Chapter 6
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This document discusses negotiation of meaning during conversations and its benefits for language learning. It describes negotiation as involving feedback from listeners to make the speaker's message more comprehensible. Negotiation can make input understandable without simplifying it, raise awareness of language forms, and push learners to express themselves more clearly. While negotiation alone does not cause learning, it can help input become more comprehensible and noticeable when changes are needed. The document recommends strategies for teaching negotiation skills and encourages activities that require negotiation, such as information-gap tasks.
![Gass on Negotiation
• “The claim is not that negotiation causes learning nor that
there is a theory of learning based on interaction. Rather,
negotiation is a facilitator of learning; it is one means but not
the only means of drawing attention to areas of needed
change. It is one means by which input can become
comprehensible and manageable, [and] . . . it is a form of
negative evidence [helping] learners to recognize the
inadequacy of their own rule system.”](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/chapter6-130414104458-phpapp02/85/Chapter-6-5-320.jpg)
Chapter 6
- 1. CHAPTER 6 Learning through Task-focused Interaction Nation & Newton. (2009). Teaching ESL/EFL Listening and Speaking. Routledge. 영어 말하기 듣기지도 2013.4.15.
- 2. Negotiation “Part of the skill of listening is learning how to take an active role in providing feedback to the speaker (Brown, 1986). This feedback may involve pointing out problems with the comprehensibility of the message and specifying where the problem lies. This feedback and questioning is called negotiation.”
- 3. Long on Negotiation “. . . tasks that stimulate negotiation for meaning may turn out to be one among several useful language-learning situations, in or out of classrooms, for they may be one of the easiest ways to facilitate a learner’s focus on form without losing sight of a lesson’s (or conversation’s) predominant focus on meaning.”
- 4. Long on Negotiation (Cont’d) • makes input understandable without simplifying it, so that learnable language features are retained • breaks the input into smaller digestible pieces • raises awareness of formal features of the input • gives learners opportunities for direct learning of new forms • provides a “scaffold” within which learners can produce increasingly complex utterances • pushes learners to express themselves more clearly and precisely— “pushed output” • makes learners more sensitive to their need to be comprehensible.
- 5. Gass on Negotiation • “The claim is not that negotiation causes learning nor that there is a theory of learning based on interaction. Rather, negotiation is a facilitator of learning; it is one means but not the only means of drawing attention to areas of needed change. It is one means by which input can become comprehensible and manageable, [and] . . . it is a form of negative evidence [helping] learners to recognize the inadequacy of their own rule system.”
- 6. Why Encourage Negotiation? • clarifying poorly presented items • clarifying because of inattention • clarifying unknown items • clarifying the task procedure.
- 7. Strategy Training for Speaking 1. Explanation of discourse strategies like “holding the floor” / negotiating meaning / providing feedback to the speaker / managing turn-taking 2. observing conversations / using a checklist and later providing feedback 3. transcribing recordings of their own speech and critiquing them.
- 8. Encouraging Negotiation • Use of Written Input 1. completion activities 2. ordering activities 3. split information activities 4. ranking 5. problem solving 6. modify the statements
- 9. Types of Info Distribution 1. All learners have the same information (a cooperating arrangement). 2. Each learner has different essential information (a split information arrangement) (Nation, 1977). 3. One learner has all the information that the others need (a superior-inferior arrangement). 4. The learners all see the same information but each one has a different task.
- 10. Factors Affecting the Amount and Type of Negotiation • Pair work vs. Group of four • Cooperating tasks vs. Information gap tasks • The signals learners make affects the adjustment of output during a task.