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COGNITIVISM OF LANGUAGE TEACHING AND LEARNING
INTRODUCTION
Sometimes, when someone calls us, we immediately hear it. Then, we give the
response from his or her calling. From the phenomenon, unconsciously there is a process
happens in our brain or thought. The process is called cognitive theories or cognitivism.
According to Mergel (1998) cognitivism is a process based on the thought process behind
the behavior. Changes in behavior are observed, and used as to what is happening inside
the learner’s mind. Cognitive theories emphasize the children conscious thought (Hebb,
2003:3). From the two definitions, I can infer that a process can be called cognitivism if a
process happens in conscious thought(inside the learner’s mind). Here is the explanation of
e the development of cognitivism or cognitive revolution.
THE HISTORY OF COGNITIVISM
Cognitivism as a theory of learning studies about the process occurs inside the learner’s
mind has the own history about how it happens or the development of it. The development
of cognitivism theory is famous with the term “cognitive revolution”. According to
asiaeuniversity (2012:106) the cognitive revolution is the name for an intellectual
movement in the 1950s that began with what are known collectively as the cognitive
sciences. It began in the modern context of greater interdisciplinary communication and
research. Although cognitive psychology emerged in the late 1950s and began to take over
as the dominant theory of learning. It wasn’t until the late 1970s that cognitive science
began to have its influence on instructional design (Mergel,1998).
From the assumptions of the two experts, I can infer that the development of
cognitivism happened in the 1950s as the dominant theory of learning. Unfortunately, the
impact of it in the language learning occurred in 1970s. One of the real impacts is the
influence on instructional design. In this case, the development of cognitive theory in
psychology is as the response of behaviorism (asiaeuniversity, 2012:106). As we know that,
behaviorism is the theory of language learning which emphasize in observable behavior. The
answer why cognitivism theory appears as the response of behaviorism theory was because
the behaviorist psychologist tried to avoid the use of mental process in our mind. They tried
to erase the cognitivism theory. In other words, they just would like to explain something
which is observable, not the unobservable one (cognitivism).
FACTORS INFUENCED THE DEVELOPMENT OF COGNITIVISM

After we know the history of cognitivism, it is important for us to know the factors
influenced the development of it. According to Jordan, Carlite & Stack (2008: 36-37) there
are four factors influenced it. They are the development of experimental psychology, the
move from on interest in external behaviors to internal brain process, the inadequacy of
computer and an interest in artificial intelligence.
Experimental psychology
The factor emphasized in how the memory was laid down by using nonsense syllables and
words that was begun in the 1880s by Herman Ebbinghuns.
The Shift from behaviorism to cognitivism
The factor emphasized that not all learning can be explained through observable behaviors,
sometimes we find unobservable ones. For example : Rats build up a mental representation
or cognitive map of their environment and develop expectations rather than a set of
inflexible links between stimuli and response(Tolman , 1948 in Jordan, 2008:37).
Language Acquisition
The factor showed that the result of contested theories of language acquisition was the
evidence of human cognition. In this case language is as the result which is shaped by the
stimulus- response.
Computer and Artificial Intelligence
The factor showed the relationship between computers and cognitivism theory. Here, the
computer is seen as a process for cognitive function while brain as the computing tool. For
example the cognitive theory consists of information processing, input-process –
output model.In this case, the position of cognitive learning theory is just the beginning to
inform the design of CALL materials (Collentine, 2000:3).
DEFINITION OF COGNITIVISM
According to Mergel (1998) cognitivism is a cognitivist theory that based on thought
process behind the behavior. It means that the theory occurs inside the learners mind
consciously. Moreover, it focuses on how people think, how people understand, and how
people know (asiaeuniversity, 2012:107).How people think is the theory stresses in how our
ways of thinking will impact to the behavior. How people understand is the theory shows
the people’s understanding related to outside world. How people know is the theory shows
how the people know phenomenon outside the world. Of course, it derives from the process
thatrt happens in human mind.

An individual ‘s cognition plays a significant and primary role in the development and
maintenance of emotional and behavioural responses to life situation (Prendes & Resko). In
other words, cognitivist theory as the study of mental process could impact or influence the
individual’s emotion and behavioural responses because it is a process in determining on
how person thinks, understands, and knows.
PRINCIPLES OF COGNITIVISM
Cognitivism involves the study of mental processes such as sensation, perception,
attention, encoding, and memory that behaviorists were reluctant to study because
cognition occurs inside the” black box” of the brain (Jordan, Carlite & Stack, 2008:36). In
this case, sensation perception, attention, encoding, and memory are the principle of
cognitivism. The followings are the explanation of them.
The first principle is sensation. It shows how the stimuli derived from external stimuli is
registered in sensory before it being sent to the following process. The second principle is
perception which shows as the process to interpret and make sense something which can be
seen through our sense. It consists of pattern recognition, object recognition, bottom up or
top down processing, and conscious perception. The third principle is attention which
stresses in the concentrating to one thing, that the most importance than the others. It is
important to determine the conscious awareness. The fourth principle is encoding as the
principle of cognitive theory focuses on the importance of encoding information, after
something being perceived and attended to stimuli. The way to encode the information can
be done through organizing and then form it in the form of schema. In this case, to encode
the information in the form of experience can be conducted through two ways. They are
bottom up and top down (Jordan, Carlite, & Stack 2008:43). Bottom up is the way to
encode experience by transferring the information that is gained through the external world.
It is mediated through attention and perception. While top down is another way to encode
experience. It is in the form of action prior knowledge in order to help in interpreting the
bottom up. The fifth principle is memory. Memory is the ability to keep and remind the
information in our mind. It consists of short term memory, long term memory, and sensory.
Short term memory consists of limited amount of data and short duration. It is also
known as the working memory because it consists of some functions. They are rehearsal
(repetition), coding, decision making, and retrieval. The information that can be maintained
approximately 5-9 bits. According to Vinci (2000: 18) long term memory can hold a huge

amount of information-facts , data, and rules for how to use and process them and the
information can be maintained for long period. It means that long term memory consists of
very large amount of data and very long duration. The way to keep the information can be
maintained in this type of memory is by using cues.
THREE IMPORTANT COGNITIVE THEORIES
Cognitive is a learning theory that emphasized in the process which happens inside the
learners. In this case, there are three important types of cognitive theories. They are
Piaget’s cognitive development theory, Vygotsky’s socio cultural cognitive theory and the
information processing approach.
Piaget’s Cognitive Development (1896-1980)
Piaget is the famous psychologist from Swiss who describes cognitivism theory in the
cognitive developmental theory. According to Hebb(2003: 3) Piaget’s theory states the
children actively construct their understanding of the world and go through stages of
cognitive development. It means that Piaget described cognitivism in the stage development
of children when they are ready to construct the meaning of things through their own
understanding which starts from the simple to complex thing. Knowledge and thinking skills
provide the substance and tools for cognitive problem solving (Bandura, 1989:9). There are
two processes underlie in cognitive construction. They are organization and adaptation.
Organization is important in order the children construct the meaning of thing which
make sense to them by organizing our experience. For example we specify the less and
important ideas then we connect them. While adaptation is useful when we add the new
information in our thinking system because there is important additional information.
In this case, adaptation is differentiated into two ways. They are assimilation and
accommodation. Assimilation occurs when individuals adjust to new information (Hebb,
2003:3). For example: Newborns reflexively such everything that touches their lips
(assimilation) , but after several months of experience, they construct their understanding
of the world differently . They don’t suck fuzzy blanket (accommodation). Piaget developed
the cognitive development because he believed that the children pass the four stages of
cognitive development.
The first stage is sensorimotor (from birth to about two years of age). In this stage an
infant tries to construct the meaning of something that he or she is seeing and hearing. This
stage emphasizes in the infant’s motoric action. All the end of the stage, that is two years

old babies will have complex sensorimotor than before because they try to desire t he
meaning of thing in simple symbols. The second stage is preoperational stage (two to seven
years of age). In this stage, the children try to represent the world through word, images,
and drawing. The third stage is concrete operational stage (seven to eleven years of age).
In this stage, the children can use the intuitive thought. It means that they try to learn from
concrete to abstract thing. For instance, concrete operational thinkers can’t imagine the
step to complete algebra equation which is too abstract for thinking at this stage of
development. The fourth stage is operational stage (eleven to fifteen years of age) In this
stage, the individuals move beyond concrete experiences and think in abstract and more
logical terms. For instance formal operational thinkers are more detail in solving the
problems.
Vygotsky’s Socio Cultural Theory 1896-1934)
Vygotsky is a Russian psychologist who emphasize the cognitivism theory based on the
developmental analysis, the role of language, and social relation. According to Hebb(
2003:3) there are three claims of Vygotsky. They are child’s cognitive skills can be
understood only when they are developmentally analyzed and interpreted. It means that if
someone wants to know the origin and the transformation from beginning to the next, he
must take a part in child’s cognitive functioning.
Vygotsky’s second claim is cognitive skills are mediated by words, language, and forms
of discourse which serve as psychological tools for facilitating and transforming
mental activity.It means that language is important tool for children in early childhood in
order to plan their activities and solve the problems. His third claims described knowledge is
situated and collaborative. It means that knowledge occurred in environments through the
interaction with others collaboratively.
The information Processing Approach
According to Hebb (2003:6) the information processing approach emphasizes that
individuals manipulate information processing approach is same with cognitive
developmental theory by Piaget that emphasizes in the individual’s learning but the
information processing approach does not describe development as like stage (Piaget).
Green (2003) states that information processing approach involves three basic steps. They
are encoding, storage, and retrieval. The information that is gotten must be transferred
through three basic memory before it can be stored and retrieved.

Three basic memories are sensory memory is a type of memory that consists of the
important and clear information in order to give signal for the useful ones. Short term
memory is a type of memory which is famous as working memory. It has short capability
and period of time. There is only 7+-2 pieces of information can be kept there. Long term
memory is a type of memory that has very large data and very long duration. To make the
information is still keep in long term memory, people usually make mnemonics, creating
outline as a tool to keep the meaningful information. According to Siegler (1998) in Hebb
(2003:6) a leading expert on children’s information processing. So, he means that the
process of transferring information of individual from example people retrieve information.
It means that they are thinking.
Bruner
According to McLeod (2007) Bruner stated that cognitive growth involves interaction
between basic human capabilities and culturally invented technologies that serves as
amplifiers of these capabilities. It means that Bruner described cognitivism as the process of
thinking that occurs in interaction in social environment and also influence the development
of technology. This invented technology not only consists of concrete but also abstract
technology. In this case, Bruner agreed with the concept of Vygotsky’s social cognitivism
that language serves to mediate between environmental stimuli and individual’s response.
The concept of learning through cognitivism theory based on Bruner not only emphasized in
concept, categories, and problem solving but also the ability to invent it. Acc ording to
Bruner, cognitive development is divided into three models of representation. They are as
the followings.
Enactive representation (action –based)=> 0-1 year old
In this representation, the children try to learn manipulating object. For example babies’
understanding is that bottle is something that they suck to get milk.
Iconic representation has to do with images and things that can be altered=>1-6
years old
In this representation children try to think the differences between two different situations
separately. For example children imagine there is no people in market and there are so
many people in market.
Symbolic representation implies using symbols to change knowledge into code=>
7 years old.

In the representation emphasized in the role of enc oding to make the explanation more
clearly. For example: math variable is typically in mathematics subject.
THE DIFFERENCES OF BEHAVIORISM WITH OTHER THEORIES.
Cognitivism is a theory of learning studies about the process occurs inside the learner’s.
It is one of the language theories that gives contribution in education field. In this case,
there are some language theories that give contribution to education field beside
behaviorism such as cognitivism and constructivism. So, in the followings are the
differences among them in order to users of this theory do understand with their own
principles(Jung & Orey, 2008).
Behaviorism
It stresses on students’ observable behavior to create automatic learning includes the
use of instructional cues, practice, and reinforcement. In this case, the role of the teacher in
behaviorism theory is determines what type of cues that could produce the desired
response, to create conducive situation to reach the target stimuli and to create
environmental condition.
Cognitivism
It stresses on the process happens inside the human mind, acquisition of the language,
and internal mental structure. In this case, the role of teacher is to understand the position
of the students who have different experience that will influence to the learning outcome, to
determine the manners that mostly used and which one is effective to organize the new
information, to provide feedback in order to make the new information will be more
effective and efficient.
Constructivism
It emphasizes on how to construct the meaning of the word or thing based on their own
understanding. It can be done through individual experience and schema. The role of the
teacher is to ask the students to learn to construct meaning and to assimilate and
accommodate the students’ prior knowledge and the new ones.
THE EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATION OF COGNITIVE THEORIES
According to Suharno (2010:60) the cognitive view takes the learner to be an active
processor of information. It means that the cognitive theory tries t o create the people to be
active to think. The implication of cognitive theories in educational field is try to produce the

students to find the problem solving.dodiscovery learning, cognitive strategies, and project
based learning.
Problem Based Learning
The application of the learning is try the students to find the solution of the problem. For
example the student conducts a research. It means that he or she must find the solution to
solve the problems of his or her research that consists of identifies the problem, collects
and analyzes the data, draws the conclusion. The strength of problem based learning are it
focuses on the meaningfulness not the facts, it can improve the students’ initiative, it can
improve the students’ learning achievement etc.
Discovery Learning
Discovery learning is one of the applications of cognitivism . According to
O’Donnell(1997) “Discovery Learning is an instructional method in which the students are
free to work in learning environment with little or no guidance”. T his assumption from
O’Donnell is also supported by Ryan & Muray (2009) who assume that discovery learning is
problem based learning with minimal guidance”. It means that through discovery learning
the teacher gives opportunity to students to explore their selves by learning through the
environment with little guidance from the teacher. There are some structures that must be
paid attention in applying discovery learning. They are readiness to learn, intuitive and
analytical thinking, motivates for learning. These structures must be moved from basic to
advanced step.
From the example of the two types of implication of cognitive theories, the users of the
theory must be paid attention to the principles itself. There are six principles of cognitivism
theory to improve teaching (Magna publication, 1995).The first principle if information is to
be learned, it must first be recognized as important. The second is during learning, learners
act on information in ways that make it more meaningful. The third is learners store
information in long term memory in an organized fashion related to their existing
understanding of the world. The fourth is learners continually check understanding, which
results in refinement and revision of what is retained. The fifth is transfer of learning to new
contexts is not automatic, but results’-form exposure to multiple application,. The sixth is
learning is facilitated when learners are aware of their learning strategies and monitor their
use.
STRENGTH AND WEAKNESSES

Cognitivism is a theory of learning studies about the process occurs inside the learner’s.
So, as a teacher who wants to apply the cognitivism in his or her teaching learning process,
he or she must consider the strength and weaknesses of it when it applies in classroom. The
weakness of cognitivism is the learners learn the way to finish the task, but it is not a good
way. The strength is the students are trained to do the task in the same way to produce
the students who have consistency behavior ( Schuman,1996 in Mergel, 1998).
CONCLUSION
Cognitive theory is learning theory of psychology that attempts to explain human
behavior by understanding the thought process. It is emphasized in the conscious thought.
The theory was born in the 1950s. There are four factors influenced the development of it.
They are experimental psychology, the shift from behaviorism to cognition, language
acquisition and computer artificial intelligence. In this case, cognitivism is divided into three
important cognitive theories emphasize their conscious thoughts. They are Piaget’s cognitive
development theory, Vygotsky’s socio cultural cognitive theory, and the information
processing approach. All of the types of cognitive theory stress on the important of process
that is happening inside the human’s mind. The application of cognitive theory can be
applied through problem based learning, discovery learning, cognitive strategies, and
project based learning. Overall the goal of its application is to create the students to be
active in teaching learning process.
REFERENCES
Asiaeuniversity, 2012. Learning Theories-behaviorism. Chapter
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2012.
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development, 6(8). Available
on. citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.15.1034&rep=rep1&type=pdf Acces
sed on 4 January 2013.
Collentine,J. 1993. Cognitive Principles and CALL Grammar Instruction: A Mind-Centered,
Input Approach. CALICO Journal. 15(1-3) .Available
on http://www.calico.org/html/article_439.pdf.Accessed on 4 January 2013.

Green. 2003. From Theory to Practice: Cognitive Principles of Learning and Instruction. The
Office for Teaching and Learning Newsletter.7(3). Available online
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Hebb. 2003. Chapter 2. Available on. highered.mcgraw-
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Jordan, A., Carlite O., & Stack, A. 2008. Approaches to Learning: A Guide for Teachers. New
York: The McGrow Hill Companies.
Jung, E.J. & Orey, M. 2008. Comparison of Major Learning Paradigms. Available
on www.81bada.myweb.uga.edu/portfolio/comparison.pdf. Accessed on 8October2012.
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Mergel, B. 1998. Instructional Design & Learning Theory. Available
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