Cher ping lim theoretical framework ict

British Journal of Educational Technology Vol 33 No 4 2002 411–421
© British Educational Communications and Technology Agency, 2002.
Published by Blackwell Publishers Ltd, 108 Cowley Road, Oxford, OX4 1JF, UK and 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148, USA.
A theoretical framework for the study of ICT
in schools: a proposal
Cher Ping Lim
Dr Lim is an assistant professor in the Instructional Science Academic Group, National Institute of
Education. His research interests include the integration of ICT in the learning environment, educational
applications and dangers of the Internet, and design aspects and pedagogues of E-learning. Address for
correspondence: National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, 1 Nanyang Walk,
Singapore 637616. Tel: +65 6790 3279; fax: +65 6399 4057; email cplim@nie.edu.sg
Abstract
A sociocultural approach towards the study of Information and Communication
Technologies (ICT) in education rejects the view that ICT can be studied in
isolation; it must be studied within the broader context in which it is situated.
The paper argues for a more holistic approach of studying ICT in schools
by adopting a sociocultural perspective. It proposes a theoretical framework
based on activity theory, with the activity system as a unit of analysis that is
surrounded by different levels of ecological circles.
Introduction
As we move into the 21st century, schools have to enculturate students to be lifelong
learners. Students need to learn how to seek out new information, think critically and
show initiative to meet up with the challenges of the fast-changing world. Research
studies of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) in schools have
established that ICT facilitates the enculturation processes of lifelong learning (Sivin-
Kachala, 1998; Wenglinsky, 1998; Mann, Shakeshaft, Becker and Kottkamp, 1999).
However, many of these studies lack detailed investigation of what actually takes place
in the ICT learning environment and its sociocultural context. ICT does not exist in
isolation; it is interwoven with the rest of the tools and participants in the learning
environment.
Therefore, research studies in ICT need to shift their attention towards the whole
configuration of events, activities, contents, and interpersonal processes taking place
in the context that ICT is used. Such studies are particularly critical to educational
research where the object of its inquiry is not simply knowledge, but useable know-
ledge: knowledge that is “responsive to the current or emerging needs of practitioners
and ultimately to the solution of professional and social problems” (Richey, 1998, 7).
07_Lim 5/8/2002 1:07 pm Page 411

This paper first argues for a more holistic approach to the study of ICT in schools.
It then adopts a sociocultural perspective, and proposes a theoretical framework based
on the activity system (Engeström, 1987) as a unit of analysis that is surrounded by
different levels of ecological circles (Cole, 1995).
Towards a sociocultural approach of ICT in schools
As ICT enters the sociocultural setting of the school, it “weaves itself into learning in
many more ways than its original promoters could possibly have anticipated” (Papert,
1993, 53). It may trigger changes in the activities, curriculum and interpersonal relation-
ships in the learning environment, and is reciprocally affected by the very changes it
causes (Salomon, 1993). From this perspective, ICT is a mediational tool, incorporated
within learning environments with authentic goals and purposes for students, and settings
that are explicitly interpreted with other experiences of knowing and understanding as
they get organised at other times. Considering ICT as a mediational tool, the following
are the implications for the study of ICT in schools.
First, the employment of mediational tools fundamentally shapes the activities in
the learning environment (Wertsch, 1991). When the cognitive opportunities of ICT
are taken up and integrated with planning, enactment and assessment of both
teaching and learning activities, a change of pedagogy may be necessary. Teachers
may have to rethink the purpose of the lesson, the nature of the task that should be
set, and the method of assessing how students carry it out. Students may have to
rethink the way they approach the task, and assess how best to use the new tool to
carry out the task. Inevitably, the use of ICT in education shapes the teaching and
learning activities.
Second, the power of mediational tools in organising activities is often not consciously
recognised by those who use them, which contributes to the belief that cultural tools
are the product of natural or necessary factors rather than of concrete sociocultural
factors (Wertsch, 1991). Research studies have shown that the cognitive opportunities
of ICT are not automatically taken up in the learning environment. In her study of the
use of word-processor in the classroom, Cochran-Smith (1991) observed that most stu-
dents used it primarily to make minor stylistic, grammatical, and spelling corrections
and to get nice printouts. Only the more experienced ones utilised the powerful editing
mechanisms of the word-processor to plan their essays and make structural revision.
Draper (1998) claims that most ICT packages do not have significant effect on learning
and teaching activities in schools because only a small proportion of their potential is
used.
And third, as mediational tools are “products of cultural, historical, and institutional
forces that may have little obvious relevance to the local settings in which they are
employed, they shape these settings in ways that might otherwise not be deemed appro-
priate from the perspective of intermental and intramental functioning” (Wertsch,
1991, 38). There is a context for the ICT experiences that encompasses activities
412 British Journal of Educational Technology Vol 33 No 4 2002
07_Lim 5/8/2002 1:07 pm Page 412

peripheral to the particular times and formats of the ICT interaction itself. Salomon
(1993, 189) proposes:
“No tool is good or bad in itself; its effectiveness results from and contributes to the whole
configuration of events, activities, contents, and interpersonal processes taking place in the
context of which it is been used.”
Therefore, the study of ICT in education cannot be fractured from the learning environ-
ment in which it is situated. ICT may trigger changes in the activities, curriculum and
interpersonal relationships in the learning environment, and is reciprocally affected by
the very changes it causes. The study of ICT in schools needs to consider the social pro-
cesses that ICT supports during the circumstances of use, and how the ICT experience
is integrated into the discourse of learning to develop higher order thinking skills.
Activity system as a unit of analysis
In order to deal with this task, the activity theoretical framework is adopted to demon-
strate the intimate mechanisms that link ICT, learning and their sociocultural settings.
Modern activity theory originated from Soviet cultural-historical psychology (Vygotsky,
1978; Leont’ev, 1981), which in turn was rooted in both eighteenth and nineteenth
century classical German philosophy—from Hegel’s idealism to the historical materialism
of Marx and Engels, in which the concept of activity was extensively elaborated. Like
Marx and Engels, Vygotsky and Leont’ev took as their premises “real individuals, their
activity and the material conditions under which they live, both those which they
find already existing and those produced by their activity” (Marx and Engel, 1970,
p. 46).
Activity theory has been successfully used to analyse successes, failures and contra-
dictions in complex situations without reductionist simplifications (for example,
Engreström and Escalante, 1996; Miettinen. 1998). It offers a set of conceptual tools
that is applicable to various situations to understand the coupling of cognition and
activity. Activity theory draws on Vygotskian theory of cognition where higher mental
function appears “twice, or on two planes. First it appears on the social plane and then
on the psychological plane. First it appears between people as an interpsychological
category and then within the individual child (learner) as an intrapsychological
category” (Vygotsky, 1978, 57).
Throughout Vygotsky’s (1978) formulation of a sociocultural approach to cognition is
the claim that higher mental functioning and human action in general are mediated
by tools (or “technical tools”) and signs (or “psychological tools”). The consequence
of tools mediating the activity is that “instead of applying directly its natural function
to the solution of a particular task, the child (learner) puts between that function and
the task a certain auxiliary means… by the medium of which the child (learner) man-
ages to perform the task” (Luria, 1928, as cited in Cole, 1995, 191). From this perspective,
cognition is no longer studied in light of individuals learning in isolation with only their
minds to guide them; instead, the emphasis is on individuals learning with a wide
variety of tools, and people that help them carry out their goal-oriented activities in a
sociocultural setting.
A theoretical framework for the study of ICT in schools 413
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The study of ICT in schools may then ground its research in a unit of analysis that
allows one to observe the actual processes by which sociocultural setting and cognition
shape and are shaped by ICT tools. There is a basic unit common to the analysis of the
learning processes both at the individual and social level, including the mediational
tools and artefacts that link the processes together. This unit of analysis “consists of an
individual engaged in goal-directed activity under conventionalised constraints” (Cole,
1985, 158). The centrality of activity in sociocultural research is reflected in Leont’ev’s
(1981, 46–47) assertion:
“Human psychology is concerned with the activity of concrete individuals, which takes place
whether in a collective—that is, jointly with other people—or in a situation in which the subject
deals directly with the surrounding world of objects—eg, at the potter’s wheel or the writer’s desk
—if we removed human activity from the system of social relationships and social life, it would
not exist… the human individual’s activity is a system in the system of social relations. It does
not exist without these relations.”
Therefore, activities are systems in the system of social relations. Activity theory takes
a collected object-oriented activity system as its prime unit of analysis (Engeström,
1987; Engeström, Miettinen, and Punamäki, 1998). The unit of analysis allows one to
observe the actual learning processes in context, where the context is the activity
system. It integrates the subject (individual participant), the object, the tools and the
dynamic nature of human activities. Engeström (1987) represent the idea of activity
systems as a unit of analysis with an expanded version of the classical mediational
triangle.
The classical mediational triangle represents the basic structure of human cognition
that results from tool mediation. Drawing upon Vygotsky’s (1978) higher and
elementary mental functioning, “unmediated” (elementary) functioning occurs along
the base of the triangle; while “mediated” (higher) functioning are interactions between
the subject (individual) and object (task) mediated by tools, at the vertex of the triangle
(see Figure 1). However, this basic mediational triangle fails to account for the collective
and dynamic nature of activities.
The expanded version adds the crucial components of community, rules and division
of labour to the classical mediational triangle. Individuals exist in communities where
there is division of labour with the “continuously negotiated distribution of tasks,
powers, and responsibilities among the participants of the activity system”. The
relations between the individual (subject) and community are mediated by the com-
munity’s collection of mediating tools, and rules. Rules are “the norms and sanctions
that specify and regulate the expected correct procedures and acceptable interactions
among the participants” (Cole and Engeström, 1993, 7) (see Figure 1).
The model of activity system is dynamic across time where there are continuous
constructions and reconstructions among its components. For example, there are
ongoing negotiation and reformulation of rules by the subject rather than subject
abiding by fixed rules. The tools are continuously reconstructed or new tools developed
by both the subject and his/her community to meet the object of the activity system.
07_Lim 5/8/2002 1:07 pm Page 414

The division of labour is always in the process of redefinition and refinement by the
subject and his/her community. Even the object is constantly in transition and under
construction, and “it manifests itself in different forms for different participants and at
different moments of the activity” (Hasu and Engeström, 1999, 4).
Taking an ICT-based lesson in a school as an activity system, the specific elements
in the learning environment fit into the various components of the expanded version
of the mediational triangle. The subject is the individual student and the object is to
understand the relationships among the variables found in an ICT-based simulation
package. A pool of ICT and non-ICT tools, including the simulation package, in the
learning environment mediate the interactions between the subject and object. Besides
the ICT package, these mediating tools consist of the whiteboard, whiteboard markers,
notebook, pens, data projector, projector screen, overhead projector, and textbooks.
The student belongs to a community consisting of his/her classmates, teachers and ICT
staff, situated in a sociocultural setting mediated by rules and division of labour. The
rules include the general school rules and regulations, or more specific ones like the
procedures necessary to run the simulation program. The role that each individual of
the community has to play in the activity system falls under the division of labour. The
individual student is expected to be a scientist at work, gathering, representing, inter-
preting, and analysing data. The teacher takes on more of a mediator role than he/she
will take in a non-ICT environment. He/she shares with students the well-defined tasks
of questioning, clarifying, summarising, and predicting to help them understand the
relationships among the variables under study.
Figure 1: The expanded version of the classical mediational triangle
Mediating tools:
ICT and non-ICT
Rules:
General rules,
specific rules
Community:
Classmates, teachers,
ICT staff
Division of labour:
Roles
Subject:
Individual student
Object:
Higher order
thinking skills
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Taking activity systems as a unit of analysis provides important insights into the study
of ICT in schools. First, it provides a conceptual map to the major loci among which
human cognition is distributed in the learning environment, with ICT as one of the
mediating tools. Second, it includes other people who must be taken into account
simultaneously with the subject as constituents of the activity systems. Third, institu-
tionalised activities are more robust and enduring than an individual goal-directed
activity, making analysis less problematic (Cole and Engeström, 1993). And fourth,
it considers the history and developmental phases of the ICT integration processes that
is represented by “some historically identifiable ideal-typical qualitative pattern or
constellation of its components and inner relations” (Engeström, 1993, 69). Therefore,
the concept of activity system provides a seminal formulation in a Vygotskian approach
of a unit of analysis that serves as the starting point for a sociocultural approach
towards the study of ICT in schools: “real activities of real people” over time (Cole,
1985, 159).
Situating the activity system in a broader context
One of the limitations of activity theory is its narrow view of culture (Kaptelinin, 1996).
Although activity system as a unit of analysis captures the activities mediated by
students, teachers, ICT tools and non-ICT tools in the learning environment, it fails to
look at the broader context in which ICT is situated—the school, education system and
society-at-large. To situate the activity system of an ICT-based lesson within a broader
context, Cole’s (1995) garden-as-culture metaphor is adopted. Culture and garden
share a basic idea about creating an artificial environment with optimal conditions for
growth of young organisms, mediated by tools and other organisms. Cole (1995, 196)
draws a parallel between the role of the sociocultural researcher and the gardener that
both “must attend simultaneously to two classes of concerns: what transpires inside the
system (“garden”) they study (or design and study) and what transpires around it”.
These two classes cannot be addressed independently of each other, as the garden is
dependent on the larger ecological system within which it is embedded.
Cole (1995) has applied the garden metaphor to the Fifth Dimension, a specially
designed learning environment for promoting the all-around intellectual and social
development of six to twelve year old children in the United States. The study of the Fifth
Dimension suggests that a change of culture in the broader context, a switch of institu-
tional setting, or a change in focus on a different activity in the activity system is
likely to change the higher mental functioning displayed by the individual child. How-
ever, the change will not be a random one. It will be in accord with the culture
operating at each level of context in the new learning situation.
Knowledge of the operations and interdependence of the cultures, at various levels of
context, will empower the study to provide a better understanding of where and how
ICT is situated in the academic course. Applying the garden metaphor to the study of
ICT will provide a more adequate and detailed account of the activity systems. Figure 2
shows the schematic overview of a sociocultural approach towards the study of ICT in
schools.
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In this “concentric” model, successive circles represent the activity systems in the broader
contexts of the ICT-based lesson. The activity system of the ICT-based lesson, with its
interacting components, is in the innermost circle. The next circle represents the activity
Figure 2: Applying the garden metaphor to the activities systems
Activity systems
Tools
Subject Object
Rules Community Division of
labour
Activity systems
Course of study
School
Education system
Society at large
Assessment, curriculum,
entry requirement, layout
of classrooms
Type, location, ethos, ICT facilities,
time-table, type of students,
parents, peers, home
computers
Examination boards, education policies,
league table, recruitment and
training of teachers
Employers, publishers,
software developers
Adapted from Cole 1995, p. 198, fig. 8.1
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system of the academic course with elements such as mode of assessment (tools),
curriculum (object and tools), layout of the classrooms and ICT rooms (rules), entry
requirement to the course (rules and community), and roles of course participants
(division of labour and community). The next higher level of context or activity system
is the school where the course is situated. Elements to consider include the type,
location, layout and ethos of the school (rules and community), ICT facilities (tools),
type of students, parents, peers (community), home computers (tools), time-tabling of
ICT and non-ICT lessons (rules), and roles of different members of the school (division
of labour and community).
The country’s education system is in the next circle with elements such as education
policies on use of ICT (rules), examination boards (tools and community), league table
(object and rules), the recruitment, training and retention of teachers (community and
roles), and the division of labour among major stakeholders of the education system.
The outermost circle is the society at large in the country and consists of elements such
as education software developers, publishers (community and division of labour), and
public perceptions of schools and teachers, and expectations of employers (rules,
object and community). The activity systems at different levels may change over time,
but they are always interdependent of one another. Nothing is unidirectional in such
an interactive system. Changes that are initiated by any of the components of an
activity system have an impact on the components of the other activity systems (Cole,
1995).
Limitations of the theoretical framework
Although Cole’s (1995) ecological circles address the limitation of the narrow view of
culture that is adopted by activity theory, there are other limitations that have not been
addressed. First, activity theory was originally developed for understanding individual
activity (Kaptelinin, 1996). Yet, the subject may be a group or an individual. In the case
of the subject being a group of students, it cannot be assumed that all of them share
the same object in the activity system. A way around it may be to identify the dominant
object and adopt it as the object of the activity system of the group of students.
Second, “the border between a tool and reality is rather unclear; information technology
can provide the user not only with representations of objects of reality but also with a
sort of reality as such, which does not obviously represent anything else and is intended
to be just one more environment with which the individual interacts” (Kaptelinin,
1996, 64). This unclear border is a problem virtual reality presents to activity theory.
However, it may be addressed by drawing upon the distributed cognition approach, in
which internal and external representations of the artefacts are examined (Hutchins,
1991).
Third, activity theory is not operationalised enough (Kaptelinin, 1996). The field still
lacks sufficient methods and techniques that can be utilised directly to answer certain
research questions of ICT in education. Some techniques for the application of activity
theory in ICT in schools may include video analysis of various learning activities involved
07_Lim 5/8/2002 1:07 pm Page 418

in observing the use of ICT in the learning environment combined with traditional
ethnographic approaches of observations and interviews (Bellamy, 1996).
Conclusion: developing a research agenda for the study of ICT
in Singapore schools
A sociocultural approach towards the study of ICT in schools rejects the view that
ICT can be studied in isolation, or as a single variable in the learning environment hold-
ing all other things constant. Instead it must be studied within the learning environ-
ment and the broader context in which it is situated. The paper has argued for a more
holistic approach of studying ICT in schools by adopting a sociocultural perspective.
It proposes a theoretical framework based on the activity system as a unit of analysis
(Engeström, 1987) that is surrounded by different levels of ecological circles (Cole,
1995).
By adopting the proposed framework and addressing its limitations, we will be able to
study and document both the “successful” and “unsuccessful” integration of ICT in schools
with particular learning environments and their sociocultural context (education
system and society at large). From these discussions, a research agenda can then be
generated for the study of ICT in Singapore schools.
The Singapore Masterplan for ICT in Education was launched in April 1997. One of
its goals was to ensure that by the end of 2002, all 368 schools in Singapore would be
equipped with the necessary hardware, software and infrastructure that would support
an ICT integrated learning environment. At its launch, the Minister of Education in his
opening speech elaborated on the rationale:
“Singapore’s Masterplan for Information Technology in Education lays out a comprehensive strategy
for creating an IT-based teaching and learning environment in every school. It will be one of
our key strategies for equipping our young with skills that are critical for the future—creative
thinking, the ability to learn independently and continuously, and effective communication.”
(Ministry of Education, 1997)
As the process of ICT integration in Singapore schools reaches a considerable level of
maturity and stability, it is timely to conduct a study to address the pertinent question
of: “Where and how ICT is situated in Singapore schools to mediate the learning process
of students?” The proposed theoretical framework and research purpose discussed above
provide the parameters, tools and general guide for the study to address the question.
The research study may be carried out in two phases.
Phase one comprises a self-reporting questionnaire to be sent out to all schools in
Singapore. One of the main objectives of the questionnaire is to assess the level of ICT
integration in schools by identifying the various sociocultural elements that influence
the successful integration of ICT in Singapore schools. The other objectives are to
serve as a screening phase to identify the case studies for phase two of the study, and to
refine and guide the direction of phase two of the study.
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The questionnaire may explore different aspects of ICT integration in schools that
include school ICT culture (leadership support, exchange of ideas and experiences, and
extent of staff involvement in review of school ICT programme), pupil use of ICT (pro-
ficiency of pupils in the use of ICT, and pupils’ usage for learning), teacher use of ICT
(teachers’ proficiency in the use of ICT, and integration of IT by teachers in the class-
room), management of ICT resources (accessibility to ICT resources, and monitoring
process of ICT resources to optimise usage) and staff development (opportunities for
staff development in the area of ICT integration, and review of staff development to
meet the needs of ICT integration).
Phase two is a collective case study of schools at different levels: primary schools,
secondary schools and junior colleges. The sample of schools at each level is chosen
based on their degree of ICT integration reported in phase one. Case study research is
the most appropriate methodological tradition, given that the purpose of the study
emphasises the context of ICT use. To gather accounts of different realities constructed
by various groups and individuals in different environments, both qualitative and
quantitative methods are drawn upon: observations of ICT and non-ICT based lessons,
face-to-face interviews with principals and ICT-coordinators, focus group interviews
with students and teachers, questionnaires for teachers and students, samples of
students’ work and schools’ documentation.
The proposed theoretical framework described earlier then, allows us to generate a
comprehensive research agenda to study and document the totality of “successful” and
“unsuccessful” ICT integration into Singaporean schools. Such a study will inform policy-
makers, school administrators and teachers about how to take up the opportunities and
address the limitations of ICT, and how to successfully integrate ICT in schools, specifically
within their broader sociocultural contexts.
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Cher ping lim theoretical framework ict

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Cher ping lim theoretical framework ict