Civil Engineering Structures, Materials and Scope

SRI KRISHNA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
[An Autonomous Institution | Affiliated to Anna University and
Approved by AICTE | Accredited by NAAC with ‘A’ Grade]
KOVAIPUDUR, COIMBATORE – 641 042.
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
COURSE : 23CE101 – Introduction to Civil Engineering (ICE)
Theory (3 Credits)
Module-1
I YEAR/I SEMESTER
Civil Engineering Structures and Materials
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Introduction to Civil Engineering
Dr. N. Shanmugasundaram

Syllabus
MODULE 1: Civil Engineering Structures and Materials 15 Hrs.
Scope of civil engineering - functions of a civil engineer - relevance of civil engineering in overall
infrastructure development of a country – civil engineering structures: buildings, bridges, dams, roads,
railways, runways, tunnels, towers, chimneys, retaining walls, water tanks, cooling towers and silos -
building materials: bricks, stones, aggregates, m-sand, cement, concrete, steel, plywood, aluminum, GI
sheet, PVC – emerging construction materials.
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Scope of civil engineering
Civil engineering is the art of directing the great sources of power in nature for the use and
convenience of man.
Basically it is concerned with planning, design and construction for environmental control,
development of natural resource, buildings, transportation facilities and other structures required
for health, welfare, safety, employment and pleasure of mankind.
The main scope of civil engineering is planning, designing, estimating, supervising, managing
and maintenance of structures like building, roads, bridges, dams etc.
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Civil engineering is a wide field and includes many types of structures such as residential
buildings, public buildings, industrial buildings, roads, bridges, tunnels, railways, dams,
canals, airports, harbours, waste water treatment plants, water supply networks and
drainage networks, drainage networks etc.
According to the type of structures and activities carried out, main branches of civil engineering
are classified as follows:
1.Structural Engineering 2.Geotechnical Engineering 3.Transportation Engineering
4.Environmental Engineering 5.Water resources Engineering 6.Surveying and levelling
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1.Structural Engineering
Structural engineering is a subset of civil engineering , focusing on the “bones and muscles” of
man-made structures. Structural engineers are also responsible for calculating the strength and
stability of load-bearing structures to withstand earthquakes, wind, and other natural disasters.
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2.Geotechnical Engineering
Geotechnical engineering, also known as geotechnics, is the branch of civil engineering
concerned with the engineering behavior of earth materials. It uses the principles of soil mechanics
and rock mechanics to solve its engineering problems.
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3.Transportation Engineering
Transport Engineering is the application of scientific and technological principles in the
planning, functional design, operation and facilities management for any means of transport
(road, rail, water and air) in order to provide a safe, fast, comfortable, convenient, economic
travel for people and goods.
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4.Environmental Engineering
Environmental engineering is a professional discipline concerned with protecting people
from adverse environmental effects as well as protecting ecosystems and improving the quality of
the environment.
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5.Water resources Engineering
Water resources engineering is the quantitative study of the hydrologic cycle the distribution
and circulation of water linking the earth's atmosphere, land and oceans.
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6.Surveying and levelling
Surveying or land surveying is the technique, profession, art, and science of determining the
terrestrial two-dimensional or three-dimensional positions of points and the distances and angles
between them.
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7. Others branches and opportunities
• Nuclear Engineer
• Urban Planner
• Transportation Planner
• Building Engineer
• Construction Manager
• Architect, etc..
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Reference - https://www.sandipfoundation.org/blog/what-is-the-scope-of-civil-engineering-in-india/

Functions of a civil engineer
From roads and bridges to buildings and water supply systems, civil engineers are responsible for
the creation and maintenance of the physical framework that forms the backbone of society. Civil
engineers have a diverse range of roles and responsibilities, which can be broadly categorized into
the following sections:
 Civil engineers with structural design expertise design buildings, bridges, dams, and other
structures to ensure they are safe, stable, and can withstand environmental forces.
 Civil Engineers who specialize in Transportation planning, manage to plan roadways, airports,
and transit systems to facilitate the movement of people and goods efficiently.
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 Civil Engineers who choose water resource management as their niche, design systems for
managing water resources, including the construction of reservoirs, dams, and water treatment
plants.
 Civil engineers who specialize in Environmental Engineering will work on projects that address
environmental concerns, such as wastewater treatment and pollution control.
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Project Planning & Management
 Civil engineers are responsible for the overall planning and management of infrastructure
projects.
Project Planning: Creating detailed project plans, including timelines, budgets, and resource
allocation.
Team Coordination: Managing teams of engineers, architects, contractors, and other professionals
to ensure projects are completed on time and within budget.
Regulatory Compliance: Ensuring that projects comply with local, state, and federal regulations and
obtaining the necessary permits.
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Supervising the Construction of Projects
 Civil engineers should oversee the construction process to ensure that it adheres to design
specifications and safety standards.
 This process involves managing resources, organizing the workflow, and coordinating with
the technicians, contractors, and other professionals associated with the project until the end
of the project.
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Quality Control & Safety Assurance
 Civil Engineers are responsible for ensuring that the construction project meets the required
quality standards.
 They should implement safety protocols to protect workers and the public during
construction.
 He or she should address unforeseen challenges and make necessary adjustments to keep the
project on track.
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Maintenance and Rehabilitation
 Maintainance and Rehabilitation is one of the mandatory roles and responsibilities of a civil
engineer while processing an infrastructure.
 Civil engineers should schedule and oversee routine inspections and maintain activities such
as repairing bridges or upgrading water treatment plants to ensure the continued
functionality of the infrastructure.
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Research and Development
 Another important category that comes under the roles and responsibilities of a civil engineer is
Research and scope for development.
 Civil engineers are often involved in research and development activities to improve existing
infrastructure and develop innovative solutions.
 A Civil Engineer will be exploring new materials and construction techniques to enhance the
durability and sustainability of infrastructure.
 He or she should stay updated to be able to incorporate new technologies, such as Building
Information Modeling (BIM) and computer-aided design (CAD), into the design and
construction process.
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Project Reports and Site Investigation
 Civil Engineers are entitled to prepare project specifications, drawings, site designs, and
technical documents involved in the construction of infrastructure.
 Civil Engineers are responsible for conducting site investigation and analysis to find out the
feasibility of the project by determining site conditions, soil state, geological conditions, etc.
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Project Specification and Procurement of Materials
 Civil Engineers specify the materials required for the construction and work closely with the
suppliers, technicians, contractors, and other professionals to ensure that the materials and
equipment are delivered within the scheduled time frame.
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Environmentally Sustainable Infrastructure
In an era of increasing environmental awareness, civil engineers are increasingly tasked with
incorporating sustainable practices into their projects.
Green Infrastructure: Designing infrastructure that minimizes environmental impact and
promotes sustainability, such as green roofs, solar & wind energy-powered buildings, and permeable
pavements.
Waste Reduction: Minimizing waste generation during the construction and operation of
infrastructure.
Rainwater Harvesting: Designing and procuring Rainwater harvesting capabilities during the
construction of the infrastructures
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Communication and Collaboration
 One of the key roles and responsibilities of a Civil engineer is that they must effectively
communicate with various stakeholders, including clients, government agencies,
contractors, and the public.
 Civil engineers must communicate project plans and progress through presentations and reports.
 He or She should negotiate contracts and agreements with contractors and suppliers.
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Overall Infrastructural Development of the Country
Relevance of Civil Engineering in the Overall Infrastructural Development of the Country
 Proper planning of towns and extension areas in the cities
 Well planned and built transportation facilities
 Assured water supply and good drainage system
 Better sewage system
 Improved irrigation facilities
 Improved education and health care facilities
 Improved communication facilities
 Generation of electricity from natural resources
 Pollution free environmental condition
 Protection from flood, drought etc.
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Civil engineering structures
 Buildings
 Bridges
 Dams
 Roads
 Railways
 Runways
 Tunnels
 Towers
 Chimneys
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 Retaining walls
 Water tanks
 Cooling towers
 Silos, etc.

In general infrastructure is of two types.
1. Economic infrastructure
2. Social infrastructure
Economic infrastructure
• It contributes directly to the economic development of any country.
• It consists of transport and communication, power supply, irrigation networks, financial
institutions etc.
Social infrastructure
• It contributes to the process of economic development of any country indirectly.
• It consists of education & training, health & family welfare, housing & water supply and other
civic amenities
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Buildings
• A building is a structure with walls and a roof situated in one location more or less permanently.
• A permanent structure built as a dwelling, shelter, or place for human activity or for storage.
• A structure constructed with any materials whatsoever for any purpose, whether used for
human habitation or not, and includes:- i) Foundation, plinth, walls, floors, roofs, chimneys,
plumbing and building services, fixed platforms etc.
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Use of Buildings
• Buildings serve several societal needs – occupancy, primarily as shelter from weather,
security, living space, privacy, to store belongings, and to comfortably live and work.
• Residential purpose
• Educational purpose
• Assembly purpose
• Institutional purpose
• Business purpose
• Merchandise purpose
• Storage purpose
• Sports activity
• Museum/ park
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• Recreation activity
• As a transportation facility
• Offices
• Communication
• Service facilities/ public utility
• Agriculture
• Live stock shelter
• Energy supply

Important of Buildings
• Integral part of human journey
• Invariably used by all human beings
• Vital for human growth- 80% of human life spent in buildings
• Provider of space where all indoor human activities are performed, living, working, care of
body & spirits
• Vital for human growth
• Provide optimum/worst living conditions
• Make people healthy/sick
• Anti-thesis to natural environment
• Constitute manmade environment
• Will continue to define human growth development and Civilizations
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Important of Buildings
• Constitute major component of any city
• Give distinct character and personality to a city
• Largest consumers of energy (50%)
• Largest consumers of resources
• Major determinant of global sustainability
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Types of Buildings
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Can you name some commercial buildings?

Types of Buildings based on the occupancy
1. Residential building
2. Educational Building
3. Assembly buildings
4. Institutional building
5. Business building
6. Mercantile Buildings
7. Storage Buildings
8. Hazardous Building
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Based on type of construction fire resistance
1. Type 1: That provides 4 hours of fire resistance.
4. Type 4: That provides 1-hour of fire resistance

Components of building
Sub-Structure
It is the portion of a building situated underneath the surrounding ground.
Superstructure
The portion which is situated above the ground level is called superstructure
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HAPPY LEARNING

Bridges
A bridge is a structure that provides passages for a road, railway, pedestrians, canal or a
pipeline over an obstacle without closing the way beneath.
It’s a structure built to span a gorge, valley, road, railroad track, river, body of water, or any other
physical obstacle.
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Purpose of Bridges
1. Movement of vehicle
2. Movement of train
3. Carrying pedestrians, cycles and animals.
4. To support pipeline for water, gas, oil, etc.
5. connecting land
Importance of bridge
1. Improvement of environment for emergency care.
2. Improvement of convenience of public transportation.
3. Ease of traffic jam and reduction of railroad crossing.
4. Crossing any obstacle
5. Perform an effective communication between two destinations.
6. Reduce travelling distance
7. Connects Difficult Terrains
8. Easy Trade and Transportation of Goods
9. Military use
10.Political and Economic importance
11.Less Emission due to displacement
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Classification of bridge
According to function
1. Foot bridge (Pedestrian bridge)
2. Road bridge
3. Railway bridge
4. Pipeline bridge
5. Pedestrian Bridge
6. Viaduct : It is a bridge constructed over a valley
7. Aquaduct ;- is a bridge carrying a canal constructed over a drainage / passage underneath.
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According to the materials of construction:
1. Timber bridge
2. Masonry bridge
3. Iron bridge
4. Steel bridge
5. RCC bridge
6. Pre-stressed concrete bridge
7. Composite bridge
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According to type of super structure
1. Slab bridge
2. Beam bridge
3. Arch bridge
4. Bow-string girder bridge
5. Suspension bridge
6. Cable stayed bridge
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Components of a bridge
• Substructure
• Superstructure
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Dams
A dam is a hydraulic structure of fairly impervious material built across a river to create a
reservoir on its upstream side for impounding water for various purposes.
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Purpose of Dam
1. Water storage
2. Water diversion
3. Irrigation
4. Hydroelectric power
5. Flood prevention
6. Recreation
7. Debris control
8. Land reclamation
9. Wild life / Fishing
10.Navigation
11.Mine Tailings
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Importance of Dam
1. Modernity and a source of nation prestige
2. Developing countries
3. Serve a nation in multiple ways
4. Generating the economy and preserving nature
5. Energy demands of the country
6. Sustainable development in the economy
7. Employment opportunities
8. Decide food production and food security
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Component of dam
1. Water-retaining structure - 1. Heel 2. Toe 3. Abutment 4. Roadway/Crest 5. Cutoff 6. Parapet
wall
2. Water-releasing structure - 1. Galleries 2. Spillways 3. Diversion tunnel 4. Sluiceway 5.
Freeboard Galleries
3. Water conveying structure - Conveys the water from reservoirs through around, or under an
embankment dam (closed pipe structures).
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Gallery
Water conveyor by tunnel

Classification of dams
Classification based on Size
1. Small Dam (<10 m high)
2. Medium size Dam (10 – 25 m high)
3. Large Dam (>25 m high)
4. Major Dam (>150 m high)
Classification based on Purpose
1. Hydro-electric dam
2. Irrigation dam
3. Water supply dam for city for the purposes of drinking water, recreation, navigation thro
canals, industrial use.
4. Flood Control
5. Habitat dam for fishes & wild life
6. Effluent containing dams from industry, mine, factory etc.
7. Multi-purpose dam
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Classification of dams
Classification based on Material of construction
1. Masonry Dam
2. Concrete Dam
3. Timber Dam
4. Steel Dam
5. Earth Dam
6. Rock fill Dam
7. Composite Dam
Classification based on action
1. Gravity Dam
2. Arch Dam
3. Saddle Dam
4. Check Dam
5. Diversion Dam
6. Overflow Dam
7. Cofferdam
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Advantages of dam
1. Water conservation
2. Assure water supply
3. Generation of hydroelectricity
4. Irrigation of field
5. Recreation and tourism
6. Job creation
7. Flood control
8. Environment improvement/ ecosystem
9. Navigation
10. Debris control
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Disadvantages of dam
1. Relocation of people
2. Deforestation and change in ecosystem
3. Change in water flow pattern
4. In case of dam failure flooding downstream/ submergence
5. Methane production
6. Water wastage
7. Reduction in diversity
8. High cost
9. Maintenance challenge
10. Potential conflict
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Roads
A road is a linear way for the conveyance of traffic that mostly has an improved surface for use
by vehicles (motorized and non-motorized) and pedestrians.
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Uses of Roads
1. Transportation of goods and passengers for short and medium distances.
2. Easy communication between farms, fields, factories and markets.
3. Roads can negotiate high slopes and sharp bends which railways cannot do. As roads can be built in
hilly areas also.
4. Roads act as incredible feeders to railways.
5. Road transport is more adaptable than the railway transport.
6. Buses and trucks may be halted at any place for loading and unloading passengers and goods
whereas trains will only stop at selective stations.
7. Perishable products like vegetables, fruits and milk are transported more effortlessly and quickly by
roads than by railways.
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Importance of Roads
1. Roads Make Our Infrastructure
2. Roads Make Traveling Easy
3. Roads Make Trades And Commerce Possible
4. Roads Determine Your Business Scope
5. Roads Are Great For Business Innovation
6. Roads Are The Backbone Of A Country’s Economy
7. Roads Are A Part of Everyday Life
8. Roads Make A Country Livable
9. Roads Make A Country Competitive
10. Roads Help Discover New Sights
11. Roads Provide Routes To Recreational Spots
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12. Roads Support Tourism
13. Roads Are Necessary For Emergency
Situations
14. Roads Facilitate Forest Management
Activities
15. Roads Keep The Environment Clean

Classification of roads
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I. Based on administrative jurisdiction and
function:
• Primary System
1. Express way
2. National Highway (NH)
• Secondary System
1. State Highway (SH)
2. Major District Roads (MDR)
• Tertiary System
• Other District Roads (ODR)
• Village Roads (VR)
II. Based on their suitability for usage during
different seasons of the year:
1. All weather roads
2. Fair weather roads
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III. Based on the type of road pavement:
1. Paved roads
2. Unpaved Roads
IV. Based on the type of pavement surfacing
1. Surface roads
2. Unsurfaced roads
V. Based on size
1. Single lane
2. Double lane
3. Four lane
4. Six lane
VI. Based on type of road surface
1. Mud road
2. Bituminous road
3. Concrete road
4. Water bond macadam road

Component of road
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Component of road
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Component of road
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Merits
1. Construction Cost is less.
2. Very convenient for passenger and good transport.
3. Destination and starting points are not necessary
to define.
4. Any type of vehicle can used this mode of
transport.
Demerits
1. Speed limit and restriction.
2. Suitable for short distance only.
3. Affected by weather
4. Traffic jam

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HAPPY LEARNING

Railways
It is a means of transport, on vehicles which run on tracks (rails or railroads).
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Use of railway
1. Transportation of men, material and machine
2. Transportation of agricultural product
3. Transportation of arms and ammunition
4. Transportation of emergency supply
5. Transportation of oil and water
6. Transportation of vehicle/ truck
7. Transportation of ore/ mineral
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Importance of railway
1. Railways are significant & potential means of transporting men and material over large distances in a
country.
2. This economical transport system enables the local growers to get adequate returns for the efforts
from extended markets
3. Help in international trade
4. Railways plays its vital role in national defense of a country by transporting army & ammunition
quickly on a large scale during war days.
5. Railways form a main source of revenue to the country without any taxation.
6. Create lot of job opportunities
7. Railways promote economic growth
8. Agricultural growth
9. Encourage tourism
10. Cutting greenhouse gas emissions.
11. Importance to defense
12. Political importance
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System of railways
1. Surface railways
2. Elevated railways
3. Under ground railways
4. Tube railways
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Railway station
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Railway station amenities
• Baggage lockers
• Platform edge
• platform number
• Baggage room
• Parcel office
• Passenger train
• Passenger platform
• Concourse
• Indicator board
• Glassed roof
• Office
• Track
• Platform entrance
• Ticket collector
• Schedules
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Railway station amenities
• Destination
• Departure time indicator
• Baggage cart
• Metal structure, etc.

Payment cross section
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Gauge
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The clear horizontal distance between the inner (running) faces
of the two rails forming a track is known as Gauge.

Gauge types
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Types
Broad gauge
(BG) (1676mm
Metre gauge
(MG)
(1000mm),
Narrow gauge
(NG) (762 mm
& 610 mm).

Components
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 Rails
 Sleepers
 Ballast
 Fixture and Fastening
 Sub-grade

Components
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Advantages/ Merits:
1. Economic for common people.
2. Safe and comfortable.
3. Suitable for heavy goods and materials
4. Suitable for long distance.
5. Cheap and regular
6. Reliability and safety
7. Maximum Revenue.
8. Provide maximum employment .
9. Less weather effect
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Disadvantages/ Demerits:
1. Huge Investment;- Initial cost of construction is
more.
2. Frequently maintenance required.
3. Less Flexible
4. Door to door transportation is not possible.
5. Expensive Repair And Maintenance
6. Because goods in bulk quantities are carried
chances of goods getting lost
7. Unsafe for carrying fragile items like glass
8. Not suitable in cases of emergency.

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Runways
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Components - Airport
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Runway
Taxiway
Apron
Terminal building
Control tower
Hanger
Parking

Runways
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Runways
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Runway is a paved land strip on which landing and takeoff operations of aircrafts
takes place.
It is in levelled position without any obstructions on it.
Special markings are made on the runway to differ it from the normal roadways.
Similarly, after sunset, specially provided lightings are helped the aircrafts for safe
landing.
Many factors are considered for design of runway.
The direction of runway should be in the direction of wind.
Sometimes cross winds may happen, so, for safety considerations second runway
should be laid normal to the main runway.

Runways
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The number of runways for an airport is depends upon the traffic.
 If the traffic is more than 30 movements per hour, then it is necessary to provide
another runway.
Runway can be laid using bitumen or concrete.
 Bitumen is economic but concrete runways have long span and requires less
maintenance cost.
The width of runway is dependent of maximum size of aircrafts utilizing it.
The length of runway is decided from different considerations like elevation of land,
temperature, take off height, gradients etc.

Runways
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There are different runway patterns are available and they are
1. Single runway
2. Two runways
3. Hexagonal runway
4. 45-degree runway
5. 60-degree runway
6. 60-degree parallel runway

Runways
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Single Runway
Single runway is the most common form. It is enough for light traffic airports or for
occasional usages.
This runway is laid in the direction of wind in that particular area.

Runway - Lighting
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Runway - Lighting
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Runway - Lighting
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Runways – Wind coverage
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FAA - Federal Aviation Administration
ICAO - International Civil Aviation Organization

Runways
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Two Runway
Two runway contains two runway which are laid in different directions by
considering cross winds or wind conditions in that particular area.
The runways may be laid in the form of L shape or T shape or X shape.

Runways
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Hexagonal Runway
This is the modern pattern of system of runway laying.
 In which the takeoff and landing movements of aircrafts can be permitted at any
given time without any interference.
This is most suitable for heavy traffic airports or busiest airports.

Runways
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Hexagonal Runway
This is the modern pattern of system of runway laying.
 In which the takeoff and landing movements of aircrafts can be permitted at any
given time without any interference.
This is most suitable for heavy traffic airports or busiest airports.

Runways
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45 Degree Runway
45 degree run way is opted when the wind coverage for same airfield capacity is
greater.
This is also termed as four-way runway.
King khalid international Airport

Runways
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Runways
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Runways
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60 Degree Runway
When the wind in that area is prevailing in many directions, so, it is difficult to
decide the direction in which runway is to be laid.
 In that case, 60-degree runway is opted which looks like triangular arrangement of
runways.
60 Degree Parallel Runway
It is the extension of 60-degree runway, which is opted when the wind coverage is
greater in other two directions then it is obvious that the third runway is to be chosen.
But if the air traffic is more, then it is difficult to control the operations.
Hence, another runway is required parallel to the using one. For that purpose, 60-
degree parallel runway is suitable.

Runways
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Tunnel
A tunnel is an underground passageway, dug through surrounding soil, earth or rock, and
enclosed except for the entrance and exit, commonly at each end.
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Use of tunnel
1. Movement of vehicle
2. Movement of train
3. Movement of ship
4. communication cables
5. Electricity cables.
6. Safety of people during war
7. Special needs of the military.
8. Storage
9. Connecting water and sewage
10. Parking
11. Built for animals
12. Defense/ safety escape/ safe hiding during war
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Tunnel importance
1. Solve traffic
2. Beautify our cities
3. Enable Hyper loop
4. Reduce travelling distance and time
5. Weatherproof Operation
6. Minimal Surface Impact
7. Minimal Use of Land
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Classification of tunnel
1. Traffic Tunnels.
• Railway tunnels. • Highway tunnels. • Pedestrian tunnels.
2. Hydropower Tunnels
While the title indicates, such tunnels are being unearthed from the production of
hydropower. These are pushed around rocks bringing underneath gravity the water.
3. Public Utility Tunnels.
Such specially modified tunnels are unearthed for the dumping of urban waste, for the transport
of pipes, cables and oil sources, including water, respectively.
Nowadays, they have also unearthed for underground parking and processing in heavily
populated cosmopolitan.
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Classification of tunnel
1. Based on the purpose of the tunnel
Traffic tunnels - Railway, Highway, Navigation, Subway, Pedestrain
Conveyance tunnels - Water supply ,Hydropower, Sewage
2. Based on the type of material for the construction of the tunnel :
Tunnel in hard rock. – Tunnel in soft rock. – Open cut tunnel. – The tunnel underneath the river
bed or submarine tunnel. – Tunnel in quicksand.
3. Based on the alignment of the tunnel
Saddle and base tunnel. – Spiral tunnel. – Off spur tunnel. – Slope tunnel.
4. Based on the shape of the tunnel
Circular tunnel. – Egg-shaped tunnel. – Horseshoe tunnel. – Elliptical tunnel. – Vertical walls with
arch roof type. – Polycentric.
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Advantages of tunnels
1. Rapid yet unhindered transport in large congested areas.
2. Shield the system under which it is built from changing weather conditions including snow, haze,
etc
3. Tunnels forestall issues with surface life including traffic all through construction
4. Tunnels safeguard the device from damage by bombs during the war.
5. less expensive to cross the mountain or river than open cut or bridges
6. In its most heavily developed metropolitan area, underground rail or highways is the most secure
decision for the accessibility of modes of transport.
7. Tunnels gets away from an unsafe open-cut close to the structure
8. Proven economical to convey publicly owned utilities like water, power, sewers.
9. Reduce transportation distance
10. If gradient is easy less transportation cost
11.Less cost for land acquisition
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Disadvantages of tunnels
1. High initial cost
2. Slow progress of work
3. More construction time than bridge and open cut
4. Requires skilled labor and high-level proficient oversight.
5. Sophisticated and specialized machinery
6. Need for illumination both during and after construction
7. May cause suffocation if ventilation not provided properly
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Towers
The correct definition of 'tower' is a type of structure that is tall in proportion to the size of its
base, often by a considerable margin.
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1. Communication Towers
• Cellular Towers
• Broadcast Towers
• Microwave Towers
• Satellite Communication Towers
2. Observation Towers
• Observation Decks
• Watchtowers
3. Utility Towers
• Water Towers
• Power Transmission Towers
• Cooling Towers
4. Architectural Towers
• Bell Towers
• Clock Towers
• Minarets
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5. Transmission Towers
• Lattice Towers
• Monopole Towers
6. Radar and Navigational Towers
• Radar Towers
• Lighthouse Towers
7. Experimental and Testing Towers
• Wind Turbine Towers
• Drop Towers
8. Religious and Cultural Towers
• Pagoda Towers
• Obelisk Towers

Chimney
• It is an architectural ventilation structure made of masonry, clay or metal that isolates hot toxic
exhaust gases or smoke produced by a boiler, stove, furnace, incinerator, or fireplace from
human living areas.
• Chimneys are typically vertical, or as near as possible to vertical, to ensure that the gases flow
smoothly, drawing air into the combustion in what is known as the stack, or chimney effect.
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Retaining wall
• A retaining wall is designed to hold in place a mass of earth or the like, such as the edge of a
terrace or excavation.
• The structure is constructed to resist the lateral pressure of soil when there is a desired
change in ground elevation that exceeds the angle of repose of the soil.
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Water tanks
• Water tank is a container for storing water. Water Tank: In simple words a water tank is a
container for storing liquid.
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Use of water tanks
1. Drinking water,
2. Irrigation agriculture,
3. Water for the garden/land scapping
4. Fire suppression,
5. Agricultural farming, both for plants and livestock,
6. Chemical manufacturing,
7. Food preparation
8. Industrial process and cooling
9. Water for washing
10. Water for cooking
11. Rainwater harvesting
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Importance of water tanks
1. Basic amenities
2. Reliable drinking water supply
3. Backup water source
4. Fire protection
5. Storing water
6. Save money on water bills
7. Save water
8. Save the environment
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Classification of water tanks
Based on material used
• R.C.C.
• Plastic (PVC)
• Fibre glass
• Steel
• Masonry
Based on shape used
• Circular
• Rectangular
• Spherical
Based on resting
• Resting on ground water tank
• Ground water tank
• Elevated water tank

Component of water tanks
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Cooling tower
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Cooling tower
• A cooling tower is a device that rejects waste heat to the atmosphere through the cooling of
a coolant stream, usually a water stream, to a lower temperature.
• Cooling towers may either use the evaporation of water to remove heat and cool the working
fluid to near the wet-bulb air temperature or, in the case of dry cooling towers, rely solely on air to
cool the working fluid to near the dry-bulb air temperature using radiators.
• Common applications include cooling the circulating water used in oil
refineries, petrochemical and other chemical plants, thermal power stations, nuclear
power stations and HVAC systems for cooling buildings.
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Silos
• A silo is a structure used to store large amounts of materials in bulk. Silos are often cylindrical
and tall, and can be found on farms, in the military, and in industry.
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Silos
Agriculture
Silos are often used on farms to store grain, silage,
and animal feed. They can be large, round towers
made of stone or wood, or they can be
underground.
Military
Silos used by the military are underground and
store missiles until they are ready to be fired.
Industry
Silos can also be used in industry to store materials
such as coal, cement, carbon black, woodchips,
food products, and sawdust.
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Bricks
• Brick is a small rectangular block obtained by moulding good clay into a block, which is dried and
then burnt.
• A brick is one of the oldest building material used to make walls, pavements and other elements in
masonry construction.
• The standard size of brick is 190 mm X 90 mm X 90 mm and the nominal size (including mortar
thickness) of brick is 200 mm X 100 mm X 100 mm.
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Qualities of a good brick
Colour
Colour should be uniform and bright.
Shape
Bricks should have plane faces. They should have sharp and true right angled corners.
Size
Bricks should be of standard sizes as prescribed by codes.
Texture
They should possess fine, dense and uniform texture. They should not possess fissures, cavities,
loose grit and unburnt lime.
Soundness
When struck with hammer or with another brick, it should produce metallic
sound.
Hardness
Finger scratching should not produce any impression on the brick.
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Strength
Crushing strength of brick should not be less than 3.5 N/mm2.
A field test for strength is that when dropped from a height of 0.9 m to 1.0 mm on a hard ground,
the brick should not break into pieces.
Water Absorption
After immersing the brick in water for 24 hours, water absorption should
not be more than 20 per cent by weight.
Efflorescence
Bricks should not show white patches when soaked in water for 24 hours and
then allowed to dry in shade.
White patches are due to the presence of sulphate of calcium,
magnesium and potassium.
They keep the masonry permanently in damp and wet conditions.
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Thermal Conductivity
Bricks should have low thermal conductivity, so that buildings built
with them are cool in summer and warm in winter.
Sound Insulation
Heavier bricks are poor insulators of sound while light weight and hollow
provide good sound insulation.
Fire Resistance
Fire resistance of bricks is usually good. In fact bricks are used to encase
steel columns to protect them from fire.
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Importance of Bricks
(i) As building blocks.
(ii) For lining of ovens, furnaces and chimneys.
(iii) For protecting steel columns from fire.
(iv) As aggregates in providing water proofing to R.C.C. roofs.
(v) For pavers for footpaths and cycle tracks.
(vi) For lining sewer lines.
Constituents of good brick earth
• Silica
• Alumina
• Lime
• Iron oxide
• Magnesia
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Silica
• Brick earth should contain about 50 to % of silica.
• It is responsible for preventing cracking, shrinking and warping of raw bricks.
• It also affects the durability of bricks.
• If present in excess, then it destroys the cohesion between particles and the brick becomes brittle
Alumina
• Good brick earth should contain about 20% to 30% of alumina.
• It is responsible for plasticity characteristic of earth, which is important in moulding operation.
• If present in excess, then the raw brick shrink and warp during drying.
Lime
• The percentage of lime should be in the range of 5% to 10% in a good brick earth.
• It prevents shrinkage of bricks on drying.
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Lime
• It causes silica in clay to melt on burning and thus helps to bind it.
• Excess of lime causes the brick to melt and brick looses its shape.
Iron oxide
• A good brick earth should contain about 5% to 7% of iron oxide.
• It gives red colour to the bricks.
• It improves impermeability and durability.
• It gives strength and hardness.
• If present in excess, then the colour of brick becomes dark blue or blakish.
• If the quantity of iron oxide is comparatively less, the brick becomes yellowish in colour
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Magnesia
• Good brick earth should contain less a small quantity of magnesia about1%)
• Magnesium in brick earth imparts yellow tint to the brick.
• It is responsible for reducing shrinkage
• Excess of magnesia leads to the decay of bricks.
Classification of Bricks as per common practice
Bricks, which are used in construction works, are burnt bricks. They are classified into four categories
on the basis of its manufacturing and preparation, as given below.
1. First class bricks
2. Second class bricks
3. Third class bricks
4. Fourth class bricks
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Sr.
No.
Description 1st Class Bricks 2nd Class Bricks 3rd Class Bricks
1 Moulding Machine & Table Hand & Table Hand
2
Colour &
Burning
Uniform red
Uniform Red, may be
slightly over burnt
May be slightlyover burnt
or under burnt
3 Shape
Sharp, straight
edges, plain
rectangular faces
May have slightly blunt
edges
May have distorted round
edges
4
Absorptionof
water by weight Less than 20 % Less than 22 % Less than 25 %
5 Efflorescence Nil Slight Moderate
6
Compressive
Strength
Greater than 10.5
N/mm2
Greater than 10.5
N/mm2 Greater than 10.5N/mm2

Building materials
(i) First Class Bricks:
• These bricks are of standard shape and size.
• They are burnt in kilns.
• They fulfill all desirable properties of bricks.
(ii) Second Class Bricks:
• These bricks are ground moulded and burnt in kilns.
• The edges may not be sharp and uniform.
• The surface may be some what rough.
• Such bricks are commonly used for the construction of walls which are going to be plastered.
(iii) Third Class Bricks:
• These bricks are ground moulded and burnt in clamps.
• Their edges are somewhat distorted.
• They produce dull sound when struck together.
• They are used for temporary and unimportant structures.
(iv) Fourth Class Bricks:
• These are the over burnt bricks.
• They are dark in colour. The shape is irregular.
• They are used as aggregates for concrete in foundations, floors and roads.
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Stones
Stones are naturally occurring compact, solid and massive materials that make the crust of the
earth. Stones are obtained from rocks.
Process of taking out stones from natural rock beds is known as quarrying. Stones are used for
various engineering purposes.
Types of stones
1. Dressed stones
2. Undressed stones
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Uses of stones in construction:
• Stones are used as a construction material for foundations, walls, columns and lintels.
• Stones are used for face-work of buildings to give good appearance.
• Thin stone slabs are used as roofing and flooring material.
• Marble which is having good appearance is used as flooring material in luxurious buildings.
• Stones are used for paving of roads, foot path and open spaces around the buildings.
• Crushed stones are used for production of cement concrete.
• Crushed stones are also used as ballast for railway track.
• Aggregate of stone is used as a road metal.
• Crushed stones with murrom are used to provide base course for roads.
• When very smaller pieces of stones are mixed with tar, it forms finishing coat of roads.
• Stones are also used in construction of piers and abutments of bridges.
• Commonly used building stones are Granite, Basalt, Sandstone Limestone, Marble etc.
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Characteristics of good building stones
• Appearance: It should be of uniform colour and architectural point of view; these should match
with the surroundings.
• Strength: These should be able to withstand the compression without getting crushed due to the
load of the structure.
• Structure: These should be either closed grained or crystalline and should show uniformity of
texture.
• Hardness: These should be able to resist the abrasive forces caused due to wear and friction.
• Toughness: Good stone should be tough enough to withstand stresses developed due to
vibrations of machineries and moving load over them.
• Heaviness: The specific gravity of good building stones should range between 2.4 to 2.8.
• Durability: The good stone should be highly resistant to weathering such as wind and rain.
• Porosity and absorption: The good stone should not be porous. It should not absorb water when
immersed.
• Resistance to fire: Stones when exposed to fire should be able to resist temperature.
• Dressing: It should be easily carved and dressed. Seasoning: The good stone should be free from
quarry sap.
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Aggregates:
Fine aggregate:
The aggregates having size smaller or less than 4.75 mm are classified as fine aggregates. Natural
sand or crushed stone dust is the fine aggregates chiefly used in concrete mix.
Coarse aggregate:
The aggregates having size more than 4.75 mm are classified as coarse aggregates. The size of the
coarse aggregate used, depend upon the nature of work. For example, 15 mm to 20 mm is used for
concreting.
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Aggregates:
Fine aggregate:
The aggregates having size smaller or less than 4.75 mm are classified as fine aggregates. Natural
sand or crushed stone dust is the fine aggregates chiefly used in concrete mix.
Coarse aggregate:
The aggregates having size more than 4.75 mm are classified as coarse aggregates. The size of the
coarse aggregate used, depend upon the nature of work. For example, 15 mm to 20 mm is used for
concreting.
Sizes of aggregates:
• Fine aggregate: 10 mm, 4.75 mm, 2.36 mm, 1.18 mm, 600 micron, 200 micron, 150 micron.
• Coarse aggregate: 10 mm, 12.5 mm, 16 mm, 20 mm, 40 mm, 63 mm.
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Source
• Natural aggregate
• Artificial aggregate
Particle Shape
• Rounded Aggregate
• Irregular Aggregate
• Angular Aggregate
• Flaky & Elongated Aggregate
Unit weight
• Normal weight aggregate
• Light weight aggregate
• Heavyweight aggregate
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Uses of aggregates:
• They are used to make concrete aggregates.
• Aggregates can be used as a road base and coverings and for road stabilization.
• To form asphaltic concrete aggregates and other bituminous mixtures.
• Aggregates can be used as construction fill.
• They are useful in the manufacture of concrete products such as blocks, bricks, pipes, etc.
• They serve as railroad ballast.
• Aggregates are used in construction to provide drainage, fill voids, protect pipes, and to provide
hard surfaces.
• They are also used in water filtration and sewage treatment processes. Water will percolate
through a trench filled with aggregate more quickly than it will through the surrounding soil, thus
enabling an area to be drained of surface water.
• This is frequently used alongside roads in order to disperse water collected from the asphalt
surfacing.
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Building materials
M-sand
M-Sand, or Manufactured Sand, is a substitute for river sand used in construction. It is made by
crushing hard granite stones into fine particles, which are then washed and graded for use in
concrete and construction. - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MIcTUwlYoWg
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Production Process
Crushing: Large granite rocks are crushed into smaller pieces using crushers.
Screening: The crushed material is screened to separate fine particles.
Washing: The sand is washed to remove impurities like clay and dust.
Grading: The sand is graded based on particle size to meet specific construction needs.
Advantages of M-Sand
Consistency in Quality: M-Sand is produced under controlled conditions, ensuring uniform size and
shape of particles.
Sustainability: It reduces the dependency on river sand, which is often over-exploited, leading to
environmental degradation.
Cost-Effective: M-Sand is generally cheaper than river sand due to lower transportation costs.
Workability: M-Sand provides better workability due to its controlled particle size, leading to
improved concrete performance.
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Environmental Impact
Reduction in River Sand Mining: M-Sand helps in preserving river ecosystems by reducing the
demand for natural sand.
Lower Water Requirement: M-Sand requires less water for curing and mixing due to its well-
defined shape and absence of impurities.
Applications
Concrete Production: M-Sand is widely used in the production of concrete for both residential and
commercial buildings.
Plastering: Fine M-Sand is used for plastering walls due to its smooth texture.
Infrastructure Projects: It is also used in large infrastructure projects like highways and bridges.
Challenges
Initial Costs: Setting up an M-Sand manufacturing plant involves significant capital investment.
Quality Variations: Quality can vary depending on the source and the manufacturing process,
requiring strict quality control measures.
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Cement
Cement is a material with adhesive and cohesive properties which make it capable of bonding
minerals fragments into a compact whole.
For constructional purposes, the meaning of the term "cement" is restricted to the bonding
materials used with stones, sand, bricks, building stones, etc.
The name "Portland cement" given originally due to the resemblance of the color and quality
of the hardened cement to Portland stone – Portland Island in England.
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Cement
Manufacturing Process of Portland cement
Raw materials
• Calcareous material – such as limestone or chalk, as a source of lime (CaO).
• Clayey material – such as clay or shale (soft clayey stones), as a source of silica and alumina.
Methods of cement manufacturing
1- Wet process - grinding and mixing of the raw materials in the existence of water.
2- Dry process - grinding and mixing of the raw materials in their dry state.
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Cement manufacturing process
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Cement
Grades of cement:
The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has graded the ordinary
Portland cement into three grades as.
33 Grade Ordinary Portland Cement conforming to IS 269
The compressive strength of these cements at 28 days is at least or not less than 33 MPa (N/mm2), 43
MPa, and 53 MPa, respectively.
Separate specifications have been brought out for each grade of cement to deal with their physical
and chemical properties.
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Types of cement
1. Ordinary Portland cement
2. Rapid Hardening Portland cement
3. Expansive cement
4. Sulphate resisting cement
5. Blast furnace slag cement
6. White and coloured cement
7. Water repelling cement
8. Water proof cement
9. Quick setting cement
10.High alumina- cement
11.Low heat Portland cement.
12.Expansive cement
13. Oil-well cement
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Ordinary Portland cement: This type of cement is suited for general construction work for
making, cement mortar and concrete. It is not affected by sulphates in soil or in ground water.
Rapid hardening Portland cement: It attains greater strength at early age. This cement is
used in construction work when early strength is necessary for early removal of formwork for
reuse, to open the road to traffic with minimum delay; winter concreting, urgent repair works etc.
Low heat Portland cement: The heat of hydration generated in mass concrete structures is
dangerous because it may cause cracks due to the development of internal stresses during
setting. Hence, this cement which generates low heat of hydration is very suitable for mass
concrete structures such as retaining walls, dams, and bridges etc.
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Sulphate resisting cement: It resists the action of acids, alkalies, fumes gases and sea water.
Hence, it is used for the construction of tanks, pipe lines, sewers etc. at chemical plants. It is
also used for the construction of docks, harbors to protect them from the action of sea water.
Blast furnace slag cement: It is similar to ordinary Portland cement and can be used in all the
places where ordinary Portland cement is used. In addition, in view of its low heat evolution it can
also be used in mass concrete structures, such as dams, retaining walls, foundations, bridge
and abutments. This cement is more resistant to sulphate attack and is specified for marine
works or pipe carrying water containing chemicals or sewage.
White and coloured cement: It is a ordinary Portland cement white in colour. White cement is
costly and is used only for interior decoration and architectural finish works such as external
rendering of building, facing slabs, terrazzo tiles and floorings bathrooms water closets, garden
paths, swimming pools ornamental concrete products etc.
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Water repelling cement: This type of cement is chiefly used in water tight concrete and water
tight rendering to check moisture penetration in basement etc. and for coloured rendering and
stucco. Considerable care is needed to avoid reduction in strength if such cement is used in concrete.
Water proof cement: It is used for the construction of water retaining structures like tanks ,
reservoirs, retaining walls swimming pools, dams bridges, piers etc. it is more resistant to
corrosive action of acids and alkalies or other harmful salts usually present in industrial waters.
Portland pozzolana cement: This cement produces low heat of hydration and has a greater
resistance to attack of chemical agencies. Hence, concrete made with cement is considered
particularly suitable for construction in sea water, hydraulic works and for mass concrete works.
Quick setting cement: When concrete is laid under the water or running water, this cement is used
advantageously. The setting action of such a cement starts within five minutes and it becomes
stone hard in less than an hour.
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High alumina cement: This cement has excellent resistance to action of sulphates, acid water,
sea water, fire. The rapid hardening quality of this cement permits the early removal of
formwork. This reduces the in places where repeated use of formwork is possible.
Expansive cement: The concrete made with expansive cement will have no tendency of
shrinkage or expansion (shrinkage being compensated by expansion). This cement can be used
for the construction of roof slabs, canal lining, tunnel lining, etc.
Oil well cement: A special type of cement that is Oil well cement is required for sealing oil
wells. Sealing is necessary to prevent the side of the freshly drilled well from collapsing and to
keep ground water out of well shaft.
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Field test of cement
It is not possible to check the quality of cement in a laboratory. In order to check the quality of
cement on field, following methods are adopted:
Colour test:
Colour of cement should be uniform.
It should be greenish grey.
Presence of lumps:
Cement should be free from any hard lumps.
Lumps are formed by absorption of moisture.
Such cement must be rejected.
Cement adulteration test
Cement should feel smooth when touched or rubbed in between fingers.
If it felt rough, it indicate adulteration with sand.
Temperature test
If hand is inserted in bag of cement, it should feel cool and not warm.
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Field test of cement
Float test:
If small quantity of cement is thrown in a bucket of water, the particles should float for float for
some time before it sinks.
Date of packing:
Strength of cement reduces with time, so it is important to check manufacturing date of cement.
Laboratory tests of cement
• Fineness Test
• Consistency Test
• Setting Time Test
• Soundness Test
• Compressive Strength Test
• Tensile Strength Test
• Heat of Hydration Test
• Specific Gravity Test
• Loss on Ignition (LOI) Test
• Bulk Density Test
• Alkali Content Test, Chemical Composition Analysis, etc.,
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Building materials
Concrete
Concrete is one of the most widely used construction materials in the world.
It is a composite material composed mainly of water, cement, aggregates (like sand, gravel,
or crushed stone), and sometimes admixtures that modify its properties.
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Composition of Concrete
Cement: The binding agent in concrete, typically made from a mixture of limestone and clay, heated
in a kiln to form clinker, which is then ground into fine powder.
Aggregates:
Fine Aggregates: Usually sand, providing bulk and reducing voids in the concrete.
Coarse Aggregates: Gravel or crushed stone, which add strength and volume.
Water: Reacts with cement (hydration) to form a paste that binds the aggregates together. The
water-cement ratio is critical for determining the strength and durability of concrete.
Admixtures: Chemicals added to concrete to enhance or modify its properties. Examples include
accelerators, retarders, plasticizers, and air-entraining agents.
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Properties of Concrete
Workability: The ease with which concrete can be mixed, placed, and finished. It is affected by the
water-cement ratio, aggregate size, and the use of admixtures.
Strength:
Compressive Strength: The primary measure of concrete's ability to withstand loads. Typically
tested at 28 days after mixing.
Tensile Strength: Generally much lower than compressive strength, often improved with
reinforcement (e.g., steel bars).
Durability: The ability to withstand environmental conditions like freeze-thaw cycles, chemical
exposure, and abrasion.
Setting Time: The time taken for concrete to start and finish hardening. It can be modified by
changing the water-cement ratio or using admixtures.
Shrinkage: The reduction in volume of concrete as it dries, which can lead to cracking if not
properly managed.
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Types of Concrete
Normal Strength Concrete: Basic concrete with a compressive strength of around 20-40 MPa.
High-Strength Concrete: Has a compressive strength greater than 40 MPa, often used in high-rise
buildings and bridges.
Lightweight Concrete: Made with lightweight aggregates like expanded clay or shale, reducing the
weight while maintaining strength.
Reinforced Concrete: Contains steel reinforcement (rebar) to improve tensile strength, widely used
in structural applications.
Precast Concrete: Cast in molds in a factory setting and then transported to the construction
site, allowing for greater control over quality.
Self-Compacting Concrete (SCC): Highly flowable concrete that spreads into place without the
need for mechanical vibration.
Fiber-Reinforced Concrete: Contains fibrous materials like steel, glass, or synthetic fibers to
improve toughness and reduce cracking.
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Uses of Concrete
Building Construction: Foundations, columns, beams, floors, and walls.
Infrastructure: Roads, bridges, dams, and tunnels.
Marine Structures: Ports, seawalls, and offshore platforms.
Industrial Applications: Factories, warehouses, and silos.
Advantages of Concrete
High Compressive Strength: Suitable for heavy loads and structural elements.
Durability: Long-lasting and can withstand harsh environmental conditions.
Fire Resistance: Concrete is non-combustible and has good fire-resisting properties.
Versatility: Can be molded into various shapes and sizes, allowing for creative architectural
designs.
Cost-Effective: Readily available raw materials and relatively low production costs.
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Challenges and Considerations
Cracking: Due to shrinkage, temperature changes, or structural loads, which can be mitigated
with proper design and reinforcement.
Curing: Requires proper curing to achieve the desired strength and durability. Insufficient curing
can lead to weak and porous concrete.
Environmental Impact: Cement production is energy-intensive and contributes to CO2 emissions.
Efforts are being made to develop more sustainable concrete, such as using supplementary
cementitious materials (e.g., fly ash, slag) or recycling concrete.
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Recent Innovations
Green Concrete: Incorporates recycled materials, reduces carbon footprint, and improves
sustainability.
High-Performance Concrete: Designed for specific performance criteria, such as increased
durability, strength, or workability.
3D-Printed Concrete: Used in construction, allowing for complex designs and reduced labor costs.
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Steel
Steel is a crucial material in construction due to its strength, versatility, and durability. It is widely
used in various forms and applications, making it a fundamental component in modern infrastructure and
building projects.
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Types of Steel Used in Construction
Carbon Steel
Low Carbon Steel: Contains up to 0.3% carbon; used for structural shapes like I-beams, angles,
and channels.
Medium Carbon Steel: Contains 0.3% to 0.6% carbon; used for parts that require higher
strength, such as reinforcing bars (rebar).
High Carbon Steel: Contains 0.6% to 1% carbon; used for tools and high-strength applications
but less common in general construction.
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Types of Steel Used in Construction
Alloy Steel
High-Strength Low-Alloy Steel (HSLA): Contains small amounts of alloying elements like
chromium, nickel, and molybdenum; used for structural applications due to its high strength-
to-weight ratio.
Stainless Steel: Contains at least 10.5% chromium; known for its corrosion resistance and
used in environments where exposure to moisture or chemicals is a concern.
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Advantages of Steel in Construction
• Strength and Durability
• Flexibility and Adaptability
• Prefabrication
• Recyclability
Challenges of Using Steel
• Corrosion
• Cost
• Fireproofing
• Thermal Expansion
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Building materials
Plywood
Plywood is a versatile engineered wood product made from thin layers, or "plies," of wood
veneer that are glued together. The grain of each layer is typically placed at right angles to adjacent layers,
enhancing the strength and stability of the final product.
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Building materials
1. Composition and Manufacturing
• Layers
• Glue
• Cross-Graining
2. Types of Plywood
• Softwood Plywood
• Hardwood Plywood
• Marine Plywood
• Exterior Plywood
• Interior Plywood
3. Advantages of Plywood
• Strength
• Stability
• Versatility
• Surface Finish
• Cost-Effective
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Building materials
4. Applications of Plywood
• Construction
• Furniture
• Interior Design
• Packaging
5. Disadvantages of Plywood
• Moisture Sensitivity
• Cost
• Delamination
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Building materials
Aluminum
Aluminum is a popular material in construction due to its unique combination of properties that
make it suitable for a wide range of applications.
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Building materials
Properties of Aluminum
• Lightweight
• Corrosion Resistance
• Strength
• Ductility
• Thermal Conductivity
• Recyclability
Uses of Aluminum in Construction
• Structural Components
• Curtain Walls
• Facades and Cladding
• Roofing
• Electrical Systems
• HVAC Systems
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Advantages of Aluminum in Construction
• Durability
• Versatility
• Aesthetic Appeal
• Energy Efficiency
Challenges of Using Aluminum
• Cost
• Lower Strength
• Thermal Expansion
Applications of Aluminum in Construction
• Skyscrapers and Modern Buildings
• Bridges and Walkways
• Railings and Fencing

Building materials
Galvanized Iron (GI) sheets
GI sheets are a type of steel sheet that has been coated with a layer of zinc to protect against
corrosion.
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Building materials
Composition and Manufacturing
• Base Material
• Coating
Properties of GI Sheets
• Corrosion Resistance
• Strength
• Workability
• Lightweight
Uses in Construction
• Roofing
• Wall Cladding
• Gutters and Downspouts
• Partitions
• Ceilings
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Advantages of GI Sheets
• Cost-Effective
• Durability
• Maintenance
Challenges of GI Sheets
• Surface Damage
• Limited Aesthetic Options

Building materials
PVC
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) is a widely used synthetic plastic polymer in construction due to its
versatility, durability, and cost-effectiveness.
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Building materials
Emerging Construction Materials
• Self-Healing Concrete
• Graphene-Enhanced Materials
• Cross-Laminated Timber (CLT)
• Recycled Plastic Bricks
• Aerogel Insulation
• Phase-Change Materials (PCMs)
• Carbon-Capturing Concrete
• Mycelium-Based Materials
• Smart Glass
• 3D-Printed Building Materials
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