Compialtion selected topics

Social Science 502
SELECTED TOPICS IN SOCIAL STUDIES

JENNIFER CHRISTA MARIE C. PELEN
M.A.T. (Social Science)
READING 2: STUDYING &
TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY

ESSENTIAL GEOGRAPHY
QUESTIONS
• What is geography and why is it
important?
• What are the tools of geography and how
are they used to analyze the physical and
human landscapes of the world?
• How are historical events influenced by
physical and cultural geography?

GEOGRAPHY IS THE STUDY OF:
• The earth's surface and the processes
that shape it.
• The connections between places.
• The complex relationships that
develop between people and their
environments— physical
surroundings.

GEOGRAPHERS
ARE SCIENTISTS WHO STUDY
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
PEOPLE AND THEIR
ENVIRONMENTS.

1. Physical
Geography
—study of
the physical
features and
changes on the
earth's surface.
TWO MAJOR BRANCHES OF
GEOGRAPHY ARE:

2. Cultural
Geography
—study of
humans and their
ideas, and the
impact of human
ideas and actions
on the earth.
TWO MAJOR BRANCHES OF
GEOGRAPHY ARE:

WHAT IS THE IMPORTANCE OF
GEOGRAPHY?
• help us know more about each other and
our cultures,
• help us understand our environment and
problems associated with it,
• help us better understand the ways in
which each of us interacts with, and is
dependent on others and the environment,
• and help us solve environmental, political,
economic, and social problems.

GEOGRAPHY’S FOUR TRADITIONS
The four traditions of geography were originally espoused by geographer William D.
Pattison at the opening session of the annual convention of the National Council for
Geographic Education, Columbus, Ohio, November 29, 1963. His four traditions attempted to
define the discipline.

GEOGRAPHY’S FOUR TRADITIONS
1. Spatial Tradition (Locational Tradition)
• Mapping
• Spatial analysis
• Boundaries and densities
• Movement and transportation
• Quantitative techniques and tools, such as computerized
• Mapping and Geographic Information Systems
• Central Place Theory
• Areal distribution
• Spatial patterns

2. Area Studies Tradition (Regional
Tradition)
• Description of regions or areas
• World regional geography
• International trends and relationships
• How regions are different from one
another
• The chorographic tradition (regions)

3. Man-Land Tradition (Human-
Environmental, Human- Land, or Culture
Environment Tradition)
• Human impact on nature
• Impact of nature on humans
• Natural hazards
• Perception of environment
• Environmentalism
• Cultural, political, and population
geography

4. Earth Science Tradition
• Physical geography
• The lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere,
and biosphere
• Earth-sun interaction
• Offshoots are geology, mineralogy,
paleontology, glaciology, Geomorphology, and
meteorology
• The study of the earth as the home to
humans

GEOGRAPHY’S SHIFTING
ROLE IN THE CURRICULUM

GEOGRAPHY’S SHIFTING ROLE IN THE
CURRICULUM
Geography is popular because it can support
many different learning styles.
According to Howard Gardner (Gardner, 1993),
individual learning preferences, or ‘intelligences’,
include: linguistic *
mathematical/logical * visual/spatial * interpersonal
* bodily-kinesthetic and in geography lessons,
students are likely to have the opportunity to learn
in most of these ways on a regular basis. Learning
is enhanced when both the left and right
hemispheres of the brain are engaged.
E.g. Visualise (right) the place they are
studying and then write a description (left).

• FIELDWORK
Fieldwork hooks
learners’ interest and
provides a relevant ‘real
life’ stimulus for
geographical questions,
setting up a sequence of
investigation, collecting,
recording, presenting,
analyzing and evaluating
evidence as part of
geographical enquiry.
• GEOGRAPHY ANG LITERACY
Speaking and listening
skills are a particular feature of
most geography lessons,
especially during group-based
activities. Pupils are given the
opportunity to articulate, share,
refine, test, explain, justify,
defend, predict, hypothesise
and evaluate their ideas in a
subject which addresses issues
with different viewpoints such
as environmental change and
sustainable development.
CURRICULUM

• GEOGRAPHY AND
NUMERACY
The association
between numeracy and
geography is clear and
purposeful. Using maps
involves using ‘coordinates,
directions, distance and
scale’ also angle, position
and ratio. Geography
provides unequivocal real
life contexts for numeracy,
and numeracy enhances
geographical
understanding.
• THINKING SKILLS
Geography
pioneered the teaching of
thinking skills, and the
resulting wealth of
strategies and resources
(e.g. Mysteries, Living
Graphs, Maps from
Memory) support the
development of pupils’
conceptual
understanding.
CURRICULUM

• ICT SKILLS
Geography
incorporates many powerful
applications of ICT, from
using generic software for
word processors and
multimedia to subject-
specific applications – in
particular the increasing use
of Geographic Information
Systems (GIS), data
recording in fieldwork,
Global Positioning System
(GPS) technology and
satellite imagery.
• CITIZENSHIP
The curriculum
gives examples of how
geography might play a
significant part in
promoting citizenship: e.g.
Developing learners’
understanding of the
world as a global
community and the issues
and challenges of global
interdependence and
responsibility.
CURRICULUM

• SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT
EDUCATION
This enable learners to
develop the knowledge,
skills, understanding and
values to make responsible
decisions, both individually
and collectively, at both local
and global scales, about the
environment.
CURRICULUM

GEOGRAPHY’S FIVE
FUNDAMENTAL THEMES

• The distinctive
and
distinguishing
physical and
human
characteristics
of locales.
• The meaning
of relative
and absolute
position on
the earth's
surface.
GEOGRAPHY’S FIVE FUNDAMENTAL
THEMES
1. Location 2. Place

• Patterns and
change in
human spatial
interaction on
the earth.
• The development
and consequences
of human -
environment
relationships.
THEMES
3. Human Environmental
Interaction
4. Movement

• how they
form and
change.
THEMES
5. Region

REFERENCES:
RGS-IBG/GA (1998) Geography: An Essential Contribution to
Education for Life. London: RGS-IBG.
www.mrswatsonsclass.com/aphug/.../Unit1-
Pattisons4Traditions.doc
www.cgeducation.ca/programs/.../docs/importance_in_curricul
um.pdf

STUDYING AND
TEACHING SOCIOLOGY
MA. VICTORIA L. ESTILLERO
MAT SOC SCI

I.DESCRIBING SOCIOLOGY
Sociology- is the systematic study of social
behavior and human groups. It focuses on
social relationships, how these relationships
influence people’s behavior and how societies,
the sum total of these relationships, develop
and change.

The French
philosopher Auguste
Comte (1798–1857)—often
called the “father of
sociology”—first used the term
“sociology” in 1838 to refer to
the scientific study of society.

 He believed that all societies develop and progress
through the following stages: religious, metaphysical,
and scientific. In the religious or theological stage,
supernatural forces are understood to control the world.
In the metaphysical stage, abstract forces and what
Comte called “destiny” or “fate” are perceived to be the
prime movers of history. In the scientific or positive
stage, events are explained through the scientific
method of observation, experimentation, and analytic
comparison.

• Comte argued that society needs scientific
knowledge based on facts and evidence to solve
its problems—not speculation and superstition,
which characterize the religious and metaphysical
stages of social development.
• Comte viewed the science of sociology as
consisting of two branches: dynamics, or the
study of the processes by which societies change;
and statics, or the study of the processes by
which societies endure.

• He also envisioned sociologists as
eventually developing a base of scientific
social knowledge that would guide society
into positive directions.

The 19th‐century
Englishman Herbert
Spencer (1820–1903) compared
society to a living organism with
interdependent parts. Change in
one part of society causes change
in the other parts, so that every
part contributes to the stability and
survival of society as a whole.

• Spencer suggested that society will correct its own
defects through the natural process of “survival of the
fittest.” The societal “organism” naturally leans toward
homeostasis, or balance and stability. Social problems
work themselves out when the government leaves society
alone. The “fittest”—the rich, powerful, and successful—
enjoy their status because nature has “selected” them to
do so.

• German political philosopher and
economist Karl Marx (1818–
1883), who observed society's
exploitation of the poor by the rich
and powerful. Marx argued that
Spencer's healthy societal
“organism” was a falsehood.
Rather than interdependence and
stability, Marx claimed that social
conflict, especially class conflict,
and competition mark all societies.

Marx’s great intellectual and political breakthrough came in
1848. Before that, he had urged philosophers to get their
heads out of the clouds and return to the real world—that is,
he urged them towards “materialism”, a focus on the way
people organize their society to solve basic material needs
such as food, shelter, and clothing as the basis for
philosophy, not “idealism,” with its focus on society as the
manifestation of either sacred or secular ideas.

 His central work was Capital, a three-volume work that laid
out a theory of how capitalism worked as a system. His
central insight was that the exchange of money and
services between capital (those who own the means of
production) and labor (those who sell their labor power to
capitalists for wages) is unequal. Workers must work
longer than necessary to pay for the costs of their upkeep,
producing what Marx called “surplus value.”

 Marx believed that the “laws of motion” of
capitalism would bring about its own
destruction as the rich got so rich and the
poor got so poor that they would revolt
against the obvious inequity of the system.

A French philosopher and sociologist,
Durkheim stressed the importance of
studying social facts, or patterns of
behavior characteristic of a particular
group. The phenomenon of suicide
especially interested Durkheim. But he
did not limit his ideas on the topic to
mere speculation. Durkheim’s study of
suicide illustrated his central insight:
that society is held together by
“solidarity,” moral bonds that connect
us to the social collectivity. “Every
society is a moral society,” he wrote.

Durkheim certainly advocated the use of systematic
observation to study sociological events, but he also
recommended that sociologists avoid considering people's
attitudes when explaining society.
Sociologists should only consider as objective “evidence”
what they themselves can directly observe. In other words,
they must not concern themselves with people's subjective
experiences.

• The German
sociologist Max
Weber (1864–1920)
disagreed with the
“objective evidence
only” position of
Durkheim.

He argued that sociologists must also consider
people's interpretations of events—not just the
events themselves. Weber believed that individuals'
behaviors cannot exist apart from their
interpretations of the meaning of their own
behaviors, and that people tend to act according to
these interpretations.

Because of the ties between objective
behavior and subjective interpretation, Weber
believed that sociologists must inquire into
people's thoughts, feelings, and perceptions
regarding their own behaviors.

Weber recommended that sociologists adopt
his method of Verstehen (vûrst e hen), or
empathetic understanding. Verstehen allows
sociologists to mentally put themselves into
“the other person's shoes” and thus obtain an
“interpretive understanding” of the meanings of
individuals' behaviors.

• Social interaction refer to the ways in
which people respond to one another,
whether face to face or over the
telephone or on the computer. There is
no objective social reality, no one “true,”
way of interpreting the things that
happen to us.
II. SOCIAL INTERACTION AND SYMBOLIC
INTERACTIONISM

Cooley and the Looking-Glass Self
• One of the first sociologists
to argue that the identity is
formed through social
interaction was Charles
Horton Cooley (1864-
1929), who coined the term
looking-glass self to
describe the process by
which our identity develops
.

He argued that we develop our looking-glass
self or mirror self in three stages:
1.We imagine how we appear to others
around us. We think other people see us as
smart or stupid, good or bad.

2. We draw general conclusions based on the
reactions of others. If I imagine that many people
think I am stupid, or just one important person (like a
teacher or a parent), then I will conclude that I am
indeed stupid.
3. Based on our evaluations of others’ reactions,
we develop our sense of personal identity. A
favorable reaction in the “social mirror” leads to a
positive self-concept; a negative reaction leads to a
negative self-concept.

a sociologist, believed that our self-
arises through taking on the role of
others. He used interaction as the
foundation for this theory of the
construction of identity: we create a
“self” through our interactions with
others.
GEORGE HERBERT MEAD (1863-1931)

According to Mead there were two parts of the self,
the I and the ME. The I is the self as subject, needs,
desires, and impulses that are not channeled into
any social activity, an agent, the self that thinks and
acts. The ME is self as object-the attitudes we
internalize from interactions with others, the social
self. We achieve our sense of self-awareness when
we learn to distinguish the two.

• Exchange. According to sociologist Peter Blau (1964),
exchange is the most basic form of social interaction:
we give things to people after they give things to us or
in expectation of receiving things in the future.
• Cooperation. The running counts of good and bad
exchanges are forgotten when we must work together
toward a common goal: growing food, raising children,
and protecting our group from enemies.
PATTERNS OF SOCIAL
INTERACTION

*Competition. Sometimes the goal is not one of
common good: several advertising agencies may be
interested in a prized account, but only one will get
the contract.
*Conflict. In a situation of conflict, the competition
becomes more intense and hostile, with the
competitors actively hating each other and perhaps
breaking social norms to acquire the prized goal.

*Coercion. The final form of social interaction is
coercion, in which individuals or groups with social
power, called the superordinate, use the threat of
violence, deprivation, or some other punishment to
control the actions of those with less power, called
the subordinate (Simmel, 1908). Coercion is often
combined with other forms of social interaction.

 is a theoretical approach to
understanding the relationship between
humans and society. The basic notion
of symbolic interactionism is that
human action and interaction are
understandable only through the
exchange of meaningful
communication or symbols.
SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM

The main principles of symbolic interactionism
are:
• Human beings act toward things on the basis
of the meaning that things have for them
• These meanings arise out of social interaction
• Social action results from a fitting together of
individual lines of action.

III. SOCIAL AND SOCIAL CLASS
The Conflict Perspective
• The conflict perspective, or conflict theory, derives
from the ideas of Karl Marx, who believed society is
a dynamic entity constantly undergoing change
driven by class conflict.
• society is made up of individuals competing for
limited resources (e.g., money, leisure, sexual
partners, etc.). Competition over scarce resources
is at the heart of all social relationships.

• Conflict theorists argue that stratification is
dysfunctional and harmful in society.
• social stratification benefits the rich and powerful
at the expense of the poor. Thus, it creates a
system of winners and losers that is maintained by
those who are on the top. The people who are
losers do not get a fair chance to compete, and
thus are stuck on the bottom.

• Status— refers to any social identity
recognized as meaningful by the group
or society. A status is a position that
carries with it certain expectations,
rights, and responsibilities.
IV. STATUS, ROLES AND SOCIAL
SYSTEMS

• Ascribed Status—is a status that we
receive involuntarily, without regard to our
unique talents, skills, or accomplishments.
For instance, our place of birth, parents, first
language, ethnic background, gender, sexual
identity, and age.
TWO KINDS OF STATUSES:

Achieved Status— is a status that we attain
through talent, ability, effort, or other unique personal
characteristics. Some of the more common achieved
statuses are: being a college graduate, being rich or
poor, having a occupation, being married or in a
romantic relationship, belong to a church.

Master Status—it refers when ascribed or
achieved status is presumed so important
that it overshadows all of the others,
dominating our lives and controlling our
position in society.

Social roles—are sets of behaviors that are
expected of a person who occupies a certain
status. We learn what sorts of behaviors are
expected from specific roles, and then we
perform those roles in conformity with those
expectations.

Role Conflict—occurs when incompatible
expectations arise from two or more social positions
held by the same person. Fulfillment of the roles
associated with one status may directly violate the
roles linked to a second status.
Role Strain—describes the difficulty that arises when
the same social position imposes conflicting demands
and expectations.

• Role Exit—describes the process of
adjustment that takes place when
we move out of such a role.
Sometimes we leave roles
voluntarily or involuntarily. Whether
we leave voluntarily or involuntarily,
we are likely to feel lost, confused,
and sad.

• Doubt. We are frustrated, burned out, or just
unhappy with our role.
• Search for alternatives. We observe people in other
roles or perhaps try them out ourselves
temporarily. This may be a lifelong process.
• Departure. Most people can identify a turning point,
a specific moment or incident that marked their
departure from the role, even though they might
continue to play it for sometime.
• New Role. It is very important to find a new role to
take the place of the old.
HELEN ROSE FUCS EBAUGH (1988) NOTES
FOUR STAGES IN VOLUNTARILY EXITING
FROM SIGNIFICANT SPECIAL ROLES:

 is a group designed for a special
purpose and structured for
maximum efficiency. It fulfills an
enormous variety of personal and
societal need and shapes the lives
of every one of us.
V. FORMAL ORGANIZATION

• Well defined rules and regulation
• Determined objectives and policies
• Status symbol
• Limitation on the activities of the individual
• Strict observance of the principle of co-ordination
• Messages are communicated through scalar chain
• It is to best attain the objectives of the enterprise.
CHARACTERISTICS OF FORMAL
ORGANIZATIONS

• Sociological methods are the scientific
strategies used to collect data of social
happenings.
• The methodology one chooses has an
effect on the questions one asks and the
answers one gets from research.
VI. METHODS OF STUDYING SOCIETY

• Deductive Reasoning- they logically
proceed from one demonstrable fact to the
next and deduce their results. These are
more like the methods of the natural
sciences, and the results we obtain are
independent of any feelings that we or our
research subjects may have.
SOCIOLOGISTS FOLLOW THE RULES OF THE SCIENTIFIC
METHOD; THIS MEANS THEIR ARGUMENTS MUST BE BACKED
UP BY DATA THAT ARE SYSTEMATICALLY COLLECTED AND
ANALYZED. RESEARCH METHODS USE:

Inductive Reasoning- will help us to
understand a problem using our own
human capacity to put ourselves in the
other person’s position. Inductive
reasoning is reasoning from the specific to
the general.

• Quantitative research- one uses powerful
statistical tools to help understand patterns
in which the behaviors, attitudes, or traits
under study can be translated into numerical
values. Typically, quantitative methods rely
on deductive reasoning.
RESEARCH ALSO DIVIDED BETWEEN QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH:

Qualitative research- rely on more
inductive and inferential reasoning to
understand the texture of social life, the
actual felt experience of social interaction.

1. Choosing an issue.
2. Defining the problem.
3. Reviewing the literature.
4. Developing a hypothesis.
5. Designing a project.
6. Collecting data.
7. Analyzing the data.
8. Reporting the findings.
SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH FOLLOWS
EIGHT BASIC STEPS:

• Social Stratification- the system of
structured social inequality and the
structure of mobility in a society.
Stratification is concerned with the
ranking of people.
VII. SOCIAL INTERACTION AND CLASS
INEQUALITY

• Durkheim—believed that stratification
was a necessary organizing principle of
a complex society and that it served to
create interdependence among
society’s members, so that everyone
“needed” the activities of everyone else
(Filoux, 1993).
WHY DO WE HAVE SOCIAL
STRATIFICATION?

Marx—stressed the ways the stratification
system benefited those at the top—at the
expense of those at the bottom. He spoke
of oppression and exploitation, not
integration and interdependence.

Kingssley Davis and Wilber Moore –
argued that as long as some degree of
social mobility was possible,
stratification is essential to the proper
functioning of a society.

Social stratification creates a meritocracy,
a system in which those at who are the
most “meritorious” will rise to the top, and
those who are less so will sink to the
bottom.

• Caste system- one is born into a group and
can never leave that group.
• Class system- this form is based on wealth,
income, and to some extent, birth. This
allows for social mobility, or movement up or
down the social class ladder, although most
individuals remain in or near the class
position they are born into.
SYSTEM OF STRATIFICATION

• Karl Marx—argued that human survival
depends on producing things. How we, as a
society, organize ourselves to do this, and
how we distribute the rewards, is what Marx
called the mode of production—the
organization of society to produce what
people need to survive.
THEORIES OF SOCIAL CLASS

Max Weber—stratification
based on three dimensions:
class, status, and power.

VIII. RACE AND ETHNIC
INEQUALITIES
• Race is a human population that is believed
to be distinct in some way from other
humans based on real or
imagined physical differences. Racial
classifications are rooted in the idea of
biological classification of humans according
to morphological features such as skin color
or facial characteristics.

Ethnicity, while related to race, refers not to
physical characteristics but social traits that are
shared by a human population. Some of the
social traits often used for ethnic classification
include: nationality, tribe, religious faith, shared
language, shared culture, shared traditions.

• Racial group is a group that is treated as distinct
in society based on certain characteristics.
Because of their biological or cultural
characteristics, which are labeled as inferior by
powerful groups in society, a race is often singled
out for differential and unfair treatment.
• Ethnic group is a social category of people who
share a common culture, such as a common
language, a common religion, or common norms,
customs, practices, and history.

Minority group is any distinct group in society
that shares common group characteristics and
is forced to occupy low status in society
because of prejudice and discrimination.
The group that assigns a racial or ethnic group
to subordinate status in society is called the
dominant group.

• Social institutions are usually
conceived of as the basic focuses
of social organization, common to
all societies and dealing with some
of the basic universal problems of
ordered social life.
IX. SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

1. The patterns of behavior which are regulated by
institutions ( “institutionalized") deal with some
perennial, basic problems of any society.
2. Institutions involve the regulation of behavior of
individuals in society according to some definite,
continuous, and organized patterns.
3. These patterns involve a definite normative ordering
and regulation; that is, regulation is upheld by norms
and by sanctions which are legitimized by these norms.
THREE BASIC ASPECTS OF INSTITUTIONS ARE
EMPHASIZED:

A. FAMILY is a basic unit of society. It is
also cultural institution. Focuses on the
regulation of the procreative and
biological relations between individuals in
a society and on the initial socialization of
the new members of each generation.
DIFFERENT SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

• The control and regulation of sexual
behavior.
• To provide for new members of society
(children).
• To provide for the economic and emotional
maintenance of individuals.
• To provide for primary socialization of
children.
FUNCTIONS OF FAMILY

B. ECONOMY—is a set of institutions and
relationships that manages natural resources,
manufactured goods, and professional services.
FUNCTIONS OF THE ECONOMY
• Provide methods for the production of goods and
services.
• Provide methods for the distribution of goods and
services.
• Enable society’s members to consume goods and
services which are produced.

Economic systems—deal with production,
distribution and consumption.
*Capitalism—is based on profit, competition,
and ownership of private property.
*Socialism—is characterized by collective
ownership, collective goals and central
planning.
*Communism—is collective ownership with little
government intervention.

C. POLITICS AND GOVERNMENT
The political sphere deals with the control of the use
of force within a society and the maintenance of
internal and external peace of the boundaries of the
society, as well as control of the mobilization of
resources for the implementation of various goals and
the articulation and setting up of certain goals for the
collectivity.

• The institutionalization of norms (laws).
• The enforcement of laws.
• The adjudication of conflict (court)
• Provide for the welfare of members of
society.
• Protection of society from external threat.
FUNCTIONS OF GOVERNMENT

FUNCTIONS OF RELIGION
• Providing solutions for unexplained natural, phenomena.
• Supplying a means for controlling the natural world.
• Religion tends to support the normative structure of the
society.
D. RELIGION-- IS A SET OF BELIEFS ABOUT THE
ORIGIN AND MEANING OF LIFE, USUALLY BASED ON
THE EXISTENCE A SUPERNATURAL POWER.

*Furnishing a psychological diversion from
unwanted life situations.
*Sustaining the existing class structure.
*Religion serves as an instrument for
socialization.
*Religion may both promote and retard social
change.
*Religion may both reduce and encourage
conflict in groups.

• as a social institution through which society provides
its members with important knowledge—basic facts,
job skills, and cultural norms and values.
• Education has both manifest (clearly apparent) and
latent (potential or hidden) functions. The manifest
function of education is to teach the subject matter;
and the latent functions of education are to teach
norms and values and to establish relationships and
social networks.
E. EDUCATION

• Sociological Perspective on Health
Health is a state of complete well‐being: physical, mental,
and emotional. This definition emphasizes the importance
of being more than disease free, and recognizes that a
healthy body depends upon a healthy environment and a
stable mind.
Medicine is the social institution that diagnoses, treats,
and prevents disease. To accomplish these tasks, medicine
depends upon most other sciences—including life and earth
sciences, chemistry, physics, and engineering.
F. HEALTH AND MEDICINE

Preventive medicine is a more recent
approach to medicine, which emphasizes
health habits that prevent disease,
including eating a healthier diet, getting
adequate exercise, and insuring a safe
environment.

Sociology assumes that a functioning society depends upon
healthy people and upon controlling illness. In examining
social constructs of health and illness, sociologist Talcott
Parsons identified what he called “ the sick role,” or the
social definition of, the behavior of, and the behavior toward
those whom society defines as ill. Parsons identified four
components to the sick role.
• Not held responsible for being sick.
• Not responsible for normal duties.
• Not supposed to like the role.
• Supposed to seek help to get out of the role.

G. MASS MEDIA – are ways we communicate with
large numbers of people; they are spurred by
technological innovation and both reflect and create
culture. Mass media include print media, radio, TV
and movies, as well as the Internet.
BASIC FUNCTIONS OF MASS MEDIA
 Provides news and information
 Entertainment
 Education

• What is Deviance?
Is a behavior that violates the
standards of conduct or
expectations of a group or society.
X. SOCIAL DEVIANCE AND
SOCIAL CONTROL

Deviance and Social Coherence
Because there is always deviance in society, some
sociologists ask what purpose it might serve.
Durkheim argued that deviance is useful to society in
four ways;
 It affirms cultural norms and values.
 It clarifies moral boundaries.
 It heightens group solidarity.
 It encourages social change.

Sociologists explain deviance as follows:
Differential association explains deviance as an
excess of definitions. When an individual sees that there
is a reward for deviance, the deviance is defined as
rewarding.
Control theory assumes that individual are rational
actors and weigh the costs and benefits of any action. If
benefit outweighs cost, an individual is more likely to be
deviant.
Labeling theory, something or someone has to be
labeled as deviant before it is considered as deviant.
Once a person is labeled as a criminal, he or she will
always be viewed as one.

Deviance and Crime
Most theories of deviance also apply to crime, which is
simply a legally regulated form of extreme deviance.
Crime- defined as any act that violates a formal
normative code that has been enacted by a legally
constituted body.
Strain theory explains crime as a result of a tension
between the accepted goals of society and the
accepted means of obtaining these goals, means to
which everyone does not have equal access.

Social Control—refers to the techniques and
strategies for preventing deviant human
behavior in any society. Social control occurs
on all levels of society. Most of us respect and
accept basic social norms and assume that
others will do the same. This expectation
carries with it sanctions, penalties and
rewards for conduct concerning a social norm.

Stanley Milgram (1975) made a useful distinction
between two levels of social control:
1. Conformity- means going along with peers-
individuals of our own status who have no special
right to direct our behavior.
2. Obedience- is compliance with higher authorities
in a hierarchical structure.
Example: A recruit entering military service will
typically conform to the habits and language of other
recruits and obey the orders of superior officers.

The sanctions that are used to encourage conformity
and obedience- and to discourage violation of social
norms- are carried out through both informal and
formal social control.
Informal social control- to enforce norms. Examples
of this are smiles, laughter, a raised eyebrow, and
ridicule; also spanking, slapping, and kicking.
Formal social control- is carried out by authorized
agents, such as police officers, judges, school
administrators, employees, military officers and so on.

REFERENCES
BOOKS:
Aronson, Amy and Kimmel, Michael. Sociology Now. Pearson Publishing
Co., (2009)
Schaefer, Richard T. Sociology (9th Edition). McGraw. Hill International
Edition (2005)
Web resources:
www.boundless.com/sociolgy
www.education_portal.com
www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/formal_organization
www.yourarticlelibrary.com/organization
www.en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Introduction_to_Sociology/Race_and_Ethnicity
www.sociolgy.about.com/od/Disciplines/a/Sociology-of-Race-Ethnicity
www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Social_Institutions

MA. CRISTINA Y. ABALOS
Reading 4: STUDYING AND
TEACHING POLITICAL SCIENCE

“The function of education is to teach one to think
intensively and to think critically… Intelligence plus
character – that is the true goal of true education”.
- Martin Luther King Jr.

POLITICAL SCIENCE AND TEACHING
SOCIAL STUDIES
• Political Science
• A social science discipline that deals with systems of
government and the analysis of political behavior.
• Aristotle defined it as the study of state.
• State is defined as a community of persons more or
less numerous, permanently occupying a definite
portion of territory, having a government of their
own to which the great body of inhabitants render
obedience, and enjoying freedom from external
forces. (Garner)

MEANING OF POLITICAL SCIENCE
• The science of politics, therefore, has, as its formal
object, a basic knowledge and understanding of the
state and of the principles and ideals which underlie
its organization and activities.
• It is primarily concerned with the association of
human beings into a “body politic”, or a political
community (one organized under government and
law).
• As such, it deals with those relations among men
and groups which are subject to the state’s control,
with the relations of men and groups to the state
itself, and with the relations of the state to other
states.

• PEOPLE - refers
to the number
of people living
within a state.
The most
essential and
indispensable
element of the
state.

• TERRITORY –
where the
people of a state
live; this refers to
the aerial,
terrestrial, fluvial,
and maritime
domains of the
state.

• Discovery – the oldest mode of acquiring territory.
• Prescription – the continued and uninterrupted
occupation of territory for a long period of time by
one State.
• Conquest – the acquisition of a territory by the use of
force, which reduces the vanquished territory into
submission to the conquering State.
• Cession – a bilateral agreement whereby one state
transfer over another State a definite portion of its
territory.
• Accretion – acquisition of territory through artificial
or natural way.

• GOVERNMENT
– refers to the
aggregates of
persons or
institutions, which
rule the society.
• An agency
through which the
will of the state is
formulated,
expressed and
carried out.

• SOVEREIGNTY
– the power of
the state to
command and
enforce
obedience of its
will from the
people.

SCOPE OF POLITICAL SCIENCE
1. Political Theory
• The entire body of doctrines relating to the origin,
form, behavior, and purposes of the state are
dealt with in the study of political theory.
2. Public Law
• The organization of governments
• The limitations upon government authority
• The powers and duties of governmental offices
and officers
• The obligations of one state to another are
handled in the study of public law.

2. Public Law
• In contradistinction to the rules of private law, which
govern the relations among individuals, public law is
so specialized that separate courses are offered in
each of its subdivisions – constitutional (a, b),
administrative (c), and international law (d).
3. Public Administration
• Attention is focused upon the methods and techniques
used in the actual management of state affairs by
executive, legislative, and judicial branches of
government.
• As the complexity of government activities grows, the
traditional distinctions among the powers of the three
branches become even less clear-cut.

3. Public Administration
• Today, legislative bodies have been forced to
delegate greater discretion to executive officers
responsible for the conduct of government
policies and powers.
• With this, we find many administrative agencies
exercising quasi-legislative and quasi-judicial
powers.
• Administrative law, already referred to, also falls
within the scope of any broad study of public
administration.

• Political Science is one of the oldest fields of
academic inquiry Social ideals and their
realization through law were systematically
studied in ancient Greece.
• In an increasingly interdependent world, the
study of politics and government has
flourished as the relations between persons,
groups and nations have become more
complex, and questions of freedom and
authority have challenged every citizen.

• Modern political science is equally
concerned with questions of political
philosophy and with the pursuit of
social scientific research.
• These concerns are reflected in a broad
and diverse curriculum.

IMPORTANCE OF POLITICAL SCIENCE IN
SOCIAL STUDIES
• The primary purpose of social studies is to help young
people make informed and reasoned decisions for the
public good as citizens of a culturally diverse,
democratic society in an interdependent world.
• Students will understand the historical development
and current status of the democratic principles and
the development of skills and attitudes necessary to
become responsible citizens.
• To promote civic competence—the knowledge,
intellectual processes, and democratic dispositions
required of students to be active and engaged
participants in public life.

CONSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK
• The Philippine government is the national
government of the unitary state of the Republic
of the Philippines.
• It is a presidential, representative, and
democratic republic where the President of the
Philippines is both the head of the state and the
head of government within a pluriform multi-
party system.
• This system revolves around three separate and
sovereign yet independent branches: the
legislative branch, the executive branch, and the
judicial branch.

According to the 1987 Constitution, legislative power
shall be vested in the Congress of the Philippines,
which shall consist of a Senate and a House of
Representatives.

• The power to make laws and
to alter or amend them.
• It is vested in the Congress of
the Philippines is composed of
the Senate, or the Upper
House, and the House of the
Representatives, or the lower
house.

1. Main Function: To legislate
2. Other functions:
a. General – power to enact laws intended as rules of
conduct to govern the relations among individuals
or between individuals and the state.
b. Special Powers – choose who shall become the
President in case 2 or more candidates have an
equal number of votes. Conform certain
appointments from the president.
c. Implied Powers – the powers essential or necessary
to the effective exercise of the powers expressly
granted.
d. Inherent Powers – powers which are possessed and
can be exercised by every government because

Congress Composition Qualification Term of office Max Term
Senate 24
1. Natural-born citizens of the Philippines
2. At least 35 years old on the day of the election
3. Must be able to read and write
4. Registered voter
5. Resident of the Philippines for a period of not
less than 2 years immediately preceding the
day of the election
6 years 2 terms
House 250
1. Natural-born citizen
2. At least 25 years old on the day of the election
3. Must be able to read and write
4. Except for party-list representatives, a
registered voter in the district in which he shall
be elected
5. Resident thereof for a period of not less than 1
year immediately preceding the day of the
election
3 years 3 terms

Article VII, Section 1, of the 1987 Constitution vests executive
power to the President of the Philippines, who functions as the
Head of State, Head of Government, and Commander-in-Chief
of the Armed Forces of the Philippines. As Chief Executive, the
President of the Philippines exercises control over all the
executive departments, bureaus, and offices.

• The President of the
Philippines is elected by
direct vote by the
people for a term of six
years. He may only
serve for one term and
is ineligible for
reelection. The term of
the President of the
Philippines starts at
noon of the 30th day of
June after an election is
held.

1. Natural born Filipino
2. A registered
3. Must be able to read
and write
4. 40 years of age at the
day of the election
5. Must have resided in
the Philippines ten
years before the
election is held

3. Power over Aliens
• The President of the Philippines has the power over non-
Filipinos in the Philippines
4. Powers of Eminent Domain, Escheat, Land Reservation and
Recovery of Ill-gotten Wealth
5. Power of Appointment
• The President may appoint officials of the Philippine
Government as provided by the Constitution and laws of the
Philippines. Some of these appointments, however, may
need the approval of the Committee on Appointments.
6. Power of General Supervision Over Local Governments
• The President of the Philippines, as Chief Executive, has the
mandate to supervise local governments in the Philippines,
despite their autonomous status as provided by RA 7160
otherwise known as the Local Government Code of 1991.

A. Functions of a Cabinet Secretary
• Cabinet Secretaries act as the alter ego of the President
executing, with his authority, the power of the Office of the
President in their respective departments.
• The number of Cabinet Secretaries varies from time to time
depending on the need of an Administration. According to the
Administrative Code of 1987, the President of the Philippines may
create or dissolve any department as he sees fit.
B. Appointment of Cabinet Secretaries
• According to the Article 7, Section 16, the President may appoint
anyone to executive departments with the consent of the
Commission on Appointments. Names of individuals nominated
to cabinet posts are submitted to the Commission on
Appointments for their consideration.

Position Term of office Maximum Term Maximum No. of Years
President 6 years 1 6
Vice president 6 years 2` 12
Senator 6 years 2 12
Congress 3 years 3 9
Governor 3 years 3 9
Vice Governor 3 years 3 9
Board Member 3 years 3 9
Mayor 3 years 3 9
Vice Mayor 3 years 3 9
Councilor 3 years 3 9
Barangay Chairman 3 years 3 9
Councilman 3 years 3 9

Judicial power rests with the Supreme
Court and the lower courts, as established
by law (Art. VIII, sec. 1 of the 1987
Constitution).

• The authority to interpret the law.
• The adjudicatory power or duty of courts of
justice to settle actual controversies
involving Rights, which are legally
demandable and enforceable, and to
determine whether or not there has been a
grave abuse of discretion amounting to lack
or excess of jurisdiction or power to hear
and decide a case and execute decision
thereof on the part of any branch or
instrumentality of government.

1. Constitutional courts – the
Supreme Court is a constitutional
court in the sense of being a
creation of the constitution.
2. Statutory Courts – all other courts,
including Sandigan-Bayan, they
are creation of Law. They are
referred to lower courts in the
Constitution.

Lower
Courts
Regular
Courts
Special
Courts
Quasi-
Judicial
Courts

1. Regular Courts
• The Court of Appeals
• Regional Trial court
• Metropolitan Trial
court
• Municipal Trial Court
• Municipal Circuit trial
court

2. Special Courts
• The Court of
Tax Appeals
• The
Sandiganbayan
• Shari’a District
courts and
Shari’a Circuit
Courts

3. Quasi-judicial agencies –
administrative bodies
under the executive
branch performing quasi-
judicial functions.
• National Labor Relation
Commission
• Securities and Exchange
Commission
• Employees Compensation
Commission
• Insurance Commission, etc.

• Confidence in the certain and
even administration of justice
• Preservation of the government
• Respect for Law and order

• The Constitution provides
that membership in the
Supreme Court shall
consists of 15 members
including the Chief
Justice.
• If ever there is vacancy, it
shall be filled within 90
days from the occurrence
of the said vacancy.

Judiciary Composition Qualification Term of
office
Max
Term
Supreme
Court
Justices
15
1. Natural-born citizen
2. At least 40 years old
3. Has been engaged for
at least 15 years or
more as a judge of
lower courts or
engaged in the practice
of law in the
Philippines.
flexible
70 years
old

• Lower Courts – three months
• Court of appeals – 12 months
• Supreme court – 24 months

• Empowerment
• This refers to increasing the economic,
political, social, educational, gender, or
spiritual strength of an entity or entities.
• It is a multi-dimensional social process that
helps people gain control over their own
lives.
• It is a process that fosters power in people
for use in their own lives, their
communities and in their society, by acting
on issues they define as important.

PUBLIC CHOICE
What is Public Choice?
• It is the study of political decision making.
i. It attempts to understand how public policies
come to be adopted using economic models of
the impacts of policies of individuals.
ii. And models of individual political behavior
under a variety of political instructions.
iii. It tends to use rational choice models to do so,
which is largely what distinguishes it from
mainstream and classical political economy.

• Public choice analysis has roots in positive analysis
("what is“) but is often used for normative
purposes ("what ought to be") in order to identify a
problem or suggest improvements to constitutional
rules (i.e., constitutional economics)
• It differs from political science because it generally
analyzes political decisions as consequences of
individual choices and model those choices using
analytical models from game theory and
economics.
i. Public choice theorists generally assume that
all the individual involved in politics are
rational and self-interested economic men and
women.

• It differs from political science because it generally analyzes
political decisions as consequences of individual choices and
model those choices using analytical models from game
theory and economics.
i. Public choice theorists generally assume that all the
individual involved in politics are rational and self-
interested economic men and women.
ii. They then analyze how such individual might be
expected to behave in various political settings: as
voters, as politicians, as bureaucrats, and so forth.
a) This is not to say that all men and women are narrow
income or wealth maximizers.
b) But, rather to say that the income and wealth affects
to public policies matter to voters, politicians and
bureaucrats.
c) Of course, other broader interests also are included
in “self” interest.

ii. They then analyze how such individual might
be expected to behave in various political
settings: as voters, as politicians, as
bureaucrats, and so forth.
a) This is not to say that all men and women
are narrow income or wealth maximizers.
b) But, rather to say that the income and
wealth affects to public policies matter to
voters, politicians and bureaucrats.
c) Of course, other broader interests also are
included in “self” interest.
iii. (Roughly speaking, public choice, and/or
rational politics, is the application of economic
models of human action to policies.)

PUBLIC CHOICE
Positive and Normative Political Economy
A. In areas of economics and policy dealing with public policy, it is
often important to distinguish between the scientific problems of
evaluation and recommendation.
i. While controversy may be associated with both positive and
normative analyzes, the scope for disagreement is generally
larger for normative than for positive analysis.
ii. It is generally easier to reach agreement about facts and
predictions that it is to reach agreement about normative
theories.
iii. (Moreover, the intensity of conflict over normative analysis
often tends to be more intense and disagreements less subject
to “dispassionate” analysis and argument.

PUBLIC CHOICE
ii. It is generally easier to reach agreement about
facts and predictions that it is to reach
agreement about normative theories.
iii. (Moreover, the intensity of conflict over
normative analysis often tends to be more
intense and disagreements less subject to
“dispassionate” analysis and argument.

PUBLIC CHOICE
• Positive Statement
• A statement about what is, has been or will be.
• It is a statement about the world.
• Normative Statement
• It attempts to evaluate the disability of alternative states of the
world.
• Normally this conclude that a particular policy is good or bad,
should be undertaken or not, etc.
Example:
X is a bad policy because X increase unemployment.
(X increases unemployment is a positive statement. However, the
conclusion that X is a bad policy (or not) depends on the individual’s
normative theory or intuition – whether he or she believes
unemployment is a bad thing or not – even if he or she fully accepts
the positive claim.)

PUBLIC CHOICE
• People Power
• Election
• Political Dynasties
• Corruption

POLITICS AND POWER
• At the core of the concept of empowerment is the
idea of power.
• The possibility of empowerment depends on two
things.
• First, empowerment requires that power can
change.
• If power cannot change, if it is inherent in
positions or people, then empowerment is not
possible, nor is empowerment conceivable in any
meaningful way.

• In other words, if power can change, then
empowerment is possible.
• Second, the concept of empowerment depends
upon the idea that power can expand.
• This second point reflects our common
experiences of power rather than how we think
about power.
• To clarify these points, we first discuss what we
mean by power.

• “The probability that one actor within a social
relationship will be in position to carry out his
own will despite resistance.” – Max Weber
• Often related to our ability to make others do
what we want, regardless of their own
wishes or interests (Weber, 1946).
• Traditional social science emphasizes power
as influence and control, often treating power
as a commodity or structure divorced from
human action (Lips, 1991).
POWER

• It is obviously associated with Authority and
Influence.
• ‘Influence’ is used in describing power.
• Power is also defined as ‘Informal Authority’
• Authority has been defined as ‘Legitimate Power’
• Power is often related to our ability to make others
do what we want, regardless of their own wishes or
interests (Weber, 1946).
• Traditional social science emphasizes power as
influence and control, often treating power as a
commodity or structure divorced from human action
(Lips, 1991).
• Conceived in this way, power can be viewed as
unchanging or unchangeable.

POLITICS
• The activities associated with the governance of a country or
other area, especially the debate or conflict among
individuals or parties having or hoping to achieve power.
• The activities of governments concerning the political relations
between countries.
• Power is often related to our ability to make others do what
we want, regardless of their own wishes or interests (Weber,
1946).
• Traditional social science emphasizes power as influence and
control, often treating power as a commodity or structure
divorced from human action (Lips, 1991).
• Conceived in this way, power can be viewed as unchanging
or unchangeable.

POLITICS AND POWER
• Weber (1946) gives us a key word beyond this
limitation by recognizing that power exists
within the context of a relationship between
people or things.
• Power does not exist in isolation nor is it
inherent in individuals.
• By implication, since power is created in
relationships, power and power relationships
can change.
• Empowerment as a process of change, then,
becomes a meaningful concept.

POLITICS AND POWER
• What does a politician do?
• A politician, in a general sense, is a public
official whose primary role is to create or
propose laws that further the general
interests of the public.
• In modern democracies, politicians are
elected officials put in office by winning
the popular vote, who are the primary
creators of legislation that becomes
national, regional, or local law.

JUSTICE AND ROLES OF
GOVERNMENT
• What is Justice?
• In its broadest context, it includes both the
attainment of that which is just and the
philosophical discussion of that which is
just.
• The concept of justice is based on
numerous fields, and many differing
viewpoints and perspectives including the
concepts of moral correctness based on
ethics, rationality, law, religion, equity
and fairness.

JUSTICE AND ROLES OF GOVERNMENT
• Often, the general discussion of justice is divided into
the realm of social justice as found in philosophy,
theology and religion, and, procedural justice as
found in the study and application of the law.
• Government plays a major role in the justice system.
• First, it is the congress (legislative department) who
enacts laws.
• Second, the executive department implements the
same.
• Third, the judicial department checks the
constitutionality of the laws enacted and
implemented.

JUSTICE AND ROLES OF GOVERNMENT
Example:
• There is a law providing for death penalty.
However, it was suspended by the president.
• Did the judicial agree on it? Of course because it
is the executive department who implements the
same so if the president desires to suspend it, he
or she can.
Example:
• Is it constitutional? Since it is within the power of
the executive department and the constitution
likewise provide for humane condition for
convicts and it is favorable for them, then it is
valid.

ENDURING ISSUES
a) Allocation of Scarce Resources
• It's very obvious that the major economic issue
that our country has never been able to resolve
is poverty.
• If we dig deeper and reach to the roots of
poverty which have two factors: illiteracy and
overpopulation.
• In relation to literacy, it’s a good thing that
there have been tons of movements with
regards to education in helping the economy
rise from fallen rocks. Whilst overpopulation
hangs further and further down making it
improbable to resolve.

a) Allocation of Scarce Resources
• Because of overpopulation, every area is congested.
May it be school, church, hospitals, etc. With this, there
have been efforts in limiting population by enacting a
Reproductive Health Bill (RH Bill).
• However, in our churches, family planning with the use
of contraceptives is disregarded, we should plan
naturally with the method of abstinence.
• Hence, separation of church and state is essential.
• Why can't we combine the two, or eliminate the one of
the other?
• The Church deals with the eternal order, our eternal
salvation, which is to be found ultimately in the Kingdom
of God.
• The State deals with the temporal order, which is
concerned with the here and now, the material well-
being of citizens.

• The church's role in politics is to be there visibly in the context
of political policy formulation.
• The church has to be prophetic, speaking for God.
• The church has to herald the ethical values that enrich a nation.
• The church has to be bold and forthright, constructive and
innovative.
• The church has to be "salt and light" in what is so often a
corrupt environment, to bring light and health.
b) The Regulation of Behavior
• Can we really regulate behavior? Individual behavior
definitely not, but in some ways yes simply by implementing
laws.
• The government again is involved (enact-implement-decide the
constitutionality of the law).
• In this aspect, we can say that the government do regulate the
people’s behavior, because laws are intended to be followed,
otherwise they will suffer the consequences of their action.

ENDURING ISSUES
c) Preservation of the National Interest
• How can you preserve national interest?
• By defending the territorial jurisdiction of the
Philippines.
• Nobody would want to be dictated by foreign
nationals in our own land.
• That’s the reason why we are defending out
rights over Kalayaan Island against the Chinese
people.

REFERENCES:
• De Leon, Hector S. Textbook on the Philippine Constitution, Rex Bookstore, 2002.
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_choice
• http://www.rdc1.net/class/BayreuthU/PUBCL1.pdf
• http://mdk12.org/instruction/curriculum/social_studies/standard1/gradek.html
• http://www.socialstudies.org/standards/execsummary
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_the_Philippines
• http://www.joe.org/joe/1999october/comm1.php
• http://www.wisegeekedu.com/what-does-a-politician-do.htm
• https://www.google.com.ph/search?biw=1366&bih=626&noj=1&sclient=psy-
ab&q=what+is+politics%3F&oq=what+is+politics%3F&gs_l=serp.3...339753.343703.1.344
009.17.11.0.0.0.0.0.0..0.0.msedr...0...1c.1.61.serp..17.0.0.hhQdnVSJF2I
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justice
• http://www.miraclerosarymission.org/hab180.htm

ETYMOLOGICAL DEFINITION
• The word "economics" is derived
from a Greek word "okionomia",
which means "household
management" or "management of
house affairs“
• Economics was called
political economy in its early ages.

DEFINITIONS ACCORDING TO OTHER ECONOMISTS
• A social science concerned with using scarce
resources to obtain the maxium satisfaction of
the unlimited material wants of society
(Walstad & Bingham)
• The study of how societies use scarse
resources to produce valauble commodities
and distribute them among different people
(Samuelson & Nordhaus)
• The study of production, distribution, selling
and use of goods and services (Collin)

SO… WHAT IS ECONOMICS?
• It is the proper allocation and
efficient use of available
resources for the maximum
satisfaction of human wants.

WHAT THE DEFINITIONS INDICATE
• SCARCITY – refers to the condition wherein most things
that people want are available only in limited supply.
• ECONOMIC GOOD - it is anything, either a physical
commodity or a service, which yields utility and which
could command price if bought or sold in the market.
• UNLIMITED WANTS – it is a person’s desires or
preferences for specific ways of satisfying a basic need.

THE STUDY OF ECONOMICS
• Macroeconomics
The big picture: growth,
employment, etc.
Choices made by large
groups (like countries)
• Microeconomics
How do individuals make
economic decisions

ECONOMIC QUESTIONS
Society (we) must figure out:
1. WHAT to produce (make)
2. HOW MUCH to produce(quantity)
3. HOW to Produce it(manufacture)
4. FOR WHOM to Produce(who gets what)
5. WHO gets to make these decisions?

WHAT ARE RESOURCES?
• Definition: The things used to
make other goods

BUT, THERE’S A FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEM:
• SCARCITY:unlimited wants and needs but limited resources

CHOICES, CHOICES
• Because ALL resources, goods, and services are limited – WE MUST MAKE
CHOICES!!!!

WHY CHOICES?
• Choices? We make choices about
how we spend our money, time,
and energy so we can fulfil our
NEEDS and WANTS.
What are NEEDS and
WANTS?

NEEDS AND WANTS
• NEEDS – “stuff” we must have to
survive, generally: food, shelter,
clothing
• WANTS – “stuff” we would really
like to have (Fancy food, shelter,
clothing, big screen TVs, jewellery,
conveniences . . .Also known as
LUXURIES.

EVOLUTION OF CAPITALISM
AND ECONOMICS

THE ORIGIN OF CAPITALISM
• Before the science of
the free market was
understood,
economists of the
time conceived of the
world’s essential
economic problem as
scarcity.

• In 1776, Adam Smith, the
prophet and champion
of capitalism, published
The Wealth of Nations
in which he laid out the
fundamental principles
of economic
competition within a
“free market” to
maximize efficiency.

SMITH’S WEALTH OF NATION
1. The economic system works best if each person pursues his or
her own self-interest, i.e, the greatest profit.
2. The profit motive drives economics. The only basis for making
economic decisions should be what brings the greatest
monetary profit.
3. In order to make economic decisions, everything must have a
price. Money provides the measuring rod of economic value.
4. Decisions about whom to produce things for are determined by
supply and demand, by income relative to others. Private
wealth determines the distribution of goods and services.
5. Wealth is primarily private property that, within certain legal
limits, one can do with as one will.

THE EVOLUTION OF CAPITALISM
• Adam Smith acknowledged three
essential pre-conditions to efficient
market competition.
• Those essential conditions, however,
can only be guaranteed by the laws of
the larger society, so evolution was
necessary to prevent what have
become well recognized classes of
“market failure”.

CLASSES OF “MARKET FAILURE”
1. Imperfect competition MONOPOLY
Remedy: Antitrust legislation
2. Inadequate information
Remedy: government regulation
3. Externalities – a distortion of the market that
occurs when someone other than the buyer or
seller suffers a cost (a negative externality) or
receives a benefit (a positive externality).
Remedy: taxation or regulation

OVERVIEW
• By the middle of the nineteenth century, English-
speaking economists generally shared a
perspective on value theory and distribution theory.
• The value of a bushel of corn, for example, was
thought to depend on the costs involved in
producing that bushel. The output or product of an
economy was thought to be divided or distributed
among the different social groups in accord with the
costs borne by those groups in producing the
output. This, roughly, was the "Classical Theory"
developed by Adam Smith, David Ricardo, Thomas
Robert Malthus, John Stuart Mill, and Karl Marx.

• But there were difficulties in this approach.
Chief among them was that prices in the
market did not necessarily reflect the "value"
so defined, for people were often willing to
pay more than an object was "worth."
• The classical "substance" theories of value,
which took value to be a property inherent in
an object, gradually gave way to a
perspective in which value was associated
with the relationship between the object and
the person obtaining the object.

• Several economists in different places at about the
same time (the 1870s and 1880s) began to base value
on the relationship between costs of production and
"subjective elements," later called "supply" and
"demand."
• This came to be known as the Marginal Revolution
in economics, and the overarching theory that
developed from these ideas came to be called
neoclassical economics.
• The first to use the term "neoclassical economics"
seems to have been the American economist
Thorstein Veblen

DEFINITION…
• Term variously used for approaches to
economics focusing on the determination of
prices, outputs, and income distributions in
markets through supply and demand, often
mediated through a hypothesized
maximization of utility by income-
constrained individuals and of profits by
cost-constrained firms employing available
information and factors of production, in
accordance with rational choice theory.

• Present day dominant school of economic thought built on
the foundation laid by the 18th century (classical) theories of
Adam Smith(1723-1790) and David Ricardo (1772-1823), and
refined by the 19th and 20th century theories of Alfred
Marshall (1842-1924), Vilfredo Pareto (1848-1923), John Clark
(1847-1938), and Irving Fisher (1867-1947). It is 'classical' in the
sense that it based on the belief that competition leads to
an efficient allocation of resources, and regulates economic
activity that establishes equilibrium between demand and
supply through the operation of market forces.
• It is 'neo' in the sense that it departs sharply from the
classical viewpoint in its analytic approach that places great
emphasis on mathematical techniques.
• In opposition to Keynesian economics, this school states that
savings determine investment (not the other way around),
and is concerned primarily with market equilibrium and
growth at full employment instead of with the under-
employment of resources.

FUNDAMENTAL ASSUMPTIONS IN NEOCLASSICAL
ECONOMICS
1. People have rational preferences
among outcomes.
2. Individuals maximize utility and
firms maximize profits.
3. People act independently on the
basis of full and relevant
information.

TOWARDS A PUBLIC POLICY-
ORIENTED ECONOMICS
CURRICULUM

WHY STUDY ECONOMICS?
1. Economics is essential to understanding the world
in which you live and work.
2. It can equip you to participate more successfully in
the increasingly knowledge-based and
interdependent global economy of the twenty-first
century.
3. It can give you a better understanding of the
objectives, methods and limitations of government
economic policy.

WAYS TO MAKE
TEACHING OF
ECONOMICS
EFFECTIVE AT
SCHOOL

Teaching
methodology
By the
Educator
The
Curriculum
Utilization of
Community
Resources
Co-
Curricular
Activities
Through
Students

Role Play:
• Actively involves participants
• Provides practice to build skills before
real-world application and when “real”
experiences are not readily available
• Adds variety, reality, and specificity to the learning experience
• Develops problem-solving and verbal expression skills
• Can provide an entirely new perspective on a situation and develop
insights about
feelings and relationships
• Provides teacher immediate feedback about the learner’s understanding
and ability to apply concepts
• Improves the likelihood of transfer of learning from the classroom to the
real
world
THROUGH THE TEACHING METHODOLOGY:

• Interaction and Engagement
• Ability to Capitalize on Modern Media
• Cooperation and Collaboration
POWERPOINT AND SLIDE
PRESENTATIONS

• Puts the burden of learning on the student
and increases learner involvement
• Provides both learner and teacher
immediate feedback
• Is useful for guiding learners to higher
levels of thinking and inquiry
• Provides valuable clues about learner
motivation and how to best facilitate
learning
• Helps students identify and build on pre-
existing knowledge
GROUP DISCUSSION/ QUESTION & ANSWER

• Fosters independent learning skills
• Allows learners to progress at their
own
rate
• Enhances other learning
experiences
• Provides opportunity for learner to
obtain
prerequisite knowledge
• Allows for flexible, individual
schedules
• and self-pacing
INDEPENDENT STUDY

• Can add or regenerate
motivation
• Promotes team learning and
collaborative skills
• Provides a challenge that can
lead to
confidence in knowing and
expressing the material
• Provides feedback
• Can create a “fun” learning
environment
GAMES

• Helps people who learn well by
modeling
• others.
• Promotes self-confidence
• Provides opportunity for targeted
questions
• and answers.
• Allows attention to be focused on
specific
• details rather than general theories.
DEMONSTRATION

• Helps participants explore pre-existing
knowledge and build on what they know
• Facilitates exchange of ideas and
awareness of mutual concerns
• Develops leadership, teamwork,
communication, and collaboration skills
• Promotes development of critical
thinking skills
• Promotes higher levels of thinking
(application, synthesis, evaluation) versus
simple memorization
PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING

• Verbal Ability
• Content Knowledge
• Educational
Coursework
THE EDUCATOR

• Effective communicators are likely to be more
effective teachers
• When students understand what teachers are
communicating, and when teachers understand the
signals from their students, a two way
communication process is created that enhances the
learning of students.
• Effective teachers carefully consider their audience
when delivering a message. They observe reactions
and decide how best to get their point across to
different individuals.
VERBAL ABILITY

• Successful teachers know the content and can
determine the essential knowledge and skills that
are necessary for mastery of the subject in order to
integrate them into effective instruction
• They can better convey their enthusiasm,
understanding, and knowledge to students.
• Effective teachers have deep understanding and
respect for their content area. Furthermore, they
become experts in sharing their subject with their
students in meaningful ways.
CONTENT KNOWLEDGE

• Educational coursework provides a framework for
effective teaching. Typically, it encompasses
planning, assessment, classroom management,
student development, and instructional pedagogy.
• teachers are better able to meet diverse students'
needs
• Enhancing professional skills helps teachers feel
empowered to make changes aimed at enhancing
learning experiences that, in turn, result in better
student retention, attendance, and academic success
EDUCATIONAL COURSEWORK

THE CURRICULUM CHARACTERISTICS CAN BE BROKEN
DOWN INTO THE FOLLOWING STREAMS:
Research-rich environment :
 active researchers may include the outcomes
of their research into the curriculum;
 students may be encouraged to learn in
research-like ways, tackling complex
problems with a growing level of autonomy;
 students may work in an environment and
culture that clearly values research.

• Interdisciplinary
when academic perspectives from two
or more disciplines and expert
communities are brought together,
often in relation to a "real world" issue,
such as "the urban environment" in
order to generate fresh approaches
and insights that could not be attained
by disciplines working independently.

• Global connectedness
 students should have not only a deep
understanding of the wider significance of
that which they are studying, but that they
are likely to be able to participate
effectively in an international environment.
 Year abroad schemes are an obvious
example of provision designed to enhance
such a capability.

• Community engagement
 students learn through
experiences within and
beyond the their class, often
through activities in community
or business settings.

UTILIZATION OF COMMUNITY
RESOURCES

• Local historical sites, factories, natural
resources, farms, museums and studios
make for interesting and educational field
trips.
• Students learn from seeing how things get
done in real-life.
• It provides them with practical knowledge.

• Social service in
neighborhood
• Village Survey
• Trips to place of economic
interest
• Debate and discussion
• Essay writing competition
• Wall magazine decoration
• Writes ups for school
magazine
CO-CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES

• To a greater extent, the theoretical knowledge gets
strengthened when a relevant co-curricular activity is
organized related to the content taught in the
classroom.
• Intellectual aspects of personality are solely
accomplished by Classroom, while aesthetic
development, character building, spiritual growth,
physical growth, moral values, creativity, etc. are
supported by co-curricular activities.
• Frankness and clarity in language and personality is
supported by these activities. It helps to develop co-
ordination, adjustment, speech fluency, extempore
expressions, etc. among student both at the school as
well as college levels.

REFERENCES
Book References:
• Fajardo, Feliciano R., Economics 3rd Ed., copyright 2004, Rex Bookstore,
Inc., Sampaloc, Manila
• Medina, Roberto G., Principles of Economics 1st Ed., copyright 2003, Rex
Bookstore, Inc., Sampaloc, Manila
Online References:
• http://okionomia.blogspot.com/2010/10/origin-of-word-economics.html
• http://www.davidhilfiker.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=
article&id=4:capitalisms-evolution&catid=1:capitalism&Itemid=22
• http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc1/NeoclassicalEconomics.html
• http://www.slideshare.net/mikergo/introduction-to-economics-15041809
• http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/neo-classical-
economics.html

READING 6:
STUDYING AND
TEACHING
ANTHROPOLOGY
MARICAR C. RIANO

ANTHROPOLOGY
• Greek word “ Anthropos” means man/human and
“logos” for study.
• The study of variations, both physical and
cultural, in human populations. It is concerned
with typical biological and cultural characteristics
of human populations in all periods of time.
• The origin of anthropology as a single discipline
can be traced back to 19th century.

..ANTHROPOLOGY
• Anthropologist are interested in Where, When,
and How human appeared on earth. Others are
interested in how and why recent societies vary in
their customary ideas and practices.
• Anthropology is holistic.
holistic/multifaceted approach
• refers to the study of the whole human
condition:
past, present, and future, and many aspects of
human experience.

ADAPTATION, VARIATION, AND
CHANGE
• Adaptation refers to the process by which
organism cope with the environmental forces
and stresses, such as those posed by climate
and topography or terrains, also called
landforms. Like other animals, human use
biological means of adaptation. (table 1 shows
how organism change to fit in their
environment.)

TABLE 1. FORMS OF CULTURAL AND BIOLOGICAL
ADAPTATION TO HIGH ALTITUDE
Form of adaptation Type of adaptation Example
Technology cultural Pressurized airplane cabin
with oxygen masks
Genetic adaptation Biological Larger “barrel chest” of
native highlanders
Long term physiological
adaptation (occurs during growth
and development of the
individual organism)
Biological More efficient respiratory
system, to extract oxygen
from “thin air”.
Short-term physiological
adaptation (occurs
spontaneously when an
individual organism enters a new
environment)
Biological Increased heart rate,
hypervintilation

CULTURAL FORCES SHAPE
HUMAN BIOLOGY
• Bio-cultural refers to the inclusion and combination
of both biological and cultural perspective and
approaches to comment or solve a particular issue
or problems. Culture is a key environmental for in
determining how human bodies grow and develop.
Cultural traditions promote certain activities and
abilities. Physical activities, including sports

SCOPE OF ANTHROPOLOGY
• Broader in scope geographically and historically
than other field of study.
• It is explicitly and directly concerned with all
varieties of people throughout the world, not only
those close at hand or within a limited area. It is
also interested in people of all periods, beginning
with the earliest humans who lived over a million
years ago, and tracing human development until
the present.

• It is also in a position to correct or clarify beliefs and
practices generally accepted by their contemporaries
for they are acquainted with human life in a variation of
geographical and historical settings, not on they are
concerned with accuracy of certain beliefs of human
behavior; they also are interested exploring human
biology.

FIELDS OF ANTHROPOLOGY
FIELDS OF
ANTHROPOLOG
Y
CULTURAL
ANTHROPOLOG
Y
ARCHEOLOGY
ANTHROPOLOGICA
L LINGUISTIC
ETHNOLOGY
PHYSICAL
ANTHROPOLOG
Y

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
• the subject matter is human biological
diversity in time and space.
Five (5) special interest within biological
anthropology:
a. Human evolution as revealed by fossil record
done by paleoanthropologist.
b. Human genetics
c. Human growth and development

d. Human
biological plasticity
e. The biology,
evolution,
behavior, and
social life of
monkeys, apes
and other
nonhuman
primates.

CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY
• the study of human society and culture.
• The subfields that describes, analyze, interprets,
and explain social and cultural similarities and
differences.
• Generally refers to the customary ways of thinking
and behaving characteristics of a particular
population or society.
• The culture composed pf language, general
knowledge, laws, religions, beliefs,

• Food preferences, music, work, habits, taboos
and so forth.
Classification of Cultural
Anthropology
a. Archeology/Archaelogy
• Reconstruct, describe, and interprets
human behavior and cultural patterns
through material remains.

• Archeologist find artifacts, material items, that
human have made, used or modified such as
tools, weapons camp sites, buildings and
garbage.
• In analyzing data, archeologist answer several
question about ancient economies. To collect
the data needed and to answer these
questions, they make use of techniques and
findings borrowed from a number of other
discipline.

ANTHROPOLOGICAL LINGUISTIC
• The study of languages
and how it affects and
expresses culture As a
science, it is somewhat
older than anthropology.
• The linguist are interested
both in changes that have
taken the place over time.
• There are three areas of
linguistic anthropology.

1. Comparative Historical Linguistics
2. Descriptive Linguistic
3. Sociolinguistics
4. Structural Linguistics
3. Ethnology
• is concerned with patterns of thought and behavior
such as marriage, customs, kinship organization,

political and economic system, religion, folk art, music.
• By observing, Ethnologist generally used data collected
by observing living peoples. It uses such data to
compare and contrast and make generalizations about
society.
• One type of ethnologist is the Ethnographer (based on
field work), gathers data that he or she organizes,
describe, analyze, and interprets to build and present
that account, which may be in form of a book, article, or
a film. Traditionally, they live in small communities.

RELEVANCE OF ANTHROPOLOGY TO
SOCIAL SCIENCE INSTRUCTION
Including Anthropology in school curriculum
provides opportunities to students and teachers, but
also present unique challenges. Note that the focus
of anthropology is on understanding yourself in
relation to others.
• For students, learn precise record keeping skills
and have to be attentive to details.
• Learn analytical reading and critical thinking skills.

• Learn how to deal with unfamiliar social
situation-learn new languages and new rules
for communication with people from other
places, through participation and observation.
• Through Anthropology, students can come to a
genuine appreciation of difference and
diversity and a true understanding of their
place in the world.

FOR TEACHERS AND INSTRUCTOR
• We can help our students to make a
better connections between their studies
and lives.
• Take students beyond tolerance
• We teach multiculturism
• We can help them choose their career

REFERENCES
• Anderson-Fye EP. Anthropological on Physical
Appearance and body Image. San Diego: academic
Press; 2012,
http://www.elsever.com/locatepermissionmaterials
• Ember, Carol R. and Ember, Melvin. Anthropology, 3rd
Ed. New Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc., 1999
• Haste, Lauren. “Teaching Anthropology in High School”.
2014, http://laurenhasten.com/anthro_hs.html
• Kottak, Conrad Phillip. Anthropology: the Exploration on
Human Diversity.12th Ed. Asia: Mac-Garaw hill. Inc. 2008

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