Civil engineering lab tests pdf

1 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 1
Assala mu alykum My Name is saqib imran and I am the
student of b.tech (civil) in sarhad univeristy of
science and technology peshawer.
I have written this notes by different websites and
some by self and prepare it for the student and also
for engineer who work on field to get some knowledge
from it.
I hope you all students may like it.
Remember me in your pray, allah bless me and all of
you friends.
If u have any confusion in this notes contact me on my
gmail id: Saqibimran43@gmail.com
or text me on 0341-7549889.
Saqib imran.

2 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 2
Civil Engineering Lab Tests
To Perform California Bearing Ratio Test
Contents:
 1. California Bearing Ratio Test Definition
 2. C B R Apparatus Used
 3. Test Procedure & Steps
 4. Test Data Observations & Calculations
 5. Graphs
 5.2 Graph of Graph of Penetration vs Loading
 5.2 Graph of CBR vs % Percent Compaction Graph
 6. Uses, Applications & Significance
1. Definition of CBR:
It is the ratio of force per unit area required to penetrate a soil mass with standard circular piston
at the rate of 1.25 mm/min. to that required for the corresponding penetration of a standard
material. The California Bearing Ratio Test (CBR Test) is a penetration test developed
by California State Highway Department (U.S.A.) for evaluating the bearing capacity of subgrade
soil for design of flexible pavement.

3 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 3
Tests are carried out on natural or compacted soils in water soaked or un-soaked conditions and
the results so obtained are compared with the curves of standard test to have an idea of the soil
strength of the subgrade soil.
2. APPARATUS Used:
 Mould
 Steel Cutting collar
 Spacer Disc
 Surcharge weight
 Dial gauges
 IS Sieves
 Penetration Plunger
 Loading Machine
 Miscellaneous Apparatus
 CBR Graphs
 Significance of CBR Concrete tests
 Bitumen tests
 Civil Lab Tests
 Transportation Engineering
 Road Structure Cross Section Raised
Pavement Markers
 Highway Maintenance
 Bearing Capacity
3. CBR Test PROCEDURE:
 Normally 3 specimens each of about 7 kg must be compacted so that their compacted
densities range from 95% to 100% generally with 10, 30 and 65 blows.
 Weigh of empty mould
 Add water to the first specimen (compact it in five layer by giving 10 blows per layer)
 After compaction, remove the collar and level the surface.
 Take sample for determination of moisture content.
 Weight of mould + compacted specimen.
 Place the mold in the soaking tank for four days (ignore this step in case of unsoaked CBR.
 Take other samples and apply different blows and repeat the whole process.
 After four days, measure the swell reading and find %age swell.
 Remove the mould from the tank and allow water to drain.
 Then place the specimen under the penetration piston and place surcharge load of 10lb.
 Apply the load and note the penetration load values.
 Draw the graphs between the penetration (in) and penetration load (in) and find the value
of CBR.
 Draw the graph between the %age CBR and Dry Density, and find CBR at required degree
of compaction.
4. California Bearing Ratio test Data - Observations &
Calculations

4 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 4

5 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 5
5. Graphs
5.1 Graph of Penetration vs Loading in California Bearing Ratio Test

6 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 6

7 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 7
5.2 Graph of CBR vs % Percent Compaction Graph

8 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 8
6. USES AND SIGNIFICANCE of California Bearing
Ratio Test:
 The CBR test is one of the most commonly used methods to evaluate the strength of a sub
grade soil, sub base, and base course material for design of thickness for
highways and airfield pavement.
 The California bearing ratio test is penetration test meant for the evaluation of subgrade
strength of roads and pavements. The results obtained by these tests are used with the
empirical curves to determine the thickness of pavement and its component layers. This is
the most widely used method for the design of flexible pavement.
 This instruction sheet covers the laboratory method for the determination of C.B.R. of
undisturbed and remolded /compacted soil specimens, both in soaked as well as un-soaked
state.
Unconfined Compression (UC) Test

9 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 9
Purpose:
The primary purpose of this test is to determine the unconfined compressive strength,
which is then used to calculate the unconsolidated undrained shear strength of the clay
under unconfined conditions. According to the ASTM standard, the unconfined
compressive strength (qu) is defined as the compressive stress at which an unconfined
cylindrical specimen of soil will fail in a simple compression test. In addition, in this test
method, the unconfined compressive strength is taken as the maximum load attained per
unit area, or the load per unit area at 15% axial strain, whichever occurs first during the
performance of a test.
Standard Reference:
ASTM D 2166 - Standard Test Method for Unconfined Compressive Strength of Cohesive
Soil
Significance:
For soils, the undrained shear strength (su) is necessary for the determination of the
bearing capacity of foundations, dams, etc. The undrained shear strength (su) of clays is
commonly determined from an unconfined compression test. The undrained shear
strength (su) of a cohesive soil is equal to one half the unconfined compressive strength
(qu) when the soil is under the f = 0 condition (f = the angle of internal friction). The most
critical condition for the soil usually occurs immediately after construction, which
represents undrained conditions, when the undrained shear strength is basically equal to
the cohesion (c). This is expressed as:
Then, as time passes, the pore water in the soil slowly dissipates, and the intergranular
stress increases, so that the drained shear strength (s), given by s = c + s‘tan f , must be
used. Where s‘ = intergranular pressure acting perpendicular to the shear plane; and s‘ =
(s - u), s = total pressure, and u = pore water pressure; c’ and φ’ are drained shear
strength parameters. The determination of drained shear strength parameters is given in
Experiment 14
Equipment:
Compression device, Load and deformation dial gauges, Sample trimming equipment,
Balance, Moisture can.
Test Procedure:
1. Extrude the soil sample from Shelby tube sampler. Cut a soil specimen so that
the ratio (L/d) is approximately between 2 and 2.5.
Where L and d are the length and diameter of soil specimen, respectively.

10 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 10
2. Measure the exact diameter of the top of the specimen at three locations 120°
apart, and then make the same measurements on the bottom of the specimen.
Average the measurements and record the average as the diameter on the data
sheet.
3. Measure the exact length of the specimen at three locations 120° apart, and then
average the measurements and record the average as the length on the data
sheet.
4. Weigh the sample and record the mass on the data sheet.
5. Calculate the deformation (∆L) corresponding to 15% strain (ε).
Where L0 = Original specimen length (as measured in step 3).
6. Carefully place the specimen in the compression device and center it on the bottom
plate. Adjust the device so that the upper plate just makes contact with the
specimen and set the load and deformation dials to zero.
7. Apply the load so that the device produces an axial strain at a rate of 0.5% to 2.0%
per minute, and then record the load and deformation dial readings on the data
sheet at every 20 to 50 divisions on deformation the dial.
8. Keep applying the load until (1) the load (load dial) decreases on the specimen
significantly, (2) the load holds constant for at least four deformation dial readings,
or (3) the deformation is significantly past the 15% strain that was determined in
step 5.
9. Draw a sketch to depict the sample failure.
10.Remove the sample from the compression device and obtain a sample for water
content determination. Determine the water content as in Experiment 1.
Analysis:
1. Convert the dial readings to the appropriate load and length units, and enter these
values on the data sheet in the deformation and total load columns. (Confirm that
the conversion is done correctly, particularly proving dial gauge readings
conversion into load)
2. Compute the sample cross-sectional area
3. Compute the strain
4. Computed the corrected area,
5. Using A’, compute the specimen stress,
6. Compute the water content, w%.
7. Plot the stress versus strain. Show qu as the peak stress (or at 15% strain) of the
test. Be sure that the strain is plotted on the abscissa. See example data.
8. Draw Mohr’s circle using qu from the last step and show the undrained shear
strength, su = c (or cohesion) = qu/2. See the example data.
To Determine The Shrinkage Limit of Soil

11 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 11
Apparatus
Shrinkage dish, electric oven, mercury, electric balance, sieve#40, spatula and containers.
Procedure
 Take a soil sample passing through sieve#40 and add some amount of water in it to form
a thick uniform paste.
 Take the shrinkage dish, weigh it, and put some of the soil mixture in it by spatula, fill it
and again weigh it.
 Place the shrinkage dish in the oven for 24hours at 110-115C.
 Find the volume of the shrinkage dish using mercury this will be equal to the volume of
the saturated soil sample.
 Take mercury in container and weigh it, put dry soil in it the mercury is displaced.
 Collect carefully the displace mercury and weigh it with great accuracy.
 The volume of dry soil is then determined by dividing the weight by the unit weight of
mercury.

12 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 12
 The shrinkage limit is then calculated using the formula.
S.L = {{(w1-wd)-(v1-vd) γw}/ wd] x 100
Where,
W1 = M2-M1
WD = m3
-M1
Precautions
The displaced mercury should be carefully collected in order to get exact weight of mercury
displaced.
To Determine the Specific Gravity of Soil
ASTM Designation: C128

13 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 13
Apparatus
Sieve #4, balance, electric oven, pycnometer.
Theory
Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the weight of given volume of material to the weight of
an equal volume of water.
G = density of soil/density of equal volume of water
G = mass of dry soil/mass of and equal volume of water.
Procedure
 Take at least 25g of soil which has been passed through sieve#4 and place it in an oven at
fixed temperature of 105-110 °C for 24 hours to dry it completely.
 Clean and dry the pycnometer thoroughly and find its mass (M1).
 Find the mass (M2) of pycnometer by placing dried soil in it.
 Add sufficient quantity of water to fill the pycnometer up to the given mark and then find
mass of the pycnometer ( m3
) and its content.
 Empty the pycnometer then fill it with water up to the same level. Now find the mass (M4)
of the pycnometer having water in it.
 Determine the specific gravity of the given soil sample.
Precautions
 The graduated cylinder used should be cleaned.
 Dry the coarse aggregate so that it does not absorb moisture otherwise it will not give the
desired results.
 All the readings of mass should be noted carefully.
Practical applications
 The value of specific gravity helps us to some extent in identification and classification of
soil.
 It gives the idea about the suitability of a given soil as a construction material.
 It is utilized in calculating voids ratio, porosity, and degree of saturation if the density or
unit weight and water content are known.
How to Write a Soil Investigation Report | Lab
Test Report

14 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 14
Soil Investigation Report
Soils reports, also called “geotechnical soils reports” are prepared by a licensed geotechnical
engineer or a registered civil engineer experienced in soils engineering. A soils report may be
required depending on the type of structure, loads and location of the structure. The report gives
understanding of earth conditions affecting a building. They are required in areas with expansive
or low strength soils. Other times a soils report may be required include buildings where the
foundation will be supported by fill, projects on steep slopes or where a lot of grading will be
done, locations with high ground water may also require a soil investigation report prior to
construction activities.
Soils reports are obtained before construction begins. The engineer who designs the foundation
uses the soils report in determining what kind of foundation design to use. In this way, problems
such as differential settling over time can be avoided. There are various methods used to test soil
in preparing a report. These include drilling core samples, driving steel rods into the soil to
determine density and the presence of rock, test pits and the use of a seismograph.

15 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 15
1. Title page
The title page of the report includes the name of the company, its address, principle investigator
who has worked on the report and other relevant details of the company e.g. logo. It also includes
the name of the Project, location of the project and the period of work. Client name and
submission dates may also be mentioned on the title page as per requirement.
2. Table of contents
It contains the List of chapters or sections of the report for easy going through. A separate list of
graphs, figures or annexes may also be included the report.
3. Client’s requirements
This is the section where the requirements and objectives of the client are listed. Here, all the
information required by the client from this particular investigation is described and the names of
the tests needed to collect that information are listed. In short, the scope of the report is defined
here, like what this report is going to achieve.
4. Field and laboratory testing details
In this section general information regarding the location of the site is discussed as well as what
tools, techniques and methods were used in the whole process of this geotechnical investigation.
The report discusses which tests were used to collect which type of information, how samples

16 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 16
were collected, what safety or precautionary measures were taken and how the tests were
conducted in the field and in the laboratory.
The report writer can also add a summary of the results of different tests that were conducted e.g.
values of sieve analysis or Atterberg’s limits of the soil samples. A table can also be provided for
better presentation and understanding of the results obtained. A list of relevant field tests may
include the following soil tests:
1. Borehole drilling activity
2. Standard penetration test
A list of relevant laboratory tests for geotechnical investigation of soil are as follows:
1. Determination of moisture content and bulk density
2. Atterberg’s limits
3. Particle size distribution by sieve analysis
4. Unconfined compression testing
A detailed explanation of all the results obtained through the test must be provided in this
section.
5. Site plan
Site plan is a sketch of the site showing all the relevant physical features around the building site,
like drains, existing buildings, road, open spaces etc. The drawing should also show the location
of the boreholes, if bore holes have been dug.

17 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 17
6. Bore log
Probes for borehole logging can measure the composition of soils, map the area or provide other
relevant information. Borehole logging produces an extremely detailed description of the area. A
bore log is a log that records all of the results of the borehole process. All the results of the
boring process should be included here for detailed understanding of the soil profile under
investigation.
7. Analysis of test results
This is the most important portion of the soil investigation report in which all the relevant
properties of soil are discussed like nature of the soil, consistency, bearing capacity, Atterberg’s

18 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 18
limits, specific gravity, plasticity etc. Other characteristics of the soil discussed are the factor of
safety used in analysis, angle of friction, fineness modulus and soil classification of the site.
8. Conclusions and recommendations
In this section, the report writer suggests recommendations in the light of the results of this
geotechnical investigation. The investigator recommends the number of storeys that can be built,
the type of foundation, and the bearing capacity to use at the required depth. It also explains what
other measures and precautions should be taken in laying of foundations, drainage and sewerage
systems e.g. suggestions are shared on how to comply with the results of the tests in construction
activities. In the end, the scope of the whole process and limitations of the results are also added
here.
9. Graphs
This is the section where all the results obtained are graphed and shared with the client. These
graphs may include grain size distribution curve, results of the liquid limit, plasticity chart, SPT
results etc. for all types of soils encountered at the required depth at the site.
To Determine Moisture Content of Soil By Oven
Drying Method
(AASHTO DESIGNATION: T-265

19 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 19
ASTM D-2216-90)
The water-content determination is a routine laboratory procedure. ASTM has designeated it with
a Standard, ASTM D-2216-90 which can be found in “ASTM Standards vol. 4.08”, and also
AASHTO T-265, found under “AASHTO Materials: Part II: Tests”. This is a laboratory procedure
to determine the amount of water Ww present in a quantity of soil in terms of its dry weight Ws.
The water content w is usually expressed in percent.
Although it ia a simple experiment to perform, there are several sources of error that can occur.
The most significant is the oven temperature. Many soil-forming minerals are hydrous, meaning
they contain water within their crystal structures. Normally, the water content of a soil is measured
by oven drying the soil at 110º C. This temperature is used because it is high enough to evaporate
all the water present in the pore spaces of the soil but is not so large that it drives water out of the
structure of most minerals.
Other sources of error include: the time period used for drying the soil, the sample size,
and weighing errors.
Apparatus:
1. Three to five moisture cans (tin or aluminum) with their lids;
2. Temperature controlled oven (a forced-draft type). The oven should be kept at a
temperature of 110 ± 5°C;
3. An electronic scale.
PROCEDURE:
1. Weigh each of the empty moisture cans with their lids and record their weight W1 and its
number; you may have to mark it with a felt tip pen
2. Take the sample of soil (under 100 g) collected from the field and place a sample of it into
a can. If you are not testing a field sample, then moisten the sample given to you (20 to 40
g) with a small amount of water and thoroughly mix it with a spatula. Place the cap on the
can and, weigh and record the can with the lid and the moist soil weight W2;
3. Always use the same scale, and always check to see that they read zero;
4. Remove the lid, place it underneath the can, and put the can into the drying oven
5. Repeat these steps for the two other cans. There should be three moisture cans in the oven.
The temperature of the drying oven should be kept between 105º and 110º C, and the cans
should remain in the oven for at least 24 hours;
6. After 12 to 18 hours (or overnight), weigh and record the new weight of the moisture can
with the dried soil and its lid W3. This procedure is adequate for small amounts of soil (10

20 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 20
to 200 grams). Much larger soil samples may require occasional stirring so that a uniform
drying takes place;
7. Remove from the oven with tongs or heat-treated loves and weigh immediately; some
manuals claim that convection currents affect the result, but this writer has never found this
to be true;
8. The total weight difference between W3 and W2 is the weight of the water that was
evaporated from the soil. This weight loss will be then used to calculate the percentage of
water content w in the soil.
9. Report the water content to the nearest 0.1 percent, but in computations w is used as a
decimal quantity.
TEST SAMPLE:
Sample shall be washed and oven-dried at a temperature of 105 °C-110 °C and should conform to
one of the grading in observation.
Ca
n
(#)
Weigh
t of
Can
(W1lb
) (Lb)
Weight
of Can +
Moist
Soil
(W2lb)
(lb)
Weigh
t of
Can
(W1g)
(g)
(1)
Weight
of Can +
Moist
Soil
(W2g)
(g)
Weight
of Can
+ Dry
Soil
(W3)
(g)
(2)
Weigh
t of
Water
(WW)
(g)
(3)
Weigh
t of
Dry
Soil
(WS)
(g)
(4)
Water
Conten
t
(W)
(%)
(5)
Erro
r
(%)
1 0.0345 0.0690 15.65 31.30 28.9 2.398 13.251 18.10 4.97
2 0.0345 0.0625 15.65 28.35 26.4 1.950 10.751 18.13 4.77
3 0.0355 0.0695 16.10 31.52 28.9 2.625 12.797 20.51 7.71
4 0.0350 0.0635 15.88 28.80 26.7 2.103 10.824 19.43 2.04
Average 19.04 4.87
Standard
Deviation
1.16
Sample Calculations:
Conversion of pounds to
grams =
Weight of water in
Sample =
Precautions:
 The soil sample should be loosely placed in the container.

21 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 21
 Over heating should be avoided.
 Mass should be found carefully.
USES AND SIGNIFICANCE:
1. Moisture content plays an important role in understanding the behavior of soil.
2. It shows the degree of compaction of soil in the field.
Standard Test Methods are:
 AASHTO T 96 and ASTM C 131: Resistance to Degradation of Small-Size
Coarse Aggregate by Abrasion and Impact in the Los Angeles Machine
 ASTM C 535: Resistance to Degradation of Large-Size Coarse Aggregate by
Abrasion and Impact in the Los Angeles Machine.
Sieve Analysis of Coarse Grained Soil
Apparatus
A set of various sizes of sieves, balance.
Procedure
1. Arrange different types of sieves in order of there decreasing size of opening.
2. Find the total weight of the given soil sample and pour it in the top sieve.
3. Place the set of sieves on mechanical shakers and shake it properly.

22 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 22
4. Find the weight of soil retained on each sieve.
5. Calculate percentage weight of soil passing through each sieve.
6. Draw a grain size distribution/gradation curve.
Precautions:
 During shaking soil sample should not b allowed to spell out.
 All the readings should be noted carefully.
 Grain size analysis gives an idea regarding the gradation of soil.
 It is used to proportion the selected soil in order to obtain the desired soil mix.
 It is also utilized in part of the specification of soil for air field’s roads, earth dams and
other soil embankment construction.
Observations & Calculations:
Sieve no. Weight of soil
retained on each
sieve (gm)
Percent weight
retained
Cumulative
percent weight
retained
Cumulative
percent
passing
04 181.8 36.36 36.36 63.64
08 91 18.2 54.65 45.44
16 99.6 19.92 74.48 25.52
30 55.33 11.066 85.55 14.45
50 46.8 9.36 94.91 5.09
100 10.3 2.06 96.97 3.03
200 9.6 1.92 98.89 1.11
pan 4.8 0.96 99.85 0.15

23 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 23
Turbidity of Water sample Using Nephelometric
Method
Theory of Water Turbidity Test:
Water is said to turbid when it is seen containing materials of suspension inside it. While turbidity
may be defined as the measure of visible material in suspension in water, turbidity may be caused
by algae or other organisms. It is generally caused by silt or clay. The amount and character of
turbidity depends upon two things:
1. Type of soil over which flows
2. The velocity of flowing water
When water becomes stationary, the heavier and larger suspended particles settle down quickly
and the lighter and finely divided particles settles very slowly and even takes months.
Ground water is less turbid because of low velocity of water. turbidity may be helpful for
controlling growth of paganisms by not allowing proper sunlight to water which is necessary for
their growth on the other hand it is harmful as the organisms are handling to the suspended
particles. When water becomes stationary, the heavier and larger suspended particles settle down
quickly and the lighter and finely divided particles settles very slowly and even takes months.
Ground water is less turbid because of low velocity of water. Turbidity may be helpful for
particles.
There are Various units for the measurement of turbidity which are:

24 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 24
1. Standard turbidity unit[mg/lit or ppm]
2. Jackson turbidity unit [J.T.U]
3. Nephelometric turbidity unit [N.T.U]
A device called nephelometric turbidity measures the turbidity of water in N.T.U the intensity of
light after passing through the water gives a measure of turbidity of water.
WHO guideline value:
WHO suggested a guideline value for turbidity as [N.T.U]for disinfection the turbidity of water
should be less than 1 N.T.U.
Apparatus:
W.H.O Nephelometric turbidity meter formazine solution of the sample by multiplying the scale
reading by 0.9 N.T.U, 9 N.T.U, 99 N.T.U, test tubes and water samples.
Procedure of Turbidity Test:
1. Switch on the power supply and check the battery of the turbidimeter,
2. Press the 1 N.T.U button and coincide the scale with zero by using focusing template.
3. Again press 1 N.T.U button and coincide the scale with zero using the focusing template.
4. A Standard formazine solution of N.T.U is placed on tubidimeter in the path of rays and
scale is brought 9 n.t.u
5. The Water sample is taken in a test and is placed in turbidimeter.
6. Use A Cell rise if the turbidity is more than 100 N.T.U and get the turbidity dilution factor.
Experiment To Find PH Value of Given Water
Sample

25 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 25
Theory:
"PH" value is the measure of concentration of hydrogen in water it shows the alkanity or
acidity of water. Mathematically PH may be defined as:
The negative log of hydrogen ion concentration
PH - log [H]
Sorenson in 1909 introduced this scale for the first time.
H20 <--> H4 + OH
This reaction shows that the number of H4 and OH ions are equal experimentally it has
been proved that the product of concentration of H4 and OH is a constant quality K ,
whose value was found to be 10 - 14 i.e
[H4][OH = K--> [H4][OH] -10
Log [H4] + Log [OH] = -14

26 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 26
--> - Log [H4] - Log [OH] = 14
-->ph 4 poh =14
But for what pH = POH
2PH = 14-->pH = 7
for acids PH ranges from 1 to 7 and for base PH ranges from8 to 14 There Are Two
methods to determine the PH values of given water sample,
1. Colorimetric method
2. Electrometric method
Importance of pH:
PH is very important in the control of number of water and waste water treatment
processes and in the control of corrosion.
W.H.O guide line value:
World organization suggested a guideline value of (6.5) to (8.5) for pH of water.
Apparatus & Chemicals:
Buffers (pH4,pH) standard pH solution problem pH meter stand and colorimetric paper
and water sample
Procedure:
1. Colorimetric Method:
Dip the colorimetric paper in water sample. Compute the color of paper with color from
the table and note the PH of water against this color, This is the PH of the sample.
2. Electrometric Method:
1. Press "01" key of PH meter to bring the meter in working condition.
2. Press the PH key and calibrate key so that the screen shows "00.00" reading.
3. Dip the problem into standard solution of PH - 7 and press "standard" key so that
the screen gives 7.00 reading.
4. Dip the probe in water sample and press"disperser" key and PH key to get the
PH of the sample.
5. Read the value of PH from Screen.

27 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 27
Finding Total Hardness Of Water Using EDTA
Method
Theory:
Hard water is generally considered to be one which requires considerable amount of soap to
produce foam or leather. Hard water cause scale formation in boilers heaters and hot water pipes.
The rain water catches CO2 from the atmosphere when the water pass through CaCO3 rock in the
Soil, these compounds make the water hard. Calcium and magnesium chlorides and sulphates also
cause hardness
There are two types of hardness:
1. Temporary Hardness
2. Permanent Hardness
Temporary Hardness:
This type of hardness is mostly caused by Ca(HCO3) or Mg(HCO3) OR both, therefore it is also
called carbonate hardness, these compounds dissolve in water and form Ca2, Mg+2 and HCO3
ions which cause hardness
H2O+ CO2--> H2CO3
CaCO3 + H2CO3 --> Ca(HCO3)2
Temporary hardness can be removed by Clark's method by adding limewater,Ca(OH)2 to the
hard water.
Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca (OH)2 -->2CaCO3 + 2H2O
Mg (HCO3)2 + Ca (OH)2 --> Mg CO3 + CaCO3 + 2H2O
As the magnesium carbonate and calcium carbonate are insoluble in water and settles down,
Permanent Hardness:
It is also known as non carbonate hardness and it is caused by CaCl2.MgCl2, CaSo4 and MgSO4,
the ion exchange method is used for the removal of the permanent hardness sodium zeolite is added
to hard water due to which calcium or magnesium zeolite is formed which is insoluble in water.
Ca + 2Na (zeolite) --> Ca (Zeolite ) + 2Na + 2

28 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 28
Disadvantages of hard water:
Total hardness = (Final hardness reading - Initial reading) 1000/50. The following values give
the type of hard water:
Hardness mg/lit
as CaCO3
Hardness (mg/lit
Type of water
0 - 75 Soft water
75 - 150 Moderately hand
water
150 - 300 Hard water
above 300 Very hard water
W.H.O guideline values:
W.H.O guideline value of hardness is 500mg/lit as CaCO3
1. Greater amount of soa is used.
2. Scale formation reduces the life of boilers.
3. Effect the digestive system of it contains MgSO2
Apparatus:
 Conical Flask
 Funnel
 Burette
 Sand
 Beaker
Chemicals:
Buffer solution of hardness ferrochrome black tea EDTA solution of 0.02normality.
Procedure:
1. Take 50ml of water sample in conical flask.
2. Add 1ml of buffer solution (Aluminum Hydroxide n Ammonium Chloride) of hardness1.
3. Add 3 drops of ferrochrome black tea to the flask and shake well.
4. Place the flask below the burette containing EDTA (Ethylene diamine tetra-acitic acid)
solution of 0.02 normality.
5. Note the initial reading of the burette and open the tape of the burette to allow the solution
to flow in the flask.
6. Note The Final Reading when the color of the water in the flask turn bluish.
7. The total harness (temporary + permanent hardness) is found by using the following
formula.

29 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 29
Find Coliform Bacteria By Multiple Tube
Fermentation Technique
Theory:
Many bacteria are found in water. most of them are totally harmless (non pathogenic) and few are
harmful (pathogenic), which causes diseases e.g. typhoid, fever, parathyphoid, dysentery, and
cholera etc. The ground water at great depths is free from these bacteria. The sanitary engineer is
not concerning all of them. The Coliform group is one of the most important types and includes
aero genes, Acrobatic Cloace, eschroica coli. Therefore Coliform may be define in part as
including all of the aerobic and facultative green non-spore bacilli, which formate lagtode with gas
formation within 48 hours at 3.5 C. Coliform themselves are harmless bacteria. But they are not
indication of bacteria pollution of water , but also because their absence or presence and their
number can be determine by routine laboratory test.
The number of Coliform May be found by following test:
 Pour plate total amount method
 Membrane filter method
 Multiple tube fermentation method
The last method based on the Coliform ferment lactose with gas formation. Appropriate quantity
of water to be tested is placed in sterile tube containing lactose. The Tubes are incubated for 24
hours and then examined in the presence or absence of gas is noted and recorded. If no gas is
formed within 24 hours then wait for 48 hours. If the gas is formed then Coliform is confirmed.
To find the number of Coliform from this method the result from various size of portion if the
sample are noted the most probable number (MPN) of the Coliform in the water is obtained by
applying the laws of the statics to the result of the test. For this purpose the most provable number
charts are available.
WHO Guideline Value for Bacteria Coliform
According to WHO the water is divided into the following classes depending upon the amount of
Coliform bacteria present in it.
Class Status Coliform per 100ml
01 Excellent 0
02 Satisfactory 1-3
03 Suspicious 4-10
Apparatus:

30 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 30
Fermentation tube, Durham,s tube, Cotton, Beakers, autoclave (steam sterilizer) and pippete
filter.
Chemicals:
Water samples, lactose, and bullion solution.
Procedure:
This test is carried in three stages: We will confine our selves to the first stage (Presumptive test)
which is performed in the following steps.
1. Take 15 test tubes and make 3 sorts of them each having 5 test tubes
2. Fill each of them with 10ml of lactose broth solution
3. Insert Durham,s tubes upside down in all test tubes and they are gently shaken to remove
air.
4. Clog all the tes tubes with cotton
5. Sterelize all the test tubes at 121C"in autoclave for minute.
6. Take out the tube after sterilization and the tube is cooled down
7. 1ml and 0.1 ml of sample is added respectively to 2nd and 3rd set of tubes.
8. Incubate all these test tubes at 350" for 24 hours in an incubator.
9. After 24 hours each test tube it is said to be positive presumptive test other wise negative.
Measure COD of WasteWater Using Closed
Reflux Method
Apparatus
1. Digestion vessels (vial)
2. COD Reactor
3. Spectrophotometer
4. Premixed Reagentsin Digestion Vessel (vials)
5. K2g2O7
6. Concentrated H2SO4
7. HgSO4
8. Ag2SO4
Procedure:
1. Place Approximately 500ml Of Sample In a clean blender bowl and homogenizze at high
speed for two minutes. blending the sample ensures a auniforum distribution of suspended
solids and thus improves the accuracy of test results.
2. Pre heat the COD reaction to Iso c

31 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 31
3. Carefully remove the cap of COD digestion Reagent vial.
4. While holding The vial at a 45 degree angle carefully pipet 2 ml sample into the vial.
5. Replace and tighten the cap.
6. Holding the vial by the cap in an empty sink, gently invert several times to mix the contents
they will become very hot during mixing.
7. Place the vial in prehented COD reacton.
8. Prepare a reagent blank by repeating step 3 through 6, substituting2 ml of distilled water
in place of sample.
9. Incubate the vial for two hours at size.
10. Turn off the reaction off and alllow the vials to cool to 120 degree and less. invert each vial
several times while still warm place vial in a cooling reach and allow them to room temp.
11. Measure the COD using spetrcophotamctrum method.
Determination of Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Of Wastewater
Theory:
Bio oxygen demand (B.O.D) is the amount of oxygen required for the microorganisms (bacteria)
present in the waster water to convert the organic substance to stable compounds such as CO2 and
H2O,
Organic substance + oxygen bacteria --> CO2 + H2O
Bacteria placed in contact with organic materials will utilize it as a food source in the utilization
the organic material will be oxidized to CO2 H2O. B.O.D is considered to be the measure of
organic content of the waste, the B.O.D determination has been done by measuring the amount of
oxygen utilized by the micro-organic has in the stabilization of waste water for 5 days at 20 C. For
domestic sewage the 5 days B.O.D value (B.O.D) is represent approximately 2/3 of the demand to
be consumed of all the oxidization materials were in fact oxidized for measurement of high B.O.D
values the waste is required to be dilute the diluted water is carefully manufactured and contains a
mixture of salts necessary for biological activities plus a phosphate buffer to maintain neutral PH.
The water is activated before mixing with sewage.
Apparatus:
Bottle burette, pipette, pipette filter, graduated cylinder
Chemicals:
Manganese sulphate alkali iodide acid concentrated sulphate acid standard hio sulphate and star
itch indicator.

32 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 32
Procedure:
1. Take two B.O.D tubes and half fill it with distilled water.
2. Add 3ml of waste water (polluted water) to the B.O.D tubes with the help of pipit.
3. Now filled the tubes with distilled water and fix stopper on it.
4. Put one of the tubes in incubator at 20 C for 5 days.
5. Add 2ml of alkali iodide oxide and shake well if oxygen is present the color will be brown
otherwise while)
6. Add 2ml of concentrated H2SO and shake well which will give a color which is in
resemblance to mustard oil.
7. Take 200ml from this solution in a graduted cylinder and add 1ml of strach indicator to it
which will give a yellowish color.
8. Put the gragraduated cylinder below the burette containing standard solution of sodium this
sulphate and note the initial reading.
9. Fill dissolved oxygen of the first tube the dissolved oxygen is found in similar way.
10. Find the B.O.D by using the formula
B.O.D (mg/lit) = (zero day D.O - 5 days D.O ) x 300/ml of sample
The BRCES (British Royal Commission Effluent Standard) allows a B.O.D of 20 mg/lit in a
treated sewagr to be discharged to body of water.
Find Dissolved Oxygen in given Sample by Azide
Modification
Reactants:
1. MnSO4
2. Alkali
3. Iodide Azide (NaoH + NaH3 + NaI)
4. H2SO4 conc.
5. Starch Indicaoter,
6. Na2S203(N=0.025)
7. Oxygen is required for all living organisms for growth (metabolism) 21% in air quantity
directly related with atm pressure and inversly proportional to temp for trout 7.5 mgl
required
8. BOD (vol= 300 ml)
Procedure:
1. Add 2ml alkali iodide azide if becomes yellow = oxygen present while no oxygen ppt will
be created let it settle ( Na2S03, Sodium sulphride) brings oxygen to zero
2. Add NaSO3 to another sample (oxygen become zero)

33 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 33
3. Add MnSO4 add alkali iodide axide color while means no oxygen.
4. Add 2ml H2SO4 ro disolve (in first sample) color becomes as mastard oil
5. Remove 100ml from the sample
6. Add 1ml starch indicator to the remaining sample => color = blueish
7. Take NaS2o3 in burrette
8. Titrate the sample against it until it becomes colorless ==> initial reading=4ml ==> final
reading=12.6ml ==> 12.6-4=8.6ml
9. ++ (oH) 1ml of Na2SO3 = 1mgk of dissolved oxygen it contains 8-6 mgk of dissolved
oxygen Mn + H2o => M(oH)2
10. Mn (oH)2 + 1/2 o2 =>Mno2+H2o
11. Mno2 + 2i + 4H + => Mn + i2 +2H2o
Determination of Strain in a Steel Bar
Apparatus:
Dividers, steel bar, specimen UTM, scale, vernier caliper.
Procedure:
1. Prepare a test specimen of at least 2ft.
2. Measure at least 3 places dia of steel bar by a VC and calculate the average value.
3. Mark the gauge length i.e 2 marks 8” apart.
4. Insert the suitable jaws in the grip and select a suitable load scale on UTM.
5. Start the machine and continue applying the load tile the specimen breaks and then stop
the UTM.
6. Join the broken species of the tested specimen and measure the increase in gauge length.
7. Determine the value of strain by dividing increase in gauge length by gauge length.
Torsion Test on Mild Steel and Cast Iron - Lab
Report
To perform Torsion Test on
a. Mild steel specimen
b. Cast iron specimen
Purpose:
1. To study the shear stress ~ shear strain behavior of the material.
2. To study the failure pattern of these materials in torsion.
3. To determine the mechanical properties, e.g, Modulus of elasticity, Modulus of rigidity, Shear
strength, shear strain and ductility in torsion.

34 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 34
Apparatus:
1. 10 Ton Buckton Universal Testing Machine
2. Vernier caliper
3. Steel Rule
Procedure of the Test:
1. Note the dimensions and draw the shape of the specimen.
( Note effective length, total length, dia meter etc.)
2. Fix specimen into 10 Ton Buckton UTM.
3. Use twist control method (other one is torsional strain control method)
4. To apply the twist to the sample, rotate the handle counter clock wise for required degree of twist.
Machine’s one complete cycle will give 4° of twist.
5. Balance arm of the machine will get disturbed again. Try to balance it with the help of concerned
handle and note down the value of balancing load.
6. Repeat the same procedure with increasing value of twist until the member fails.
Lever arm = 50.8mm
Torque = lever arm x load 16T
7. Examine the failure pattern of the specimen and draw sketch after failure.(same for cast iron )
 ACI Code Safety
 Reinforcement ratio Disadvantages of RC
 Working Stress Design
 Doubly Reinforced Design
 Precast Concrete Construction RCC Design Procedure
 Reinforcement Books
 Reinforcement Detailing in Concrete
Observations and Calculations:

35 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 35
Related Theory:
1. Torque:
Twisting effect of couple or force is called as torque. It is denoted by double head arrow.
2. Torsion:
Torque applied in a plane perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of a member is called as
torsion.
3. Difference between Torque and Moment:

36 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 36
4. Twisting Moment:
It is the summation of torque either left or right of the section.
5. Bending Theory:
6. Torsion Theory:
Assumptions:
1. Material is homogeneous.
2. Circular section remains circular and do not warp.
3. A plane section of a material perpendicular to its longitudinal axis remain plane and do not warp
after the torque is applied.
4. Shaft is loaded by a couple or torque in a plane perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the plane.
5. Shear stress is proportional to shear strain, it means that Hook’s Law is applicable.
6. In circular shafts subjected to torque shearing strain varies linearly.

37 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 37
Where,
t, Shearing stress in MPa
r, Radius of the shaft in mm.
T, Twisting moment.
J, Polar moment of inertia.
G, Modulus of rigidity.
θ Angle of twist.
L, Length of the specimen / Shaft
7. Polar moment of inertia:
The geometric rigidity of the X-sec is termed as polar moment of inertia. It is the resistance against
twisting, summation of 2 moment of area about x-axis.
Circular Section:

38 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 38
For Hollow Shaft:
Torsional Rigidity / Modulus of Rigidity / Modulus of Elasticity in Shear:
"When material is subjected to pure twist loading, the slope of shear stress verses shear strain curve
is termed as modulus of rigidity ( modulus of elasticity in shear, torsional rigidity)
9. Poison’s Ratio:
The ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain when material is subjected to axial loading and
always less than 1.

39 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 39
10. Relation between yield strength in tension to torsion for mild steel:
The relationship between yield stress in simple tension and that in pure shear can be found from
VON MISES for a yield criteria.
11. Torsional Strength:
 It is the ultimate strength of a material subjected to a torsional loading.
 It is maximum torsional stress that a material sustains before rupture.
 It is similar to the tensile strength.
12. Torsional Deformation:
Angular displacement of specimen caused by specified torque in torsion test. It is equal to angle
of twist in radians divided by gauge length or effective length.
13. Torsional Strain, y:
Strain corresponding to specified torque in torsion test. It is equal to torsional deformation
multiplied by the radius of the shaft. It's units are radians.
14. Torsional Stress, T:
Shear stress developed in a material subjected to a specified torque in torsion test for a circular
shaft. It can be calculated using the expression.

40 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 40
15. Expected failure for Mild Steel and Cast Iron Specimens and
reasoning:
Fracture in torsion for ductile materials generally occur in the plane of maximum shear stress
perpendicular to the axis of bar where as for the brittle material failure occurs along 45° hilux to
the axis of bar due to tensile stress across that plane.

41 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 41
Universal Testing Machine and Components of
UTM
A machine used to test specimens for tensile strength, compressive strength, shear strength and to
perform bend test along other important laboratory tests. The primary use of the testing machine
is to create the stress strain diagram. Once the diagram is generated, a pencil and straight edge or
computer algorithm can be used to calculate yield strength, Young's Modulus, tensile strength or
total elongation.
Components of UTM
It consists of two main parts, called:
1. Loading Unit
2. Control Unit
Loading unit
In this unit actual loading of the specimen takes place - consists of three cross heads namely
upper head, middle head and lower head. Using appropriate cross heads tensile, compressive,
shear, bending load with the help of different attachment can be applied. Loading unit of a UTM
consists of:
1. Upper cross head - To clamp testing specimen from top
2. Lower cross head - To clamp testing specimen from below
3. Table - to place the specimen, used for compression test
Control Unit
The load is applied and recorded by this unit. The load is applied with control valve and released
by release valve. The load is applied with the help of hydraulic pressure.
Extensometer
An instrument used to measure elongation in the material
Tests UTM can perform
1. Tensile Tests
2. Adhesion Tests
3. Cycle tests with momentary stops
4. Pull-Out Tests
5. Creep Tests
6. Hysteresis Tests

42 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 42
Displays Test Traces and Values
Test Traces: An ongoing test can be displayed as either:
1. Load/Displacement
2. Load/Position
3. Load/Time
4. Position/Time
5. Displacement/Time
Digital Indicating Windows: The following are displayed:
1. Maximum Load (peak hold)
2. Current Load (during a test)
3. Cross head Position
4. Displacement (from the start of a test)
Applications of Universal Testing Machine
Universal Testing Machine can be used and applied to perform tests on the following samples:
1. Rope
2. Steel Rope
3. Winches
4. Steel Wire
5. Electrical Wire
6. Webbing
7. Spring
8. Slings
9. Cable
10. Nylon Rope
11. Links
12. Chain
13. Steel Chain
Tensile Strength or Tension Test
Tensile Test - Tensile Strength or Tension Test
Definition:
Tensile strength of a material is the tension stress at which a material breaks or permanently
deforms (changes shape)
sUTS = Pmax/Ao

43 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 43
There are three stages of Tensile Strength:
1. Yield Strength
2. Ultimate Strength and
3. Breaking strength
Tensile strength of a material is the tension stress at which a material breaks or permanently
deforms (changes shape) Toughness, Resilience, Poisson's ratio can also be found by the use of
this testing technique. This data is plotted as load vs elongation and then converted to
engineering stress (load/original area) vs engineering strain (fractional change in length over the
test section assuming the deformation is uniform)
Procedure of Strength Test:
A standard test piece (gauge length 8ft) is gripped at both ends in the jaws of UTM - Universal
Testing Machine which slowly exerts an axial pull so that the steel is stretched until it breaks.
The major parameters that describe the stress-strain curve obtained during the tension test are
the:
1. Ultimate tensile strength (UTS)
2. Yield strength or yield point (sy)
3. Elastic modulus (E)
4. Percent elongation (?L%) and
5. The reduction in area (RA%).

44 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 44
Toughness, Resilience, Poisson's ratio can also be found by the use of this testing technique. This
data is plotted as load vs elongation and then converted to engineering stress (load/original area)
vs engineering strain (fractional change in length over the test section assuming the deformation
is uniform.
Engineering Stress:
Stress s = P / Ao ( Load/Initial cross-sectional area)
Strain = e = dl / lo (Elongation/Initial gauge length)
Engineering stress and strain are independent of the geometry of the specimen.
If the true cross section is measured during the test the True Stress and True Strain may be
calculated. Tensile tests are applied on materials such as concrete, metals, plastics, wood, and
ceramics etc.
Units of Measurement:
Tensile testing systems use a number of different units of measurement. The International
System of Units, or SI, recommends the use of either Pascals (Pa) or Newtons per square meter
(N/m²) for describing tensile strength. In the United States, many engineers measure tensile
strength in kilo-pound per square inch (KSI).
To Find out the Reaction of Simply Supported
Beam
Apparatus:
Spring balance, Stands, Leveling deices, weights and hangers.
Principle:
 Condition of equilibrium for vertical parallel forces acting on a body is
 Sum of all the force s should be zero.
 It should satisfy the principle of moments .
 If we take moment about a point on moments should be equal to anti clockwise moments.
Procedure:
1. Set the apparatus accordingly
2. Then hang the beam on the hooks and weights on bam with hangers.
3. Note the distance of weight jaws from the support and value of weights.

45 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 45
4. Using the two condition of equilibrium calculates R1 & R2.
5. For this one should know values o weight of beams, length of beams and weight of
hanger
Observation and Calculations
Weight of hanger = 0.1 lb
Weight of rod W3 = 5.84 lb
Length b/w the supports = 42 in
W1 W2 L1 L1/ L2 L2/ RA RB
0.6 lb 0.6 lb 10 in 32 in 32 in 10 in 3.5 lb 3.5 lb
Laboratory Investigation of Hooke’s Law
Apparatus:
UTM , test specimen, divider, vernier caliper, scale.
Procedure:
1. Prepare the test specimen that is steel bar and find its diameter at tree different places and
find its man value.
2. Mark two points 8" a part of 2 ft long steel bar.
3. Insert the bar in jaws for gripping the steel bar and select suitable bar on UTM. Place the
steel bar and fix it.

46 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 46
4. Start t machine and start applying load.
5. There will be gradual increase in length which will be directly proportional to applied
load.
6. During this load application measure change in length at different load, till the steel bar
breaks.
7. Find the stress and strain at those points and investigate the law by drawing the graph
between stress and strain
S
No
Dia
of
Bar
Load(Tons) Elongation Area of
Bar
Stress =
Load/Area
Strain=
Elongation/Gauge
Length
01 ¾ in 3.68 0 in 0.
441 in2
8.34 Psi 0
02 ¾in 6.84 0 in 0.
441 in2
15.51Psi 0
03 ¾ in 10.28 0 in 0.
441 in2
23.31 Psi 0
04 ¾ in 10.72 1/8 in 0.
441 in2
24.30 Psi 0.0156
05 ¾in 11.82 3/16 in 0.
441 in2
26.80 Psi 0.0234
06 ¾in 12.04 ¼ in 0.
441 in2
27.30 Psi 0.031
07 ¾in 13.04 5/16 in 0.
441 in2
29.56 Psi 0.039
08 ¾in 13.78 7/16 in 0.
441 in2
31.24 Psi 0.054
09 ¾in 14.34 9/16 in 0.
441 in2
32.51 Psi 0.070
10 ¾in 14.88 11/16 in 0.
441 in2
33.74 Psi 0.085
11 ½ in 12.6
(Rupture)
-------------- 0.
196 in2
64.28 Psi ---------------------
12 ½ in 15.86
(Ultimate)
2 ¼ in 0.
196 in2
80.91 Psi 0.218
Determination of Deflection in Over Hanging
Beams

47 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 47
Apparatus:
Model of beam, Weights, Deflection Gauge, Weight Hangers.
Objective:
The purpose of this experiment is to record the deflection in beam experimentally and then
compare it with theoretical value.
Deflection:
Deflection is a term which is defined as the distance moved by a point on the axis of beam before
and after application of force
Determination bar:
Those bars in which unknown reactions can be found using available egs of equilibrium are
called determination.
Procedure of Experiment:
1. Take the beam model and place it on the table. it should be kept horizontally and firmly.
2. Determine the length of the beam and also dimension of cross section.
3. If the model is an over hanging bema then also determine the length of over hanging
portion.
4. Set the deflection gauge at a point where deflection is to be measured.

48 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 48
5. Make the reading of the deflection gauge dial indicator to zero before applying the load
on bar.
6. Now apply the load with the help of load hangers and record the loaded weights location
from left side of the beam.
7. Now record the deflection 1st of all at the smaller dial of the gauge. It should be read as it
shows the number of rotations.
8. One complete rotation is equal to 1mm deflection
An Experiment on Hydraulic Jump
Objectives of the experiments:
1. To create the hydraulic jump.
2. To verify the questions of fluid flow.
3. To determine the slatrility & characteristics of the hydraulic jump obtained in the lab
using Impulse momentum & specific energy equations.
4. To compare measured flow depths with theoretical results.
Theoretical background:
Hydraulic jumps are very efficient in dissipating the energy of the flow to make it more
controllable & les erosive. In engineering practice, the hydraulic jump frequently appears
downstream from overflow structures (spillways), or under flow structures (slvice gates), where
velocities are height. A hydraulic jump is formed when liquid at high velocity discharges into a
zone of lower velocity only if the 3 independent velocities (y1, y2, fr1) of the hydraulic jump
equation conform to the following equation:
Y2 = y1/2 [-1+√1+8Fr2 ]
Fr2 = 92/9y3
Apparatus:
 Glass walled flume with sluice gates & a spillway arrangement
 Point gauges
 Manometer & scales
 Pump
Procedure for Hydraulic Jump Experiment:
1. I started the pump to supply water to the flume.
2. Then I closed the tail gate to allow water to accumulate and to develop hydraulic jump.
3. I adjusted the position of the hydraulic jump by adjusting the amount of closure of slvice
gate.

49 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 49
4. I then measured the depth of the bed of flume by using a point gauge.
5. In the next step , I measured water surface level before it had crossed the spillway.
6. Then I measured height of spillway & the depth of water over the spillway.
7. Using the point gauges I then determined the water surface levels downstream of the
jump.
8. Then I measured y1 & y2.
9. I repeated the measurement steps again for a different flowchart.
Results:
S.No Hm(m) Y1(mm) Y2(mm) Lj(m) H(mn) H1(mn) H2
1 0.8 342 46 2 6.5 24 106 0.45
Sources of errors:
Human errors:
1. Errors occurred during measurements i.e. by taking erroneous reading of depths or in micrometer.
2. Errors occurred in operation of slvice gates.
Instrumentation error:
 Leakage from the flume
 Assumptions of ideal conditions did not prevail:
 Ideal conditions which prevailed in the theoretical equations were not there and frictional forces
also had some effect on the experiment.
Determination of Particle Size Distribution by
Sedimentation Analysis
Apparatus:
Hydrometer, sedimentation jar, balance, stopwatch.
Procedure:
1. A 50gm soil sample is used which is passed through sieve#200.
2. The soil sample is mixed with distilled water in a beaker to form a smooth thin paste.
3. To have proper dispersion of soil, 8gm of sodium hexameta phosphate is added to the solution per
50gm of soil sample.
4. The solution is passed in sedimentation jar. Then it is shaken vigorously while kept vertical.
5. The stopwatch is started and the hydrometer is slowly inserted in the jar and readings are taken at
2, 3 and 10 minutes interval.
6. The diameter of grains and the %age passing is calculated by using formulas and plotting a curve

50 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 50
Precautions:
 The soil suspension is opaque, so take the readings corresponding to the upper level of meniscus.
 The time interval between readings should be such that the hydrometer is stable at the time of
next reading
Time(min) Hydrometer reading, Rh
and the neck of the
bulb(H) (cm)
Effective depth(He)
(Cm)
Diameter
D
(cm)
% finer
0 60 0 6.2 1.9273
02 51 09 15.2 1.6382
05 47 13 19.2 1.5097
15 44 16 22.2 1.4133
Concrete Slump Test - Theory and Lab Test

51 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 51
Definition
 Slump is a measurement of concrete's workability, or fluidity.
 It's an indirect measurement of concrete consistency or stiffness.
A slump test is a method used to determine the consistency of concrete. The consistency, or
stiffness, indicates how much water has been used in the mix. The stiffness of the concrete mix
should be matched to the requirements for the finished product quality
Concrete Slump Test
The concrete slump test is used for the measurement of a property of fresh concrete. The test is
an empirical test that measures the workability of fresh concrete. More specifically, it measures
consistency between batches. The test is popular due to the simplicity of apparatus used and
simple procedure.
Principle of Slump Test
The slump test result is a measure of the behavior of a compacted inverted cone of concrete
under the action of gravity. It measures the consistency or the wetness of concrete.
Apparatus
 Slump cone,
 Scale for measurement,
 Temping rod (steel)
Procedure of Concrete Slump test:

52 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 52
1. The mold for the slump testis a frustum of a cone, 300 mm (12 in) of height. The base is 200 mm
(8in) in diameter and it has a smaller opening at the top of 100 mm (4 in).
2. The base is placed on a smooth surface and the container is filled with concrete in three layers,
whose workability is to be tested .
3. Each layer is temped 25 times with a standard 16 mm (5/8 in) diameter steel rod, rounded at the
end.
4. When the mold is completely filled with concrete, the top surface is struck off (leveled with mould
top opening) by means of screening and rolling motion of the temping rod.
5. The mould must be firmly held against its base during the entire operation so that it could not move
due to the pouring of concrete and this can be done by means of handles or foot - rests brazed to
the mold.
6. Immediately after filling is completed and the concrete is leveled, the cone is slowly and carefully
lifted vertically, an unsupported concrete will now slump.
7. The decrease in the height of the center of the slumped concrete is called slump.
8. The slump is measured by placing the cone just besides the slump concrete and the temping rod is
placed over the cone so that it should also come over the area of slumped concrete.
9. The decrease in height of concrete to that of mold is noted with scale. (usually measured to the
nearest 5 mm (1/4 in).
Precautions in Slump Test

53 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 53
In order to reduce the influence on slump of the variation in the surface friction, the inside of the
mould and its base should be moistened at the beginning of every test, and prior to lifting of the
mould the area immediately around the base of the cone should be cleaned from concrete which
may have dropped accidentally.
Types Of Concrete Slump
The slumped concrete takes various shapes, and according to the profile of slumped concrete, the
slump is termed as;
1. Collapse Slump
2. Shear Slump
3. True Slump
Collapse Slump
In a collapse slump the concrete collapses completely. A collapse slump will generally mean that
the mix is too wet or that it is a high workability mix, for which slump test is not appropriate.
Shear Slump
In a shear slump the top portion of the concrete shears off and slips sideways. OR
If one-half of the cone slides down an inclined plane, the slump is said to be a shear slump.
1. If a shear or collapse slump is achieved, a fresh sample should be taken and the test is repeated.
2. If the shear slump persists, as may the case with harsh mixes, this is an indication of lack of
cohesion of the mix.
True Slump
In a true slump the concrete simply subsides, keeping more or less to shape
1. This is the only slump which is used in various tests.

54 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 54
2. Mixes of stiff consistence have a Zero slump, so that in the rather dry range no variation can be
detected between mixes of different workability.
However , in a lean mix with a tendency to harshness, a true slump can easily change to the shear
slump type or even to collapse, and widely different values of slump can be obtained in different
samples from the same mix; thus, the slump test is unreliable for lean mixes.
Applications of Slump Test
1. The slump test is used to ensure uniformity for different batches of similar concrete under
field conditions and to ascertain the effects of plasticizers on their introduction.
2. This test is very useful on site as a check on the day-to-day or hour- to-hour variation in
the materials being fed into the mixer. An increase in slump may mean, for instance, that
the moisture content of aggregate has unexpectedly increases.
3. Other cause would be a change in the grading of the aggregate, such as a deficiency of
sand.
4. Too high or too low a slump gives immediate warning and enables the mixer operator to
remedy the situation.
5. This application of slump test as well as its simplicity, is responsible for its widespread
use.
Degree of
workability
Slump Compacting
Factor
Use for which concrete is suitable
mm in
Very low 0-25 0-1 0.78 Very dry mixes; used in road
making. Roads vibrated by power
operated machines.
Low 25-50 1-2 0.85 Low workability mixes; used for
foundations with light
reinforcement. Roads vibrated by
hand operated Machines.
Medium 50-100 2-4 0.92 Medium workability mixes;
manually compacted flat slabs
using crushed aggregates. Normal
reinforced concrete manually
compacted and heavily reinforced
sections with vibrations.
High 100-175 4-7 0.95 High workability concrete; for
sections with congested
reinforcement. Not normally
suitable for vibration
Table : Workability, Slump and Compacting Factor of concrete with 19 or 38 mm (3/4 or 11
/2 in)
maximum size of aggregate.

55 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 55
Difference in Standards
The slump test is referred to in several testing and building code, with minor differences in the
details of performing the test.
United States
In the United States, engineers use the ASTM standards and AASHTO specifications when
referring to the concrete slump test. The American standards explicitly state that the slump cone
should have a height of 12-in, a bottom diameter of 8-in and an upper diameter of 4-in. The
ASTM standards also state in the procedure that when the cone is removed, it should be lifted up
vertically, without any rotational movement at allThe concrete slump test is known as "Standard
Test Method for Slump of Hydraulic-Cement Concrete" and carries the code (ASTM C 143) or
(AASHTO T 119).
United Kingdom & Europe
In the United Kingdom, the Standards specify a slump cone height of 300-mm, a bottom
diameter of 200-mm and a top diameter of 100-mm. The British Standards do not explicitly
specify that the cone should only be lifted vertically. The slump test in the British standards was
first (BS 1881-102) and is now replaced by the European Standard (BS EN 12350-2).
Tests Applied on Concrete for Strength and
Workability

56 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 56
SAMPLING The first step is to take a test sample from the large batch of concrete. This should
be done as soon as discharge of the concrete commences. The sample should be representative of
the concrete supplied. The sample is taken in one of two ways: For purposes of accepting or
rejecting the load: Sampling after 0.2 m3 of the load has been poured. For routine quality checks:
Sampling from three places in the load.
a) Concrete Slump Test
This test is performed to check the consistency of freshly made concrete. The slump test is done
to make sure a concrete mix is workable. The measured slump must be within a set range, or
tolerance, from the target slump.
Workability of concrete is mainly affected by consistency i.e. wetter mixes will be more workable
than drier mixes, but concrete of the same consistency may vary in workability. It can also be
defined as the relative plasticity of freshly mixed concrete as indicative of its workability.
Tools and apparatus used for slump test (equipment):
1. Standard slump cone (100 mm top diameter x 200 mm bottom diameter x 300 mm high)
2. Small scoop
3. Bullet-nosed rod (600 mm long x 16 mm diameter)
4. Rule
5. Slump plate (500 mm x 500 mm)
Procedure of slump test for concrete:
1. Clean the cone. Dampen with water and place on the slump plate. The slump plate should
be clean, firm, level and non-absorbent. Collect a sample of concrete to perform the slum
test.
2. Stand firmly on the footpieces and fill 1/3 the volume of the cone with the sample. Compact
the concrete by 'rodding' 25 times. Rodding means to push a steel rod in and out of the
concrete to compact it into the cylinder, or slump cone. Always rod in a definite pattern,
working from outside into the middle.
3. Now fill to 2/3 and again rod 25 times, just into the top of the first layer.
4. Fill to overflowing, rodding again this time just into the top of the second layer. Top up the
cone till it overflows.
5. Level off the surface with the steel rod using a rolling action. Clean any concrete from
around the base and top of the cone, push down on the handles and step off the footpieces.
6. Carefully lift the cone straight up making sure not to move the sample.
7. Turn the cone upside down and place the rod across the up-turned cone.

57 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 57
8. Take several measurements and report the average distance to the top of the sample.If the
sample fails by being outside the tolerance (ie the slump is too high or too low), another
must be taken. If this also fails the remainder of the batch should be rejected.
b) Concrete Compression Test
The compression test shows the compressive strength of hardened concrete. The compression test
shows the best possible strength concrete can reach in perfect conditions. The compression test
measures concrete strength in the hardened state. Testing should always be done carefully. Wrong
test results can be costly. The testing is done in a laboratory off-site. The only work done on-site
is to make a concrete cylinder for the compression test. The strength is measured in Megapascals
(MPa) and is commonly specified as a characteristic strength of concrete measured at 28 days after
mixing. The compressive strength of concrete is a measure of the concrete’s ability to resist loads
which tend to crush it.
Apparatus for compression test
Cylinders (100 mm diameter x 200 mm high or 150 mm diameter x 300 mm high) (The small
cylinders are normally used for most testing due to their lighter weight)
1. Small scoop
2. Bullet-nosed rod (600 mm x 16 mm)
3. Steel float
4. Steel plate
How to do Compression Test?
Procedure for compression test of concrete
1. Clean the cylinder mould and coat the inside lightly with form oil, then place on a clean,
level and firm surface, ie the steel plate. Collect a sample.
2. Fill 1/2 the volume of the mould with concrete then compact by rodding 25 times.
Cylinders may also be compacted by vibrating using a vibrating table.
3. Fill the cone to overflowing and rod 25 times into the top of the first layer, then top up the
mould till overflowing.
4. Level off the top with the steel float and clean any concrete from around the mould.
5. Cap, clearly tag the cylinder and put it in a cool dry place to set for at least 24 hours.
6. After the mould is removed the cylinder is sent to the laboratory where it is cured and
crushed to test compressive strength

58 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 58
Find Dissolved Oxygen in given Sample by Azide
Modification
Reactants:
1. MnSO4
2. Alkali
3. Iodide Azide (NaoH + NaH3 + NaI)
4. H2SO4 conc.
5. Starch Indicaoter,
6. Na2S203(N=0.025)
7. Oxygen is required for all living organisms for growth (metabolism) 21% in air quantity
directly related with atm pressure and inversly proportional to temp for trout 7.5 mgl
required
8. BOD (vol= 300 ml)
Procedure:
1. Add 2ml alkali iodide azide if becomes yellow = oxygen present while no oxygen ppt will
be created let it settle ( Na2S03, Sodium sulphride) brings oxygen to zero
2. Add NaSO3 to another sample (oxygen become zero)
3. Add MnSO4 add alkali iodide axide color while means no oxygen.
4. Add 2ml H2SO4 ro disolve (in first sample) color becomes as mastard oil
5. Remove 100ml from the sample
6. Add 1ml starch indicator to the remaining sample => color = blueish
7. Take NaS2o3 in burrette
8. Titrate the sample against it until it becomes colorless ==> initial reading=4ml ==> final
reading=12.6ml ==> 12.6-4=8.6ml
9. ++ (oH) 1ml of Na2SO3 = 1mgk of dissolved oxygen it contains 8-6 mgk of dissolved
oxygen Mn + H2o => M(oH)2
10. Mn (oH)2 + 1/2 o2 =>Mno2+H2o
11. Mno2 + 2i + 4H + => Mn + i2 +2H2o
Determination of Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Of Wastewater
Theory:
Bio oxygen demand (B.O.D) is the amount of oxygen required for the microorganisms (bacteria)
present in the waster water to convert the organic substance to stable compounds such as CO2 and
H2O,

59 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 59
Organic substance + oxygen bacteria --> CO2 + H2O
Bacteria placed in contact with organic materials will utilize it as a food source in the utilization
the organic material will be oxidized to CO2 H2O. B.O.D is considered to be the measure of
organic content of the waste, the B.O.D determination has been done by measuring the amount of
oxygen utilized by the micro-organic has in the stabilization of waste water for 5 days at 20 C. For
domestic sewage the 5 days B.O.D value (B.O.D) is represent approximately 2/3 of the demand to
be consumed of all the oxidization materials were in fact oxidized for measurement of high B.O.D
values the waste is required to be dilute the diluted water is carefully manufactured and contains a
mixture of salts necessary for biological activities plus a phosphate buffer to maintain neutral PH.
The water is activated before mixing with sewage.
Apparatus:
Bottle burette, pipette, pipette filter, graduated cylinder
Chemicals:
Manganese sulphate alkali iodide acid concentrated sulphate acid standard hio sulphate and star
itch indicator.
Procedure:
1. Take two B.O.D tubes and half fill it with distilled water.
2. Add 3ml of waste water (polluted water) to the B.O.D tubes with the help of pipit.
3. Now filled the tubes with distilled water and fix stopper on it.
4. Put one of the tubes in incubator at 20 C for 5 days.
5. Add 2ml of alkali iodide oxide and shake well if oxygen is present the color will be brown
otherwise while)
6. Add 2ml of concentrated H2SO and shake well which will give a color which is in
resemblance to mustard oil.
7. Take 200ml from this solution in a graduted cylinder and add 1ml of strach indicator to it
which will give a yellowish color.
8. Put the gragraduated cylinder below the burette containing standard solution of sodium this
sulphate and note the initial reading.
9. Fill dissolved oxygen of the first tube the dissolved oxygen is found in similar way.
10. Find the B.O.D by using the formula
B.O.D (mg/lit) = (zero day D.O - 5 days D.O ) x 300/ml of sample
The BRCES (British Royal Commission Effluent Standard) allows a B.O.D of 20 mg/lit in a
treated sewagr to be discharged to body of water.

60 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 60
Measure COD of WasteWater Using Closed
Reflux Method
Apparatus
2. COD Reactor
3. Spectrophotometer
4. Premixed Reagentsin Digestion Vessel (vials)
5. K2g2O7
7. HgSO4
8. Ag2SO4
Procedure:
1. Place Approximately 500ml Of Sample In a clean blender bowl and homogenizze at high
speed for two minutes. blending the sample ensures a auniforum distribution of suspended
4. While holding The vial at a 45 degree angle carefully pipet 2 ml sample into the vial.
6. Holding the vial by the cap in an empty sink, gently invert several times to mix the contents
they will become very hot during mixing.
7. Place the vial in prehented COD reacton.
in place of sample.
10. Turn off the reaction off and alllow the vials to cool to 120 degree and less. invert each vial
several times while still warm place vial in a cooling reach and allow them to room temp.
11. Measure the COD using spetrcophotamctrum method.
Find Coliform Bacteria By Multiple Tube
Fermentation Technique
Theory:
Many bacteria are found in water. most of them are totally harmless (non pathogenic) and
few are harmful (pathogenic), which causes diseases e.g. typhoid, fever, parathyphoid,
dysentery, and cholera etc. The ground water at great depths is free from these bacteria.
The sanitary engineer is not concerning all of them. The Coliform group is one of the most

61 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 61
important types and includes aero genes, Acrobatic Cloace, eschroica coli. Therefore
Coliform may be define in part as including all of the aerobic and facultative green non-
spore bacilli, which formate lagtode with gas formation within 48 hours at 3.5 C. Coliform
themselves are harmless bacteria. But they are not indication of bacteria pollution of
water , but also because their absence or presence and their number can be determine
by routine laboratory test.
The number of Coliform May be found by following test:
 Pour plate total amount method
 Membrane filter method
 Multiple tube fermentation method
The last method based on the Coliform ferment lactose with gas formation. Appropriate
quantity of water to be tested is placed in sterile tube containing lactose. The Tubes are
incubated for 24 hours and then examined in the presence or absence of gas is noted
and recorded. If no gas is formed within 24 hours then wait for 48 hours. If the gas is
formed then Coliform is confirmed. To find the number of Coliform from this method the
result from various size of portion if the sample are noted the most probable number
(MPN) of the Coliform in the water is obtained by applying the laws of the statics to the
result of the test. For this purpose the most provable number charts are available.
WHO Guideline Value for Bacteria Coliform
According to WHO the water is divided into the following classes depending upon the
amount of Coliform bacteria present in it.
Class Status Coliform per 100ml
01 Excellent 0
02 Satisfactory 1-3
03 Suspicious 4-10
Apparatus:
Fermentation tube, Durham,s tube, Cotton, Beakers, autoclave (steam sterilizer) and
pippete filter.
Chemicals:
Water samples, lactose, and bullion solution.
Procedure:
This test is carried in three stages: We will confine our selves to the first stage
(Presumptive test) which is performed in the following steps.

62 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 62
1. Take 15 test tubes and make 3 sorts of them each having 5 test tubes
2. Fill each of them with 10ml of lactose broth solution
3. Insert Durham,s tubes upside down in all test tubes and they are gently shaken to remove
air.
4. Clog all the tes tubes with cotton
5. Sterelize all the test tubes at 121C"in autoclave for minute.
6. Take out the tube after sterilization and the tube is cooled down
7. 1ml and 0.1 ml of sample is added respectively to 2nd and 3rd set of tubes.
8. Incubate all these test tubes at 350" for 24 hours in an incubator.
9. After 24 hours each test tube it is said to be positive presumptive test other wise negative.
Finding Alkalinity of Water Sample by Indicator
Method
Theory:
Alkalinity is the measure of the ability of a solution to neutralize acids
Importance:
Alkalinity is an important determination to the water treatment plant operator because some of the
coagulants used to clarify water and prepare it for filtration required sufficient alkalinity to insure
a proper reaction. The alkalinity may be increased by adding lime or NA2CO3. Excessive
alkalinity may be however interfere with coagulants.
WHO Guideline Value:
World health organization suggested a guideline value for alkalinity:
 Low alkalinity < 50mg/lit as CaCO3
 Medium alkalinity 50 - 250 mg/lit as CaCO3
 High alkalinity > 250 mg/lit as CaCO3
Relationship Table of Alkalinity:
Result of
titration
Hydroxide
(OH)
Carbonate
(CO3)
Bicarbonate
(HCO3)
p = 0 Nil Nil T
p > t/2 2p - T 2(T - p) Nil
p = t/2 Nil 2p Nil
p < t/2 Nil 2p T - 2p
p = T p Nil Nil
Where P= phenolphthalein alkalinity, T= Total alkalinity

63 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 63
Apparatus:
Stand, burette, funnel, conical flask, beaker etc.
Chemicals:
Phenolphthalein indicator solution, brome cresel green, methyl red solution, standard solution
(H2SO4) having normality 0.02
Procedure:
1. Take 50 ml of water sample in a flask. Add six drops of phenolphthalein indicator in the
sample (water), note the initial reading of the burette containing H2SO4 (N=0.02)
2. Start the titration till the color changes and note the reading of the burrete, Calculate the
phenolphthalein alkalinity using the formula alkalinity = (final reading - initial reading) X
100/50
3. Now add six drops of brome cresol green in the methyl solution which turns the color to
greenish one. note the initial reading of the burette and start the titration till the color
changes to gray and note the final reading.
4. Calculate total alkalinity by using the formula,
Total alkalinity = (final reading - initial reading) x 100/50
Determination of Suspended Solids in Water
Theory:
The total dissolved solids mainly consist of the test that acts as a check on detailed analysis.
Another useful aspect is that electric conductivity can be continuously recorded. Any sudden
change indicate a change of water. A treatment method can be there fore instantly detected.
Determination of total solids is used in two operations. In developing a potential source for public
water supply we must know about total solids. This is the factor to divide the type or method to be
used in softening water.
Drinking water standard recommends the following:
 Max desirable criteria = 500mg/lit as dissolved solids
 Max permissible criteria = 500 mg/lit as dissolved solids
 W.H.O guideline value = 1000 mg/lit as dissolved solids
Apparatus:

64 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 64
Filter media paper, filter glass, suction motor and pumps. The suspended solids in a turbid river
consist of finely divided silt silica and clay having specifc gravity ranging from 2.65 for sand to
1.03 for tlocculated mud particles containing 95%water suspended impurities are bacteria algae
and silt causing tubidity while dissolved impurities are salt of calcium magnesium sodium nitrogen
and H2S are also dissolved impurites. Mostly rain water have suspended solid contents usually
well below 200mg/lit but the contents of large river in tropical countries are sometimes over
200mg/lit
Procedure:
Take a filter glass of known size and weight let it is W1 put the filter glass on the filter assembly
attached with a suction motor pump, pour waste water sample ofover 50ml over the filter glass and
switch on the water pump remove the filter paper after waste paper filter through it and put in
dissector bring down the temperature. find out the weight of the filter glass along with the sample
remain on the filter let it would be W2.
Find the amount of suspended solids = (weight of filter + sample - (weight of filter)) x 100
Volume of Sample = (W2-W1) X 1000
Finding Total Hardness Of Water Using EDTA
Method
Theory:
Hard water is generally considered to be one which requires considerable amount of soap to
produce foam or leather. Hard water cause scale formation in boilers heaters and hot water pipes.
The rain water catches CO2 from the atmosphere when the water pass through CaCO3 rock in the
Soil, these compounds make the water hard. Calcium and magnesium chlorides and sulphates also
cause hardness
There are two types of hardness:
1. Temporary Hardness
2. Permanent Hardness
Temporary Hardness:
This type of hardness is mostly caused by Ca(HCO3) or Mg(HCO3) OR both, therefore it is also
called carbonate hardness, these compounds dissolve in water and form Ca2, Mg+2 and HCO3
ions which cause hardness
H2O+ CO2--> H2CO3

65 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 65
CaCO3 + H2CO3 --> Ca(HCO3)2
Temporary hardness can be removed by Clark's method by adding limewater,Ca(OH)2 to the
hard water.
Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca (OH)2 -->2CaCO3 + 2H2O
Mg (HCO3)2 + Ca (OH)2 --> Mg CO3 + CaCO3 + 2H2O
As the magnesium carbonate and calcium carbonate are insoluble in water and settles down,
Permanent Hardness:
It is also known as non carbonate hardness and it is caused by CaCl2.MgCl2, CaSo4 and MgSO4,
the ion exchange method is used for the removal of the permanent hardness sodium zeolite is added
to hard water due to which calcium or magnesium zeolite is formed which is insoluble in water.
Ca + 2Na (zeolite) --> Ca (Zeolite ) + 2Na + 2
Disadvantages of hard water:
Total hardness = (Final hardness reading - Initial reading) 1000/50. The following values give
the type of hard water:
Hardness mg/lit
as CaCO3
Hardness (mg/lit
Type of water
0 - 75 Soft water
75 - 150 Moderately hand
water
150 - 300 Hard water
above 300 Very hard water
W.H.O guideline values:
W.H.O guideline value of hardness is 500mg/lit as CaCO3
1. Greater amount of soa is used.
2. Scale formation reduces the life of boilers.
3. Effect the digestive system of it contains MgSO2
Apparatus:
 Conical Flask
 Funnel
 Burette
 Sand

66 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 66
 Beaker
Chemicals:
Buffer solution of hardness ferrochrome black tea EDTA solution of 0.02normality.
Procedure:
1. Take 50ml of water sample in conical flask.
2. Add 1ml of buffer solution (Aluminum Hydroxide n Ammonium Chloride) of hardness1.
3. Add 3 drops of ferrochrome black tea to the flask and shake well.
4. Place the flask below the burette containing EDTA (Ethylene diamine tetra-acitic acid)
solution of 0.02 normality.
5. Note the initial reading of the burette and open the tape of the burette to allow the solution
to flow in the flask.
6. Note The Final Reading when the color of the water in the flask turn bluish.
7. The total harness (temporary + permanent hardness) is found by using the following
formula.
Turbidity of Water sample Using Nephelometric
Method
Theory of Water Turbidity Test:
Water is said to turbid when it is seen containing materials of suspension inside it. While turbidity
may be defined as the measure of visible material in suspension in water, turbidity may be caused
by algae or other organisms. It is generally caused by silt or clay. The amount and character of
turbidity depends upon two things:
1. Type of soil over which flows
2. The velocity of flowing water
When water becomes stationary, the heavier and larger suspended particles settle down quickly
and the lighter and finely divided particles settles very slowly and even takes months.
Ground water is less turbid because of low velocity of water. turbidity may be helpful for
particles. When water becomes stationary, the heavier and larger suspended particles settle down
quickly and the lighter and finely divided particles settles very slowly and even takes months.
Ground water is less turbid because of low velocity of water. Turbidity may be helpful for
particles.

67 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 67
There are Various units for the measurement of turbidity which are:
1. Standard turbidity unit[mg/lit or ppm]
2. Jackson turbidity unit [J.T.U]
3. Nephelometric turbidity unit [N.T.U]
A device called nephelometric turbidity measures the turbidity of water in N.T.U the intensity of
light after passing through the water gives a measure of turbidity of water.
WHO guideline value:
WHO suggested a guideline value for turbidity as [N.T.U]for disinfection the turbidity of water
should be less than 1 N.T.U.
Apparatus:
W.H.O Nephelometric turbidity meter formazine solution of the sample by multiplying the scale
reading by 0.9 N.T.U, 9 N.T.U, 99 N.T.U, test tubes and water samples.
Procedure of Turbidity Test:
1. Switch on the power supply and check the battery of the turbidimeter,
2. Press the 1 N.T.U button and coincide the scale with zero by using focusing template.
3. Again press 1 N.T.U button and coincide the scale with zero using the focusing template.
4. A Standard formazine solution of N.T.U is placed on tubidimeter in the path of rays and
scale is brought 9 n.t.u
5. The Water sample is taken in a test and is placed in turbidimeter.
6. Use A Cell rise if the turbidity is more than 100 N.T.U and get the turbidity dilution factor.
Bacterial Classification in Wastewater Treatment
Microbiology in Waste Water Treatment:
It is the branch of biology which deals with micro organisms which is unclear or cluster of cell
microscopic organisms.
MICROORGANISMS:
Microorganisms are significant in water and wastewater because of their roles in different
transmission and they are the primary agents of biological treatment. They are the most divers
group of living organisms on earth and occupy important place in the ecosystem. Are called
OMNIPRESENT.

68 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 68
Classification of Bacteria in Waste Water Treatment
Process
1. Classification of bacteria based on Oxygen requirements (ORP)
The heterotrophic bacteria are grouped into three classification, depending on their action toward
free oxygen (O4) or more precisely oxygen-reduction potential (ORP) for survival and optimum
growth.
1. Obligate aerobe or Aerobes or bacteria are micro-organisms require free dissolved oxygen to
oxidize organic mate and to live and multiply. These conditions are referred to as aerobic processes.
2. Anaerobes or anaerobic bacteria are micro-organisms oxidize organic matter in the complete
absence of dissolved oxygen. The micro-organisms take oxygen from inorganic sates which contain
bound oxygen (Nitrate NO3, Sulphate So4
2-
, Phosphate PO4
2-
). This mode of operation is termed as
anaerobic process.
3. Facultative bacteria are a class of batter that use free dissolved oxygen when available but can also
Respire and multiply in the absence. "Escherichia Coli" a facile coli from is a facultative elaterium.
(Facultative Bacteria = Aerobic anaerobic bacteria)
2. Classification of Microorganisms by Kingdom:

69 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 69
Microorganisms are organized into five broad groups based on their structural functional
differences. The groups are called “Kingdoms”. The five kingdoms are animals, plants, protista
fungi and bacteria.
Representative examples and characteristics of differentiation are shown:
3. Classification by their preferred Temperature Regimes:
Each specie of bacteria reproduces best within a limited range of temperatures. Four temperature
ranges for bacteria:
1. That best at temperatures below 20°C are called psychrophiles.
2. Grows best in between 25°C and 40°C are called Mesophiles.
3. Between 45°C and 60°C thermopiles can grow.
4. Above 60 °C stenothermophiles grow best.
BACTERIA:
The highest population of microorganisms in a wastewater treatment plant will belong to the
bacteria. They are single-called organisms which use soluble food. Conditions in the treatment
plant are adjusted so that chemosererotrophs predominate. No particular species is selected as best.
Metabolism:
The general tern that describes all of the chemical activities performed by a cell is metabolism.
Divided into two parts:
a. Catabolism:
Includes all the biochemical processes by which a substrate is degraded to end produces with the
release of energy.
b. Anabolism:
Includes all the biochemical processes by which the bacterium synthesizes new chemical
compounds needed by the cells to hire and reproduces.
To Determine Bend Test on Steel Bar
Apparatus:
UTM, test specimen, bending table support pin.

70 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 70
Procedure:
1. Take a test specimen of the steel rod.
2. Measure the diameter of the steel rod. Take at least 3 readings and calculate the mean.
3. Now place the test specimen in the bending table specimen should be kept in the bending
table in such a way that the plane
4. Intersecting the longitudinal ribs is parallel to the axis of the pin.
5. Select suitable rang of scale.
6. Start the machine and start applying load continuously and uniformly throughout the
bending.
7. As the load is applied on the rod it will start bending.
8. Discontinue the application of load when the angle of bent specified in the material
specimen has been achieved before rebound.
9. Take out the specimen and examine the tension surface of the specimen for cracking.
Specification for Angel in Bend Test:
Bar # 3 to Bar #11 should bend up to 180o without crack
Bar # 14 & Bar # 18 should bend upto90o without crack
This all specification has been given in AASHTO (American Association for Sate Highway and
Transportation Officials)
Bend Test Requirements:
Bar No Grade 40 Grade 60 Grad 75
3, 4, 5 3 ½ db 3 ½ db -------------------
6 5 db 5 db -------------------
7, 8 ------------------- 5 db -------------------
9, 10 ------------------- 7 db -------------------
11 ------------------- 7 db 7 db
14, 18 ------------------- 9 db 9 db
To Determine Yield & Tensile Strength of a Steel
Bar
Apparatus:
UTM, Test Specimen, Vernier Calipers, Ruler etc.
Description of UTM:

71 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 71
A machine designed to perform tensile, compression, bend and shear tests, is called UTM,. It
mainly consists of two parts.
 Loading Unit, control unit. In addition to these units, there are certain accessories like bending
table, jaws for gripping recorders etc.
 Loading unit consists of two crossheads i.e upper cross head and lower cross head and a table
Procedure:
1. Prepare a test specimen of at least two feet.
2. Measure caliper at least at three places and then find average.
3. Insert the suitable jaws in the grip and select a suitable load scale on UTM.
4. Insert the specimen in the grip by adjusting the cross heads of UTM.
1. Start machine and continue applying the load.
2. At a point when the values of the load at that point this is called yield point.
3. When the specimen breaks stop the machine.
4. Note the ultimate value of the load.
5. Determine the yield strength and tensile strength of load dividing the yield load &
ultimate load by cross sectional area of the bar.
Gauge length = 8 inch
Determine the yield strength by the following
methods:
Offset Method

72 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 72
To determine the yield strength by the this method, it is necessary to secure data (autographic or
numerical) from which a stress-strain diagram with a distinct modulus characteristic of the
material being tested may be drawn. Then on the stress-strain diagram, lay off om equal to the
specified value of the offset (i.e. yield strength ~0.2%), draw mn parallel to OA, and thus locate
r, the intersection of mn with the stress-strain curve corresponding to load R, which is the yield
strength load. In recording values of yield strength obtained by this method, the value of offset
specified or used, or both, shall be stated in parentheses after the term yield strength.
Figure - Stress-strain diagram for the determination of yield strength by the offset method.
Secant Method
This method is also referred as the tangent, secant or chord modulus for the line drawn from the
shear stress-shear strain curve at 5% (1/20) and 33% (1/3) of the maximum compressive shear
stress. This region usually lies well within reasonably linear part of the curve. Lower part of the
curve, representing a straight region being associated with closing up the interfaces between
mortar and units is ignored, as they normally close up due to self weight in real structures.
Calculations for Ec are as follows.
Ec = ∆ Shear Stress / ∆Shear Strain
∆ Shear Stress = (Shear stress corresponding to 1/3 of the compressive strength) - (Shear stress
corresponding to 1/20 of the compressive strength)
∆ Shear Strain = Difference of the Shear strain at corresponding values of Shear stress.
ASTM Standards
Strength Grade 40 Grade 60 Grade 75
Minimum Yield Strength 40,000 Psi 60,000 Psi 75,000 Psi
Maximum Yield Strength 60,000 Psi 90,000 Psi 1,00,000 Psi
Elongation = 9.8 – 8 = 1.9
S
No
Dia of
Bar
Yield
Load(Tons)
Ultimate
load(Tons)
Area of
Bar,
A=∏ D 2
/4
Yield
Strength=Yield
Load *2204/
Area
Tensile
Strength =
Yield
Load*2204/
Area
1 ½ in 5.97 9.28 0.196 in2 67132.04 Psi 104352.
65 Psi
2 ½ in 4.86 7.65 0.196 in2 54650.20 Psi 86023.
46 Psi

73 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 73
3 ½ in 5.47 8.11 0.196 in2 61509.62 Psi 91196.
12 Psi
4 ½ in 5.43 8.313 0.196 in2 61059.85 Psi 93445.
10 Psi
5 1/8 in 7.05 10.95 0.306 in2 50778.43 Psi 78868.
62 Psi
To Measure COD of WasteWater using Open
Reflux Method
History of COD :
KMnO4 was used as oxidizing agent for many time pb with KMnO4 was that different value of
COD obtained due to strength change of KMnO4. BOD value obtained greater than COD with
KMnO4 means KMnO4 was not oxidizing all the substances. Tthen ceric sulphate potassium
loadate and potassium dichromate all tested separately and at the end potassium sichromate was
found practical.
Pottassium dichromate is used in excess a mount to oxidize all the organic matter, this excess
aomunt can be found at the end by using ferrousiion.
Method for cod test :
1. open reflux (drawback: end product is dangerous and cannot be discharged in open draws)
2. close reflux (same chemicals as for open reflux but sample and chemicals used in less quantity)
spectro photometric (septrophotometer) titremetric ( titration)
Chemicals/ regents in open reflux method:
1. Potassium di-chromate (oxidation agents)
2. Sulphuric acid.
3. Mercuri sulphate (Hgs04)
4. Ferrous ammonium sulphate (Fe NH4)2 (So4)2 0.25 N used as tritrante,
5. Fezroin indicator.
Limitations of COD:
 cannot differentiate between biodegradable and non-biodegradable material
 N-value cannot be accurately found.
Advantages of COD:
1. can be performed in short time i.e 30 min can be correlated with BOD with a factor.

74 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 74
2. More biological resistant matter, more will be the difference in Bod and Cod results,
Apparatus
2. COD Reactor
3. Spectro-photometer
4. Premixed Reagents in Digestion Vessel (vials)
5. K2G2O7
7. HgSO4
8. Ag2SO4
Procedure:
1. Place Approximately 500ml Of Sample In a clean blender bowl and homogenize at high
speed for two minutes. blending the sample ensures a uniform distribution of suspended
4. While holding The vial at a 45 degree angle carefully pipette 2 ml sample into the vial.
6. Holding the vial by the cap in an empty sink, gently invert several times to mix the
contents they will become very hot during mixing.
7. Place the vial in preheated COD reaction.
in place of sample.
10. Turn off the reaction off and allow the vials to cool to 120 degree and less. invert each
vial several times while still warm place vial in a cooling reach and allow them to room
temp.
11. Measure the COD using spetrcophotometer method.
Calibration Of Rectangular Notch
Apparatus:
 Hydraulic bench
 Stopwatch
 Rectangular notch
Concepts:
NOTCH:

75 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 75
A Notch is regarded as an orifice with water level below its upper edge. Notch is made of a metallic
plate and its use is to measure the discharge of liquids. These are used for measuring the flow of
water from a vessel or tank with no pressure flow. Since the top edge of the notch above the liquid
level serves no purpose therefore a notch may have only bottom edge and sides.
SILL “OR” CREST OF A NOTCH:
The bottom edge over which liquid flows is known as Sill or Crest of the notch.
RECTANGULAR NOTCH:
The notch which is Rectangular in shape is called as the rectangular notch. Coefficient of discharge
(Cd): It is the ratio between the actual discharge and the theoretical discharge. Mathematically:

76 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 76
Procedure:
The stepwise procedure is given below:
1. Fix the plate having rectangular notch in the water passage of Hydraulic bench.
2. Turn the hydraulic bench on; water will accumulate in the channel.
3. When the water level reaches the Crest or sill of notch stop the inflow and note the reading, and
design it as H1.
4. Restart the bench and note the volume and time of water that accumulates in the volumetric tank
of bench, from this find the discharge, and also note the height of water at this point.
5. Find H = H2 – H1 This will give you the head over the notch.
6. Find the width of the notch.
7. Take different readings by changing the discharge head over the notch, using the above
procedure.
8. Plot a graph between Log10H and Log10Q and find K from graph equation.
Find Cd from the following formula. Cd = 2 / 3 x k / √2g x b
b = 3 cm
S.No H1 (cm) H2 (cm) H (cm) Volume
(Litre)
Time
(Sec)
Q (C
m3
/sec)
Log10H Log10Q
1 8.6 11.3 2.7 5 16.58 301.56 0.431 2.47
2 8.6 12.6 4 5 9.26 539.95 0.602 2.73
3 8.6 13.7 5.1 5 6.82 733.13 0.707 2.86
4 8.6 14.600 6 5 5.01 998.003 0.778 3
To Determine The Metacentric Height Of a Ship
Model
Apparatus:
1. Water bulb
2. Metacentric height apparatus
3. Scale or measuring tube
Concepts:
Metacenter:
When a floating body is given a small displacement it will rotate about a point, so the point at
which the body rotates is called as the Metacenter.
“OR”

77 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 77
The intersection of the lines passing through the original center of buoyancy and center of
gravity of the body and the vertical line through the new center of buoyancy.
Metacentric height:
The distance between center of gravity of a floating body and Metacenter is called as
Metacentric height.
Why to find Metacentric height?
It is necessary for the stability of a floating body, If metacenter is above center of gravity body
will be stable because the restoring couple produced will shift the body to its original position.
Center of buoyancy:
The point though which the force of buoyancy is supposed to pass is called as the center of
buoyancy.
“OR”
The center of area of the immersed portion of a body is called its center of buoyancy.
Procedure:
1. First of all I adjust the movable weight along the vertical rod at a certain position and
measured the distance of center of gravity by measuring tape.
2. Then I brought the body in the water tube and changed the horizontal moving load
distance first towards right.

78 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 78
3. The piston tilted and suspended rod gave the angle of head, I noted the angle for
respective displacements.
4. I did the same procedure for movable mass by changing its position towards left.
5. Then I took the body from water tube and find another center of gravity by changing the
position of vertically moving load.
6. I again brought the body in the water tube and find the angle of head by first keeping the
movable load towards right and then towards left.
7. I repeated the above procedure for another center of gravity.
8. I calculated the metacentric height by the following formula:
MH = w * d / W * tanØ
Where
MH = Metacentric height
w = Horizontally movable mass
d = Distance of movable mass at right or left of center
W = Mass of assemble position
Ø = Respective angle of heel
Observationcs & Calculations:
Horizontally movable mass = w = 0.31kg
Mass of assemble position = W = 1.478kg
Center of gravity = y1 = 8 mm
Considering Right Portion
S.No Distance of
movable mass at
right of center
(mm)
Y1 Angle of
head "Ѳ"
Y2
Y3 Y1 Metacentric
height(MH)
Y2
Y3
01 20 2.5 2.75 3.3 96.07 87.83 72.75
02 40 4.5 5.5 6 106.6 87.13 79.82
03 60 7.5 9 9.5 95.58 79.45 75.20
Considering Left Portion
S.No Distance of
movable mass at
left of center (mm)
Y1 Angle of
head”Ѳ”
Y2
Y3 Y1 Metacentric
height
(MH)
Y3

79 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 79
Y2
01 20 2.5 2.75 3.3 96.07 87.83 72.75
02 40 4.5 5.5 6 106.6 87.13 79.82
03 60 7.5 9 9.5 95.58 79.45 75.20
Procedure for Concrete Sample Preparation
Placing:
Concrete is placed in the molds using a trowel in three layers of approximately equal depth and
is remixed in the mixing pan with a shovel to prevent segregation during the molding of
specimens. The trowel is moved around the top edge of the mold as the concrete is discharged in
order to ensure a symmetrical distribution of the concrete and to minimize segregation of coarse
aggregate within the mold.
Roding (Compaction)
Compaction is the removal of air from fresh concrete. Proper compaction results in concrete with
an increased density which is stronger and more durable. Concrete is placed in the mold, in three
layers of approximately equal volume. Each layer is compacted with 25 strokes with the rounded
end of the rod (as specified by ASTM standards). The strokes are distributed uniformly over the
cross section of the mold and for each upper layer; the rod is allowed to penetrate through the
layer being rodded and into the layer below approximately 1 in. (25 mm).

80 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 80
Curing:
Curing means to cover the concrete with a layer of water, so it stays moist. By keeping concrete
moist, the bond between the paste and the aggregates gets stronger. Concrete doesn't harden
properly if it is left to dry out. Curing is done just after finishing the concrete surface, as soon as it
will not be damaged. The longer concrete is cured, the closer it will be to its best possible strength
and durability. Concrete that is cured sufficiently is less likely to crack.
The specimens are removed from the molds 24 hours after casting. Specimens are placed
immediately in water after removal from the molds to prevent loss of moisture from specimens.
Cylinders Capping:
Capping a concrete cylinder means placing a smooth uniform
cap/layer at the end of a concrete cylinder to provide for a
uniform load distribution when testing. Since the concrete
sample will contain voids and aggregate particles at the upper
surface that is left open, it is necessary to prepare a smooth
uniform surface for the testing machine to press against.
Plaster of Paris (Gypsum) is used as capping material nowadays.
Capping of all the concrete cylinders is carried out carefully with
the help of capping machine for concrete cylinders, as shown in
the figure.
Experiment - Various Parts of
Hydraulic Bench
Hydraulic bench is a very useful apparatus in hydraulics and fluid mechanics. It is involved in
majority of experiments to be conducted e.g. To find the value of the co-efficient of velocity
‘Cv’, coefficient of discharge ‘Cd’, to study the characteristics of flow over notches, to find
metacentric height, to find head losses through pipes, to verify Bernoulli’s theorem etc.
Parts of Hydraulic Bench Machine:
Its parts are given below:
Centrifugal pump
It draws water from sump tank and supplies it for performing experiments.
Sump Tank

81 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 81
It stores water for Hydraulic bench. It is located in the bottom portion of Hydraulic bench. Water
from here is transported to other parts by using a pump. It has a capacity of 160 liters.
Vertical pipe
It supplies water to the upper part of hydraulic bench from sump tank through a pump.
Control valve
It is used to regulate the flow in the pipe i.e. to increase or decrease the inflow of water in the
hydraulic bench.
Connecter
With the help of this we can attach accessories with the hydraulic bench. Special purpose
terminations may be connected to the pump supply by unscrewing connector, no hand tools are
required for doing so. It is located in the channel.
Channel
It is used in number of experiments It provides passage for water for different experiments.
Drain valve

82 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 82
It is used for emptying sump tank.
Side channels
They are the upper sides of the channel. They are used to attach accessories on test.
Volumetric tank
It stores water coming from channel. This tank is stepped to accommodate low or high flow
rates. It has a capacity of 46 liters.
Stilling baffle
It decreases the turbulence of water coming from channel. It is located in the volumetric tank.
Scale & Tapping
A sight tube and scale is connected to a tapping in the base of the volumetric tank and gives an
instantaneous indication of water level.
Dump valve
It is at the base of the volumetric tank. Opening the dump valve allows the entrained water to
return to the sump tank for recycling. It is used for emptying volumetric tank. It is located in the
bottom of the volumetric tank.
Actuator
Dump valve is operated by a remote actuator, lifting actuator opens the dump valve, when it is
given a turn of 90’ it will turn the dump valve in the open position.
Over flow
It is an opening in the upper portion of the volumetric tank. It sends the water level above 46 lits
to the sump tank.
Measuring cylinder
A measuring cylinder is provided for measuring of very small flow rate. The cylinder is stored in
the compartment housing the pump.
Starter
It on / off the hydraulic bench.

83 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 83
To Perform Marshall Stability Test (ASTM D6927)
Marshal Test
Marshal test is extensively used in routine test programs for the paving jobs. The stability of the
mix is defined as a maximum load carried by a compacted specimen at a standard test
temperature of 600 °C. The flow is measured as the deformation in units of 0.25 mm between no
load and maximum load carried by the specimen during stability test (flow value may also be
measured by deformation units of 0.1 mm). This test attempts to get the optimum binder content
for the aggregate mix type and traffic intensity. This is the test which helps us to draw Marshall
Stability vs. % bitumen.
Test Procedure of ASTM D6927 - 06 Standard Test:
The apparatus for the Marshall Stability test consists of the following:
1. Specimen mould assembly comprising mould cylinders 10.16 cm diameter by 6.35 cm
height, base plate and extension collars.
2. Specimen extractor for extracting the compacted specimen from the mold. A suitable bar
is required to transfer load from the extension collar to the upper proving ring attachment
while extracting the specimen.
3. Compaction hammer having a flat circular tamping face 4.5 kg sliding weight constructed
to provide a free fall of 45 cm.
4. Compaction pedestal consisting of a 20 × 20 × 45 cm wooden block capped with 30 × 30
× 2.5 cm MS plate to hold the mould assembly in position during compaction. Mold
holder is provided consisting of spring tension device designed to hold compaction mould
in place on compaction pedestal.

84 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 84
5. Breaking head: this consists of upper and lower cylindrical segments or test heads having
a inside radius curvature of 5 cm. the longer segment is mounted on a base having two
perpendicular guide rods which facilitate insertion in the holes of upper test segment.
Loading Machine:
It is provided with a gear system to lift the upward direction. Pre-calibrated proving ring of 5
tones capacity is fixed on the upper end of the machine, specimen contained in the test head is
placed in between the base and the proving ring. The load jack produces a uniform vertical
moment of 5 cm per minute. Machine is capable of reversing its moment downward also. This
facilitates adequate space for placing test head system after one specimen has been tested.
Flow meter consists of guide, sieve and gauge. The activating pin of the gauge slides inside the
guide sleeve with a slight amount of frictional resistance. Least count of 0.025 mm is adequate.
The flow value refers to the total vertical upward movement from the initial position at zero
loads to value at maximum load. The dial gauge of the flow meter should be able to measure
accurately the total vertical moment upward.
In addition to above the following general equipment are also required:
1. Oven or hot plate
2. Water bath
3. Thermometers of range up to 200 °C with sensitivity of 2.5 °C and Miscellaneous
equipment like containers, mixing and handling tools etc.
Preparation of Test Specimen

85 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 85
1. 1200 grams of aggregate blended in the desired proportions is measured and heated in the
oven to the mixing temperature.
2. Bitumen is added at the mixing temperature to produce viscosity of 170 ± centi-stokes at
various percentages.
3. The materials are mixed in a heated pan with heated mixing tools.
4. The mixture is returned to the oven and reheated to the compacting temperature (to
produce viscosity of 280±30 centi-stokes).
5. The mixture is then placed in a heated Marshall mould with a collar and base and the
mixture is spaded around the sides of the mould. A filter paper is placed under the sample
and on top of the sample.
6. The mould is placed in the Marshall Compaction pedestal.
7. The material is compacted with 50 blows of the hammer (or as specified), and the sample
is inverted and compacted in the the other face with same number of blows.
8. After compaction, the mold is inverted. With collar on the bottom, the base is removed
and the sample is extracted by pushing it out the extractor.
9. The sample is allowed to stand for the few hours to cool.
10. The mass of the sample in air and when submerged is used to measure the density of
specimen, so as to allow, calculation of the void properties.
Marshal Test Procedure
1. Specimens are heated to 60 ± 1 °C either in a water bath for 30 - 40 minutes or in an oven
for minimum of 2 hours.
2. The specimens are removed from the water bath or oven and place in lower segment of
the breaking head. The upper segment of the breaking head of the specimen is placed in
position and the complete assembly is placed in position on the testing machine.
3. The flow meter is placed over one of the post and is adjusted to read zero.
4. Load is applied at a rate of 50 mm per minute until the maximum load reading is
obtained.
5. The maximum load reading in Newton is observed. At the same instant the flow as
recorded on the flow meter in units of mm was also noted.
Sieve Analysis of Coarse Grained Soil

86 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 86
Apparatus
A set of various sizes of sieves, balance.
Procedure
1. Arrange different types of sieves in order of there decreasing size of opening.
2. Find the total weight of the given soil sample and pour it in the top sieve.
3. Place the set of sieves on mechanical shakers and shake it properly.
4. Find the weight of soil retained on each sieve.
5. Calculate percentage weight of soil passing through each sieve.
6. Draw a grain size distribution/gradation curve.
Precautions:
 During shaking soil sample should not b allowed to spell out.
 All the readings should be noted carefully.
 Grain size analysis gives an idea regarding the gradation of soil.
 It is used to proportion the selected soil in order to obtain the desired soil mix.
 It is also utilized in part of the specification of soil for air field’s roads, earth dams and other soil
embankment construction.

87 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 87
Sieve no. Weight of soil
retained on each
sieve (gm)
Percent weight
retained
Cumulative percent
weight retained
Cumulative
percent
passing
04 181.8 36.36 36.36 63.64
08 91 18.2 54.65 45.44
16 99.6 19.92 74.48 25.52
30 55.33 11.066 85.55 14.45
50 46.8 9.36 94.91 5.09
100 10.3 2.06 96.97 3.03
200 9.6 1.92 98.89 1.11
pan 4.8 0.96 99.85 0.15
Experimental study of Laminar, Transitional and
Turbulent Flow

88 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 88
Apparatus:
1. Hydraulic bench
2. Osborne Reynolds apparatus
3. Dye
Osborne Reynolds apparatus includes the following parts:
 Support columns
 Visualization pipes
 Outlet control valve
 Needle
 Reservoir
 Marble glasses (kanchi) for smoothness of flow
 Starter
 Overflow pipe
 Inlet pipe
 Dye reservoir
 Bil mouth
 Dye control valve
Types of Flows and Concepts of Flows
Laminar flow:
The type of flow in which the particles move in a straight line in the form of a thin parallel sheets
is known as the Laminar flow. Laminar flow denotes a steady condition where all stream lines
follow parallel paths. Under this condition, the dye will remain easily identifiable as a solid core.
Turbulent flow:
The type of flow in which the particles move in a zigzag pattern is known as the turbulent flow.
Turbulent flow denotes as unsteady condition where stream lines interact causing shear plan
collapse and mixing occurs. As the flow rate is increased, the transition from laminar to turbulent
flow is a gradual process. This zone of change is defined as transitional flow. This will appear as
a wandering dye stream prior to dispersion as turbulence occurs.
Transitional flow:
When the flow changes from laminar to turbulent or vice versa a disturbance is created, it is
called as the transitional flow.
Open channel flow:

89 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 89
When flow is exposed to the environment whether in pipes or open then it is called as the open
channel flow.
Closed channel flow:
When flow is not directly exposed to the environment then it is called as the closed or pipe flow.
There are two ways to categorize a flow:
 By visualization
 By calculation
When liquid flows there are three forces acting on it:
 Inertial force
 Gravitational force
 Viscous force
Reynold's Number:
It is the ratio of inertial force to the viscous force. Mathematically it is given as
RN = v * D/‫ט‬ If
1) RN = 0 to 2000
Then flow will be laminar.
2) RN = 2000 to 4000
Then flow will be transitional.
3) RN = greater than 4000
Then flow will be turbulent.
Procedure of the Experiment:
1. I filled the reservoir with dye.
2. I positioned the apparatus on the bench and connected the inlet pipe to the bench feet.
3. Then I lowered the dye injector until it was just above the bell mouth inlet.
4. I opened the bench inlet valve and slowly filled head tank to the overflow level, then
closed the inlet valve.
5. Then I opened and closed the flow control valve to admit water to the flow visualization
pipe.

90 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 90
6. I opened the inlet valve slightly until water traveled from the outlet pipe.
7. I fractionally opened the control valve and adjusted dye control valve until slow flow
with dye indication is achieved.
8. At low flow rates the dye was drawn through the center of the pipe.
9. I increased the flow rate that produce eddies in the dye until the dye completely dispersed
into the water.
10. I visually observed the three types of flow.
11. When the dye was looking like a line then I categorized it as Laminar flow.
12. When the dye was looking dispersed I categorized it as Turbulent flow
13. When the dye was looking like a line at some instant and dispersed at some times I
categorized it as Transitional flow.
Determination of Bending Moment in Beam
Apparatus:
model beam, weights, deflection gauge, hangers.
Objective:
Procedure:
 Take a beam model and place it on a table in such away that it should be horizontal and
firm.
 Record the length and cross section.
 Set the deflection gauge at a point where the deflection is to be measured.
 Bring deflection gauges value to zero before the application of load on the bar.
 Now apply load with the help of weight hangers
 Record loaded weight its location from left side of the beam.
 Record deflection when first of all the smaller dial has rotated.
 Each division of main dial is 0.01mm
 Also record deflection at any other point record location of that point and value.
Find the moment by = ML2 / 12 ET
Determination of Deflection in Over Hanging
Beams
Apparatus:

91 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 91
Model of beam, Weights, Deflection Gauge, Weight Hangers.
Objective:
Deflection:
Deflection is a term which is defined as the distance moved by a point on the axis of beam before
and after application of force
Determination bar:
Those bars in which unknown reactions can be found using available egs of equilibrium are
called determination.
Procedure of Experiment:
1. Take the beam model and place it on the table. it should be kept horizontally and firmly.
2. Determine the length of the beam and also dimension of cross section.
3. If the model is an over hanging bema then also determine the length of over hanging
portion.
4. Set the deflection gauge at a point where deflection is to be measured.
5. Make the reading of the deflection gauge dial indicator to zero before applying the load
on bar.
6. Now apply the load with the help of load hangers and record the loaded weights location
from left side of the beam.

92 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 92
7. Now record the deflection 1st of all at the smaller dial of the gauge. It should be read as it
shows the number of rotations.
8. One complete rotation is equal to 1mm deflection
Standard Values for Liquid Limit of Soil and
Limitations of L.L Test
The liquid limit of a soil is the moisture content, expressed as a percentage of the mass of
the oven-dried soil, at the boundary between the liquid and plastic states The moisture content at
this boundary is arbitrarily defined as the liquid limit and is the moisture content at a consistency
as determined by means of the standard liquid limit apparatus.
Introduction to Liquid Limit Test

93 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 93
The liquid limit test is one of the most widely used tests in the soil engineering practice. Several
properties, including mechanical properties (for example, compressive index), have correlations
with the liquid limit.
In this paper detailed investigations of the liquid limit of soil mixtures have been carried out
using bentonite, kaolinite, sand (coarse grained, fine grained, rounded and angular shaped), and
silts. Based on the results obtained, it has been shown that the liquid limits of soil mixtures are
not governed by the linear law of mixtures. While the shape of the sand was not found to
influence the liquid limit, the size of the sand particles had a definite influence.
First of all a grooved is made in the soil sample by using a standard grooving tool along the
diameter through the center line of the cam follower so that a clean, sharp groove of proper
dimension is formed, the cup shall be dropped by turning the crank at the rate of two revolutions
per seconds and the number of blows counted until the two halves of the soil cake come into
contact with the bottom of the groove along a distance of about 12 mm. A representative soul
sample nearer the groove is taken for moisture content determination. The moisture content is
reported along with number of blows required to close a groove. The operations specified above
shall be repeated for at least three trails at different moisture content. The specimens shall be not
less than 15 and more than 35/ the test should proceed from the drier (more drops) to wetter (less
drops) condition of the soil. It has been found that the liquid limit of certain materials is
influenced by the time of mixing. There is a tendency, particularly noticeable in the case of
decomposed dolerites and certain pedogenic materials, for the liquid limit to increase as the time
of mixing is increased, although this increase will, of course, not continue indefinitely.
Hence it was considered necessary to stipulate a mixing time and a period of ten minutes was
decided on. Some times soil tends to slide on the surface of the cup instead of flowing. If this
occurs, the results should be discarded and the test repeated until flowing does occur. If sliding
still occurs, the test is not applicable and it should be reported that the liquid limit could not be
obtained.
Standard Values for Liquid Limit Test
Liquid limit is the water content at which a part of soil, cut by a groove of standard dimensions,
will flow together for a distance of 1.25 cm under an impact of 25 blows in a standard liquid
limit apparatus. The soil at the water content has some strength which is about 0.17 N/cm.sq. (17
gms/sq.cm.) .

94 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 94
Limitations of Liquid Limit Test
The operations specified above shall be repeated for at least three trails at different moisture
content. The specimens shall be of such consistency that the number of drops required to close
the groove shall not be less than 15 and more than 35 the test should proceed from the drier
(more drops) to wetter (less drops) condition of the soil.
Some times soil tends to slide on the surface of the cup instead of flowing. If this occurs, the
results should be discarded and the test repeated until flowing does occur. If sliding still occurs,
the test is not applicable and it should be reported that the liquid limit could not be obtained.
Liquid limit depends on the type of plant detritus contained, on the degree of humification, and
on the proportion of clay soil present. Generally the liquid limit of fen peat according to Hobbs,
ranges from 200 to 600% and bog peat from 800 to 1500% with transition peats between. The
liquid limit in other words is reduced by increasing degree of humification. In addition as the
organic content declines to lower values of liquid limit are obtained. Usually fen peats have
water content at or somewhat below their liquid limits. This is because partially decomposed
plant material has a higher cation exchange capacity than any clay which occupies the pores, bog
peats contain less mineral matter and so their water contents exceed their liquid limits.
Laboratory Investigation of Hooke’s Law

95 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 95
Apparatus:
UTM , test specimen, divider, vernier caliper, scale.
Procedure:
1. Prepare the test specimen that is steel bar and find its diameter at tree different places and
find its man value.
2. Mark two points 8" a part of 2 ft long steel bar.
3. Insert the bar in jaws for gripping the steel bar and select suitable bar on UTM. Place the
steel bar and fix it.
4. Start t machine and start applying load.
5. There will be gradual increase in length which will be directly proportional to applied
load.
6. During this load application measure change in length at different load, till the steel bar
breaks.
7. Find the stress and strain at those points and investigate the law by drawing the graph
between stress and strain
S
No
Dia
of
Bar
Load(Tons) Elongation Area of
Bar
Stress =
Load/Area
Strain=
Elongation/Gauge
Length
01 ¾ in 3.68 0 in 0.
441 in2
8.34 Psi 0
02 ¾in 6.84 0 in 0.
441 in2
15.51Psi 0
03 ¾ in 10.28 0 in 0.
441 in2
23.31 Psi 0
04 ¾ in 10.72 1/8 in 0.
441 in2
24.30 Psi 0.0156
05 ¾in 11.82 3/16 in 0.
441 in2
26.80 Psi 0.0234

96 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 96
06 ¾in 12.04 ¼ in 0.
441 in2
27.30 Psi 0.031
07 ¾in 13.04 5/16 in 0.
441 in2
29.56 Psi 0.039
08 ¾in 13.78 7/16 in 0.
441 in2
31.24 Psi 0.054
09 ¾in 14.34 9/16 in 0.
441 in2
32.51 Psi 0.070
10 ¾in 14.88 11/16 in 0.
441 in2
33.74 Psi 0.085
11 ½ in 12.6
(Rupture)
-------------- 0.
196 in2
64.28 Psi ---------------------
12 ½ in 15.86
(Ultimate)
2 ¼ in 0.
196 in2
80.91 Psi 0.218
Procedure for Concrete Compression Test
Test process for Compression Test
The compression test shows the best possible strength concrete can achieve in perfect conditions.
The compression test measures concrete strength in the hardened state. Field concrete samples

97 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 97
are prepared, cured and tested according to ASTM standard procedures. Specimens are prepared
from concrete taken from different construction sites. Following processes and calculations are
used for measuring compressive strength of cylindrical concrete specimens.
Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of
Cylindrical Concrete Specimens (ASTM Designation:
A 370 – 03)
This test method consists of applying a compressive axial load to cylinders at a rate which is
within the prescribed range until failure occurs. The compressive strength of the specimen is
calculated by dividing the maximum load attained during the test with the cross-sectional area of
the specimen. This strength is commonly specified as a characteristic strength of concrete
measured at 28 days after mixing.
Making and Curing Concrete Test Specimens
Following operations are executed in order to assure that test specimens are in accordance with
the standard prior to testing.
Molds
Molds used for preparing samples are in agreement with the standard if the following conditions
satisfy:
1. Molds shall hold their dimensions and shape under all conditions of use.
2. A suitable sealant, such as heavy grease, shall be used where necessary to prevent leakage
through the joints.
3. Positive means shall be provided to hold base plates firmly to the molds.
4. Reusable molds shall be lightly coated with oil before use.
Sampling
The first step is to take a test sample from the large batch of concrete. This should be done as
soon as the discharge of the concrete commences. The sample should be representative of the
concrete supplied.
Tamping Rods
Tamping rods are used to distribute the concrete evenly prior to the start of consolidation. Two
sizes are specified in ASTM methods. Each size shall be round, straight steel rod with at least the
tamping end rounded to a hemispherical tip of the same diameter as the rod. Larger rod, 6/8 in.
(16 mm) in diameter and approximately 24 in. (600 mm) long can be used for tamping.
Test Procedure

98 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 98
1. Placing the Specimen — The plain (lower) bearing block is placed, with its hardened face up, on
the table of the testing machine directly under the spherically seated (upper) bearing block. The
bearing faces of the upper and lower bearing blocks are cleaned and the test specimen is placed on
the lower bearing block.
2. Zero Verification and Block Seating— prior to testing the specimen, it is verified that the load
indicator is set to zero. If the indicator is not properly set to zero, it is adjusted.
3. Rate of Loading— the load is applied continuously and without shock.
4. Standards specify that for testing machines of the screw type, the moving head shall travel at a rate
of approximately 0.05in. (1mm)/min when the machine is running idle. While for hydraulically
operated machines, the load shall be applied at a rate of movement (platen to crosshead
measurement) corresponding to a loading rate on the specimen within the range of 20 to 50 psi/sec
(0.15 to 0.35 MPa/sec).
5. During the application of the first half of the anticipated loading phase, a higher rate of loading is
allowed.
6. No adjustment is made in the rate of movement of the platen at any time while a specimen is
yielding rapidly immediately before failure.
7. Load is applied until the specimen fails, and the maximum load carried by the specimen during the
test is recorded. The type of failure and the appearance of the concrete are also noted.
Calculations

99 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 99
Compressive strength of the specimen is calculated
by dividing the maximum load carried by the
specimen during the test with the average cross-
sectional area. Determine and express the result to
the nearest 10 psi (0.1 MPa).
Data Logger
A data logger or data recorder is an electronic device
that records data over time or in relation to location
either with a built in instrument or sensor or via
external instruments and sensors. Increasingly, but
not entirely, they are based on a digital processor (or computer). They are generally small,
battery powered, portable, and equipped with a microprocessor, internal memory for data
storage, and sensors.
Acquirement of Data from the Data Logger
The displacement transducers or strain gage-based transducers are connected with a state of the
art data acquisition system called “Data Logger” (Data logger Kyowa UCAM-70A with strain
gage-based transducers attached through Transducers cables). The displacement transducers are
connected to the data logger through transducer cable and measurement could be made
afterwards. A dial gage is connected with the concrete cylinder to record displacement and a
steel plate of flat surface is placed on the cylinder for the uniform distribution of load. The load
cell is placed over the steel plate. Load is applied by the universal testing machine till failure of
the sample. The load vs. displacement data recorded in the data logger is transferred to computer
and then analyzed. Stress-strain curves for the concrete cylinders are drawn after the data
analysis.
Making and Curing Concrete Test Specimens
Following operations are executed in order to assure that test specimens are in accordance with
the standard prior to testing.
Molds
Molds used for preparing samples are in agreement with the standard if the following conditions
satisfy:
1. Molds shall hold their dimensions and shape under all conditions of use.
2. A suitable sealant, such as heavy grease, shall be used where necessary to prevent leakage
through the joints.
3. Positive means shall be provided to hold base plates firmly to the molds.
4. Reusable molds shall be lightly coated with oil before use.

100 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889
10
0
Sampling
The first step is to take a test sample from the large batch of concrete. This should be done as
soon as the discharge of the concrete commences. The sample should be representative of the
concrete supplied.
Tamping Rods
Tamping rods are used to distribute the concrete evenly prior to the start of consolidation. Two
sizes are specified in ASTM methods. Each size shall be round, straight steel rod with at least the
tamping end rounded to a hemispherical tip of the same diameter as the rod. Larger rod, 6/8 in.
(16 mm) in diameter and approximately 24 in. (600 mm) long can be used for tamping.
Test Procedure
1. Placing the Specimen — The plain (lower) bearing block is placed, with its hardened face
up, on the table of the testing machine directly under the spherically seated (upper) bearing
block. The bearing faces of the upper and lower bearing blocks are cleaned and the test
specimen is placed on the lower bearing block.
2. Zero Verification and Block Seating— prior to testing the specimen, it is verified that the
load indicator is set to zero. If the indicator is not properly set to zero, it is adjusted.
3. Rate of Loading— the load is applied continuously and without shock.

101 | P a g e
10
1
4. Standards specify that for testing machines of the screw type, the moving head shall travel
at a rate of approximately 0.05in. (1mm)/min when the machine is running idle. While for
hydraulically operated machines, the load shall be applied at a rate of movement (platen to
crosshead measurement) corresponding to a loading rate on the specimen within the range
of 20 to 50 psi/sec (0.15 to 0.35 MPa/sec).
5. During the application of the first half of the anticipated loading phase, a higher rate of
loading is allowed.
6. No adjustment is made in the rate of movement of the platen at any time while a specimen
is yielding rapidly immediately before failure.
7. Load is applied until the specimen fails, and the maximum load carried by the specimen
during the test is recorded. The type of failure and the appearance of the concrete are also
noted. concrete-cylinder-capping.jpg
Calculations
Compressive strength of the specimen is calculated by dividing the maximum load carried by the
specimen during the test with the average cross-sectional area. Determine and express the result
to the nearest 10 psi (0.1 MPa).
Data Logger
A data logger or data recorder is an electronic device that records data over time or in relation to
location either with a built in instrument or sensor or via external instruments and sensors.
Increasingly, but not entirely, they are based on a digital processor (or computer). They are
generally small, battery powered, portable, and equipped with a microprocessor, internal
memory for data storage, and sensors.
Acquirement of Data from the Data Logger
The displacement transducers or strain gage-based transducers are connected with a state of the
art data acquisition system called “Data Logger” (Data logger Kyowa UCAM-70A with strain
gage-based transducers attached through Transducers cables). The displacement transducers are
connected to the data logger through transducer cable and measurement could be made
afterwards. A dial gage is connected with the concrete cylinder to record displacement and a
steel plate of flat surface is placed on the cylinder for the uniform distribution of load. The load
cell is placed over the steel plate. Load is applied by the universal testing machine till failure of
the sample. The load vs. displacement data recorded in the data logger is transferred to computer
and then analyzed. Stress-strain curves for the concrete cylinders are drawn after the data
analysis.
Quasi Static Test - What, Why, How

102 | P a g e
10
2
The quasi-static cyclic tests can be used to conduct both basic and proof tests. In quasi-static tests,
loads and/ or displacements are applied at slow rates.
Normally, such types of tests are carried out to study structural performance of structures and
structural members such as the rate of propagation of cracks, hierarchy of collapse and associated
levels of damage, etc. A typical setup for quasi- static testing installed at the National Building
Institute in Ljubljana, Slovenia is shown in Figure 1.

103 | P a g e
10
3
Quasi-static tests are performed by imposing predefined displacement or force histories on the
testing specimen. Different types of displacement histories employed for conducted quasi-static
tests are shown in Figure 2.
The slow loading rate during the test has the advantage of providing an insight regarding the
behavior of a structure/structural member in the post-yielding regime. However, the associated
disadvantage is that the effects of acceleration-dependent inertial forces and velocity-dependent
damping forces are eliminated, which can be significant for some structural types.
Similarly, by using the jacks and actuators the external actions are 'lumped' on the structure. These
actions try to simulate the inertial forces that are developed due to mass on the structure.
Consequently, the technique is not useful for structures possessing distributed mass such as
hydraulic structures. However, many structures can be adequately modeled with lumped masses
in a discretised manner and therefore are not affected by this restriction.
Pseudo Dynamic (PsD) Tests - Non Linear
Structural Dynamics Techniques

104 | P a g e
10
4
PDT is a substructure technique which includes applying slowly varying forces to a structural
model. The motions and deformations observed in the test specimens are used to infer the inertial
forces that the model would have been exposed to during the actual earthquake. The concept of
pseudo-dynamic test (also called computer-actuator on-line test or hybrid test) was originated in
Japan by Takanashi [Ta 75]. Since then, many researchers developed the concept and verified the
suitability of this method. Quasi-static tests are simple, relatively inexpensive, and do not require
very special type of apparatus.
However, the displacement history has to be defined before the test, which is the main limitation
of this testing technique. Similarly, the applied cyclic displacement history may not cover the range
of displacements, which the structure would undergo under dynamic action.
The basic concept of pseudo-dynamic test is that the dynamic response is computed using the
experimental result in each time step. During the analysis process, the computer calculates the
structural response (displacement) in a time step.
Inertial and damping forces, required during the analysis process, for the solution of the
equations of motion are modeled analytically. The computer, after calculating structural
displacement at a specific time step, electronically provides this result to the actuator system. In
the experimental process, actuator control system imposes the calculated displacement and then
measures and returns the restoring force, R(t), to the computer. With the measured data, the
computer can calculate the response in the next time step. With this feedback procedure, the
nonlinear inelastic dynamic response can be obtained without shaking table test devices. The
flow of this feedback is shown in Figure below.

105 | P a g e
10
5
The method has difficulty in idealizing infinite degrees of freedom as a few degrees of freedom.
However, it enables a dynamic test with a static test device, which attracts many researchers. The
process automatically accounts for the hysteretic damping, due to inelastic deformation and
damage to the structural materials, which is usually the major source of energy dissipation. Inertia
forces are not experimentally produced and are modeled numerically. This eliminates conducting
the test on a real time-scale, and allows very large models of structures to be tested with only a
relatively modest hydraulic power requirement.

106 | P a g e
10
6
Advantages and Disadvantages of PsD Testing:
Structures larger than a laboratory itself such as bridges, towers etc., can also be tested by means
of the PDT method exploiting the substructuring technique. This procedure tests only the most
critical part of the structure experimentally and the lets the rest of the structure be modelled
analytically.
Another major advantage of this technique over the quasi-static testing is the use of a special
procedure of pseudo dynamic test known "sub-structuring". Taking advantage of this technique,
researchers can test only a part of the structure. The rest of the structure can be analytically
modeled on a host computer. e.g., one can model a bridge deck analytically on a host computer
and can carry out the test on the bridge piers by pseudo dynamic testing facilities (image above).
This saves substantial amount of cost and time related to testing work.
A major drawback of PsD testing technique is that a lot of time is consumed to conduct the
experiment. This is mainly due to the time required by computer hardware to solve the equations
of motion for determining the displacements and by the control system to execute the calculated
displacements. Simulation of an earthquake, lasting 20 seconds, takes hours of time with this
technique. As a result, the response determined by this test of the structures that are sensitive to
loading rate (such as masonry) becomes questionable.

107 | P a g e
10
7
Another drawback is, that due to lumped mass idealization, the testing method is not adequate for
structures with distributed mass, e.g., hydraulic structures. To test such types of structures, a
refined spatial discretization would be required resulting in a large number of actuators. This
reduces the effectiveness of testing for such structures. The applicability of this method also relies
on the appropriate assignment of damping properties. It has been observed that the use of constant
damping matrix based on the elastic properties of the system resulted in unpredictable results.
Real time Pseudo Dynamic Testing:
RTPD test technique is same as the PSD test except that it is conducted in the real time. It
introduces the problems in control, such as delay caused by numerical simulation and actuator.
Properties & Tests on Paints
Properties of Paints
Tests on Paints
1. Important buildings were once designed and put together by master masons who knew how
to work with stone, and understood the advantages and limitations of the material. Stone

108 | P a g e
10
8
structure should be a combination of structural firmness, technical commodity and
aesthetic delight.
2. Ensure proper wall construction. The wall thickness should not exceed 450mm.
3. Round stone boulders should not be used in the construction! Instead, the stones should be
shaped using chisels and hammers.
4. Use of mud mortar should be avoided in higher seismic zones. Instead, cement-sand mortar
should be 1:6 (or richer) and lime-sand mortar 1:3 (or richer) should be used.
5. Ensure proper bond in masonry courses: The masonry walls should be built in construction
lifts not exceeding 600mm.
6. Through-stones (each extending over full thickness of wall) or a pair of overlapping bond-
stones (each extending over at least ¾ ths thickness of wall) must be used at every 600mm
along the height and at a maximum spacing of 1.2m along the length.
7. The stone masonry dwellings must have horizontal bands roof and gable bands). These
bands can be constructed out of wood or reinforced concrete, and chosen based on
economy. It is important to provide at least one band (either lintel band or roof band) in
stone masonry construction.
8. Care should be taken to ensure that the fixing method adopted for the construction is
appropriate to the type of stone being used.
The energy needed to collapse a structure comes from the structure itself. The high frequencies
can cause high vertical inter-stone vibrations that result in irreversible relative displacements of
the stones, which is mainly due to the non required shape of the stones, thus stone walls mainly
crumble under their own weight.
Shock Table Dynamic Test - Structural Dynamics

109 | P a g e
10
9
In the absence of a shaking table, some laboratories have developed simple simulators for dynamic
testing of structures. One such kind of a facility, named as the shock table, is installed at the
University of Roorkee, India and was developed by Keightly.
In STD Tests structures may be subjected to actual earthquake acceleration records to investigate
dynamic effects. The inertial effects and structure assembly issues are well represented in the shake
table testing method. The size of the structures is limited or scaled by the size and capacity of the
shake table. The shock table facility was basically developed for conducting dynamic tests on a
low grade masonry house extended up to the weight of 20 ton at a considerably low cost. The
arrangement, as shown in Figure below, comprises of:
1. A track
2. A shock table (Shake Table)
3. Dead Load striking wagons and
4. Winch mechanism for pull wagons

110 | P a g e
11
0
Ten helical coil compression springs are mounted around pipe pieces and welded on each end of
the platform to help moderate the impact. The loaded wagons are placed on the track on both sides
of the shock table. The loaded wagon gives impact through springs when allowed to roll down the
gentle incline. The shocking table, due to transferred momentum, collides with the other dead load
wagon, which remains temporarily at rest. A single shock from the end wagon imparts a half -sine
pulse to the central wagon.
When another wagon is used to take the reaction, it imparts another half¬sine pulse from the
rebound. In this way, one impact of the end wagon can produce a series of half¬sine pulses.
The shock table motion is basically an impulse type of motion with characteristics such as low
duration, high base acceleration and high frequency content against the actual ground motion. It is
difficult to extrapolate structural behavior under real earthquake motion from the shock table tests.
The facility is suitable only for studying the relative merits of different resistance measures in
structural models and for conducting feasibility studies on new concepts for earthquake resistance.
To Calibrate a Pressure Gauge Using a Dead
Weight Pressure Gauge Calibrator

111 | P a g e
11
1
Apparatus
 Dead weight pressure gauge calibrator having the following main components,
 Cylinder
 Weights
 Leveling screws
 Spirit level
 Cylinder inlet
 A gauge to be calibrated
 Hydraulic bench
Concepts:
Calibration of guage:
To compare the values of an instrument with that of the standard ones is known as calibration of
that instrument.

112 | P a g e
11
2
Pressure gauges:
The instruments with the help of which we measure the pressure are called as the pressure
gauges.
Absolute Pressure:
The pressure measured with reference to absolute zero is called as absolute pressure.
Gauge pressure:
The pressure measured with the atmospheric pressure is called as gauge pressure.
Vacuum pressure:
Negative gauge pressure is known as vacuum pressure.
Atmospheric pressure:
The pressure exerted by the atmosphere above us is known as the atmospheric pressure. Its
standard values are given below.
1 atm = 14.7 psi
101300 Pa
0.1 Mpa
76 cm of Hg
760 mm of Hg
1.01 bar
34’ of water
Procedure:
 I placed the pressure gauge and calibrate assembly on bench top.
 I connected the inlet tube to the gauge manifold.
 A length of tube was connected to the calibrator drain and laid into the channel to prevent
spillage of water on the bench top.
 The calibrator was leveled by the adjusting feel whilst observing the spirit level.
 I removed the piston and accurately determined its mass.
 I closed the control valve of the bench and open both cocks then I operated the pump
starter and also open the control valve and admitted the water to the cylinder.
 After removal of air bubbles from the tube, I closed the cock along with flow control
valve and switched of the pump.
 I noted the gauge readings corresponding to the piston mass of .5 kg.
 Then I added .5 kg mass each time and noted the corresponding gauge readings.

113 | P a g e
11
3
 Then I find out the Absolute gauge error by the following formula.
 Absolute gauge error = Pressure in cylinder – Gauge reading
 Then I find out the %age gauge error by the following formula.
 %Age gauge error = Absolute gauge error *100 / Pressure in cylinder
 Then I plotted a graph between %age gauge error and pressure in cylinder.
S.No Piston mass
Kg
Piston area
m2
Pressure in cylinder
KN/m2
=F/A
Gauge
readings
KN/m2
Absolute
gauge error
KN/m2
%Age gauge
error
1 0.5 244.8*10-6 2042.48 10 2032.48 99.51
2 1 244.8*10-6 4084.96 30 4054.96 99.26
3 1.5 244.8*10-6 6127.45 50 6077.45 99.18
4 2 244.8*10-6 8169.93 69 8100.93 99.15
5 2.5 244.8*10-6 10212.41 89 10123.41 99.12
Properties of Stones and Tests Applied on
Stones

114 | P a g e
11
4
Properties of Stones
Strength & Durability:
The more compact grained and heavier a stone the harder it is. Due to alternate wetting and
drying the resulting crushing strength can be reduced even up to 30-40%. Being dry stones allow
more crushing strength than when wet.
Stone Weight in lb/cu.
ft
Ultimate strength to resist
crushing lbs/sq. in
Granite 165 13000
Basalt or Trap 185 12000
Limestone 160 7500
Sandstone (stray) 140 5000
Slate 175 10000
Marble 170 7500
Table showing the relationship between weights and crushing strength.

115 | P a g e
11
5
It is the ability of a stone to endure and maintain its essential and distinctive characteristics i.e.
resistance to decay, strength and appearance. Physical properties such as density, compressive
strength and porosity are measured in order to determine its durability. Durability is based upon
the stones natural physical properties, characteristics and the environmental conditions to which it
will be or is subjected too. Another factor of stones durability is its Aesthetic Durability or
Dimensional Stability. Cosmetic changes may occur. This has to do with the Color Stability of
certain stones. These changes can take place in two ways.
SUNLIGHT:
When some stones are used in exterior applications and exposed to direct sunlight they fade or
change color. Dark colored stones and those that contain organic matter will generally fade to a
much lighter color. The Coral stone being of a biogenic origin contains organic material that will
be affected by ultraviolet exposure.
MOISTURE:
Some stones have moisture sensitive mineral contents that will cause the stone to develop rust
spots, or other color variations, or contain moisture sensitive substances that will cause blotchy
and streaking discolorations. Certain lime stones contain bituminous materials that are soluble
when exposed to moisture. Some marbles are also moisture sensitive when in high moisture areas,
showers and those with steam features; these stones have a tendency to develop dark botches.
Porosity & Permeability:
Porosity is the ratio of pores (micro-voids) in the stone, to its total solid volume. Pores and the
capillary structure develop differently in each of the three stone groups. Dense and compact stones
have very few or no pores in them. An important feature of sedimentary rocks is their porosity.
Pores are natural holes in the stones which allow fluids like rainwater to enter and leave the fabric.
Some free fluid flow through a rock is necessary to maintain the rock's durability, and it is not
always advisable to block such flow by using incorrect mortar mixes or by injecting unsuitable
synthetic fluids.

116 | P a g e
11
6
Very high porosities, however, may allow excessive volumes of corrosive fluids such as acid
rainwater to enter and cause severe damage to the rock. Thin section rock analysis can identify
where such problems are likely to occur. Most durable sedimentary building stones commonly
have moderate porosity.
Associated with stones porosity is its permeability. This is the extent to which the pores and
capillary structures are interconnected throughout the stone. These networks, their size, structure
and orientation affect the degree and depth to which moisture, vapors and liquids can be absorb
into the interior of the stone or migrate from the substrate by capillary action through the stone.
Permeability is increased when a stone is highly fractured or the veining material is soft or grainy.
A particular variety of stone may be highly permeable (a well defined interconnected network of
pores), although its porosity is low (a low percentage of voids).
The size and shapes of pores and the capillary structure differs in stones and is an important factor
in relation to stone decay.
Color, Surface Texture and Veining:
Hardness & weathering:
Hardness is the property of a material to avoid and resist scratching. It is determined by
comparison with the standard minerals of the Moh’s scale. The objective of the MOH Scale is to
measure stones resistance to hardness.
Measurement of Hardness:
1. Talc
2. Gypsum
3. Calcite (Most Marbles)
4. Fluorite
5. Apatite
6. Feldspar (Granite)
7. Quartz (Granite)
8. Topaz
9. Corundum
10. Diamond

117 | P a g e
11
7
Weathering
It is a complex interaction of physical, chemical and biological processes that alters the stone in
some general or specific way. The physical properties of stone differs widely between stone
groups and even within the same stone type.
The mineral composition, textural differences, varying degrees of hardness and pore/capillary
structure are the main reasons why stone nor all the surface of the same stone shows signs of
alteration the same and evenly. These minerals can be broken down, dissolved or converted to
new minerals by a variety of processes which are grouped as Mechanical and Chemical.
Intensity and duration are two key elements that govern to what extent weathering reactions will
have on stone.
Water absorption and frost resistance:
Moisture from rain, snow or other environmental conditions penetrates the wall leading to
cracks, efflorescence, rust staining, wood rotting, paint peeling, darkening of masonry and
spalling. The perfect sealing of a masonry wall surface is almost impossible since fine cracks
and joints will allow the passage of water into the wall.
Absorbency:
It is the result of these two properties (permeability and porosity). Absorbency is an important
determining factor in stones sensitivity to stains. The size of the pores, their orientation, how well
they are networked and the type of finish the stone has are important contributing factors to a
stones overall absorbency. In relation to cleanability this factor is more important than how
porous a stone is. Honed and textured surfaces are more susceptible to soiling and staining due
to the fact that there are more open pores at the surface than a highly polished finish.
The polishing process has a tendency to close off pores leaving fewer ones exposed, resulting in
a low absorbent surface. However, some varieties of stone have large pores and capillary
structures and even when these stones are polished they still remain very absorbent. Most
common oils can be easily absorbed into all types of stone.
Frost action or commonly called freeze/thaw cycles occur when water within the pore structure
or cracks freezes to ice. It has been estimated when water freezes it expands between 8 to 11
percent, with a force of 2,000 pounds per square inch to 150 tons per square foot. This increase
of internal pressure combined with repeated freeze/thaw cycles produces micro-fissures, cracks,
flaking and spalling.

118 | P a g e
11
8
Tests on Stones
Once a stone has been selected on aesthetic basis, it is important than to ensure whether it
exhibits the necessary physical properties and durability to remain in working condition for a
long time. Fixing method adopted for the construction of stones also affects the type of stones
selected. Physical properties such as density, compressive strength and porosity are measured in
order to determine its durability.
Tests Applied on Bitumen in Roads for Quality
Construction
Experience in using bitumen in engineering projects has led to the adoption of certain test
procedures that are indicative of the characteristics that identify adequate performance levels.
Some of the tests have evolved with the development of the industry and are empirical methods.
Consequently it is essential that they are carried out in strict compliance with the recommended
procedures if they are to be accurate measurements of the bitumen's properties.
1. Penetration Test
2. Flash Point Test
3. Solubility Test

119 | P a g e
11
9
4. Ductility Test
5. Viscosity Test
Test 1. Penetration Test on Bitumen
The penetration test is one of the oldest and most commonly used tests on asphalt cements or
residues from distillation of asphalt cutbacks or emulsions. The standardized procedure for this
test can be found in ASTM D5 [ASTM, 2001]. It is an empirical test that measures the
consistency (hardness) of an asphalt at a specified test condition.
Procedure of Penetration Test on Bitumen:
In the standard test condition, a standard needle of a total load of 100 g is applied to the surface
of an asphalt or Liquid bitumen sample at a temperature of 25 °C for 5 seconds. The amount of
penetration of the needle at the end of 5 seconds is measured in units of 0.1 mm (or penetration
unit). A softer asphalt will have a higher penetration, while a harder asphalt will have a
lower penetration. Other test conditions that have been used include
1. 0 °C, 200 g, 60 sec., and
2. 46 °C, 50 g, 5 sec.
The penetration test can be used to designate grades of asphalt cement, and to measure changes
in hardness due to age hardening or changes in temperature.
Test 2. Flash Point Test on asphalt:
The flash point test determines the temperature to which an asphalt can be safely heated in the
presence of an open flame. The test is performed by heating an asphalt sample in an open cup at
a specified rate and determining the temperature at which a small flame passing over the surface
of the cup will cause the vapors from the asphalt sample temporarily to ignite or flash. The
commonly used flash point test methods include
1. The Cleveland Open Cup (ASTM D92)
2. Tag Open Cup (ASTM D1310).
The Cleveland Open-Cup method is used on asphalt cements or asphalts with relatively higher
flash points, while the Tag Open-Cup method is used on cutback asphalts or asphalts with flash
points of less than 79 °C. Minimum flash point requirements are included in the specifications
for asphalt cements for safety reasons. Flash point tests can also be used to detect
contaminating materialssuch as gasoline or kerosine in an asphalt cement. Contamination of an
asphalt cement by such materials can be indicated by a substantial drop in flash point.

120 | P a g e
12
0
When the flash point test is used to detect contaminating materials, the Pensky-Martens Closed
Tester method (ASTM D93), which tends to give more indicative results, is normally used. In
recent years, the flash point test results have been related to the hardening potential of asphalt.
An asphalt with a high flash point is more likely to have a lower hardening potential in the field.
Test 3. Solubility Test on asphalt
bitumen
Asphalt consists primarily of bitumens, which are high-molecular-weight hydrocarbons soluble
in carbon disulfide. The bitumen content of a bituminous material is measured by means of its
solubility in carbon disulfide.
Procedure for Solubility test on Bitumen
In the standard test for bitumen content (ASTM D4), a small sample of about 2 g of the asphalt is
dissolved in 100 ml of carbon disulfide and the solution is filtered through a filtering mat in a
filtering crucible. The material retained on the filter is then dried and weighed, and used to
calculate the bitumen content as a percentage of the weight of the original asphalt. Due to the
extreme flammability of carbon disulfide, solubility in trichloroethylene, rather than solubility in
carbon disulfide, is usually used in asphalt cement specifications. The standard solubility test
using trichloroethylene is designated as ASTM D 2042.
The solubility test is used to detect contamination in asphalt cement. Specifications for asphalt
cements normally require a minimum solubility in trichloroethylene of 99.0 percent.
Unfortunately, trichloroethylene has been identified as a carcinogen and contributing to the
depletion of the earth’s ozone layer. The use of trichloroethylene will most likely be banned in
the near future. There is a need to use a less hazardous and non-chlorinated solvent for this
purpose. Results of several investigations have indicated that the solvent n-Propyl Bromide
appears to be a feasible alternative to trichloroethylene for use in this application.
Test 4. Ductility Test on Asphalt
The ductility test (ASTM D113) measures the distance a standard asphalt sample will stretch
without breaking under a standard testing condition (5 cm/min at 25 °C). It is generally
considered that an asphalt with a very low ductility will have poor adhesive properties and
thus poor performance in service. Specifications for asphalt cements normally contain
requirements for minimum ductility.

121 | P a g e
12
1
Test 5. Viscosity Tests on Bitumen
Asphalt
The viscosity test measures the viscosity of an asphalt. Both the viscosity test and the penetration
test measure the consistency of an asphalt at some specified temperatures and are used to
designate grades of asphalts. The advantage of using the viscosity test as compared with the
penetration test is that the viscosity test measures a fundamental physical property rather than an
empirical value. Viscosity is defined as the ratio between the applied shear stress and induced
shear rate of a fluid.
Shear Rate = Shear Stress / Viscosity
When shear rate is expressed in units of 1/sec. and shear stress in units of Pascal, viscosity will
be in units of Pascal-seconds. One Pascal-second is equal to 10 Poises. The lower the viscosity of
an asphalt, the faster the asphalt will flow under the same stress. For a Newtonian fluid, the
relationship between shear stress and shear rate is linear, and thus the viscosity is constant
at different shear rates or shear stress. However, for a non-Newtonian fluid, the
relationship between shear stress and shear rate is not linear, and thus the apparent
viscosity will change as the shear rate or shear stress changes.
Asphalts tend to behave as slightly non-Newtonian fluids, especially at lower temperatures.
When different methods are used to measure the viscosity of an asphalt, the test results might be
significantly different, since the different methods might be measuring the viscosity at different
shear rates. It is thus very important to indicate the test method used when viscosity results are
presented.
The most commonly used viscosity test on asphalt cements is the Absolute Viscosity Test by
Vacuum Capillary Viscometer (ASTM D2171).
The standard test temperature is 60 °C. The absolute viscosity test measures the viscosity in units
of Poise. The viscosity at 60 °C represents the viscosity of the asphalt at the maximum
temperature a pavement is likely to experience in most parts of the U.S. When the viscosity of an
asphalt at a higher temperature (such as 135 °C) is to be determined, the most commonly-used
test is the Kinematic Viscosity Test (ASTM D2170), which measures the kinematic viscosity in
units of Stokes or centi-Stokes. Kinematic viscosity is defined as: When viscosity is in units of
Poise and density in units of g/cm3
the kinematic viscosity will be in units of Stokes. To convert
from kinematic viscosity (in units of Stokes) to absolute viscosity (in units of Poises), one simply
multiplies the number of Stokes by the density in units of g/cm3
.
Standard Test Method for Air Content of
Hydraulic Cement Mortar

122 | P a g e
12
2
ASTM Designation: C185
Apparatus
Flow Table, Flow Mold, and Caliper, cylindrical measure, Mixer, Bowl, and Paddle, Straightedge,
Weights and Weighing Devices, Glass Graduates, Tamper, Tapping Stick, Spoon
Procedure
1. Proportion the standard mortar using 350 g cement to 1400 g 20–30 standard sand and
sufficient water to give a flow of 871⁄2 6 71⁄2 %.
2. Mix the mortar in accordance with Practice C305.
3. Carefully wipe dry the flow-table top and place the flow mold at the center of it.
4. Using the spoon, place a layer of mortar about 25 mm in thickness in the mold and tamp
20 times with the tamper.
5. Lift the mold away from the mortar 1 min after completing the mixing operation.
6. Immediately drop the table 10 times.
7. The flow is the resulting increase in average diameter of the mortar mass, as determined
with the calipers, measured on at least four diameters at approximately equi-spaced
intervals, expressed as a percentage of the original diameter.
8. When the quantity of mixing water has been found that produces a flow of 871⁄2 6
9. 71⁄2%, immediately determine the mass per 400mL of mortar, using the mortar remaining
in the mixing bowl after the flow has been determined.
10. Using the spoon, place the mortar gently into the 400–ml measure in three equal layers.
11. Tampeachlayer20timesaroundtheinnersurfaceofthemeasure.
12. The position of the tamper shall be that: the broad side of the tamper is parallel to the radius
and is perpendicular to the inner surface of the measure.
13. After the measure has been filled and tamped in the above prescribed manner, tap the sides
of the measure lightly with the side of the tapping stick, one each at five different points at

123 | P a g e
12
3
approximately equal spacing around the outside of the measure, in order to preclude
entrapment of extraneous air
14. Then cut the mortar off to a plane surface, flush with the top of the measure, by drawing
the straightedge with a sawing motion across the top of the measure, making two passes
over the entire surface, the second pass being made at right angles to the first.
15. Determine the mass of the measure and its contents. Subtract the mass of the container, and
record the mass of the mortar in grams.
Air content, volume % = [100- W (182.7 + P)/ (2000 ± 4P)] W = mass of 400 mL of mortar, g,
and P = percentage of mixing water, based on mass of cement used.
Standard Test for Consistency of Cement Paste
by Vicat Apparatus
(ASTM Designation: ASTM C187)
Significance
This test method is used to determine the amount of water required to prepare hydraulic cement
pastes with normal consistency, as required for certain standard tests.
Standard Consistency

124 | P a g e
12
4
The percentage amount of water which is required to prepare standard cement paste when vicat
plunger penetrate under 10±1mm reading is known as standard consistency or normal consistency
cement paste.
Apparatus and Materials
Electrical Balance, Vicat Apparatus, Spatula, Trowel, Mould, Pot, Distilled Water and Ordinary
Portland Cement etc.
Procedure
1. Take ordinary Portland cement of 500 grams and weight it in the electrical balance.
2. Take 26-33% of water to cement Say in first trial take 26 % (130ml) water in a graduated
cylinder
3. Now take a pot and put the cement and water in it and mix with the help of trowel.
4. Form the cement paste into a ball by hands then Press the ball into the larger end of the
conical mould, held in the other hand by completely filling the mould with cement paste.
5. Remove the excessive cement paste from the mould with the help of spatula and place the
mould under the plunger needle of 1mm
6. Tight the plunger at the level so that it touches the surface of cement paste then set the
movable indicator of vicat apparatus to upper zero mark of the scale and gently releases
the plunger to cement paste to penetrate for 30 seconds.
7. Note the penetration of plunger into the cement paste. It should be 10±1mm if not then
repeat the whole procedure by changing the percentage amount of water in each trial.
Precautions
1. The mixing of cement should be done in non-porous glass plate.
2. The plunger needle should be clean every time before its penetration in the cement paste.
3. Vicat apparatus should be free from vibration during the penetration.
Observations and Calculations
Weight of Cement = W1
Water taken in graduated cylinder = W2
% water in W1gm cement = W2 / 100 W1
Soil Tests Required for Deep Foundations

125 | P a g e
12
5
Soil tests required for deep foundation to ensure the bearing capacity of the soil to support the
loads from deep foundation. Types of soil tests for deep foundations are discussed.
Deep foundations are those where the depth of foundation is generally greater than two times
of width of footing (D = 2B). Deep foundations are required due to various reasons.
Soil tests required for deep foundations
1. While the composition and depth of the bearing layer for shallow foundations may vary from
one site to another, most pile foundations in a locally encounter similar deposits. Since pile
capacity based on soil parameters is not as reliable from load tests, as a first step it is essential
to obtain full information on the type, size, length and capacity of piles (including details of load
– settlement graph) generally adopted in the locality.
Correlation of soil characteristics (from soil investigation reports) and corresponding load tests
(from actual projects constructed) is essential to decide the type of soil tests to be performed
and to make a reasonable recommendation for the type, size, length and capacity of piles since
most formulae are empirical.
2. If information about piles in the locality are not available or reliable, it may be necessary to
drive a test pile and correlate with soil data.
3. Standard penetration test (SPT) to determine the cohesion (and consequently the adhesion)
to determine the angle of friction (and consequently the angle of friction between soil and the
pile and also the point of resistance) for each soil stratum of cohesion less soil of soil.
4. Static cone penetration test (CPT) to determine the cohesion (and subsequently the
adhesion) for soft cohesive soils and to check with SPT result for fine to medium sands. Hence
for strata encountering both cohesive and cohesion less soils, both SPT and CPT tests are
required.
5. Vane shear test for impervious clayey soils.
6. Undrained triaxial shear strength of undisturbed soil samples (obtained with thin walled tube
samplers) to determine cohesion (c) and angle of internal friction ( ) for clayey soils (since
graphs for correlations were developed based on undrained shear parameter).

126 | P a g e
12
6
In case of driven piles proposed for stiff clays, it is necessary to check with the c and from
remoulded samples also. Drained shear strength parameters are also determined to represent
in-situ condition of soil at end of construction phase.
7. Self boring pressure meter test to determine modulus of sub-grade reaction for horizontal
deflection for granular soils, very stiff cohesive soils, soft rock and weathered or jointed rock.
8. Ground water condition and permeability of soil influence the choice of pile type to be
recommended. Hence the level at which water in the bore hole remains are noted in the bore
logs. Since permeability of clay is very low, it takes several days for water in the drill hole to rise
upto ground water table.
Ground water samples need to be tested to consider the possible chemical effects on concrete
and the reinforcement. Result of the cone penetration test for the same soil show substantial
scatter. Hence, they need to be checked with supplementary information from other
exploration methods.
Pressure meters are used to estimate the in-situ modulus of elasticity for soil in lateral
direction. Unless the soil is isotropic, the same value cannot be adopted for the vertical
direction.
Soil Tests for Shallow and Raft Foundations
Soil tests required to determine safe bearing capacity of shallow foundations and raft
foundations are discussed here. These tests are as per IS 6403 – 1981.
Apart from ascertaining the highest level ever reached by the groundwater table and tests for
classification of soil as per IS 1498 – 1970 based on grain size analysis as per IS 2720 (Part –IV)–
1985, index properties of soil as per IS 2720 (Part-V) – 1985, the following tests are required to
determine safe bearing capacity based on shear strength consideration:
1. Standard penetration test as per IS 2131 – 1991 for coarse grained / fine grained
cohesionless soils with semi-pervious clayey soils (i.e. soils with clay upto 30%).
2. Direct shear test (controlled strain) as per IS 2720 (Part – 13) – 1986. Consolidated undrained
tests for cohesive and for soils and consolidated drained tests for cohesion less soils. The
results may be compared with standard penetration test / static cone penetration test results.
Since there is escape of pore water during box shear, partial drainage vitiates the consolidated
undrained test. Hence this test is not exact for semi-pervious soils such as clayey sands / silts
(i.e. with clay more than 15% but less than 30%). For such soils, triaxial tests are required if
shear strength is critical criterion.
3. Static cone penetration test as per IS 4968 (Part -3) – 1976 for foundations on non-stiff
clayey soils such as fine grained soils (i.e. more than 50% passing through 75 micron sieve). In
fine and medium coarse sands such tests are done for correlation with standard penetration
test and to indicate soil profiles at intermediate points.

127 | P a g e
12
7
4. Unconfined compressive strength test as per IS 2720 (Part-10) – 1973 for highly cohesive
clays except soft / sensitive clays.
5. Vane shear tests for impervious clayey soils except stiff or fissured clays.
6. Triaxial shear tests for predominantly cohesive soils. If shear strength is likely to be critical.
Soil Tests for Shallow Foundations
Tests required to determine allowable bearing pressure for shallow foundations on settlement
consideration:
1. Standard penetration test as stated above.
2. Consolidation test as per IS 2720 (Part-15) if the settlement of clayey layer /layers calculated
on the basis of liquid limit and in-situ void ratio indicates that settlement may be critical.
Consolidation test is not required if the superimposed load on foundation soil is likely to be less
than pre-consolidation pressure (assessed from liquidity index and sensitivity or from un-
confined compressive strength and plasticity index).
3. Plate load tests as per IS 1888 – 1982 for cohesionless soils and soils where neither
standard penetration test or consolidation test is appropriate such as for fissured clay / rock,
clay with boulders etc..
Soil Tests Required for Raft Foundations
(As per Para 3 of IS 2950 (Part-1) – 1981.

128 | P a g e
12
8
Apart from other tests for shallow foundations, the following soil tests are required especially
for raft foundations:
1. Static cone penetration test as per IS 4968 (Part-3) – 1976 for cohesionless soils to
determine modulus of elasticity as per IS 1888 – 1982.
2. Standard penetration test as per IS 2131 – 1981 for cohesionless soils and soils to
determine modulus of sub-grade reaction.
3. Unconfined compressive strength test as per 2720 (Part -10) – 1973 for saturated but no
pre-consolidated cohesive soil to determine modulus of sub-grade reaction.
4. As specified in IS 2950 (Part -1) – 1981¸ plate load test as per IS 1888 – 1982 where tests at
Sl. No. – 1 to 3 above are not appropriate such as for fissured clays / clay boulders.
5. In case of deep basements in pervious soils, permeability is determined from pumping test.
This is required to analyze stability of deep excavation and to design appropriate dewatering
system.
Types of Soil Tests for Building Construction
Types of Soil tests for building construction works depend on properties of soil. Design of
foundation is based on soil test report of construction site.
Soil tests for construction of buildings or any structure is the first step in construction planning
to understand the suitability of soil for proposed construction work.
Soil which is responsible for allowing the stresses coming from the structure should be well
tested to give excellent performance. If soil shouldn’t tested correctly then the whole building
or structure is damaged or collapsed or leaned like leaning tower of Pisa. So, soil inspection or
testing is the first step to proceed any construction.

129 | P a g e
12
9
Types of Soil Tests for Building Construction
Various tests on soil are conducted to decide the quality of soil for building construction. Some
tests are conducted in laboratory and some are in the field. Here we will discuss about the
importance of various soil tests for building construction. The tests on soil are as follows.
 Moisture content test
 Atterberg limits tests
 Specific gravity of soil
 Dry density of soil
 Compaction test (Proctor’s test)
Moisture Content Test on Soil
Moisture content or water content in soil is an important parameter for building construction.
It is determined by several methods and they are
 Oven drying method
 Calcium carbide method
 Torsion balance method
 Pycnometer method
 Sand bath method
 Radiation method
 Alcohol method
Of all the above oven drying method is most common and accurate method. In this method the
soil sample is taken and weighed and put it in oven and dried at 110o + 5oC. After 24 hours soil
is taken out and weighed. The difference between the two weights is noted as weight of water
or moisture content in the soil.

130 | P a g e
13
0
Specific Gravity Test on Soil
Specific gravity of soil is the ratio of the unit weight of soil solids to that of the water. It is
determined by many methods and they are.
 Density bottle method
 Pycnometer method
 Gas jar method
 Shrinkage limit method
 Measuring flask method
Density bottle method and Pycnometer method are simple and common methods. In
Pycnometer method, Pycnometer is weighed in 4 different cases that is empty weight (M1),
empty + dry soil (M2), empty + water + dry soil (M3) and Pycnometer filled with water (M4) at
room temperature. From these 4 masses specific gravity is determined by below formula.
Dry Density Test on Soil
The weight of soil particles in a given volume of sample is termed as dry density of soil. Dry
density of soil depends upon void ratio and specific gravity of soil. Based on values of dry
density soil is classified into dense, medium dense and loose categories.
Dry density of soil is calculated by core cutter method, sand replacement method and water-
displacement method.
Core Cutter Method for Soil Dry Density Testing

131 | P a g e
13
1
In this methods a cylindrical core cutter of standard dimensions is used to cut the soil in the
ground and lift the cutter up with soil sample. The taken out sample is weighed and noted.
Finally water content for that sample is determined and dry density is calculated from the
below relation.
Sand Replacement Method for Soil Dry Density Testing
In this method also, a hole is created in the ground by excavating soil whose dry density is to be
find. The hole is filled with uniform sand of known dry density. So by dividing the mass of sand
poured into the hole with dry density of sand gives the volume of hole. So we can calculate the
soil dry density from above formula.

132 | P a g e
13
2
Atterberg Limits Test on Soil
To measure the critical water content of a fine grained soil, Atterberg provided 3 limits which
exhibits the properties of fine grained soil at different conditions. The limits are liquid limit,
plastic limit and shrinkage limit. These limits are calculated by individual tests as follows.
Liquid Limit Test on Soil
In this test, Casagrande’s liquid limit device is used which consist a cup with moving up and
down mechanism. The cup is filled with soil sample and groove is created in the middle of cup
with proper tool. When the cup is moved up and down with the help of handle the groove
becomes closed at some point.
Note down the number of blows required to close the groove. After that water content of soil is
determined. Repeat this procedure 3 times and draw a graph between log N and water content
of soil. Water content corresponding to N=25 is the liquid limit of soil.

133 | P a g e
13
3
Plastic Limit Test on Soil
Take the soil sample and add some water to make it plastic enough to shape into small ball.
Leave it for some time and after that put that ball in the glass plate and rolled it into threads of
3mm diameter.
If the threads do not break when we roll it to below 3mm diameter, then water content is more
than the plastic limit. In that case reduce water content and repeat the same procedure until
crumbling occurs at 3mm diameter. Finally find out the water content of resultant soil which
value is nothing but plastic limit.
Shrinkage Limit Test on Soil

134 | P a g e
13
4
In case of shrinkage limit, the water content in the soil is just sufficient to fill the voids of soil.
That is degree of saturation is of 100%. So, there is no change in volume of soil if we reduce the
shrinkage limit. It is determined by the below formula for the given soil sample.
Where M1 = initial mass
V1= initial volume
M2= dry mass
V2= volume after drying
Pw = density of water.
Proctor’s Compaction Test on Soil
Proctor’s test is conducted to determine compaction characteristics of soil. Compaction of soil
is nothing but reducing air voids in the soil by densification. The degree of Compaction is
measured in terms of dry density of soil.
In Proctor’s Compaction Test, given soil sample sieved through 20mm and 4.75 mm sieves.
Percentage passing 4.75mm and percentage retained on 4.75mm are mixed with certain
proportions.

135 | P a g e
13
5
Add water to it and leave it in air tight container for 20hrs. Mix the soil and divide it into 6 – 8
parts. Position the mold and pour one part of soil into the mold as 3layers with 25 blows of
ramming for each layer.
Remove the base plate and Weight the soil along with mold. Remove the soil from mold and
take the small portion of soil sample at different layers and conduct water content test. from
the values find out the dry density of soil and water content and draw a graph between them
and note down the maximum dry density and optimum water content of the compacted soil
sample at highest point on the curve.
Types of Soil Tests for Road Construction
Types of soil tests for road construction project requires the site investigation to be carried out
to understand the soil profile. For road construction works, the properties of soil at subgrade
level are required.
The common soil test for road construction includes classification of soil, particle size
distribution, moisture content determination, specific gravity, liquid limit and plastic limit tests.
Moisture content, particle size and specific gravity tests on soils are used for the calculation of
soil properties such as degree of saturation.
The soil tests can be laboratory tests or in-situ tests. The laboratory tests should be carried out
on every sample taken for determination of particle size and moisture content.

136 | P a g e
13
6
Types of Soil Tests for Road Construction
Following are the various types of soil tests for pavement construction:
In-situ Moisture Content
The moisture content of soil test is carried out in laboratory. It is expressed as percentage of
water in soil to its dry mass. The moisture content in a soil signifies the various properties of soil
such as compaction, permeability, particle size etc.
Specific gravity of soil
Specific gravity of soil is the ratio of the weight of soil in air of a given volume at a standard
temperature to the weight in air of an equal volume of distilled water at the same stated
temperature. This test is also carried out in laboratory.
Particle Size Distribution (By wet sieving & pipette method)
This test determines the particle size distribution of soil from the coarse sand size down to fine
clay size. The data from particle size distribution test is used to determine suitability of soil for
road construction, air field etc. This test can also be used to predict soil water movement
although permeability tests are more generally used.
Compaction test – Proctor test
This soil compaction test also called as Proctor test is used for the determination of the mass of
dry soil per cubic metre when the soil is compacted over a range of moisture contents, giving
the maximum dry density at optimum moisture content. Thus this test provides the compaction
characteristics of different soils with change in moisture content. This is achieved by
densification of soil by reducing the air voids.
The degree of is measured in terms of its dry density of soil. The dry density is maximum at the
optimum water content.
California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test
California Bearing Ratio test is conducted in laboratory. This tests provides the load penetration
resistance of soil. CBR value is obtained by measuring the relationship between force and
penetration when a cylindrical plunger is made to penetrate the soil at a standard rate.
The CBR test is used for the evaluation of subgrade strength of roads and pavements. The CBR
value obtained by this test is used with the empirical curves to determine the thickness of
pavement and its component layers. This is the most widely used method for the design of
flexible pavement.
Even though provision of subsoil drains reduces the effect of water on subgrade, fully soaked
CBR tests shall be considered to be appropriate for road construction projects.
Following points should be taken care of while soil testing for road construction:
 Sampling and Testing: Sampling of soil for tests in laboratory or in-situ is to be carefully
done by experienced engineer. The requirement for the various mass / volume of soil at
different points of a road project shall be followed as per the specification and standard
codes.

137 | P a g e
13
7
 Test Data Logging: Logging of all the soil sample and test data shall be done by trained
staff who has the knowledge of soil properties and tests results.
 Testing Frequency: The testing frequency of soil shall be as per input from Engineer. The
decision on the testing frequency is usually taken on the basis of results obtained from
the previous tests.
What is Compaction of Soil?
Compaction of soil is the pressing of soil particles close to each other by mechanical methods.
Air during compaction of soil is expelled from the void space in the soil mass and therefore the
mass density is increased.
Compaction of soil is done to improve the engineering properties of the soil. Compaction of soil
is required for the construction of earth dams, canal embankments, highways, runways and
many other structures.
Methods of Testing Compaction of Soil
Standard Proctor’s Test for Compaction of Soil
To assess the amount of compaction of soil and water content required in the field, compaction
tests are done on the same soil in the laboratory. The test provides a relationship between the
water content and the dry density.
The water content at which the maximum dry density is attained is obtained from the
relationship provided by the tests. Proctor used a standard mould of 4 inches internal diameter
and an effective height of 4.6 inches with a capacity of 1/30 cubic foot.
The mould had a detachable base plate and a removable collar of 2 inches height at its top. The
soil is compacted in the mould in 3 layers, each layer was given 25 blows of 5.5 pounds rammer
filling through a height of 12 inches.
IS: 2720 part VII recommends essentially the same specification as in Standard Proctor test,
some minor modifications. The mould recommended is of 100mm diameter, 127.3 mm height
and 1000 ml capacity.
The rammer recommended is of 2.6 kg mass with a free drop of 310mm and a face diameter of
50mm. The soil is compacted in three layers. The mould is fixed to the detachable base plate.
The collar is of 60mm height.
Procedure of Proctor’s Test for Compaction of Soil
About 3kg of air dried soil is taken for the test. It is mixed with 8% water content and filled in
the mould in three layers and giving 25 blows to each layer. The volume of the mould and mass
of the compacted soil is taken. The bulk density is calculated from the observations. A
representative sample is placed in the oven for determination of water content. The dry density
id found out from the bulk density and water content. The same procedure is repeated by
increasing the water content.
Presentation of Results of Proctors Test
Compaction curve

138 | P a g e
13
8
A compaction curve is plotted between the water content as abscissa and the corresponding
dry density as ordinate. It is observed that the dry density initially increases with an increase in
water content till the maximum density is attained.
With further increase in water content the dry density decreases. The water content
corresponding to maximum dry density is known as the optimum water content (O.W.C) or the
optimum moisture content (O.M.C).
At a water content more than the optimum, the additional water reduces the dry density as it
occupies the space that might have been occupied by the solid particles.
For a given water content, theoretical maximum density is obtained corresponding to the
condition when there are no air voids (degree of saturation is 100%). The theoretical maximum
density is also known as saturated dry density. The line indicating theoretical maximum density
can be plotted along with the compaction curve. It is known as the zero air void line.
Modified Proctor Test for Compaction of Soil
The modified Proctor test was developed to represent heavier compaction than that in the
standard Proctor test. The test is used to simulate field conditions where heavy rollers are used.
The test was standardized by American association of State Highway Officials and is, therefore
also known as modified AASHO test.
In this, the mould used is same as that in the Std Proctor test. However, the rammer used is
much heavier and has a greater drop than that in the Std Proctor test. Its mass is 4.89 kg and
the free drop is 450mm. The soil is compacted in five equal layers, each layer is given 25 blows.
The compactive effort in modified Proctor test is 4.56 times greater than in the Std Proctor test.
The rest of the procedure is same
Factors Affecting Compaction of Soil
Water Content

139 | P a g e
13
9
At low water content, the soil is stiff and offers more resistance to compaction. As the water
content is increased, the soil particles get lubricated. The soil mass becomes more workable
and the particles have closer packing. The dry density of the soil increases with an increase in
the water content till the O.M.C is reached.
Amount of compaction
The increase in compactive effort will increase the dry density at lower water content to a
certain extent.
Type of soil
The dry density achieved depends upon the type of soil. The O.M.C and dry density for different
soils are different
Method of compaction
The dry density achieved depends on the method of compaction
Effect of Compaction on Properties of Soil
1. Effect of Compaction on Soil Structure
Soils compacted at a water content less than the optimum generally have a flocculated
structure. Soils compacted at water content more than the optimum usually have a dispersed
structure.
2. Effect of Compaction of Soil on Permeability
The permeability of a soil depends upon the size of voids. The permeability of a soil decreases
with an increase in water content on the dry side of optimum water content.
3. Swelling
4. Pore water pressure
5. Shrinkage
6. Compressibility
7. Stress-strain relationship
8. Shear strength
Methods of Compaction of Soil used in Field
Several methods are used in the field for compaction of soils. The choice of method will depend
upon the soil type, the maximum dry density required and economic consideration. The
commonly used methods are
1. Tampers
2. Rollers
3. Vibratory compactors
The compaction depends upon the following factors:
 Contact pressure
 Number of passes
 Layer thickness
 Speed of roller

140 | P a g e
14
0
Types of rollers
 Smooth Wheel rollers
 Pneumatic tyred rollers
 Sheepsfoot rollers
Controlling Compaction of Soil
Compaction control is done by measuring the dry density and the water content of compacted
soil in the field
 Dry density
The dry density is measured by core cutter method and sand replacement method
 Water content
For the measurement of water content, oven drying method, sand bath method, calcium
carbide method etc are used. Proctor needle is also used for this.
Factors Affecting Compaction of Soil and their Effect
on Different Soils
There are different factors which affects compaction of soils. The effect of these factors on
compaction of different types of soils is discussed.
Compaction of soil is a process of densification of soil by displacing air from the pores by
applying external stress on soil at different moisture content.
Factors Affecting Compaction of Soil – Effect on Different Soil Types
Following the different factors affecting compaction of soil:
 Water content
 Amount of compaction
 Types of soil
 Methods of soil compaction
Effect of Water Content on Compaction of Soil
At low water content, the soil is stiff and offers more resistance to compaction. As the water
content is increased, the soil particles get lubricated. The soil mass becomes more workable
and the particles have closer packing.
The dry density of the soil increases with an increase in the water content till the optimum
water content in reached. At that stage, the air voids attain approximately a constant volume.
With further increase in water content, the air voids do not decrease, but the total voids (air
plus water) increase and the dry density decreases.
Thus the higher dry density is achieved upto the optimum water content due to forcing air
voids out from the soil voids. After the optimum water content is reached, it becomes more
difficult to force air out and to further reduce the air voids.

141 | P a g e
14
1
The effect of water content on the compaction of soil can also be explained with the help of
electrical double layer theory. At low water content, the forces of attraction in the adsorbed
water layer are large, and there is more resistance to movement of the particles.
As the water content is increased, the electrical double layer expands and the inter-particle
repulsive forces increase. The particles easily slide over one another and are closely packed.
This results in higher dry density.
Amount of Compaction
The compaction of soil increases with the increase in amount of compactive effort. With
increase in compactive effort, the optimum water content required for compaction also
decreases. At a water content less than the optimum, the effect of increased compaction is
more predominant.
At a water content more than the optimum, the volume of air voids become almost constant
and the effect of increased compaction on soil is not significant.
It may be mentioned that the maximum dry density does not go on increasing with an increase
in the compactive effort. For a certain increase in the compactive effort, the increase in the dry
density becomes smaller and smaller. Finally a stage is reached beyond which there is no
further increase in the dry density with an increase in the compactive effort.
The line of optimums which join the peaks of the compaction curves of different compactive
efforts follows the general trend of the zero-air void. This line corresponds to air voids of about
5%.
Type of Soil:
The compaction of soil depends upon the type of soil. The maximum dry density and the
optimum water content for different soils are shown in figure. In general, coarse grained soils
can be compacted to higher dry density than fine-grained soils.
With the addition of even a small quantity of fines to a coarse-grained soil, the soils attain a
much higher dry density for the same compactive effort.
However, if the quantity of the fines in increased to a value more than that required to fill the
voids of the coarse-grained soils, the maximum dry density decreases. A well graded sand
attains a much higher dry density than a poorly graded soil.
Cohesive soils have high air voids. These soils attain a relatively lower maximum dry density as
compared with the cohesionless soils. Such soils require more water than cohesionless soils and
therefore the optimum water content is high. Heavy clays of very high plasticity have very low
dry density and a very high optimum water content.
Method of Soil Compaction:
The dry density achieved depends not only upon the amount of compactive effort but also on
the method of compaction. For the same amount of compactive effort, the dry density will
depend upon whether the method of compaction utilizes kneading action, dynamic action or
static action.

142 | P a g e
14
2
For example, in Harvard Miniature compaction test, the soil is compacted by the kneading
action, and therefore, the compaction curve obtained is different from that obtained from the
other conventional tests in which an equal compactive effort is applied.
Different methods of compaction curve give their own compaction curves. Consequently, the
lines of optimums are also different.
Fig: Compaction curves for different soils
Different Types of Soil Compaction Equipments:
The soil compaction equipments can be divided into two groups:
1. Light soil compacting equipments
2. Heavy soil compacting equipments
1. Light Soil Compacting Equipments:
These equipments are used for soil compacting of small areas only and where the compacting
effort needed is less. Below are light equipments for soil compaction:
(i) Rammers:
Rammers are used for compacting small areas by providing impact load to the soil. This
equipment is light and can be hand or machine operated. The base size of rammers can be
15cm x 15cm or 20cm x 20cm or more.

143 | P a g e
14
3
For machine operated rammers, the usual weight varies from 30kg to 10 tonnes (6 lbs to 22000
lbs). These hammers with 2- 3 tonnes (4400 to 6600 lbs)weights are allowed to free fall from a
height of 1m to 2m (3ft to 7ft) on the soil for the compaction of rock fragments.
Rammers are suitable for compacting cohesive soils as well as other soils. This machine in areas
with difficulty in access.
(ii) Vibrating Plate Compactors:

144 | P a g e
14
4
Vibrating plate compactors are used for compaction of coarse soils with 4 to 8% fines. These
equipments are used for small areas. The usual weights of these machines vary from 100 kg to
2 tonne with plate areas between 0.16 m2 and 1.6 m2.
(iii) Vibro Tampers:
Vibro tampers is used for compaction of small areas in confined space. This machine is suitable
for compaction of all types of soil by vibrations set up in a base plate through a spring activated
by an engine driven reciprocating mechanism. They are usually manually guided and weigh
between 50 and 100 kg (100 to 220 lbs).
2. Heavy Soil Compaction Equipments:
These compacting machines are used for large areas for use on different types of soils. The
heavy compaction equipments are selected based on moisture content of soil and types of soil.
Following are different types of these equipments:
I) Smooth Wheeled Rollers:
Smooth wheeled rollers are of two types:
 Static smooth wheeled rollers
 Vibrating smooth wheeled rollers
The most suitable soils for these roller type are well graded sand, gravel, crushed rock, asphalt
etc. where crushing is required. These are used on soils which does not require great pressure
for compaction. These rollers are generally used for finishing the upper surface of the soil.
These roller are not used for compaction of uniform sands.
The performance of smooth wheeled rollers depend on load per cm width it transfers to the
soil and diameter of the drum. The load per cm width is derived from the gross weight of the
drum.
The smooth wheeled rollers consists of one large steel drum in front and two steel drums on
the rear. The gross weight of these rollers is in the range of 8-10 tonnes (18000 to 22000 lbs).
The other type of smooth wheel roller is called Tandem Roller, which weighs between 6-8
tonne (13000 to 18000 lbs).

145 | P a g e
14
5
The performance of these rollers can be increased by increasing the increasing the weight of
the drum by ballasting the inside of drums with wet sand or water. Steel sections can also be
used to increase the load of the drum by mounting on the steel frame attached with axle.
The desirable speed and number of passes for appropriate compaction of soil depends on the
type of soil and varies from location to location. About 8 passes are adequate for compacting
20 cm layer. A speed of 3-6 kmph is considered appropriate for smooth wheel rollers.
Vibrating smooth wheeled rollers
In case of vibrating smooth wheeled rollers, the drums are made to vibrate by employing
rotating or reciprocating mass.
These rollers are helpful from several considerations like:-
(i) Higher compaction level can be achieved with maximum work
(ii) Compaction can be done up to greater depths
(iii) Output is many times more than conventional rollers
Although these rollers are expensive but in the long term the cost becomes economical due to
their higher outputs and improved performance. The latest work specifications for excavation

146 | P a g e
14
6
recommends the use of vibratory rollers due to their advantage over static smooth wheeled
rollers.
(ii) Sheepsfoot roller Roller:
Sheepsfoot rollers are used for compacting fine grained soils such as heavy clays and silty clays.
Sheepsfoot rollers are used for compaction of soils in dams, embankments, subgrade layers in
pavements and rail road construction projects.
Sheepsfoot rollers are of static and vibratory types. Vibratory types rollers are used for
compaction of all fine grained soils and also soil with sand-gravel mixes. Generally this roller is
used for compaction of subgrade layers in road and rail projects.
As seen in picture above, sheepsfoot rollers consist of steel drums on which projecting lugs are
fixed and can apply a pressure upto 14kg/sq cm or more. Different types of lugs are namely
spindle shaped with widened base, prismatic and clubfoot type.
The weight of drums can be increased as in the case of smooth wheeled rollers by ballasting
with water, wet sand or by mounting steel sections.
The efficiency of sheepsfoot rollers compaction can be achieved when lugs are gradual walkout
of the roller lugs with successive coverage. The efficiency is affected by the pressure on the foot
and coverage of ground obtained per pass. For required pressure and coverage of ground, the
parameters such as gross weight of the roller, the area of each foot, the number of lugs in
contact with the ground at any time and total number of feet per drum are considered.
The compaction of soil is mainly due to foots penetrating and exerting pressure on the soil. The
pressure is maximum when a foot is vertical.

147 | P a g e
14
7
(iii) Pneumatic Tyred Rollers:
Pneumatic tyred rollers are also called as rubber tyred rollers. These rollers are used for
compaction of coarse grained soils with some fines. These rollers are least suitable for uniform
coarse soils and rocks. Generally pneumatic tyred rollers are used in pavement subgrade works
both earthwork and bituminous works.
Pneumatic rollers have wheels on both axles. These wheels are staggered for compaction of soil
layers with uniform pressure throughout the width of the roller.
The factors which affects the degree of compaction are tyre inflation pressure and the area of
the contact. The latest rollers have an arrangement to inflate the tyre to the desired pressure
automatically. The total weight of the roller can be increased from 11.0 tonne to 25.0 tonne or
more by ballasting with steel sections or other means.
(iv) Grid Rollers:
Grid rollers are used for compaction of weathered rocks, well graded coarse soils. These rollers
are not suitable for clayey soils, silty clays and uniform soils. The main use of these rollers are in
subgrade and sub-base in road constructions.

148 | P a g e
14
8
As the name suggests, these rollers have a cylindrical heavy steel surface consisting of a
network of steel bars forming a grid with squire holes. The weight of this roller can be increased
by ballasting with concrete blocks.
Typical weights vary between 5.5 tonnes net and 15 tonnes ballasted. Grid rollers provide high
contact pressure but little kneading action and are suitable for compacting most coarse grained
soils.
(v) Pad Foot / Tamping Rollers:
These rollers are similar to sheepsfoot rollers with lugs of larger area than sheepsfoot rollers.
The static pad foot rollers also called tamping rollers have static weights in the range of 15 to 40
tonnes and their static linear drum loads are between 30 and 80 kg/cm. These rollers are more
preferable than sheepsfoot roller due to their high production capacity, and they are replacing
sheepsfoot rollers.
The degree of compaction achieved is more than sheepsfoot rollers. The density of soil
achieved after compaction with this roller is more uniform.

149 | P a g e
14
9
These rollers operate at high speeds, and are capable to breaking large lumps. These rollers also
consists of leveling blades to spread the material.
Pad foot or tamping rollers are best suitable for compacting cohesive soils.
Proctors Test for Compaction of Soil – Procedures, Tools and Results
Compaction is the process of densification of soil by reducing air voids. The degree of
compaction of a given soil is measured in terms of its dry density. The dry density is maximum
at the optimum water content. A curve is drawn between the water content and the dry
density to obtain the maximum dry density and the optimum water content.
Dry density of soil:
Where M = total mass of the soil, V= volume of soil, w= water content.
Equipments for Proctor’s Test for Compaction of Soil
1. Compaction mould, capacity 1000ml.
2. Rammer, mass 2.6 kg
3. Detachable base plate
4. Collar, 60mm high
5. IS sieve, 4.75 mm
6. Oven
7. Desiccator
8. Weighing balance, accuracy 1g
9. Large mixing pan
10. Straight edge
11. Spatula
12. Graduated jar
13. Mixing tools, spoons, trowels, etc.
Procedure of Proctor’s Test for Compaction of Soil
1. Take about 20kg of air-dried soil. Sieve it through 20mm and 4.7mm sieve.
2. Calculate the percentage retained on 20mm sieve and 4.75mm sieve, and the
percentage passing 4.75mm sieve.
3. If the percentage retained on 4.75mm sieve is greater than 20, use the large mould of
150mm diameter. If it is less than 20%, the standard mould of 100mm diameter can be
used. The following procedure is for the standard mould.
4. Mix the soil retained on 4.75mm sieve and that passing 4.75mm sieve in proportions
determined in step (2) to obtain about 16 to 18 kg of soil specimen.
5. Clean and dry the mould and the base plate. Grease them lightly.
6. Weigh the mould with the base plate to the nearest 1 gram.
7. Take about 16 – 18 kg of soil specimen. Add water to it to bring the water content to
about 4% if the soil is sandy and to about 8% if the soil is clayey.

150 | P a g e
15
0
8. Keep the soil in an air-tight container for about 18 to 20 hours for maturing. Mix the soil
thoroughly. Divide the processed soil into 6 to 8 parts.
9. Attach the collar to the mould. Place the mould on a solid base.
10. Take about 2.5kg of the processed soil, and hence place it in the mould in 3 equal layers.
Take about one-third the quantity first, and compact it by giving 25 blows of the
rammer. The blows should be uniformly distributed over the surface of each layer.
1. The top surface of the first layer be scratched with spatula before placing the second
layer. The second layer should also be compacted by 25 blows of rammer. Likewise,
place the third layer and compact it.
2. The amount of the soil used should be just sufficient to fill the mould ad leaving about 5
mm above the top of the mould to be struck off when the collar is removed.
11. Remove the collar and trim off the excess soil projecting above the mould using a
straight edge.
12. Clean the base plate and the mould from outside. Weigh it to the nearest gram.
13. Remove the soil from the mould. The soil may also be ejected out.
14. Take the soil samples for the water content determination from the top, middle and
bottom portions. Determine the water content.
15. Add about 3% of the water to a fresh portion of the processed soil, and repeat the steps
10 to 14.
(a)

151 | P a g e
15
1
(b) Rammer
Fig: Standard Proctor Test (Compaction Test)
Data Sheet for Compaction Test of Soil
Diameter of the mould =
Height of mould =
Volume of the mould, V=
Specific gravity of solids, G=
Sl.
No.
Observations and Calculations Determination No.
1 2 3
Observation
1 Mass of empty mould with base
plate
2 Mass of mould, compacted soil
and base plate
Calculations
3 Mass of compacted soil M = (2) – (1)
4
Bulk Density
5 Water content, w
6
Dry density

152 | P a g e
15
2
7
Void ratio
8 Dry density at 100% saturation
(theoretical)
9 Degree of
saturation
Plot a curve between w as abscissa and as ordinate.
Fig: Soil Compaction Curve
Result of Proctor’s Test for Soil Compaction:
Maximum dry density (from plot) =
Optimum water content (from plot) =
Determination of Maximum Dry Density of Soil and
Optimum Moisture Content
Relationship between maximum dry density of soil and optimum moisture content can be
obtained from soil compaction curve obtained from standard proctor test. This relationship

153 | P a g e
15
3
helps in determining the optimum water content at which maximum dry density of soil can be
attained through compaction.
Why Maximum Dry Density and Optimum Moisture Content of Soil is Required?
The soil at the construction site must be stable enough to carry the loads from the structures
through footings without undergoing undesirable settlements during the construction process
and during the service period.
This function of soil is tested through the site investigation process. The construction site is
hence treated and compacted based on the site investigation report. The amount of
compaction required for the soil in the respective area varies from site to site.
To determine the amount of compaction required by the soil and the optimum water content
at for compaction, the compaction tests are conducted on the soil from the site in the
laboratory.
Determination of Maximum Dry Density of Soil and Optimum Moisture Content
Standard Proctor Compaction Test is the one of the initially used standard compaction test
procedure to determine the maximum dry density of the soil. It was developed by Proctor in
1933.
The apparatus consists of a standard mold of 4 inches in internal diameter. The effective height
of this standard mold is 4.6 inches. The maximum capacity of the mold is 1/30 cubic foot. The
apparatus is shown in the figure-1 below.
Fig.1: Standard Proctor Test Apparatus (Mold and Rammer)
The mold consist of a detachable base plate. The top of the mold consist of two 2-inch height
collar which is removable. The soil is added into the mold in three layers, each layer undergoing
25 blows. This compaction is carried out by means of a 5.5 pound rammer falling from a height
of 12 inches.
Indian Standard Specification – IS:2720 (Part VII) recommended specification for standard
proctor test have some minor modifications and metrifications. The cross-section of the
apparatus used as per Indian codes are shown in figure-2. The diameter of the mold is 100mm
with a height of 127.3mm. The capacity of the mold is 1000ml.

154 | P a g e
15
4
Fig.2: Standard Proctor Test of Soil
The rammer used has a mass of 2.6 kg. This undergoes free drop of 310 mm with a face
diameter of 50 mm. The soil compaction is carried out in three layers. The height of collar is 60
mm which is removable. The mold is placed over a detachable base plate.
In certain cases, the soil taken for testing may retain on 4.75mm sieve. If this amount is greater
than 20%, then a mold of larger internal diameter say 150mm is employed. This mold have a
height of 127.3 mm and a capacity of 2250 ml.

155 | P a g e
15
5
Procedure for Standard Proctor Test
The procedure for carrying out the standard Proctor test are as follows.
1. Collect the soil sample weighing 3kg. The sample must be 3kg after air drying it. Usually, this
soil will be pulverized soil that passes through 4.75mm sieve. If the soil is coarse grained type,
the water is added such that its water content comes to 4%.
If the soil is fine grained, water is added to make its water content to 8%. The water content of
the sample after addition must be less than the optimum water content.
The soil after addition of water is mixed thoroughly and covered with a wet cloth. This sample is
kept aside for 15 to 30 minutes for undergoing maturing process. The table-1 below shows the
range of optimum water content for different soil types
Table.1: Optimum Water Content Range for Different Soil Types
Sand Sand silt or silty sand Silt Clay
6 to 10% 8 to 12% 12 to 16% 14 to 20%
2. Next, the apparatus is prepared by cleaning the mold thoroughly. The mold have to be dried
and greased lightly. The mass of the mold with base plate and without collar is weighed. Let it
me (Wm).

156 | P a g e
15
6
3. The mold placed over solid base plate is then filled with prepared matured soil to one third of
the height. This layer will take 25 blows with the rammer. The rammer has a free fall height of
310 mm.
Note: If a bigger mold is used, the no: of blows for each layer will be 56 no’s. Here the capacity
of the mold will be 2250 ml.
The compaction must be done in such a way that the blows are evenly distributed over the
surface of each layer.
4. Next the second layer is added. Before adding the second layer the top of the first layer have
to be scratched. Now the soil is filled to two thirds of the height of the mold. This too is
compacted with 25 blows.
5. Later the third layer is added. It is compacted similarly. The final layer must project outside
the mold and into the collar. This amount must not be greater than 6mm.
6. The bond between the soil in the mold and the collar is broken by rotating the collar. Next
the collar is removed and the top layer of soil is trimmed and leveled to the top layer of mold.
7. Next, the mass of the mold with compacted soil and base plate is determined (Wms). Hence
the mass of the compacted soil (Ws) is determined as:
Ws = Wm -Wms
8. The mass of compacted soil and the volume of the mold gives bulk density of the soil. From
the bulk density the dry density can be determined for the water content used (w).
9. The same procedure from (1-8) is repeated by increasing the water content in the soil by 2 to
3%. Each test will provide different set of values of water content and dry density of soil. From
the values obtained compaction curve is graphed between the dry density and water content.
Calculations for Compaction Curve
1. Weight of Compacted Soil (Ws) in grams.
Ws = Wm -Wms
2. Bulk Density in gm/ml
3. Dry Density , w = water content
Compaction Curve of Soil – Maximum Dry Density and Optimum Water Content
The compaction curve is the curve drawn between the water content (X-axis) and the
respective dry density (Y-axis). The observation will be initially an increase of dry density with
the increase in the water content. Once it reaches a particular point a decrease of dry density is
observed.
The maximum peak point of the soil compaction curve obtained is called as the Maximum dry
density value. The water content correspond to this point is called as the Optimum water
content (O.W.C) or optimum moisture content (O.M.C).

157 | P a g e
15
7
Fig.3. Compaction Curve of Soil
The graph shown in figure-3 is the compaction curve. Initially for a water content lesser than
O.M.C the soil is rather stiffer in nature that will have lots of void spaces and porosity. This is
the reason for lower dry density attainment.
When the soil particles are lubricated with the increase in the water content, the soil particles
will be densely packed resulting in increased density. Now beyond a limit (OMC) the addition of
water will not bring a change in dry density or will decrease the dry density.
The graph represents a zero-air void or 100 % saturation line. This is based on the theoretical
maximum dry density where it occurs when there is 100 % saturation. As the condition of zero
voids in soil is not real and a hypothetical assumption, the soil can never become 100%
saturated.
The theoretical maximum dry density can be determined by the equation
G=specific gravity of solids; = mass density of water; w= water content; The theoretical zero
void line can be drawn by plotting the theoretical maximum dry density in the compaction
curve if the value of ‘w’ and G is known.

Civil engineering lab tests pdf

More Related Content

What's hot (20)

Similar to Civil engineering lab tests pdf (20)

More from Saqib Imran (20)

Recently uploaded (20)

Civil engineering lab tests pdf