Introduction to Civil Engg. Unit-I.pdf

Vijay Kumar GEC Goa1
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG
UNIT –I
DEFINITION
“ Civil Engineering is that field of engineering concerned with planning, design and construction for
environmental Control, development of natural resources, buildings, transportation facilities and other
structures required for health, welfare, safety, employment and pleasure of mankind”.
Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design, construction, and
maintenance of
1. the physical and naturally built environment,
2. including public works such as roads, bridges, canals, dams, airports, sewage systems, pipelines,
structural components of buildings, and railways
Civil engineering is the application of physical and scientific principles for solving the problems of
society,
BROAD DISCIPLINES OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
Civil engineering is a broad profession that includes several specialised sub-disciplines.
The main five types of civil engineering.
1. Infrastructure engineering
2. Structural engineering
3. Environmental engineering
4. Geotechnical engineering
5. Transportation engineers
Other discipline are
• municipal or urban engineering,
• water resources engineering,
• materials engineering,
• coastal engineering,
• surveying,
• construction engineering.
• Forensic Engineering
• Earth quake engineering
• Hydraulic Engineering
• Bridge Engineering
INFRASTRUCTURE ENGINEERING ;-Infrastructure engineering is about creating things
like bridges, roads, railways, and services such as drainage and electrics.Engineering infrastructure aims to

build the basic structures and systems that help society function in the most efficient, safe, sustainable, and
environmentally friendly way possible
STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING
Structural engineers help create structures – anything from bridges, towers and skyscrapers to building homes
and public works of structural art. Concerned with the structural design and structural analysis of buildings,
bridges, towers, flyovers (overpasses), tunnels, off shore structures like oil and gas fields in the sea,
aerostructure and other structure
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERS
Environmental engineering combines the principles of engineering, soil science, biology, and chemistry.
These principles are used by environmental engineers to conduct detailed analyses on a broad spectrum of
environmental issues and find solutions. They work to improve recycling, waste control, water and air
pollution control and public health. Such as designing innovative ways to conserve energy and preventing
further pollution from destroying the environment and natural resources.
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
Studies rock and soil supporting civil engineering systems. Geotechnical engineering is concerned with
nderstanding how a project interacts with the ground.
A geotechnical engineer will work to support the design and construction of a project. They will carry out
tests and analyses to assess risk to humans and the environment. These tests will disclose the risk that can
arise from natural hazards such as avalanches, rock falls, sinkholes, and earthquakes.
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERS
Transport engineering is about always looking to improve our transportation systems.Transport Engineers
apply technology and scientific principles to the planning, design, operation and management of transport
facilities and large transport systems.
Their primary role is to provide environmentally friendly, safe and sufficient transportation methods to any
project so that the general public and the transport of goods can go ahead with their daily activities using
adequate transportation modes.
RURAL AND URBAN PLANNING
Urban planning is a technical and political process concerned with the
1. Development and use of Land
2. Planning Permission
3. Protection and use of the Environment
4. Public Welfare and the design of Urban Environment
Rural planning development is the process of improving the quality of life and economic well-being of
people living in rural areas, often relatively isolated and sparsely populated areas.
Rural development has traditionally centered on the exploitation of land-intensive natural resources such
as agriculture and forestry. However, changes in global production networks and increased urbanization have
changed the character of rural areas. Tourism, niche manufacturers, and recreation have replaced resource
extraction and agriculture as dominant economic drivers
MUNICIPAL OR URBAN ENGINEERING applies the tools of science, art and engineering in an urban
environment.Municipal engineering is concerned with municipal infrastructure. This involves specifying,
designing, constructing, and maintaining streets, sidewalks, water supply networks, sewers, street
lighting, municipal solid waste management and disposal, storage depots for various bulk materials used for
maintenance and public works (salt, sand, etc.), public parks and cycling infrastructure.
MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
Materials science is closely related to civil engineering. It studies fundamental characteristics of materials, and
deals with ceramics such as concrete and mix asphalt concrete, strong metals such as aluminum and steel, and
polymers including polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) and carbon fibers.

WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING
Water resources engineering is concerned with the collection and management of water (as a natural
resource). As a discipline it therefore combines elements of hydrology, environmental science, meteorology,
conservation, and resource management.
This area of civil engineering relates to the prediction and management of both the quality and the quantity of
water in both underground (aquifers) and above ground (lakes, rivers, and streams) resources. Water resource
engineers analyze and model very small to very large areas of the earth to predict the amount and content of
water as it flows into, through, or out of a facility.
COASTAL ENGINEERING
is the branch of civil engineering concerning the specific demands posed by constructing at or near the coast,
as well as the development of the coast itself.The hydrodynamic impact of especially waves, tides, storm
surges and tsunamis and (often) the harsh environment of salt seawater are typical challenges for the coastal
engineer – as are the morphodynamic changes of the coastal topography, caused both by the autonomous
development of the system and man-made changes.
The areas of interest in coastal engineering include the coasts of the oceans, seas, marginal seas, estuaries and
big lakes.
SURVEYING ENGINEERING
Surveying is the process by which a surveyor measures certain dimensions that occur on or near the surface of
the Earth. Data collected by survey measurement is converted into a graphical representation of the Earth's
surface in the form of a map.
This information is then used by civil engineers, contractors and realtors to design from, build on, and trade,
respectively. Elements of a structure must be sized and positioned in relation to each other and to site
boundaries and adjacent structure. Surveyors also lay out the routes of railways, tramway tracks, highways,
roads, pipelines and streets as well as position other infrastructure, such as harbors, before construction.
IMPORTANCE OF CIVIL ENGINEERING,
All humans benefit from civil engineering. quite simply, modern society would not exist without civil
engineers.
1. Civil engineering is important as it makes the world a more habitable place/ liveable by providing
necessary infrastructure building bridges, road, airports, homes, hospitals, parks, tunnels, stadiums
and pretty much everything else one can think of!
2. Civil engineering providing help to developed the basic infrastructure on which society mainly
depends.
3. The Civil engineering branch has played a vital role in improving the quality of life and health
condition by developing better water supplies, municipal sewer systems, waste water treatment plants,
4. To the design of infrastructure to protect us from natural hazards/ man made hazard
5. to improved agriculture through water resource development and distribution projects
6. To meet rapid and dramatic changes in transportation systems,
7. The development of our utilities, such as water, electricity, and phone and internet service,
8. Civil Engineering helps protect historical monuments from degradation thus preserving them for
future generations.
9. Civil Engineering connects the world. By providing infrastructure such as roads, bridges and tunnels,
it facilitates the free flow of information and business thus fostering innovation.
10. Health & family welfare, provide health care
11. Environment protection/ environment management
12. Water resources management
13. Solid waste and hazardous waste management
14. Protection from natural hazards/ man made hazard(DISASTER MANAGEMENT AND PLANNING)

15. Coastal Protection
16. When it comes to managing coastal areas, it cannot be done without the principles of civil
engineering. It helps in designing defense mechanisms against flooding and erosion.
17. Clean Technologies and Sustainable Development development of country
18. employs a large number of people (directly and indirectly)
19. Economic development of region and nation
20. Civil Engineering has a great importance in making our cities more modern and advance
21. civil engineering helps reshape the world
POSSIBLE SCOPES FOR A CAREER AND INTERDISCIPLINARY CAREER OPTIONS.
Scope of the civil engineering lies where infrastructure development is picking up and Indian engineering are
great in demand
Opportunity exists both in India and Abroad. Opportunity exists both in Government , public and private
sector
• Scope of Civil Engineering in Government Sector
1. PWD
2. WATER RESOURCES DEPT.
3. IRRIGATION DEPARTMENT
4. FOREST DEPT.
5. RAILWAY
6. AIRPORT AUTHORITY OF INDIA
7. MUNICIPAL CORPORATION
8. ONGC
9. ELECTRICITY BOARDS
10. ARMED FORCES
11. NHAI
12. INDIAN RAILWAYS
13. IOC

14. TOWN & country PLANNING
15. BHEL
Scope of Civil Engineering in the Private Sector
1. Project Manager
2. Planning and Design Officer
3. Site Engineer
4. Construction Managers
5. Civil Engineering Technicians
6. Architects
7. Assistant Engineer
8. Senior Engineer
9. Chief Engineer
10. City Engineer
11. Division Leader and Head
12. Deputy Engineer
13. Surveyors
14. Director of Public Work
15. Urban and Regional Planners
16. Environmental Engineers
17. Professor and Teachers
18. Researcher
19. Consultants
20. Entrepreneurs
HISTORY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING:
Civil Engineering has been an aspect of life since the beginnings of human existence. history of civil
engineering is a mirror of the history of human beings on this earth. Man used the old shelter caves to protect
themselves of weather and harsh environment, and used a tree trunk to cross the river, which being the
demonstration of ancient age civil engineering.
The earliest practices of Civil Engg may have commenced between 4000 and 2000 BC in Ancient Egypt and
Mesopotamia (Ancient Iraq) when humans started to abandon a nomadic existence, thus causing a need for the
construction of shelter. During this time, transportation became increasingly important leading to the
development of the wheel and sailing.
The construction of Pyramids in Egypt (circa 2700-2500 BC) might be considered the first instances of large
structure constructions.
Around 2550 BC, Imhotep, the first documented engineer, built a famous stepped pyramid for King Djoser
located at Saqqara Necropolis. With simple tools and mathematics he created a monument that stands to this
day. His greatest contribution to engineering was his discovery of the art of building with shaped stones.
The Romans developed civil structures throughout their empire, including especially aqueducts, insulae,
harbours, bridges, dams and roads.
Other remarkable historical structures are Sennacherib's Aqueduct at Jerwan built in 691 BC; Li Ping's
irrigation projects in China (around 220 BC); Julius Caesar's Bridge over the Rhine River built in 55 BC,
numerous bridges built by other Romans in and around Rome(e.g. the pons Fabricius); Pont du Gard (Roman
Aqueduct, Nimes, France) built in 19 BC;
Machu Picchu, Peru, built at around 1450, at the height of the Inca Empire is considered an engineering
marvel. It was built in the Andes Mountains assisted by some of history’s most ingenious water resource
engineers. The people of Machu Picchu built a mountain top city with running water, drainage systems, food
production and stone structures so advanced that they endured for over 500years.

A treatise on Architecture, Book called Vitruvius' De Archiectura, was published at 1AD in Rome and
survived to give us a look at engineering education in ancient times. It was probably written around 15 BC by
the Roman architect Vitruvius and dedicated to his patron, the emperor Caesar Augustus, as a guide for
building projects.
One of the earliest examples of a scientific approach to physical and mathematical problems applicable to
civil engineering is the work of Archimedes in the 3rd century BC, including Archimedes Principle, which
underpins our understanding of buoyancy, and practical solutions such as Archimedes’ screw. Brahmagupta,
an Indian mathematician, used arithmetic in the 7th century AD, based on Hindu-Arabic numerals, for
excavation (volume) computations.
Educational & Institutional history of civil engineering
In the 18th century, the term civil engineering was coined to incorporate all things civilian as opposed to
military engineering. The first engineering school, The National School of Bridges and Highways, France,
was opened in 1747. The first self-proclaimed civil engineer was John Smeaton who constructed the
Eddystone Lighthouse. In 1771, Smeaton and some of his colleagues formed the Smeatonian Society of Civil
Engineers, a group of leaders of the profession who met informally over dinner.
In 1818, world’s first engineering society, the Institution of Civil Engineers was founded in London, and in
1820 the eminent engineer Thomas Telford became its first president. The institution received a Royal Charter
in 1828, formally recognizing civil engineering as a profession. Its charter defined civil engineering as: “
The first private college to teach Civil Engineering in the United States was Norwich University founded in
1819 by Captain Alden Partridge. The first degree in Civil Engineering in the United States was awarded by
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1835. The first such degree to be awarded to a woman was granted by
Cornell University to Nora Stanton Blatch in 1905.
EARLY CONSTRUCTIONS AND DEVELOPMENTS OVER TIME
• Chronological development
1. Neolithic construction
2. Copper age and bronze age construction
3. Middle ages
4. Seventeenth century
5. Eighteenth century
6. Nineteenth century
7. Twentieth century
8. Twenty-first century
Neolithic construction;-Neolithic, also known as the New Stone Age, was a time period roughly from 9000
BC to 5000 BC. it was the last period of the age before wood working began. These tools used to cut
materials are the hand axe, chopper, adze. They used the locally available material for construction.
Building materials included bones such as mammoth ribs, stone, metal, bark, bamboo, clay, lime plaster, and
more.
Copper and bronze age construction;-Copper came into use before 5,000 BC and bronze around 3,100 BC,
although the times vary by region. Copper and bronze were used instead of tools like axe, chisel.
Bronze was cast into desired shapes and if damaged could be recast. The Egyptians began building stone
temples with the post and lintel construction method and the Greeks and Romans followed this style.
The Middle Ages The Middle Ages of Europe span from the 5th to 15th centuries AD. Began with the end of
the Roman era and many techniques were adopted. Most buildings in Northern Europe were constructed of
timber until 1000 AD . Brick continued to be manufactured in Italy throughout the period 600–1000 AD.
Medieval stone walls were constructed using cut blocks on the outside of the walls and rubble infill, with
weak lime mortars.

Seventeenth century
The seventeenth century saw the birth of modern science which effects on building construction architect-
engineers began to use experimental science to design buildings. Many tools introduced in modern
technology, but the line gauge, plumb-line, the carpenter's square, the spirit level, and the drafting compass
are still in regular use. pulleys allowed comparatively large loads to be lifted, and ramps were used to lift
loads up to the upper part of the building
Eighteenth century ;- The development of many ideas born in the late seventeenth century. The architects
and engineers became increasingly professionalised . Large-scale mill construction required fire-proof
buildings and cast iron became increasingly used for columns and beams to carry brick vaults for floors.
Brick production increased markedly during this period Bricks were made by hand and fired in kilns no
different to those used for centuries before
Nineteenth century ;- It was an industrial revolution time. The new kinds of transportation installations, such
as railways, canals and macadam roads
New construction devices included steam engines, machine tools, explosives and optical surveying. Building
codes have been applied since the 19th century, with special respect to fire safety.
Twentieth century ; With the Second Industrial Revolution in the early 20th century elevators and cranes
made high rise buildings. Other new technologies were prefabrication and computer-aided design. In the end
of the 20th century, ecology, energy conservation and sustainable development have become more important
issues of construction.
Twenty-first century ;- A new generation of wood building products, techniques are being used in increasing
numbers and types of buildings. Advanced technology and modern building codes are also expanding the use
and opportunities for wood in construction
The latest technology reduces cost of construction and increase strength of building. and time management is
done through latest technology
ANCIENT MONUMENTS & MODERN MARVELS
An ancient monument is an early historical structure or monument (e.g. an archaeological site) worthy
of preservation and study due to archaeological or heritage interest.
Iconic ancient Indian buildings like the Taj Mahal and the Dravidian Temples showcase mysterious links
between form and function. Many of these ancient buildings are puzzles that still need to be solved.
Engineering wonders cloaked in abundant layers of artistic characteristics of ancient India. modern Indian
architecture has unfolded diverse forms, very distinct from its traditional lineage.
1.Taj Mahal; This exquisite white marble mausoleum in Agra is amongst the most beautiful pieces of
architecture in the world. It is a demonstration of the astounding artistic and scientific accomplishments of the
glorious Mughal dynasty. Its marble domes are framed by four minarets each with a slight outward tilt,
presumably, to protect the main mausoleum in case one of them collapses.
2.Bahai Lotus Temple
Shaped like the sacred lotus flower, this extraordinary temple has twenty-seven immaculate white-marble
petals. Around the blooming petals, there are nine pools of water, which light up in natural light- a spectacular
site at dusk.
3.Rani ki Vav
The Rani ki Vav is one of the most famous legacies of the ancient capital city of Patan. This amazing stepwell
(Vav)was commissioned by Queen Udayamati, of the Solanki dynasty in memory of her husband King
Bhimdev I. The steps of the Vav begin at ground level, leading down through several elegantly pillared
pavilions to reach the deep well below.
4.Pir Panjal Rail Tunnel
Lying within the Pir Panjal Range of the impassable Himalayas, the Pir Panjal Rail Tunnel is India’s longest
tunnel. It begins at Banihal and stretches seven miles up to Hillar Shahabad.
5.Pamban Bridge
India’s first Cantilever bridge connecting Rameshwaram Island to mainland India- a bridge that people watch
in awe as its two leaves open up to let ships pass through. With 143 piers, spanning 2 km, it is the second-

longest and the oldest sea bridge in India. Built on an extremely corrosive and challenging environment, the
Pamban Bridge is nothing short of incredible.
6. Kailash Cave
The monolithic rock-cut chariot shaped Kailash Temple at Ellora is one of the biggest structural mysteries in
the world. Leave aside scooping an entire temple out of a massive rock, what is more, mind-boggling is that
the pillars of the temple corridors have just the perfect load-bearing weight.
7.Bandra-Worli Sea Link
One of a kind in India, also known as the Rajiv Gandhi Sea Link, the eight-lane Bandra-Worli Sea Link is a
cable-stayed bridge. It connects Bandra in the western suburbs of Mumbai to Worli in the south of the city,
saving about Rs 100 crore per day in terms of fuel and time.
8.Meenakshi Amman Temple
The Meenakshi Amman Temple is one of the largest and most magnificent temples in India. It has twelve
giant Gopurams (gates), with its highest gates on the outer side. The temple complex houses the well-known
Hall of Thousand Pillars- a paradise on earth, with such extraordinary sculpting, impossible to recreate. An
overwhelming fact about this classic construction is that one just needs to climb up the south tower of this
temple to get a bird’s eye view of the entire city of Madurai.
9.I-Flex Solutions
This strange structure is located in the Bagmane Tech Park, of C.V.Raman Nagar in Bengaluru. Isn’t this
building just too cool to be someone’s daily office?
10.Cybertecture Egg
Cybertecture egg is an example of evolutionary engineering, combining virtual architecture with ingenious
control systems, as if straight out of a sci-fi movie. With the advanced environmental design, Cybertecture
Egg, Mumbai, represents the future of architecture.
11.Auroville Dome
Formally known as Matrimandir, this stunning structure is situated at Auroville, Puducherry. Inside the central
dome, lies a meditation hall (inner chamber). It is this inner chamber that holds the world’s largest optically-
perfect glass globe.
12.Infosys Pune
With its egg-like shape and sustainable systems, this iconic Infosys building in Pune depicts exceptional
prowess of both engineering design and technology. It is a fact that people tend to hate their jobs but the
question is, would you rather hate it sitting in a dashing egg-shaped office or an ordinary one?
13.Victoria Memorial
The Victoria Memorial is amongst the most notable structural reminders of the British rule in India. This
Indo-Saracenic building, built with shining white marble and dedicated in memory of Queen Victoria,
functions as a museum-a major tourist destination today. The building’s central dome, which houses the
marble statue of Queen Victoria, is 184 feet high. The striking resemblance between the gorgeous white
facades of the Victoria Memorial and those of the Taj Mahal is because they were both built using marble
from the same quarries in Rajasthan!
14.Golden Temple
Touted as the world’s holiest Gurdwara (place of worship for Sikhs) and exceptionally graceful in appearance,
the Golden Temple is one of the most celebrated buildings of India. Its gleaming white structures line the edge
of the sacred Amrit Sarovar (Pool of Nectar). A narrow walkway, called the Guru’s Bridge, carries the
temple’s visitors to the sanctum across the water.
15.Mahatma Gandhi Setu
Stretching gracefully across the river Ganges, this mighty marvel connects Patna in the south of Bihar to
Hajipur in the north of the state. It is the third-longest river bridge in the country and a brilliant example of
improved life through structural engineering.
WORKS OF EMINENT CIVIL ENGINEER
Delhi metro railway; E Sreedharan (The metro man).The man who has revolutionized the way Delhites
commute every day, E Sreedharan has emerged as the country’s first choice for the next Railway Minister.
He’s the backbone on which the rests the success of the Delhi Metro Rail Corporation
Kokan Railway ; Elattuvalapil Sreedharan (born 12 June 1932) is an Indian engineer and politician from the Indian
state of KeralaOne of the important achievements of Indian Railways has been the construction of Konkan Railway in

1998. It is 760 km long rail route connecting Roha in Maharashtra to Mangalore in Karnataka. It is considered an
engineering marvel. It crosses 146 rivers, streams, nearly 2000 bridges and 91 tunnels. Asia’s largest tunnel which is
nearly 6.5 k m long, also lies on this route. The states of Maharashtra, Goa and Karnataka are partners in this
undertaking.
Atal Tunnel is one of those engineering marvels of our country.The tunnel is in the form of a single-tube double lane
and has a shape similar to the horseshoe. Because of the topography, the 9.02 km-long tunnel also contains an escape
tunnel in itself making it the country’s first tunnel to have the peculiar feature. The deployment of Rowa Flyer
Technology provides an advantage for the engineers to work at inverted levels.
Chief Engineer KP Purushotham.
The Chenab Bridge, linking Jammu and Kashmir in rural India, is almost as long as the Harbour Bridge, taller than
the Eiffel Tower, and vastly more remote and hostile in surroundings. Chenab bridge is arguably the biggest civil-
engineering challenge faced by any railway project in India's recent history. It is a concrete arch bridge. Chief
Engineer B B S Tomar
Bandra-Worli Sea Link, Mumbai; This eight-lane bridge constructed in Arabian Sea joins the two suburbs of
Mumbai, Bandra and Worli. It is gigantic. It is majestic. It is an engineering marvel and an architectural wonder too.
It is for the first time that cable-stay bridges have been attempted on open seas in India. Designed By : Sheshadri
Srinivasan(Structural engineer ). Commissioned By : Maharashtra State Road Development Corporation.
Mahatma Gandhi Setu, Bihar; Touted as a true engineering miracle, equilibrium and graceful in appearance is what
this bridge is known for. Mahatma Gandhi Setu, depicts exceptional prowess of both engineering design and
technology. It took over a decade to construct this wonderful feat of engineering genius
Pir Panjal Railway Tunnel, Jammu & Kashmir
Also known as Banihal Railway Tunnel, the Pir Panjal Railway Tunnel is an 11.2km-long tunnel built at an altitude of
1440ft located on the Pir Panjal ranges of the Himalayas. It is the longest tunnel in India and the second-longest in
Asia. The tunnel connects Bichleri Valley of Banihal to Qazigund and is also a vital link connecting Udhampur to
Baramulla. It was built by the Hindustan Construction Company.
The Pamban Railway bridge that was built in 1914 is more than 100 years old and connects Mandapam
town with Pamban Island and Rameswaram. This engineering marvel is India’s first sea rail bridge project
that flaunts a double-leaf bascule section in the midway which can be raised to let ships pass below. The
incredible structure, built with amazing precision and design, still enthrals travellers passing through it via
trains or ships!
Statue of Unity, Gujarat
A mammoth statue built in the honour of the Iron Man of India, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, the Statue of Unity proudly
stands as the tallest structure in the world! The massive project was undertaken and successfully completed by Larson
& Toubro in 2018,. A total of 135 tonnes of iron was used to erect this colossal statue that splendidly stands on the
Narmada river. It is indeed an engineering marvel in India that Indians are proud of.
Underwater Tunnel In West Bengal
India's first underwater tunnel, being built under the Hooghly River in West Bengal at a cost of around Rs 120 crore as
part of the East West Metro Corridor, will be a blink-and-you-miss-it experience for passengers as trains will cross the
520-metre stretch in just 45 seconds.
The tunnel -- the Indian version of Eurostar's London-Paris corridor -- is 13 metre below the riverbed and 33 metre
below ground level. B Dewanjee, chief engineer (civil ), KMRCL made every point very clear about the construction
and safety of people

BUILDING MATERIALS
Building material is material used for construction.
Types / classification
1. Natural building material
2. Artificial building material (synthetic)
Many naturally occurring substances, such as clay, rocks, sand, wood, and even twigs and leaves, have been used to
construct buildings.
Apart from naturally occurring materials, many man-made products are in use, some more and some less synthetic.
Examples of Artificial construction materials are bricks, cement, steel, glass, and plastics, etc.
List of Construction Materials
1. Cement
2. Aggregates
3. Stones and Rocks
4. Mud and Clay
5. Concrete
6. Bricks
7. Glass
8. Plastic
9. Structural Steel
10. FoamFabric
11. Thatch
12. Timber and Wood
13. Tiles (Ceramics)
14. KevlarBamboo
15. Carbon Fiber
16. Electrical Items
17. Building Products
18. Virtual Building Materials
19. Fiber glass,gypcrete
STONE

Stone is a hard solid substance that is found in the ground. Stones are derived from rocks, which form the earth's crust
and have no definite shape or chemical combination but are mixtures of two or more minerals. Stone is a naturally
available building material that has been used in the early age of civilization. It’s available in the form of rocks, which
can be cut into the required size and shape and used as a building block
Classification
Physical classification:
1. Stratified Stones; These stones are derived from sedimentary rocks. These stones are found in layers, one
above another Limestone and sandstones are the stratified stone.
2. Unstratified Stones;-These stones do not show any types of layers. Granite, marble, trap, etc. are the
unstratified stones.
Geological classification:
Igneous Rocks ;-These are formed by the cooling of molten lava. The structure of stone depends upon the rate of
cooling of lava. This lava becomes hard on cooling and formed igneous rocks. These rocks are durable, hard, massive
and stronger than other stones. Example: Basalt, Trap, Andesite, Rhyolite, Diorite, Granite.
Sedimentary Rocks; -These are formed by the deposition of sediments due to the action of air and water. Due to the
action of high-speed wind and heavy rain, igneous rocks are disintegrated and deposited in layers, one the earth crust
and formed sedimentary rocks. Example: Limestone, Sandstone, Dolomite and Slate are the sedimentary rocks.
Metamorphic rocks;- These rocks are either the sedimentary rocks or the igneous rocks whose physical and
chemical properties are changed due to the action of high temperature and pressure. Dolomite, slate, marble, gneiss
are the metamorphic rocks. Example: Gneiss, Quartzite, Marble, Slate.
Scientific or engineering classification:
Silicious Rocks; These have silica as the principal constituent. These rocks are hardly affected by weathering action.
These are very hard and also durable. Granite, sandstone, gneiss, basalt, trap syenite are the siliceous rocks.
Argillaceous rocks; These have clay as the principal constituent. These stones are hard and durable but brittle in
nature. Slate and laterite are the argillaceous rocks.
Calcareous Rocks; These have carbonate of lime as the principal constituent. Limestone, marble, kankar, dolomite,
and gravel are the calcareous rocks.
A particle of stone Classification:
Granite; The formation of minerals of granite is quartz, feldspar, and mica. It’s also having specific gravity 2.63 to
2.75. They also having light or dark grey, pink or reddish color. It’s also having a crushing strength of 1000 to 1400
kg/m2. It also having light or dark grey, pink or reddish color. They also have a crushing strength of
1000 to 1400 kg/m2 .. It is very strong heavy, hard durable. It contains silica 60 to 80%.
Sandstone; is composed of sand grains, cemented together by calcium or magnesium carbonate or silicic acid,
alumina, and also oxide of iron. It also has a specific gravity 2.25. They are also white, grey, brown, or red in color.
It’s having a crushing strength of 400 to 800 kg/m2. These strong under pressure, but it is flaky when it contains mica.
These are hard, nonabsorbent, strong, and heavy. They are easily workable and also resists the weathering in a better
way. They use to face work and ornamental work.
Limestone; These are carbonate of lime intermixed with other minerals and impurities such as silica, magnesium
carbonate, aluminum, and iron. It’s also having yellow, brown, grey or violet color. It’s also having specific gravity
2.56. They having crushing strength 300 to 500 kg/m2. These are soft and absorbent and so they do not resist the
weathering action well. Chalk, marbles are examples of limestone.

Slate; These are also composed of silica and alumina. These are also usually grey-black or dark blue. It’s also having
specific gravity 2.8. It’s also having crushing strength 700 to 2100 kg/m2. When these are hard and tough, laminar in
nature. It’s useful for roofing as well as flooring.
PROPERTIES OF STONES The following properties of the stones should be looked into before selecting them for
engineering works:
(i) Structure: The structure of the stone may be stratified (layered) or unstratified. Structured stones should
be easily dressed and suitable for super structure. Unstratified stones are hard and difficult to dress. They
are preferred for the foundation works.
(ii) Texture: Fine grained stones with homogeneous distribution look attractive and hence they are used for
carving. Such stones are usually strong and durable.
(iii) Density: Denser stones are stronger. Light weight stones are weak. Hence stones with specific gravity
less than 2.4 are considered unsuitable for buildings.
(iv) Appearance: A stone with uniform and attractive colour is durable, if grains are compact. Marble and
granite get very good appearance, when polished. Hence they are used for face works in buildings.
(v) Strength: Strength is an important property to be looked into before selecting stone as building block.
Indian standard code recommends, a minimum crushing strength of 3.5 N/mm2 for any building block.
(vi) Hardness: It is an important property to be considered when stone is used for flooring and pavement.
Coefficient of hardness is to be found by conducting test on standard specimen in Dory’s testing
machine. For road works coefficient of hardness should be at least 17. For building works stones with
coefficient of hardness less than 14 should not be used.
(vii) Percentage wear: It is measured by attrition test. It is an important property to be considered in
selecting aggregate for road works and railway ballast. A good stone should not show wear of more than
2%.
(viii) Porosity and Absorption: All stones have pores and hence absorb water. The reaction of water with
material of stone cause disintegration. Absorption test is specified as percentage of water absorbed by the
stone when it is immersed under water for 24 hours. For a good stone it should be as small as possible
and in no case more than 5.
(ix) Weathering: Rain and wind cause loss of good appearance of stones. Hence stones with good weather
resistance should be used for face works.
(x) Toughness: The resistance to impact is called toughness. It is determined by impact test. Stones with
toughness index more than 19 are preferred for road works. Toughness index 13 to 19 are considered as
medium tough and stones with toughness index less than 13 are poor stones.
(xi) Resistance to Fire: Sand stones resist fire better. Argillaceous materials, though poor in strength, are
good in resisting fire.
(xii) Ease in Dressing: Cost of dressing contributes to cost of stone masonry to a great extent. Dressing is
easy in stones with lesser strength. Hence an engineer should look into sufficient strength rather than
high strength while selecting stones for building works.
(xiii) Seasoning: The stones obtained from quarry contain moisture in the pores. The strength of the stone
improves if this moisture is removed before using the stone. The process of removing moisture from
pores is called seasoning. The best way of seasoning is to allow it to the action of nature for 6 to 12
months. This is very much required in the case of laterite stones.
REQUIREMENTS OF GOOD BUILDING STONES The following are the requirements of good building
stones:
(i) Strength: The stone should be able to resist the load coming on it. Ordinarilly this is not of primary
concern since all stones are having good strength. However in case of large structure, it may be
necessary to check the strength.
(ii) Durability: Stones selected should be capable of resisting adverse effects of natural forces like wind,
rain and heat.
(iii) Hardness: The stone used in floors and pavements should be able to resist abrasive forces caused by
movement of men and materials over them.

(iv) Toughness: Building stones should be tough enough to sustain stresses developed due to vibrations.
The vibrations may be due to the machinery mounted over them or due to the loads moving over them.
The stone aggregates used in the road constructions should be tough.
(v) Specific Gravity: Heavier variety of stones should be used for the construction of dams, retaining
walls, docks and harbours. The specific gravity of good building stone is between 2.4 and 2.8.
(vi) Porosity and Absorption: Building stone should not be porous. If it is porous rain water enters into the
pour and reacts with stone and crumbles it. In higher altitudes, the freezing of water in pores takes place
and it results into the disintegration of the stone.
(vii) Dressing: Giving required shape to the stone is called dressing. It should be easy to dress so that the
cost of dressing is reduced. However the care should be taken so that, this is not be at the cost of the
required strength and the durability.
(viii) Appearance: In case of the stones to be used for face works, where appearance is a primary
requirement, its colour and ability to receive polish is an important factor.
(ix) Seasoning: Good stones should be free from the quarry sap. Laterite stones should not be used for 6 to
12 months after quarrying. They are allowed to get rid of quarry sap by the action of nature. This process
of removing quarry sap is called seasoning.
(x) Cost: Cost is an important consideration in selecting a building material. Proximity of the quarry to
building site brings down the cost of transportation and hence the cost of stones comes down.
USE OF STONE
(i) Residential and public building
(ii) Stone masonry is used for the construction of foundations, walls, columns and arches.
(iii) ii) Stones are used for flooring.
(iv) Stone slabs are used as damp proof courses, lintels and even as roofing materials.
(v) Stones with good appearance are used for the face works of buildings. Polished marbles and granite are
commonly used for face works.
(vi) Stones are used for paving of roads, footpaths and open spaces round the buildings.
(vii) Stones are also used in the constructions of piers and abutments of bridges, dams and retaining walls.
(viii) Crushed stones with graved are used to provide base course for roads. When mixed with tar they form
finishing coat.
(ix) Crushed stones are used in the following works also: (a) As a basic inert material in concrete (b) For
making artificial stones and building blocks (c) As railway ballast.
(x) They are used as road metal in road construction.
(xi) Boundary
(xii) Monuments
BRICKS
A brick is a type of block used to build walls, pavements and other elements in masonry construction. The bricks are
obtained by molding clay in rectangular blocks of uniform size and then drying and burning these blocks.
Constituents of Brick
1. Silica 55%
2.Alumina 30%
3. Iron Oxide 8%
4. Magnesia 5%
5. Lime 1%
6.Organic Matters 1%
In India, standard brick size is 190 mm x 90 mm x 90 mm as per the recommendation of BIS.
CLASSIFICATION:

a) Classification of Bricks Based on Quality:
1. First Class Brick: The size is standard. The color of these bricks is uniform yellow or red. It is well burnt, regular
texture, uniform shape. The absorption capacity is less than 10%, crushing strength is, 280 kg/cm2 (mean) where it is
245 kg/cm2 (minimum). It doesn’t have efflorescence. It emits a metallic sound when struck by another similar brick
or struck by a hammer. It is hard enough to resist any fingernail expression on the brick surface if one tries to do with
a thumbnail. It is free from pebbles, gravels or organic matters. It is generally used-.
2. Second Class Brick: The size is standard, color is uniform yellow or red. It is well burnt, slightly over burnt is
acceptable. It has a regular shape; efflorescence is not appreciable. The absorption capacity is more than 10% but less
than 15%. Crushing strength is 175kg/cm2 (mean) where the minimum is 154 kg/cm2 . It emits a metallic sound
when struck by another similar brick or struck by a hammer. It is hard enough to resist any fingernail expression on
the brick surface if one tries to do with a thumbnail. It is used for the construction of one-storied buildings, temporary
shed when intended durability is not more than 15 years.
3. Third Class Brick: The shape and size are not regular. The color is soft and light red colored. It is under burnt,
slightly over burnt is acceptable. It has extensive efflorescence. The texture is non-uniform. The absorption capacity is
more than 15% but less than 20%. The crushing strength is 140kg/cm2 (mean) where the minimum crushing strength
is 105kg/cm2. It emits a dull or blunt sound when struck by another similar brick or struck by a hammer. It leaves
fingernail expression when one tries to do with the thumbnail.
b) Classification of Bricks Based on Building Process:
1. Unburnt Bricks: These are half burnt bricks. The color is yellow. The strength is low. They are used as surki in
lime terracing. They are used as soiling under RCC footing or basement. Such bricks should not be exposed to
rainwater.
2. Burnt Bricks: Burnt bricks are made by burning them in the kiln. First class, Second-Class, Third-Class bricks are
burnt bricks.
3. Over Burnt or Jhama Brick: It is often known as the vitrified brick as it is fired at high temperature and for a
longer period of time than conventional bricks. As a result, the shape is distorted. The absorption capacity is high. The
strength is higher or equivalent to first class bricks. It is used as lime concrete for the foundation. It is also used as
coarse aggregate in the concrete of slab and beam which will not come in contact with water.
c) Classification of Bricks Based on Manufacturing Method:
1. Extruded Brick: It is created by forcing clay and water into a steel die, with a very regular shape and size, then
cutting the resulting column into shorter units with wires before firing. It is used in constructions with limited
budgets. It has three or four holes constituting up to 25% volume of the brick.
2. Molded Brick: It is shaped in molds by hand rather being in the machine. Molded bricks between 50-65mm are
available instantly. Other size and shapes are available in 6-8 weeks after the order.
3. Dry pressed Brick: It is the traditional types of bricks which are made by compressing clay into molds. It has a
deep frog in one bedding surface and shallow frog in another.
d) Classification of Bricks Based on Raw Materials:
1. Burnt Clay Brick: It is obtained by pressing the clay in molds and fried and dried in kilns. It is the most used
bricks. It requires plastering when used in construction works.

2. Fly ash clay Brick: It is manufactured when fly ash and clay are molded in 1000 degree Celsius. It contains a high
volume of calcium oxide in fly ash. That is why usually described as self-cementing. It usually expands when coming
into contact with moisture. It is less porous than clay bricks. It proved a smooth surface so it doesn’t need plastering.
3. Concrete Brick: It is made of concrete. It is the least used bricks. It has low compression strength and is of low
quality. These bricks are used above and below the damp proof course. These bricks are used can be used for facades,
fences and internal brickworks because of their sound reductions and heat resistance qualities. It is also called mortar
brick. It can be of different colors if the pigment is added during manufacturing. It should not be used below ground.
4. Sand-lime Brick: Sand, fly ash and lime are mixed and molded under pressure. During wet mixing, a chemical
reaction takes place to bond the mixtures. Then they are placed in the molds. The color is greyish as it offers
something of an aesthetic view. It offers a smoother finish and uniform appearance than the clay bricks. As a result, it
also doesn’t require plastering. It is used as a load bearing members as it is immensely strong.
5. Firebrick: It is also known as refractory bricks. It is manufactured from a specially designed earth. After burning, it
can withstand very high temperature without affecting its shape, size, and strength. It is used for the lining of chimney
and furnaces where the usual temperature is expected to be very high.
Classification of Bricks Based on Their Using:
1. Common Bricks: These bricks are the most common bricks used. They don’t have any special features or
requirements. They have low resistance, low quality, low compressive strength. They are usually used on the interior
walls.
2. Engineering Bricks: These bricks are known for many reasons. They have high compressive strength and low
absorption capacity. They are very strong and dense. They have good load bearing capacity, damp proof, and
chemical resistance properties. They have a uniform red color. They are classified as Class A, class B, class C. Class
A is the strongest but Class B is most used. They are used for mainly civil engineering works like sewers, manholes,
ground works, retaining walls, damp proof courses, etc.
COMPARISION BETWEEN FIRST CLASS AND SECOND CLASS BRICK
Particular First class brick Second class brick
Shape and size Regular and uniform Generally not regular and uniform
Surface and edge Smooth and sharp Rough
Color uniform yellow or red color is uniform yellow or red
Brunt well burnt, slightly over burnt
moulded Table ground
Crushing strength not less than 10.5 N/mm2 not less than 7 N/mm2
Water absorption 12% to 15% of its dry weigh 25%
use flooring and in reinforced brickwork. unimportant situations or at places
where the masonry is to be plastered.
Cost more less
PROPERTIES OF BRICK: The essential properties of bricks may be conveniently discussed under the following
four headings: physical, mechanical, thermal and durability properties.
(1) Physical Properties of Bricks: These properties of bricks include shape, size, color, and density of a brick.
(i) Shape: The standard shape of an ideal brick is truly rectangular. It has Well defined and sharp edges. The surface
of the bricks is regular and even.
(ii) Size: The size of brick used in construction varies from country to country and from place to place in the same
country. In India, the recommended standard size of an ideal brick is 19 x 9 x 9 cm which with mortar joint gives net
dimensions of 20 x 10 x 10 cm. These dimensions have been found very convenient in handling and making quantity
estimates. Five hundred such bricks will be required for completing 1 m3 brick masonry.
(iii) Color. The most common color of building bricks falls under the class RED. It may vary from deep red to light
red to buff and purple. Very dark shades of red indicate over burnt bricks whereas yellow color is often indicative of
under-burning.
(iv) Density. The density of bricks or weight per unit volume depends mostly on the type of clay used and the method
of brick molding (soft-mud, Stiff-mud, hard-pressed etc.). In the case of standard bricks, density varies from 1600
kg/m3 to 1900 kg/m3 . A single brick (19 x 9 x 9 cm) will weigh between 3.2 to 3.5 kg. depending upon its density
(2) Mechanical Brick Properties.
(i) Compressive Strength of Bricks: It is the most important property of bricks especially when they are used in
load-bearing walls. The compressive strength of a brick depends on the composition of the clay and degree of burning.

It may vary from 3.5 N/mm2 to more than 20 N/mm2 in India. It is specified under the I.S. codes that an ordinary type
building brick must possess a minimum compressive strength of 3.5 N/mm2 . The first and 2nd class bricks shall have
a compressive strength not less than 7 N/mm2 and 14 N/mm2 respectively.
(ii) Flexure Strength: Bricks are often used in situations where bending loads are possible in a building. As such, they
should possess sufficient strength against transverse loads. It is specified that the flexural strength of a common
building brick shall not be less than 1 N/mm2 . Best grade bricks often possess flexural strength over 2 N/mm2 .
Similarly, it is required that a good building brick shall possess a shearing strength of 5-7 N/mm2 .
(3) Thermal Properties of Building Bricks: Besides being hard and strong, ideal bricks should also provide an
adequate insulation against heat, cold and noise. The heat and sound conductivity of bricks vary greatly with their
density and porosity. Very dense and heavy bricks conduct heat and sound at a greater rate. They have, therefore, poor
thermal and acoustic (sound) insulation qualities. For this reason, bricks should be so designed that they are light and
strong and give adequate insulation.
(4) Durability: By durability of bricks, it is understood that the maximum time for which they remain unaltered and
strong when used in construction. Experience has shown that properly manufactured bricks are among the most
durable of man-made materials of construction. Their life can be counted in hundreds of years. The durability of
bricks depends on some factors such as: absorption value, frost resistance, and efflorescence.
i) Absorption Value. This property is related to the porosity of the brick. True Porosity is defined as the ratio of the
volume of pores to the gross volume of the sample of the substance. Apparent porosity, more often called Absorption
value or simply absorption, is the quantity of water absorbed by the (brick) sample.The absorption values of bricks
vary greatly.It is, however, recommended that for first class bricks, they shall not be greater than 20 percent and for
ordinary building bricks, not greater than 25 percent.
(ii) Frost Resistance: Water on freezing expands by about 10% in volume and exerts a pressure on the order of 14
N/mm2 . When bricks are used in cold climates, their decay due to this phenomenon of “frost action” may be a
common process.
(iii) Efflorescence: It is a common disfiguring and deteriorating process of bricks in hot and humid climates. Brick
surface gets covered with white or grey coloured patches of salts. These salts are present in the original brick clay.
PROPERTIES OF GOOD BRICKS The following are the required properties of good bricks:
(i) Colour: Colour should be uniform and bright.
(ii) Shape: Bricks should have plane faces. They should have sharp and true right angled corners.
(iii) Size: Bricks should be of standard sizes as prescribed by codes.
(iv) Texture: They should possess fine, dense and uniform texture. They should not possess fissures, cavities,
loose grit and unburnt lime.
(v) Soundness: When struck with hammer or with another brick, it should produce metallic sound.
(vi) Hardness: Finger scratching should not produce any impression on the brick.
(vii) Strength: Crushing strength of brick should not be less than 3.5 N/mm2. A field test for strength is that when
dropped from a height of 0.9 m to 1.0 mm on a hard ground, the brick should not break into pieces.
(viii) ) Water Absorption: After immercing the brick in water for 24 hours, water absorption should not be more
than 20 per cent by weight. For class-I works this limit is 15 per cent.
(ix) Efflorescence: Bricks should not show white patches when soaked in water for 24 hours and then allowed to
dry in shade. White patches are due to the presence of sulphate of calcium, magnesium and potassium. They
keep the masonry permanently in damp and wet conditions.
(x) Thermal Conductivity: Bricks should have low thermal conductivity, so that buildings built with them are
cool in summer and warm in winter.
(xi) Sound Insulation: Heavier bricks are poor insulators of sound while light weight and hollow bricks provide
good sound insulation.
(xii) Fire Resistance: Fire resistance of bricks is usually good. In fact bricks are used to encase steel columns to
protect them from fire.
USE OF BRICK
(i) As a Structural Unit; .Buildings, Bridges,.Foundations,.Arches,.Pavement & Footpath, Roads, Drains, ,
Tunnels, Boundary Walls etc.
(ii) Construction of wall
(iii) Construction of floor
(iv) Construction of arch and cornices
(v) Construction of retaining wall

(vi) Use as a aggregate (broken bricks)
(vii) For lining sewer line As an Aesthetic Unit/Surface used to get different surface designs.
(viii) Used in Landscaping,
(ix) As Facing Brick,
(x) As a Fire Resistant Material.
(xi) Used for lining furnaces.
(xii) Bricks are used to prepare brick jail.
(xiii) Manufacture of surkhi (powder bricks).
MORTAR
Mortar is defined as a paste of cement or lime, sand and water prepared by mixing of its.Mortar is a bonding agent
which is generally produced by mixing cementing or binding material (lime or cement) and fine aggregate (sand,
surki, sawdust, etc.) with water.
FUNCTIONS OF MORTAR:
1. To bind together the bricks or stones properly so as to provide strength to the structure.
2. To form a homogenous mass of the structure so as to resist all the loads coming over it without
disintegration
TYPES OF MORTAR/ CLASSIFICATION
Mortar are classified on the basis of
1. On the basis of state
2. Based on bulk density
3. Based on binding material
4. Based on nature of application
5. Special types of mortars
Dry mortar;-When the paste is prepared by mixing of cement or lime and sand without water is known as dry mortar.
Wet mortar;-When the mortar is prepared by mixing cement, sand and water is known as wet mortar.
Heavy mortars:
Mortar which has bulk density greater than 1500 kg/m3 is called heavy mortar. Generally, It uses heavy aggregates
like quartz.
Light weight mortars:
If the bulk density of mortar is less than 1500 kg/m3 is called light weight mortars. It uses light aggregates
like pumice. Lightweight mortar is prepared by mixing of light material like sawdust, rise husk, jute fibers, asbestos
fibers, pumice with sand and cement.

Cement mortar:
Cement mortar is a mixture of cement, sand and water where cement is used as binding material.
The ratio of cement and sand is 1: 2 to 1: 6.
Cement mortar is used where high strength is required and water-insulation is required. Cement mortar is mostly used
in brick or stone masonry.
Lime mortar:
Fat lime or hydraulic lime is used in this types of mortar. Lime used as a binding material. The ratio of lime and sand
is 1: 3 for fat lime and the ratio of lime and sand is 1:2 for hydraulic lime.
Hydraulic lime is more suitable for water logged area.It is used in the construction of heavy loaded members. Fat lime
should not be used in damp places.
Mud mortar: Mud mortar is mixtures of mud or clay, saw dust, rice husk, water and cow dunk in which mud used as
a binding material.
It is used to build economical and low-cost buildings. It is not useful in damp places or in heavier buildings. This
mortar is used to build small houses, especially in villages.
Surkhi mortar: This types of mortar is made from a mixture of lime, water and Surkhi powder where lime is used as
binding material.
Surkhi is powdered of burnt clay which gives more strength compare to sand. It does not use sand. This type of mortar
can be used in all types of general construction. It cannot be used in plaster or painting.
Gypsum mortar: Gypsum mortar is a mixtures of gypsum, fine sand and water. Gypsum is used as a binding
material. It has low durability in damp conditions.
Cement-lime mortar:
This type of mortar is made by mixing cement and lime in a ratio of 1: 6 to 1: 8.
Masonry mortar:Used for brick or stone masonry. The proportion of ingredients like sand, cement and water is
depend on binding material.
Finishing mortar:
It is used in works like plaster, pointing. It is also used for good aesthetic view of construction as per
architecture.Finishing mortar should has good strength and resistant against atmospheric action.
Fire resistant mortar
Fire resistant mortar is prepared by mixing of aluminum cement and powder of fire bricks. In this mortar proportion of
aluminium cement and powder of fire bricks is 1:2. Fire resistant mortar is act as fire shield in building.It is used in
furnace lining, ovens.
Light weight mortar:
Light weight mortar is prepared by mixing of light material like sawdust, rise husk, jute fibers, asbestos fibers, pumice
with sand and cement. Lightweight mortar is generally used in sound proof construction and heat proof construction.
Sound absorbing mortar:
Sound absorbing mortar is prepared by mixing of light weight material like pumice, saw dust, cinder with binding
material like cement, gypsum or lime. The density of such mortar is 600 to 1200 kg/m3.
X-ray shielding mortar:
X-ray mortar is one type of heavy mortar. Its density is more than 2200 kg/m3.In this mortar, the heavy stone is
used as aggregate. Such mortar is used for plaster walls and ceiling of X-ray cabinet to protect room against ill effects
of X-ray.
PROPERTIES OF MORTAR
1. Workability
2. Water Retentivity & Air content
3. Stiffening and hardening
4. Durability
5. Compressive strength
6. Flexural strength
Workability; may be defined as the behavior of a mix in respect of all the properties required, during application,
subsequent working and finishing.
Ease of use, i.e. the way it adheres or slides on the trowel.
Ease of spread on the masonry unit.

Ease of extrusion between courses without excessive dropping or smearing.
Ease of positioning of the masonry unit without movement due to its own weight and the weight of additional courses
Water Retentivity & Air content; This is the property of mortar that resists water loss by absorption into the
masonry units (suction) and to the air, in conditions of varying temperature, wind and humidity.
Water retentivity is related to workability.
The air content of the mortar in its plastic state is also important. In order to achieve good durability it is necessary that
there is sufficient air content (entrained air) to enable freeze-thaw cycles to be resisted without disrupting the matrix of
the material
Stiffening and hardening The progression of stiffening, refers to the gradual change from fresh or plastic mortar to
setting or set mortar.
Hardening refers to the subsequent process whereby the set mortar progressively develops strength.
Durability;- may be defined as its ability to endure aggressive conditions during its design life. In general, as the
cement content increases so will durability.
Compressive strength
Flexural strength
PROPERTIES OF GOOD MORTAR:
The characteristics of a good mortar are as follows:
1. The main quality that mortar should possess is adhesion. Good mortar should provide good adhesion to
building units (bricks, Stones etc).
2. Deformability of mortar should be low.
3. Mortar should be easily workable in the site condition.
4. The mobility of mortar should be good.
5. It should be cheap.
6. It should be durable.
7. It should be easily workable.
8. It should be set as soon as possible.
9. It should be able to withstand against tensile and compressive stresses.
10. Mortar should be water resistant
11. It should possess high durability
12. to improve the speed of construction, good mortar should set quickly
USES OF MORTAR
1. Attach bricks, stone.
2. For plaster and pointing work.
3. It is used in concrete as a matrix.
4. It is used in plastering works to hide the joints and to improve appearance.
5. For pipe joints
6. To obtain a level surface for the components of the building
7. To improve the appearance of the structure.
8. It is used for molding and ornamental purpose.
9. Use as an X-ray resistant material.
10. Use as a sound-absorbing material.
SAND
Sand is formed by the weathering of rocks. Based on the natural sources from which sand is obtained
CLASSIFICATION

Based on source;-
1. Pit sand
2. River sand
3. Sea sand
Pit sand This sand is obtained by forming pits in soils. It is excavated from a depth of about 1-2 m from the ground
level .This sand is found as deposits in soil and it consists of sharp angular grains, which an free from salts. It serves as
an excellent material for mortar or concrete work Pit sand must be made free from clay and other organic materials
before it can be used in mortar.
River sand. It is obtained from the banks or beds of river and it consists of fine rounded grains. The river sand is
available in clean conditions. The river sand is almost white in colour. This sand is widely used for all purposes
Sea sand is obtained from the sea shores. It consists of fine rounded grains like the river sand. Sea sand is light brown
in colour. Since the sea sand contains salts, it attracts moisture from the atmosphere. Such absorption causes
dampness, efflorescence and disintegration of work. Sea sand increases the setting time of cement. Hence, it is the
general rule to avoid use of sea sand for engineering purposes even though it is available in plenty. However, after
removing the salts by washing, it can be used as a local material.
Based on the grain size distribution, sand is classified as
1. Fine,
2. Coarse
3. Gravelly
Fine sand;- The sand passing through a sieve with clear openings of 1.5875 mm is known as fine sand. Fine sand is
mainly used for plastering.
Coarse sand; The sand passing through a sieve with clear openings of 3.175 mm is known as coarse sand. It is
generally used for masonry work.
Gravelly sand. The sand passing through a sieve with clear openings of 7.62 mm is known as gravelly sand. It is
generally used for concrete work.
PROPERTIES OF SAND
Grain Size of Sand ; Grain size and distribution affects many properties of sand, such as permeability, flowability,
refractory properties, surface fineness and strength. The finer the grains of sand, the finer the entire sand. Fine grain
sands offer a good surface finish but have poor permeability.
Grain Shape of Sand
The shape of the grain is defined in terms of angularity as well as sphericity. The grains of sand range from well
rounded, subrounded, angular and also very angular. Inside each angularity unit, grains can be of a high, medium, or
low sphericity.
Shape and Distribution of Sand Grains
In deciding the scale, shape and distribution of sand grains, it is necessary to note that the grain shape corresponds to
the amount of sand surface area and that the distribution of grain size influences the permeability of the mould.

Size Distribution of Sand;-The size distribution of sand influences the consistency. Coarse grain sand a weak surface
finish. Fine-grained sand produce a better surface finish. Fine grain sand low permeability and vice versa
Permeability:The passage of gaseous materials, water and steam vapour through the moulding sand is related to
porosity or in other words permeability.
The permeability of sand depends upon the following factors:
(i) Size of the grain (varying over the wide range of 50 microns to 3360 microns).
(ii) Shape of the grain (round, angular, sub-angular or compound), the round shape being more favourable for
porosity.
(iii) Compactness density has also a bearing on the permeability.
(iv) Moisture content in the moulding sand affects permeability since the excess moisture tends to collect in the
interstices.
(v) Bonding content also affects the porosity of the moulding sand through the interstitial structure.
Cohesiveness:The ability of sand particles to stick together is termed as cohesiveness or the strength of the moulding
sand. Strength or cohesiveness of sand depends upon the following factors:
(i) Grain size and shape, which affect the strength characteristics to a considerable extent.
(ii) Mixture of various-size grains.
(iii) Bonding material or bond content and its distribution.
Bond strength is determined by the alumina (clay) content. Clay should be present as a thin, tenacious film on each
grain of sand. Sharp sands having smooth oval grains are not easily bonded and clay helps in bonding.
(iv) Moisture content—a major factor that affects strength of sand.
Adhesiveness:The sand particles must be capable of sticking to the other bodies, particularly to the moulding box and
it is only due to this property that sand mass is held in the moulding box properly and does not fall when the mould is
moved. At the same time, the sand must not stick to the casting and strip off easily, leaving a clean surface.
Plasticity:
It refers to the condition of acquiring predetermined shape under pressure and to retain it, when the pressure is
removed. In order to have a good impression of the pattern in the mould, moulding sand must have good plasticity.
Generally, fine grained sand has better plasticity. It depends on the content of clay, which absorbs moisture, when
sand is dampened.
Binding Property:Binder allows sand to flow to take up pattern shape. It must not be so strong that break out
becomes difficult, nor should it be so weak that it allows surface skin of casting to break.
Flowability:This is similar to plasticity. It is the ability of sand to take up the desired shape. Sand must be able to
transmit the blows throughout during ramming.
BULKING OF SAND; Bulking is the increase in volume of a given mass of sand caused by the films of water
pushing the sand particles apart. Thus increase in volume of a given mass of fine aggregates in the presence of water is
known as Bulking.
Compared to its dry or completely saturated volume, moist fine aggregate tends to increase in volume due to capillary
effect. The capillary action between sand particles does not allow the particles to come closer to each other. Thus this
phenomenon causes Bulking.
In completely dry or completely wet state there is no capillary action and hence there is no, bulking. Thus the dry
sand and the sand completely flooded with water have practically the same volume. However in moist state correction
must be made for the volume of sand for use in concrete. The volume is equal for both the absolute dry condition and
absolute wet condition. The volume of the sand increases by 10-20% (can also be as high as 30%) for the moisture
content of 2-5%.
The bulking of sand also depends on the particle size. Smaller the particle size, higher is the bulking.
The increase in the volume of the sand may result in the wrong mix of concrete when the raw materials are mixed by
volume. The correction required in sand volume due to bulking can be avoided if weight batching is used. In weigh
batching, the materials are mixed in the ratio of their weights and not volume
PROPERTIES OF GOOD SAND
1. It should be clean and coarse
2. It should be free from organic or vegetable material usually 3-4 percent clay is permitted
3. It should be chemically inert.
4. It should contain sharp, angular, coarse and durable grains.

5. It should not contain salts which attract moisture from the atmosphere.
6. It should be well graded, i.e., it should contain particles of various sizes in suitable proportions.
7. It should be strong and durable.
8. It should be clean and free from coatings of clay and silt.
USE OF SAND
1. Preparation of mortar and concrete
2. Brick work
3. Wall plastering
4. Flooring
5. Concrete blocks,
6. Bricks,
7. Pipes
8. Roofing shingles
9. Mixing with asphalt,
10. Sand water filter
11. Sand paper
12. football fields and golf courses.
13. Road construction
14.
CEMENT
The word "cement" can be traced back to the Ancient Roman term opus caementicium, used to describe masonry
resembling modern concrete that was made from crushed rock with burnt lime as binder.
Cement, can be described as a materials with an adhesive and cohesive properties which make a capable of bounding
materials fragment in to a compact whole. Cement is a binder, a substance that sets and hardens independently, and
can bind other materials together.
CEMENT COMPOSITION

TYPES OF CEMENT
Cement is mainly classified into two categories depending on the hardening and setting mechanism.
1. Hydraulic Cement
2. Non-hydraulic Cement
Hydraulic cement is those which harden by hydration in the presence of water. The non-hydraulic cement doesn't
require water to get harden. It gets with the help of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the air.

Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) The principal raw materials used in the manufacture of Ordinary Portland Cement
are:
1. Argillaceous or silicates of alumina in the form of clays and shales.
2. Calcareous or calcium carbonate, in the form of limestone, chalk and marl which is a mixture of clay and calcium
carbonate.
The ingredients are mixed in the proportion of about two parts of calcareous materials to one part of argillaceous
materials and then crushed and ground in ball mills in a dry state or mixed in wet state. The dry powder or the wet
slurry is then burnt in a rotary kiln at a temperature between 1400 degree C to 1500-degree C. the clinker obtained
from the kiln is first cooled and then passed on to ball mills where gypsum is added and it is ground to the requisite
fineness according to the class of product.
Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC): Portland Pozzolana cement is integrated cement which is formed by
synthesising (combining) OPC cement with pozzolanic materials in a certain proportion. It is commonly known as
PPC cement. In this article we discuss about the properties, manufacture, characteristics, advantages and
disadvantages of Portland Pozzolana cement.
Rapid Hardening Cement: Rapid hardening cement is a particular type of cement that is used in exceptional cases
of concrete pouring. As the name implies, rapid hardening cement needs the shortest time to setup and consolidate. It
achieves higher strength on lesser days. With such, it can attain seven days strength in only three days.
Quick setting cement: Quick Setting Cement (QSC) is a special cement formulation that develops a rapid
compressive strength and significantly reduces the waiting on cement (WOC) time compared to traditional cement

systems. This cement loses its plasticity quicker than ordinary Portland cement, but does not achieve a higher rate of
strength.
Low Heat Cement: Low heat cement is a special tailored cement which generates low heat of hydration during
setting. It is manufactured by modifying the chemical composition of normal Portland cement.
Sulphate resisting cement: The sulphate resisting cement is the cement which has the capability to resist against
sulphate attack by introducing low C3A and relatively low C4AF content in the cement. The specification for sulphate
cement content should not allow C3A content more than 5 percent.
Blast Furnace Slag Cement: Blast furnace slag cement is the mixture of ordinary Portland cement and fine
granulated blast furnace slag obtained as a by-product in the manufacture of steel with percent under 70% to that of
cement. Ground granulated blast furnace slag cement (GGBFS) is a fine glassy granule ntich contain cementitious
properties.
High Alumina Cement: High alumina cement refers to a fast-hardening, high-strength, heat-resistant and corrosion-
resistant cementitious material. All clinker based on calcium aluminate and alumina content of about 50% and ground
hydraulic cementitious material are called high alumina cement.
Write Cement: The manufacturing process of white cement is same as that of grey cement, but the selection of raw
material is an important part in the manufacturing process. The oxides of chromium, manganese, iron, copper,
vanadium, nickel and titanium imparts the grey colour to the cement. In white cement manufacture, these raw
materials are kept to least percentage. Limestone and clay are used as a prominent raw material for the manufacture of
white cement. The manufacture process is same as that of OPC cement. the only differences are the heat required for
the burning of raw material is more and fineness is more.
Coloured cement: may be obtained by intimately mixing mineral pigments with ordinary cement. The amount of
colouring material may vary from 5 to 10 per cent. If this percentage exceeds 10 per cent, the strength of cement is
affected. 1. The chromium oxide gives green colour. 2. The cobalt imparts blue colour. 3. The ton oxide in different
proportions gives brown, red or yellow colour 4. The manganese oxide is used to produce black brown coloured
cement The coloured cements are widely used for finishing of floors, external surfaces. artificial marble, window sill
slabs, textured panel faces. stair treads, etc.
Air Entraining Cement: Air-entrained portland cement is a special cement which has air bubbles introduced in the
cement or concrete that provides the space for expansion of minute droplets of waters in the concrete due to freezing
and thawing and protects from cracks and damage of concrete. In this article we discuss about manufacture. air
entraining agents, properties, advantages and disadvantages. Advantages of Air-Entrained Cement • Workability of
concrete increases. • Use of air entraining agent reduces the effect of freezing and thawing. • Bleeding, segregation
and laitance in concrete reduces. • Entrained air improves the sulphate resisting capacity of concrete. • Reduces the
possibility of shrinkage and crack formation in the concrete surface.
Expansive cement: Expansive cement is special type of cement when mixed with water, which forms a paste that
tends to increase in volume to a significantly greater degree than Portland cement paste after setting. The expansion of
the cement mortar or concrete is compensated for the shrinkage losses. In this article we study about the manufacture,
properties, types and uses of expansive cement.
Hydrographic cement: Hydrographic cement Hydrographic cement prepares by mixing water-repelling chemicals
and has high workability and strength. It has the property of repelling water and unaffected during monsoon or rains.
Hydrophobic cement mainly uses for the construction of water structures such as dams, water tanks, spillways, water
retaining
PROPERTIES OF CEMENT

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Fineness ((0.007 ~ 0.2 mm).; Fineness of cement is measured by the size of particles and is expressed in terms of
(cm2/kg) specific surface of cement i.e., area / mass. The size of the particles of the cement is its fineness..
Fineness, or particle size of Portland cement affects Hydration rate and thus the rate of strength gain,The smaller
the particle size,the more area available for water-cement interaction per unit volume.Therefore finer cement
reacts faster with water and earlier strength gain.
Bleeding can be reduced by increasing fineness.Shrinkage can be reduced by increasing fineness.. When the
cement particles are coarser, hydration starts on the surface of the particles. So the coarser particles may not be
completely hydrated. This causes low strength and low durability. For a rapid development of strength a high
fineness is necessary.
Soundness; Soundness is defined as the volume stability of the cement paste.Soundness is referred to as a change of
volume cement after its final setting. Generally, the best cement has less than 10mm expansion or shrink.
When referring to Portland cement, "soundness" refers to the ability of a hardened cement paste to retain its
volume after setting without delayed expansion
Consistency of Cement;-The ability of cement paste to flow is consistency. Consistency is the ability to flow cement
paste in a normal condition. The consistency of cement is a measure of water required to make flowable cement paste
and used easily in normal condition.
Strength ;• Cement paste strength is typically defined in three compressive, tensile and flexural.33 grade cement
means cement gets 33N/mm2 strength after 28 days. 43 grade of cement says cement gets 43N/mm2 strength after 28
days. And 53 grade of cement says cement gets 53N/mm2 strength after 28 days.
These ways: strengths can be affected by a number of items including:
1. water cement ratio,
2. cement-fine aggregate ratio,
3. type and grading of fine aggregate,
4. curing conditions,
5. size and shape of specimen,
6. loading conditions and
7. age
Setting Time ; Cement paste setting time is affected by a number of items including:
1. cement fineness,
2. water-cement ratio,
3. chemical content (especially gypsum content) and
4. admixtures.
There are two types of settling time
• Initial set: When the paste begins to stiffen noticeably (typically occurs within 30-45 minutes)

• Final set: When the cement hardens, being able to sustain some load (occurs below 10 hours)
Heat of Hydration; When water is added to cement, the reaction that takes place is called hydration. Hydration
generates heat, which can affect the quality of the cement and also be beneficial in maintaining curing temperature
during cold weather. On the other hand, when heat generation is high, especially in large structures, it may cause
undesired stress.
Loss of Ignition; Heating a cement sample at 900 - 1000°C (that is, until a constant weight is obtained) causes weight
loss. This loss of weight upon heating is calculated as loss of ignition. Improper and prolonged storage or adulteration
during transport or transfer may lead to pre-hydration and carbonation, both of which might be indicated by increased
loss of ignition.
Bulk density; Density is the ratio of mass to volume. This is why it can be indicated in terms of kg / m3, The bulk
density of cement is lies between 1000 kg/m3 to 1300 kg/m3
When cement is mixed with water, the water replaces areas where there would normally be air. Cement has a varying
range of density depending on the cement composition percentage.
Specific Gravity (Relative Density);The specific gravity of cement is a ratio of a density of cement to a density of
water. Generally, the specific gravity of cement lies between 2.8 to 3.2.Specific gravity is generally used in mixture
proportioning calculations. Portland cement has a specific gravity of 3.15, but other types of cement may have specific
gravities of about 2.90.
Chemical properties
Tricalcium aluminate (C3A) to an immediate stiffening of paste, and this process is termed as flash set.Low content
of C3A makes the cement sulfate-resistant. Gypsum reduces the hydration of C3A, which liberates a lot of heat in the
early stages of hydration. C3A does not provide any more than a little amount of strength.
Type I cement: contains up to 3.5% SO3 (in cement having more than 8% C3A)
Type II cement: contains up to 3% SO3 (in cement having less than 8% C3A)
Tricalcium silicate (C3S);-Tricalcium of cement is responsible for early strength of concrete.
C3S causes rapid hydration as well as hardening and is responsible for the cement’s early strength gain an initial
setting.
Dicalcium silicate (C2S);-Dicalcium is responsible for the later strength of concrete.Dicalcium produces less heat of
hydration.
Ferrite;-(C4AF) Ferrite is a fluxing agent. It reduces the melting temperature of the raw materials in the kiln from
3,000°F to 2,600°F. Though it hydrates rapidly, it does not contribute much to the strength of the cement.
Magnesia;(MgO) The manufacturing process of Portland cement uses magnesia as a raw material in dry process
plants. An excess amount of magnesia may make the cement unsound and expansive, but a little amount of it can add
strength to the cement.
Sulphur; trioxide
Sulfur trioxide in excess amount can make cement unsound. Iron oxide/ Ferric oxide
Aside from adding strength and hardness, iron oxide or ferric oxide is mainly responsible for the color of the cement.
Alkalis; - Cement containing large amounts of alkali can cause some difficulty in regulating the setting time of
cement. Low alkali cement, when used with calcium chloride in concrete, can cause discoloration. There is an
optional limit in total alkali content of 0.60%,
Free lime, which is sometimes present in cement, may cause expansion.
Silica; fumes Silica fume is added to cement concrete in order to improve a variety of properties, especially
compressive strength, abrasion resistance and bond strength. Though setting time is prolonged by the addition of silica
fume, it can grant exceptionally high strength. Hence, Portland cement containing 5-20% silica fume is usually
produced for Portland cement projects that require high strength.
Alumina; Cement containing high alumina has the ability to withstand frigid temperatures since alumina is chemical-
resistant. It also quickens the setting but weakens the cement.
USE OF CEMENT
1. To prepare cement mortar
2. To prepare cement concrete
3. Cement slurry is used for filling cracks in concrete structures.
4. Cement mortar is used for masonry work, plastering and pointing.
5. To build fire proof and thermal proof structures
6. To build hydrographic and frost resistant structures
7. To build chemical proof structures

8. As a grout material
9. To construct Cement concrete roads
10. To manufacture precast members
11. For aesthetic concrete construction
12. for making acid-resistance and waterproof structures.
13. Colored cement can be used for decorating or coloring the structures.
14. It can be used for shotcreting the tunnel or geological walls to strength the structure.
15. Portland cement is used in manufacture of some products like 1.Bricks 2.Tiles 3.Shingles 4.Pipes 5.Beams
6.Railroad ties
STRUCTURAL STEEL
Structural steel is a type of steel that is used as a construction material. Structural steel is a category of steel used for
making construction materials in a variety of shapes
Structural steel is a standard construction material made from specific grades of steel and formed in a range of
industry-standard cross-sectional shapes (or ‘Sections
Composition of Structural steel
Carbon: One of the most significant chemical ingredients in Steel is carbon. Carbon concentration rises, resulting in a
material with less flexibility and more strength.
Chromium: Small levels of chromium are present, combined with copper and nickel, to strengthen the material's
corrosion resistance.
Manganese: Manganese, along with oxygen and sulphur, is employed as a neutralizer in the hot rolling of Steel, and it
has effects on the material properties of steel grades that are similar to those of carbon.
Aluminum: Aluminum is a key deoxidizer that contributes to forming a finer-grained crystalline microstructure.
Copper: Copper is used to promoting corrosion resistance.
Sulphur and phosphorus: Sulphur and phosphorus are often limited in steel alloys because they negatively impact the
Steel's durability and strength.
Molybdenum: Molybdenum increases the Steel's strength at high temperatures and its corrosion resistance.
TYPES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL
Carbon steel: Steel in which the carbon content is upto 2% is known as carbon steel. The Specified ultimate tensile
strength is 410 to 440 MPa, and the yield strength is 350 to 400 MPa.
High-strength carbon steel: These steels are used in structures such as transmission lines and microwave towers.
The specified ultimate tensile strength is 480 to 550 MPa, and the yield strength is 350 to 400 MPa.
Medium and high strength micro-alloyed steel: Alloys such as chromium, nickel, molybdenum, etc., are used to
increase the strength while retaining the desired ductility. The specified ultimate tensile strength is 440 to 590 MPa,
and the yield strength is 300 to 450 MPa.

High strength quenched and tempered Steel: Heat treatment increases strength in this type of Steel. The specified
ultimate tensile strength is 440 to 590 MPa; the yield strength is 300 to 450 MPa.
Weathering Steel: These are corrosion-resistant Steel and are often not Painted. The specified ultimate tensile
strength is 480 MPa, and the yield strength is 350 MPa.
Fire-resistant Steel: These steels are also known as thermo mechanically treated (TMT) steel and are used where the
structures are more prone to fire.
PROPERTIES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL
• Density: The density of Structural Steel is 7750 to 8100 kg/m3
.
• Young's Modulus of Elasticity: Typical values for structural steel range from 190-210 GPa
• Poisson's ratio: For structural Steel, the acceptable value ranges from 0.27 to 0.3.
• Tensile strength: Structural Steel has high tensile strength, so it is preferred over other construction
materials.
• Yield strength: The yield strength, also known as the yield point, is the stress at which an object permanently
deforms. Carbon structural steel has a yield strength ranging from 187 to 758 MPa. The values of structural
Steel constructed of alloys range from 366 to 1793 MPa.
• Shear strength: The shear strength of steel structure is specified at the failure under shear stress, and it is
about 0.57 times the yield stress of structural Steel.
• Hardness: the hardness of structural Steel manufactured with alloys ranges from 149 to 627 kg. Carbon
structural steels have a weight range of 86 to 388 kg.
• Melting point: Because there are so many different types of structural Steel, there is no standard melting
point.
• Specific heat: The amount required to raise an object's temperature by a particular quantity is known as
specific heat or heat capacity. A higher specific heat value indicates that the thing is more insulating. Specific
heat for carbon structural steel ranges from 450 to 2081 J/kg-K, while for structural alloy steel, it ranges from
452 to 1499 J/kg-K.
TYPES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL SHAPES
Beams – Beams are perhaps the most recognized structural steel framing shape. The cross sections of the classic I-
beam, T-Beam, and Z-Shape bear a resemblance to their respective letters, with the design adding structural strength
through its low second moments of area.
Hollow Structural Sections (HSS) – These structural members are hollow shapes, such as squares, circles, rectangles,
and ellipses. They resemble pipes, but the shapes are chosen for their ability to distribute weight throughout the cross
section rather than for their fluid carrying properties.
Rods – Metal with a solid circular or square shaped cross section produced in varying lengths. Rather than used as
structural support alone, these are often used to reinforce other materials.
Plates – Large and flat, structural steel plate is thicker than 6mm or ¼-inch. Structural plate is also often used to add
strength to other structures.
Rails – This structure is very similar to I-Beams, but are not symmetrical.
Angles. These perpendicular, L-shaped cross-sections, either with equal or unequal legs, are commonly found in
corners of structures and other places to supplement main pillars and beams.
Tubing. Hollow tubing made from hot-rolled steel coils and sold in round, square, and rectangular shapes is easily
fabricated and welded according to need. It's a lightweight structural alternative to solid structural steel products.
I-beams. These beams are one of the most common structural steel products for both beams and columns. The two
parallel elements of the "I" or "H" cross-section are known as flanges, and the connecting element is known as the
web.
Wide flange beams. With a much longer web than in I-beams, the flanges of a wide flange beam are almost
perpendicular to the web.
Channels. Structural channels are hot-rolled into a C-shape, which, like I-beams, have a wider angle of attachment
between the flanges and the web. They provide structural support in addition to a main load-bearing beam, most
commonly for bracing or framing.

USE OF STRUCTURAL STEEL
1. Buildings,
2. Bridges,
3. Transmission towers
4. Industrial buildings
5. Storage structures
6. Tower
7. Stadium
8. Warehouses,
9. Airplane hangars,
10. Educational facilities
11. Freight cars
12. Construction equipment
13. Truck parts
14. Machinery
15. Crane booms
16. Transmission towers
17. Truck frames
ADVANTAGES OF STRUCTURAL STEELS
1. Ease of fabrication /Design
2. Easy Installation and Speed in Construction
3. Adaptation to prefabrication /Formed and molded
4. Speed of erection/ Light in Weight
5. Ability to be rolled into wide variety of sizes and shapes
6. Reuse
7. Scrap value
8. High Strength to weight / Strength and Durability
9. Easy and high quantity production
10. Formed and molded
11. Flexibility
12. Cheap
13. Long lived
14. Good ductility:
15. High Toughness:
16. Architectural variety:
17. Saving space:
18. Versatile
19. Environment Friendly

DISADVANTAGES OF STRUCTURAL STEELS
1. High maintenance & capital cost
2. Susceptible to buckling
3. Fatigue and fracture
4. Brittle fracture
5. High cost to make it corrosion resistant
6. Fireproof treatment/ fire proofing cost
7. Fire damage
8. Strength decrease in high temperatures
9. Fabrication error
HIGH TENSILE STEEL
High tensile steel is a steel alloy with high ultimate tensile strength. The tensile strength is very high compared to its
compressive strength
High-tensile steels are part of a low-carbon group which have additional alloying ingredients – chromium,
molybdenum, silicon, manganese, nickel and vanadium – which are designed to increase not just its durability, but its
malleability and ductility too.
The ultimate tensile strength of high tensile steel is around 2000 N/mm2
.
HIGH TENSILE STEEL COMPOSITION
The carbon content in high tensile steel is 0.60 – 0.80 %, Manganese 0.60 %, Silicon 0.20 %, Sulphur 0.05 % and
Phosphorus 0.05%.
HIGH TENSILE STEEL PROPERTIES
High tensile steel is an alloy made up of iron, carbon, chromium, vanadium, molybdenum, manganese and silicon. Its
high strength-to-weight ratio makes it an ideal choice for applications where weight is a concern, such as in the
aerospace industry. High tensile steel also has excellent wear resistance due to its high hardness levels. For example, it
can be used for components that require abrasion resistance or are exposed to extreme temperatures.
 High tensile steel is an alloy that contains a high percentage of carbon.
 The high carbon content makes the steel very strong and hard.
 High tensile steel is often used in applications where strength and hardness are required, such as in
construction or manufacturing.
 The high carbon content of the steel can also make it difficult to weld or work with.
 High tensile steel is available in a variety of grades, each with different properties and applications
APPLICATIONS OF HIGH TENSILE STEEL
• Construction of large buildings
• Stadiums,
• Skyscrapers
• Bridges.
• Industrial structures,
• Airports,
• Transmission towers,
• Overhead tanks,
• Chimneys
• Trailers and trucks
• Spring applications such as bungee cords
• Engine parts, shafts and rotors
ADVANTAGES OF HIGH TENSILE STEEL
1. Increased Strength
2. Increased Durability
3. Reduced Weight/ low density
4. Increased Flexibility
5. Lower Cost

6. High tensile steel produces fewer carbon emissions compared to iron-ore based steel production.
7. Resistance to atmospheric corrosion.
8. Significant heat resistance
9. Gradual failure
DISADVANTAGES OF HIGH TENSILE STEEL
1. High-tensile steel is more expensive than other types of steel.
2. High-tensile steel is more difficult to work with than other types of steel.
3. High-tensile steel is less ductile than other types of steel. This means that it is more likely to break or shatter
under impact.
4. High-tensile steel can be more susceptible to corrosion than other types of steel.
5. High-tensile steel may not be as strong as other types of steel in certain applications.
CARBON COMPOSITES
Carbon-Carbon Composite :- By the combination of two major elements carbon fibers and a carbon matrix.Carbon
composites have carbon fibers in carbon matrix.
Carbon composites are those special compound in which both the reinforcing fibers and the matrix material are
both pure carbon
PROPERTIES OF CARBON COMPOSITE

1. Excellent Thermal Shock Resistance(Over 2000o C)
2. Low Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
3. High Modulus of Elasticity ( 200 GPa )
4. High Thermal Conductivity ( 100 W/m*K )
5. Low Density ( 1830 Kg/m3 )
6. High Strength
7. Low Coefficient of Friction ( in Fiber direction )
8. Thermal Resistance in non-oxidizing atmosphere
9. High Abrasion Resistance
10. High Electrical Conductivity
11. Non-Brittle Failure
CARBON COMPOSITES USE/ APPLICATION
1. Air craft
2. Racing car
3. Rocket / missile nose
4. High Performance Braking System
5. Refractory Material
6. Hot-Pressed Dies(brake pads)
7. Turbo-Jet Engine Components
8. Heating Element
9. Rocket Motor Throats
10. Leading Edges(Space Shuttle, Agni missile)
11. Heat Shields
12. X-Ray Targets
13. Reentry vehicles
14. Biomedical implants
15. Engine pistons
16. Electronic heat sinks
17. Automotive and motorcycle bodies
18. Sports equipment
19. Civil construction
20. Wind mill
21. Mobile cover
22. Helmet
CARBON COMPOSITES ADVANTAGES
1. Light Weight (1.6-2.0g/cm3)
2. High strength
3. Withstand High Temperature
4. Low Coefficient of thermal expansion.
5. High thermal conductivity (>Cu & Ag).
6. High thermal shock resistance.
7. structure can be tailed
8. Long life
9. High abrasion and water resistant
10. Gradual failure
CARBON COMPOSITES DISADVANTAGES
1. High cost
2. High fabrication cost.
3. Porosity.
4. Poor oxidation resistance – formation of gaseous oxides in oxygen atm.
5. Poor inter-laminar properties.
6. Non biodegradable
7. Few common use

8. Low shear strength
PLASTICS IN CONSTRUCTION
Plastics are used in a growing range of applications in the construction industry. The Construction sector is the second
highest user of plastics after packaging.
1. Piping and Conduit; Piping and Conduit are the largest users of polymers in construction and consume 35%
of production
2. .Cladding and Profiles; - Cladding and profiles for windows, doors, coving, and skirting made from PVC-U
3. Electric Insulator
4. Seal and gasket
5. Flooring
6. Roofing sheet
7. False ceiling
8. Door, window, partition
9. Water storage Furniture
10. Water proofing
11. Electric fixtures
12. Road
13. House/ sports complex
14. Adhesive
15. Paint and varnish
ADVANTAGES OF USE OF PLASTICS IN CONSTRUCTION
1. Combine excellent strength to weight ratio,
2. Durability,
3. Cost effectiveness,
4. Low maintenance
5. Corrosion resistance
6. They can be easily removed and recycled.
7. They are poor conductors of electricity.
8. Easy and less expensive to transport because of lower weight.
9. Easier to maneuver on site.
10. Rot resistant.
DISADVANTAGES OF USE OF PLASTIC IN CONSTRUCTION
1. Air and water pollution
2. Health hazard
3. Low strength
4. Low useful temperature range (up to 600 o F)
5. Less dimensional stability over period of time (creep effect)
6. Aging effect, hardens and become brittle over time
7. Sensitive to environment, moisture and chemicals
8. tendency to soften at elevated temperatures
9. Cold climates can cause the plastic to become brittle and fracture under pressure
10. low modulus of elasticity, which makes it unsuitable for load-bearing applications as in the case of beams and
columns
11. Poor machinibility

CONSTRUCTION CHEMICALS
These chemicals are used to enhance the performance of the concrete or used in concrete related activities in the field
of construction. such chemicals called construction chemicals or building chemicals.
The global construction chemical market is categorized as:
1. Concrete curing compound
2. Polymer bonding agents
3. Mould releasing agents
4. Protective and decorative coatings
5. Installation aids
6. Floor hardeners and Dustproofers
7. Non shrink high strength grouts
8. Surface retarders and sealers
9. Bond air for plastering
10. Ready to use plaster
11. Polymer modified mortar for repair and maintenance
12. Tile or cladding fixers
13. Adhesive and sealant
14. Ready Mix Plaster
15. Polymer Modified Mortar
16. Waterproofing Chemicals
Concrete curing compounds
Concrete curing compound consists essentially of waxes, natural and synthetic resins, and solvents of high volatility at
atmospheric temperatures. The compound forms a moisture retentive film shortly after being applied on a fresh
concrete surface
Polymer bonding agents
Polymer Bonding Agent is an aqueous emulsion of a polymer and chemical admixtures. It is designed for use as a
bonding agent with concrete and cement-based products in interior or exterior applications. Polymer Bonding Agent is
also designed for use as a polymer modifier in mortars and concretes to develop increased tensile, flexural and bond
strengths.
Mould releasing agents
Mould release agents come in handy when you have materials that are shaped and constructed in moulds. Without the
releasing agent, your mould may become damaged or even break when it is time to remove it
Form release agents
These compounds are applied on the inner surfaces of forms, not only facilitate stripping of formwork but also render
concrete surfaces smoother. They also help enhance the life-span of the forms
Protective and decorative coatings
A protective coating is a layer of material applied to the surface of another material with the intent of inhibiting or
preventing corrosion. A protective coating may be metallic or non-metallic.
Concrete floor hardeners

These are chemicals added in floor concrete in order to render it denser and more durable. They also usually enhance
chemical resistance, impact & abrasion resistance, waterproofing capability etc. besides reducing dusting
Non-shrink High Strength Grout
Non-shrink grout is a hydraulic cement grout that, when hardened under stipulated test conditions, does not shrink, so
its final volume is greater than or equal to the original installed volume
Surface retarders
Surface retarders, also called surface “deactivators,” are applied to fresh concrete to chemically delay the set of the
surface mortar. Unlike concrete set retarders, they allow the rest of the concrete to cure normally, without affecting the
setting rate or strength gain.
Bond-aid for plastering
Almost all surface applied bonding agents are compounded from polyvinyl acetate emulsions. These water-based
adhesives are very safe to use because they are non-toxic, non-hazardous and non-flammable
Ready-mix plaster
Ready mix plaster is a factory mixed/premixed sand-cement based plaster
Polymer modified mortar for repair and maintenance
Polymer-modified mortar is made by replacing a portion of the traditional binders with polymers. Polymers are added
to mortar to increase characteristics that may include adhesion, toughness, flexural or tensile strength, and resistance to
chemicals.
Tile fixing
Tile fixers and tile adhesives form the backbone of your home. A quality tile fixer connects all your tiles together, to
create a beautiful canvas from individual pieces.
Water repellents
These chemicals have water repelling properties which are exploited to protect masonry and concrete alike from the ill
effects of moisture or water
Waterproofing chemicals
These chemicals can be quite useful when a structure’s waterproofing capability is to be given a boost which is
especially required for structures constantly dealing with liquids.
Adhesives
These construction chemicals are readily used in all sorts of projects, be it commercial, residential, industrial etc.
construction projects. Adhesives are expected to have strong bonding capacity besides good waterproofing,
weatherproofing etc. qualities.
Rebar coating
Coatings for reinforcing steel bars can be quite useful when the bars have to be stored or kept exposed to weather for
considerable time. They prevent formation of rust on the bar surface
RECYCLING OF CONSTRUCTION & DEMOLITION WASTES
“Waste material that is produced in the process of construction, renovation, or demolition of structures. Indeed, global
CDW generation is alarming, currently representing 25–30% of total solid waste worldwide. Renovation
40%,demolision 50%, new construction 10%
IMPORTANCE / BENEFITS OF RECYCLING CONSTRUCTION AND DEMOLITION WASTE
1. Reduction of environmental impact
2. Recover materials for new products
3. Conserves resources. / material saving
4. Reduce the demand for new resources
5. Reduce transportation costs and risks and production cost
6. Reduces the need for new landfills and incinerators.
7. Prevents emissions of many greenhouse gases and water pollutants.
8. Saves energy.
9. Creates jobs
10. Stimulates the development of greener technologies.
11. Cuts down the cost and effort of transport and production.
12. Use waste which would otherwise be lost to landfill sites.
13. Cost saving
C&D WASTE RECYCLING
When considering a recyclable material, three major areas need to be taken in to account are:

1.Economy
2. Compatibility with other materials
3. Material properties
Disadvantages of Recycling
High upfront capital costs; Recycling is not always cost-effective. Building up a new waste recycling unit takes up a
lot of capital. The accompanying costs include buying different kinds of utility vehicles, upgrading the recycling unit,
waste, and chemical disposal and schooling the locals by initiating useful programs and seminars.
Recycling sites are always unhygienic, unsafe and unsightly; Go to any waste recycling site, and you will almost
always stumble upon unhygienic, unhealthy and unsightly conditions. Locations where every manner of waste is piled
provides a nice ground for the formation of debris and spread of infectious diseases. The harmful chemicals from
these wastes can also be dangerous.On top of causing massive pollution, the whole recycling process poses health
risks for dedicated individuals responsible for recycling these waste products.

Products from recycled waste may not be durable; The quality of products manufactured from recycled waste may
not be on par regarding quality. waste materials that have been overly utilized and fragile this makes products of
recycled waste less durable and low priced.
Recycling might not be inexpensive; Sometimes, recycling waste may not be less costly as most people think.
Recycling is not widespread on large scale

Introduction to Civil Engg. Unit-I.pdf

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Introduction to Civil Engg. Unit-I.pdf