy – of monarchy, aristocracy and religious authority – were abruptly overthrown by new Enlightenment principles of equality, citizenship and inalienable rights. History of France The French Revolution began in 1789 with the convocation of the Estates-General in May. The first year of the Revolution saw members of the Third Estate proclaiming the Tennis Court Oath in June, the assault on the Bastille in July, the passage of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen in August, and an epic march on Versailles that forced the royal court back to Paris in October. The next few years were dominated by tensions between various liberal assemblies and a right-wing monarchy intent on thwarting major reforms. A republic was proclaimed in September 1792 and King Louis XVI was executed the next year. External threats also played a dominant role in the development of the Revolution. The French Revolutionary Wars started in 1792 and ultimately featured spectacular French victories that facilitated the conquest of the Italian Peninsula, the Low Countries and most territories west of the Rhine – achievements that had defied previous French governments for centuries. Internally, popular sentiments radicalized the Revolution significantly, culminating in the rise of Maximilien Robespierre and the Jacobins and virtual dictatorship by the Committee of Public Safety during the Reign of Terror from 1793 until 1794 during which between 16,000 and 40,000 people were killed.[1] After the fall of the Jacobins and the execution of Robespierre, the Directory assumed control of the French state in 1795 and held power until 1799, when it was replaced by the Consulate under Napoleon Bonaparte. After the Napoleonic Wars and ensuing rise and fall of Napoleon's First French Empire, a restoration of absolutist monarchy was followed by two further successful smaller revolutions (1830 and 1848). This meant the 19th century and process of modern France taking shape saw France again successively governed by a similar cycle of constitutional monarchy (1830–48), fragile republic (Second Republic) (1848–1852), and empire (Second Empire) (1852–1870). The modern era has unfolded in the shadow of the French Revolution. The growth of republics and liberal democracies, the spread of secularism, the development of modern ideologies and the invention of total war[2] all mark their birth during the Revolution
• #34: The novel Robinson Crusoe tells the story of a young and impulsive Englishman that defies his parents' wishes and takes to the seas seeking adventure. The young Robinson Crusoe is shipwrecked and castaway on a remote tropical island for 28 years. The story may be based on the true-life events of Alexander Selkirk, a Scottish castaway who survived four years on a Pacific island, or Henry Pitman, a political rebel surgeon castaway from a Caribbean penal colony. This classic tale of adventure features cannibals, captives, and mutineers. Some regard it as the very first modern novel written in the English language, launching the publishing industry
• #35: who was born in the West African kingdom of Benin and kidnapped and enslaved at the age of 11. He was freed in1766.Eventually he mastered the English language and became an outspoken abolitionist. A compelling literary genre based more in fact than in fiction made its appearance in the 18th century: Slave Narratives constitute a body of prose literature written by Africans who suffered the cruelties of the transatlantic slave trade. By Brian Freeman Olaudah Equiano story Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano is a slave narrative in which the entire story consists of Equiano growing up in Africa, capture, and his enslavement. Equiano brings us to a time when slavery historical had not reached its full height but was social acceptable. The use of Africans for chattel slavery had created an entirely new kind of economy for the English and Africans themselves. In Chapter one we find that Equiano own people sold slaves to Oye-Eboe term given to them that signifies red men living at distance. Equiano defends this practice by his people by stating the slaves sold were prisoners of war, kidnappers, or adulteries. The reader can continue reading and find on page 196 that Equiano people even had there own slaves, but yet he still defends this practice by saying, “How different was their condition from that of the slaves in the West Indies?” One can even find Equiano challenging the thought process of Europeans. Ever sense the revolution of thought called the Enlightenment whites believed that black Africans were incapable of the highest forms of civilization and therefore fit only for enslavement by their supposed superiors. One can see on page 200 that Equiano directly challenges this idea. He states, “Let the polished and haughty European recollect that his ancestors were once, like the Africans, uncivilized, and even barbarous.” The reader can define this as the Europeans themselves once considered themselves much like the Africans uncivilized and why should they have the right to enslave Africans. The Europeans at one time were no different from the Africans. The first thing the reader finds in Equiano’s story is how detailed he writes. In some cases Equiano gives mileage, names of cities, or direction he is heading in reference with the sun. His descriptions of growing up in Africa and the stunning moment of being taken away help paint amazing images to the reader. Equiano story has many themes, but there two themes that seem to stand out. The first theme of the story is to show Equiano amazing curiosity of the world. Even in the harshest of times we find Equiano is still amazed of the world that he is being forced to see. This curiosity for the world and western technology will be one the reason Equiano gains his own freedom. Second major theme is the comparison of his African tribe to Jews. He compares rituals and there like struggles. Equiano, Olaudah. “Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano.” The Norton Anthology of African American Literature. Ed. Henry L. Gates, Jr., and Nellie Y. Mckay. New York: W.W. Norton, 1997.190-213.
• #36: This style portrays the aristocrats in their leisurely pursuits. Paintings can be seductive, Lavish, no straight lines in the Rococo – sophisticated and elegantly refined. Decorative finale of the baroque era, flourished (ironically) during the Enlightenment. The room is airy and fragile; brilliant white walls, accented with pastel tones of rose, blue, and lime are ornamented with gilded tendrils , playful cupid, and floral garlands. This style portrays the aristocrats in their leisurely pursuits. Paintings can be seductive Lavish, no straight lines in the Rococo – sophisticated and elegantly refined.
• #37: The group of fashionable men and women at a dete galante (elegant entertainment ) on the island of Cythera, the legendary birth place of Venus.
• #38: http Venus Consoling Love, also known as The Bath of Venus is a painting created by French rococo artist Francois Boucher in 1751. It depicts a nude and earthly-looking Venus lounging on silk blue and white sheets, grabbing at cupid’s bow and arrow as she is looked on by two other cherubs. Two doves sit at her feet in a tranquil bath of pale blue water. The scene clearly takes place outside, in an Eden-like garden. The work was commissioned by Madame de Pompadour — mistress of King Louis XV. It is likely that it either decorated her living quarters on the grounds of Versailles or her chateau, which was gifted to her by the King. That the work is sensual and suggests intimate affection is appropriate considering Madame de Pompadour’s relationship with the king.More important than the story the painting tells is the mood it sets: amorous, playful and feminine. The work does not attempt to convey a didactic message about love, but rather conveys a lighthearted and erotic sentiment. The amorous undertone is enforced by the subjects (Venus, the goddess of love; Cupid, the god of love; the white doves– perhaps love birds) as well as the work’s formal qualities. The brushstroke is loose and airy, the colors light and soft, and the light dreamlike and radiant. ://smarthistory.khanacademy.org/bouchers-venus-consoling-love.html
• #39: The most famous of a number of 18th century female artist. Marie-Louise-Elisabeth Vigée-Lebrun was one of the most famous painters during her time.  During her eighty seven-year life, which spanned from 1755-1842, she created well over 600 pieces of artwork.  In a time period where it was uncommon to be a female artist, Marie-Louise Elisabeth Vigée-Lebrun put her best effort forth to overcome this adversity.  Women painters were not recognized nearly as much as men painters, but Vigée-Lebrun's artwork had its own uniqueness that distinguished her artwork apart from others.  She not only had to overcome the adversity of being a woman, but also had to escape the turmoil of the French Revolution.  These were among some of the constant controversies she endured throughout her life. Her father, who was also an artist, provided lessons for her in her youth, but she mostly self-taught herself how to be an artist.  At the age of fifteen, Vigée-Lebrun had demonstrated such skill that she was able to provide support for herself, her widowed mother, and brother.  At the age of twenty her mother pushed her into marrying their landlord, Jean Baptise Pierre Lebrun.  He was a prestige art dealer and artist that she believed influenced most of her paintings.   Aside from being influenced by her husband, she was blessed naturally with an exceptional talent to please people with her art, especially famous people such as Queen Marie Antoinette.  She was so talented that in 1778, she was summoned to Versailles to become the official painter to Queen Marie Antoinette.  Because they were the same age, they became friends and confidants.  Throughout the next ten years, Vigée-Lebrun painted the Queen more than thirty times.  In 1783, she was admitted to the French Academy of Arts, which was a great accomplishment because most women at the time were denied entry into such programs.   Several years later, after 1789, in the turmoil of the French Revolution, Vigée-Lebrun became in danger.  Because she was in close ties with the court, she had to flee the country.  She fled the country traveling to such places as Vienna, Prague, Dresden, London, and St. Petersburg.  While traveling around Europe in exile, she became a member of the Academies of Rome, Florence, Bologna, St. Petersburg, and Berlin.  At these places, she painted heads of state and other aristocrats to help support herself and her family.  She continued supporting her family for twelve years, and in 1801, she moved back to Paris.  However, because she disliked Parisian social life under Napoleon, she left for London where she painted pictures of the court and Lord Byron.  She moved yet again to Switzerland, but did not stay long, and returned to her home of Paris, where she painted until her death in 1842. Vigée-Lebrun's independence is one of the main reasons that many people admire her.  She is considered a role model, especially to female artists, because of her wide recognition of skills and gained admittance to academies that were closed to her sex.  Her plethora of work ranges from history paintings to landscapes.  But, the majority of her work were beautifully colored portraits of the most prominent aristocrats and royalty.  Her unique and exceptional talent made her one of the most sought out painters of her time.  She was blessed with a natural ability that people adored, even centuries later
• #44: Many Flowers and figures dominate the setting, Colors are not thick or richly painted made for private display Fragonard, Jean-Honoré (1732-1806). French painter whose scenes of frivolity and gallantry are among the most complete embodiments of the Rococo spirit. He was a pupil of Chardin for a short while and also of Boucher, before winning the Prix de Rome in 1752. From 1756 to 1761 he was in Italy, where he eschewed the work of the approved masters of the High Renaissance, but formed a particular admiration for Tiepolo. He travelled and drew landscapes with Hubert Robert and responded with especial sensitivity to the gardens of the Villa d'Este at Tivoli, memories of which occur in paintings throughout his career. In 1765 he became a member of the Academy with his historical picture in the Grand Manner Coroesus Sacrificing himself to Save Callirhoe (Louvre, Paris). He soon abandoned this style, however, for the erotic canvases by which he is chiefly known (The Swing, Wallace Collection, London, c. 1766). After his marriage in 1769 he also painted children and family scenes. He stopped exhibiting at the Salon in 1767 and almost all his work was done for private patrons. Among them was Mme du Barry, Louis XV's most beautiful mistress, for whom he painted the works that are often regarded as his masterpieces -- the four canvases representing The Progress of Love (Frick Collection, New York, 1771-73). These, however, were returned by Mme du Barry and it seems that taste was already turning against Fragonard's lighthearted style. He tried unsuccessfully to adapt himself to the new Neoclassical vogue, but in spite of the admiration and support of David he was ruined by the Revolution and died in poverty.
• #45: Worked almost exclusively for private patrons was among the favorite rococo artists of the late 18th century. This sculpture revives a classical theme – celebration honoring Dionysus , the Greek gods of wine and fertility. Flushed with wine and revelry, the satyr (a semibestial woodland creature symbolic of Dionysus) embraces a bacchante, and attendant of Dionysis . Made of terra-cotta , a clay medium that requires rapid modeling, thus inviting the artist to capture of spontaneity.
• #46: Responded with humble representations that replaced the indulgent sensuality of the rococo with realistic scenes of everyday lifeJean-Baptiste Greuze (1725–1805), Village Betrothal, 1761. Oil on canvas, 3 ft. 10 1/2 in. x 3 ft. Louvre, Paris. © Photo Josse, Paris.
• #48: Belonged to a tradition that stretched from the Renaissance through the age of Louis XIV The revival of Greco-Roman culture Excavations at Pompeii and on mainland Greece and Asia Minor would follow. Scholars assembled vast collection of Greek and Roman artifacts. Louvre, Vatican
• #49: The revival of Greco-Roman culture Excavations at Pompeii vast collection of Greek and Roman artifacts. Louvre, Vatican Belonged to a tradition that stretched from the Renaissance through the age of Louis XIV The revival of Greco-Roman culture Excavations at Pompeii and on mainland Greece and Asia Minor would follow. Scholars assembled vast collection of Greek and Roman artifacts. Louvre, Vatican
• #51: The painting was commissioned by the French King some four years before the outbreak of the Revolution; ironically, it became a symbol of the very spirit that would topple the royal crown. Oath of the Horatii Artist Jacques-Louis David Year 1784 Type Oil on canvas Dimensions 326 cm × 420 cm (128 in × 170 in) Location Louvre, Paris Oath of the Horatii (French: Le Serment des Horaces), is a work by French artist Jacques-Louis David painted in 1784. It depicts a scene from a Roman legend about a dispute between two warring cities; Rome and Alba Longa, when three brothers from a Roman family, the Horatii, agree to end the war by fighting three brothers from an Alba Longa family, the Curiatii. The three brothers, all of whom appear willing to sacrifice their lives for the good of Rome, are shown saluting their father who holds their swords out for them.[1] The principal sources for the story behind David's Oath are the first book of Livy (sections 24-6) which was elaborated by Dionysius in book 3 of his Roman Antiquities.[2] However, the moment depicted in David's painting is his own invention.[3]It grew to be considered a paradigm of neoclassical art. The painting increased David's fame, allowing him to rear his own students.[4] In the painting, the three brothers express their loyalty and solidarity with Rome before battle, wholly supported by their father. These are men willing to lay down their lives out of patriotic duty. With their resolute gaze and taut, outstretched limbs, they are citadels of patriotism. They are symbols of the highest virtues of Rome. Their clarity of purpose, mirrored by David's simple yet powerful use of tonal contrasts, lends the painting, and its message about the nobility of patriotic sacrifice, an electric intensity. This is all in contrast to the tender-hearted women who lie weeping and mourning, awaiting the results of the fighting. The mother and sisters are shown clothed in silken garments seemingly melting into tender expressions of sorrow. Their despair is partly due to the fact that one sister was engaged to one of the Curiatii and another is a sister of the Curiatii, married to one of the Horatii. Upon defeat of the Curiatii, the remaining Horatius journeyed home to find his sister cursing Rome over the death of her fiancé. He killed her, horrified that Rome was being cursed. Originally David had intended to depict this episode, and a drawing survives showing the surviving Horatius raising his sword, with his sister lying dead. David later decided that this subject was too gruesome a way of sending the message of public duty overcoming private feeling, but his next major painting depicted a similar scene - Lucius Junius Brutus brooding as the bodies of his sons, whose executions for treason he had ordered, are returned home. The painting shows the three brothers on the left, the Horatii father in the center, and the sister/wives on the right. The Horatii brothers are depicted swearing upon (saluting) their swords as they take their oath. The men show no sense of emotion. Even the father, who holds up three swords, shows no emotion. On the right, three women are weeping—one in the back and two up closer. The woman dressed in the white is a Horatius weeping for both her Curiatii fiancé and her brother; the one dressed in brown is a Curiatius who weeps for her Horatii husband and her brother. The background woman in black holds two children—one of whom is the child of a Horatius male and his Curiatii wife. The younger daughter hides her face in her nanny’s dress as the son refuses to have his eyes shielded.
• #52: Rose to fame with his polished depictions of classical history and mythology and with his accomplished portraits of middle and upper-class patrons. During his first years in Rome he continued to execute portraits and began to paint bathers, a theme which was to become one of his favorites (The Valpinçon Bather, Louvre, Paris, 1808). He remained in Rome when his four-year scholarship ended, earning his living principally by pencil portraits of members of the French colony. But he also received more substantial commissions, including two decorative paintings for Napoleon's palace in Rome (Triumph of Romulus over Acron, Ecole des Beaux-Arts, Paris, 1812; and Ossian's Dream, Musée Ingres, 1813). In 1820 he moved from Rome to Florence, where he remained for 4 years, working mainly on his Raphaelesque Vow of Louis XIII, commissioned for the cathedral of Montauban. Ingres's work had often been severely criticized in Paris because of its `Gothic' distortions, and when he accompanied this painting to the Salon of 1824 he was surprised to find it acclaimed and himself set up as the leader of the academic opposition to the new Romanticism. (Delacroix's Massacre of Chios was shown at the same Salon.) Ingres stayed in Paris for the next ten years and received the official success and honors he had always craved. During this period he devoted much of his time to executing two large works: The Apotheosis of Homer, for a ceiling in the Louvre (installed 1827), and The Martyrdom of St Symphorian (Salon, 1834) for the cathedral of Autun. When the latter painting was badly received, however, he accepted the Directorship of the French School in Rome, a post he retained for 7 years. He was a model administrator and teacher, greatly improving the school's facilities, but he produced few major works in this period. In 1841 he returned to France, once again acclaimed as the champion of traditional values. He was heartbroken when his wife died in 1849, but he made a successful second marriage in 1852, and he continued working with great energy into his 80s. One of his acknowledged masterpieces, the extraordinarily sensuous Turkish Bath (Louvre, 1863), dates from the last years of his life. At his death he left a huge bequest of his work (several paintings and more than 4,000 drawings) to his home town of Montauban and they are now in the museum bearing his name there
• #54: (Anga) Statue of Zeus? Ingres brings the words of Homer's Iliad to life in his depiction of Jupiter and Thetis. In this scene of Mount Olympus, Thetis, a mere nymph (a class of lesser deities of mythology, conceived of as beautiful maidens inhabiting the sea rivers, woods, trees, mountains, meadows) pleads with the mighty God, Jupiter, for the life of her son Achilles. She begs him to intervene by making the Greeks repent of their injustice to Achilles by granting success to the enemy Trojan army.
• #55: In the next century, the orchestra changed a lot. This takes us up to 1800, Haydn's and Beethoven's time. The strings were more important than ever, and the keyboard instruments had taken a back seat. Composers began to write for the specific instrument they had in mind. This meant knowing each instrument's individual "language" and knowing what kind of music would sound best and play easiest on a particular instrument. Composers also began to be more adventurous about combining instruments to get different sounds and colors. The first violinist, or concertmaster, led the orchestra's performance from his chair, but sometimes, a music director would lead part of a performance with gestures, using a rolled-up piece of white paper that was easy for the musicians to see. This led to the baton that conductors use today. And early in the 1800s, conductor-composers such as Carl Maria von Weber and Felix Mendelssohn actually began to stand up on a podium and conduct from front and center As orchestras were getting bigger and bigger, all those musicians couldn't see and follow the concertmaster. Later in the 1800s, the orchestra reached the size and proportions we know today and even went beyond that size. Some composers, such as Berlioz, really went all-out writing for huge orchestras. Instrument design and construction got better and better, making new instruments such as the piccolo and the tuba available for orchestras. Many composers, including Berlioz, Verdi, Wagner, Mahler, and Richard Strauss, became conductors. Their experiments with orchestration showed the way to the 20th century. Wagner went so far as to have a new instrument, the Wagner Tuba, designed and built to make certain special sounds in his opera orchestra. In one of his symphonies, Strauss wrote a part for an alphorn, a wooden folk instrument up to 12 feet long! (The alphorn part is usually played by a tuba.) And Arnold Schoenberg wrote a piece called Gurrelieder for a 150-piece orchestra!
• #56: Franz Joseph Haydn (  /ˈdʒoʊzəf ˈhaɪdən/; German pronunciation: [ˈjoːzɛf ˈhaɪdən]; 31 March[1] 1732 – 31 May 1809), known as Joseph Haydn,[2] was an Austrian[3] composer, one of the most prolific and prominent composers of the Classical period. He is often called the "Father of the Symphony" and "Father of the String Quartet" because of his important contributions to these forms. He was also instrumental in the development of the piano trio and in the evolution of sonata form.[4][5] A lifelong resident of Austria, Haydn spent much of his career as a court musician for the wealthy Esterházy family on their remote estate. Isolated from other composers and trends in music until the later part of his long life, he was, as he put it, "forced to become original".[6] At the time of his death, he was one of the most celebrated composers in Europe.[7] Joseph Haydn was the brother of Michael Haydn, himself a highly regarded composer, and Johann Evangelist Haydn, a tenor. He was also a close friend of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and a teacher of Ludwig van Beethoven. Mozart(born Jan. 27, 1756, Salzburg, [Austria]—died Dec. 5, 1791, Vienna) Austrian composer widely recognized as one of the greatest in the history of Western music. With Haydn and Beethoven he brought to its height the achievement of the Viennese Classical school. Unlike any other composer in musical history, he wrote in all the musical genres of his day and excelled in every one. His taste, his command of form, and his range of expression have made him seem the most universal of all composers; yet, it may also be said that his music was written to accommodate the specific tastes of particular audiences. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart died on December 5, 1791 at age 35. The cause of death is uncertain, due to the limits of postmortem diagnosis. Officially, the record lists the cause as severe miliary fever, referring to a skin rash that looks like millet seeds. The most widely accepted hypothesis, however was that Mozart died of acute rheumatic fever, a disease he suffered from repeatedly throughout his life. It was reported that his funeral drew few mourners and he was buried in a common grave. Both actions were the Viennese custom at the time, for only aristocrats and nobility enjoyed public mourning and were allowed to be buried in marked graves. However, his memorial services and concerts in Vienna and Prague were well attended. After his death, Constanze sold many of his unpublished manuscripts to undoubtedly pay off the family’s large debts. She was able to obtain a pension from the Emperor and organized several profitable memorial concerts in Mozart’s honor. From these efforts, Constanze was able to gain some financial security for herself and allowing her to send her children to private schools.Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart’s death came at a young age, even for the time period. Yet his meteoric rise to fame and accomplishment at a very early age is reminiscent of more contemporary musical artists whose star had burned out way too soon. At the time of his death, Mozart was considered one of the greatest composers of all time. His music presented a bold expression, often times complex and dissonant, and required high technical mastery from the musicians who performed it. His works remained secure and popular throughout the 19th century
• #58: Tea ceremony – the classic expression of Japanese elegance and simplicity , the tea ceremony emerged as a unique synthesis of art, theater, and rite, Introduced into Japan from China during th 9 th century , heavily caffeinated tea served as an aid to prolonged meditation among Buddhist monks. 16th century the way of tea became widely practiced in Japanese society – Zen Buddhism a strand of Buddhism that stresses the attainment of spiritual enlightenment through intuitive illumination. Brush painting as acts of meditation involving intense concentration and focus.