Criteria exemplary20 pointsaccomplished17 pointsdevelopin

Criteria
Exemplary
20 points
Accomplished
17 points
Developing
15 points
Beginning
13 points
Criterion Score
Focus/Thesis
Student exhibits a defined and clear understanding of the
assignment. Thesis is clearly defined and well-constructed to
help guide the reader throughout the assignment. Student builds
upon the thesis of the assignment with well-documented and
exceptional supporting facts, figures, and/or statements.
Establishes a good comprehension of topic and in the building
of the thesis. Student demonstrates an effective presentation of
thesis, with most support statements helping to support the key
focus of assignment.
Student exhibits a basic understanding of the intended
assignment, but the thesis is not fully supported throughout the
assignment. While thesis helps to guide the development of the
assignment, the reader may have some difficulty in seeing
linkages between thoughts. While student has included a few
supporting facts and statements, this has limited the quality of
the assignment.
Exhibits a limited understanding of the assignment. Reader is
unable to follow the logic used for the thesis and development
of key themes. Introduction of thesis is not clearly evident, and
reader must look deeper to discover the focus of the writer.
Student’s writing is weak in the inclusion of supporting facts or
statements.
/ 20

Content/Subject Knowledge
Student demonstrates proficient command of the subject matter
in the assignment. Assignment shows an impressive level of
depth of student’s ability to relate course content to practical
examples and applications. Student provides comprehensive
analysis of details, facts, and concepts in a logical sequence.
Student exhibits above average usage of subject matter in
assignment. Student provides above average ability in relating
course content in examples given. Details and facts presented
provide an adequate presentation of student’s current level of
subject matter knowledge.
The assignment reveals that the student has a general,
fundamental understanding of the course material. There are
areas of some concerning in the linkages provided between facts
and supporting statements. Student generally explains concepts,
but only meets the minimum requirements in this area.
Student tries to explain some concepts, but overlooks critical
details. Assignment appears vague or incomplete in various
segments. Student presents concepts in isolation, and does not
perceive to have a logical sequencing of ideas.
/ 20
Critical Thinking Skills
Student demonstrates a higher-level of critical thinking
necessary for 300-400 level work. Learner provides a strategic
approach in presenting examples of problem solving or critical
thinking, while drawing logical conclusions which are not
immediately obvious. Student provides well-supported ideas and
reflection with a variety of current and/or world views in the
assignment. Student presents a genuine intellectual development
of ideas throughout assignment.
Student exhibits a good command of critical thinking skills in
the presentation of material and supporting statements.
Assignment demonstrates the student’s above average use of
relating concepts by using a variety of factors. Overall, student
provides adequate conclusions, with two or fewer errors.
Student takes a common, conventional approach in guiding the

reader through various linkages and connections presented in
assignment. However, student presents a limited perspective on
key concepts throughout assignment. Student appears to have
problems applying information in a problem-solving manner.
Student demonstrates beginning understanding of key concepts,
but overlooks critical details. Learner is unable to apply
information in a problem-solving fashion. Student presents
confusing statements and facts in assignment. No evidence or
little semblance of critical thinking skills.
/ 20
Organization of Ideas/Format
Student thoroughly understands and excels in explaining all
major points. An original, unique, and/or imaginative approach
to overall ideas, concepts, and findings is presented. Overall
format of assignment includes an appropriate introduction (or
abstract), well- developed paragraphs, and conclusion. Finished
assignment demonstrates student’s ability to plan and organize
research in a logical sequence. Student uses required number of
academic sources or beyond.
Student explains the majority of points and concepts in the
assignment. Learner demonstrates a good skill level in
formatting and organizing material in assignment. Student
presents an above average level of preparedness, with a few
formatting errors. Assignment contains number of academic
sources required in assignment.
Learner applies some points and concepts incorrectly. Student
uses a variety of formatting styles, with some inconsistencies
throughout the paper. Assignment does not have a continuous
pattern of logical sequencing. Student uses fewer sources or
references than required by assignment. Academic sources are
lacking.
Assignment reveals formatting errors and a lack of organization.
Student presents an incomplete attempt to provide linkages or
explanation of key terms. The lack of appropriate references or
source materials demonstrates the student’s need for additional
help or training in this area. Student needs to review and revise

the assignment.
/ 20
Writing Conventions
Student demonstrates an excellent command of grammar, as
well as presents research in a clear and concise writing style.
Presents a thorough and extensive understanding of word usage.
Student excels in the selection and development of a well -
planned research assignment. Assignment is error-free and
reflects student’s ability to prepare a high-quality academic
assignment.
Student provides an effective display of good writing and
grammar. Assignment reflects student’s ability to select
appropriate word usage and present an above average
presentation of a given topic or issue. Assignment appears to be
well written with no more than three-five errors. Student
provides a final written product that covers the above-minimal
requirements.
Assignment reflects basic writing and grammar, but more than
five errors. Key terms and concepts are somewhat vague and not
completely explained by student. Student uses a basic
vocabulary in assignment. Student’s writing ability is average,
but demonstrates a basic understanding of the subject matter.
Topics, concepts, and ideas are not coherently discussed or
expressed in assignments. Student’s writing style is weak and
needs improvement, along with numerous proofreading errors.
Assignment lacks clarity, consistency, and correctness. Student
needs to review and revise assignment.
/ 20
745
PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

Effect of Body Composition,
Physical Activity, and Aerobic
Fitness on the Physical Activity
and Fitness Knowledge of
At-Risk Inner-City Children
Timothy A. Brusseau, Ryan D. Burns, James C. Hannon
Abstract
SHAPE America has highlighted the importance of developing
physically literate children as part of quality physical education
pro-
gramming. Unfortunately, most children know little about
physical
activity and health-related fitness. The purpose of this study
was to
examine the physical activity and fitness content knowledge of
at-risk
inner-city children and determine if students who accumulate
more
physical activity, do more PACER laps, and/or have a lower
BMI have
higher levels of knowledge. Participants included 569 inner -city
chil-
dren (300 girls, 269 boys) from the Southwest USA who
completed
the PE Metrics knowledge test, wore a pedometer for 1 school
week,
completed the PACER test, and had their height and weight
measured.
Two-way and three-way factorial ANOVA tests were used to
exam-
ine potential differences between genders, between grades, and
among

tertiles of physical activity and health-related fitness
performance on
the PE Metrics knowledge test. On average, students scored
38% on
the PE Metrics knowledge test. Boys and girls scored similarly,
sixth
Timothy A. Brusseau is assistant professor, Department of
Health, Kinesiology, and
Recreation, University of Utah. Ryan D. Burns is postdoctoral
research associate,
Department of Health, Kinesiology, and Recreation, University
of Utah. James C. Hannon
is professor, Department of Coaching and Teaching Studies,
West Virginia University.
Please send author correspondence to [email protected]
The Physical Educator Vol. 73 • pp. 745–756 •
2016
https://doi.org/10.18666/TPE-2016-V73-I4-6570
746 Body Composition, Physical Activity, and Aerobic Fitness
graders scored lower than fourth and fifth graders, and children
who
were in the low and high BMI tertiles scored higher than
children in
the medium tertile (p < 0.05). As school day step counts and
PACER
laps increased, knowledge scores trended higher. At-risk youth
need
additional opportunities to learn content knowledge related to
physical
activity and fitness. Increased physical activity and aerobic
fitness were

related to small increases in knowledge scores. Future
interventions
should focus on child behavior and knowledge.
One of the objectives of physical education programs is to
devel-
op physically literate children who possess the knowledge and
skills
to participate in activity for a lifetime (Society of Health and
Physical
Educators, 2013). Knowledge about physical activity (PA) and
physi-
cal fitness has been highlighted as important for individuals to
be
active for a lifetime (Zhu, Safarit, & Cohen, 1999). Studies
have sug-
gested that children do not have the requisite knowledge needed
to
adopt healthy behaviors (Desmond, Price, Smith, Smith, &
Stewart,
1990; Hopple & Graham, 1995; Keating, Chen, Guan, Harrison,
& Dauenhauer, 2009; Liang et al., 1993; Prewitt et al., 2015).
More
specifically, Kulinna (2004) examined this in an elementary
school
with the use of health-related knowledge portfolio tasks. The
author
discovered that the students lacked strong content knowledge;
for
example, more than 50% of the third to sixth grade students
were
unable to list four aerobic activities. Brusseau, Kulinna, and
Cothran
(2011) further examined students’ knowledge using similar
portfolio
tasks with two American Indian communities. Students

completed
health-related fitness and PA behavior portfolio tasks, and the
results
indicated that students across all grade levels held many
misconcep-
tions and misunderstandings of these concepts. Furthermore, re-
searchers found that only 7% of third grade students were able
to de-
scribe why PA is important. More recently, Hodges, Hodges
Kulinna,
and Lee (2014) found that the average score for over 700
suburban
fifth graders was under 50% on the PE Metrics (National
Association
for Sport and Physical Education [NASPE], 2010) PA and
fitness
test. The evidence on students’ lack of knowledge is
disappointing
given that these findings have been evident for 2 decades
(Hopple &
Graham, 1995).
Spiegel and Foulk (2006) suggested that knowledge of PA be-
haviors can be the foundation that encourages people to engage
in
Brusseau, Burns, Hannon 747
more PA throughout their lifetimes. This was found to contain
some
validity, as other researchers have found that individuals
engaging
in more activity during leisure time had greater knowledge
(Dale,

Corbin, & Cuddihy, 1998; DiLorenzo, Stucky-Ropp, Vander
Wal,
& Gotham, 1998). DiLorenzo et al. (1998) discovered that
exercise
knowledge is one of a few key determinants to students’ PA
partici-
pation. Furthermore, conceptual-based physical education
(CPE),
a model that teaches health knowledge in the classroom
partnered
with PA opportunities, has also been found to influence PA
patterns
positively during leisure time (Dale et al., 1998). More
specifically,
they reported that after a yearlong CPE program, secondary
students
significantly increased their PA levels when compared to
students
with both traditional PE and control students. Therefore, to date
the literature has begun to suggest that if students gain
additional
knowledge, they often engage in more PA. Despite this, little
effort
has been made to explore the relationship, if any, between
knowledge
and body composition or aerobic fitness. Therefore, the purpose
of
this manuscript was to determine if PA patterns (steps counts),
aer-
obic fitness (PACER), or BMI had an effect on the fitness and
PA
content knowledge of ethnically diverse elementary school
children
from low-income and inner-city families. It was hypothesized
that
children who accumulated more steps, had higher PACER

scores,
and lower BMI would score better on the PE Metrics fitness and
PA
knowledge test. A secondary purpose was to explore differences
on
PE Metrics performance by grade and gender.
Method
Participants
Participants were 569 (300 girls, 269 boys) fourth to sixth grade
students from three inner-city Title 1 schools. Ninety-four
percent
of participating youth came from low-income (83% free and
11%
reduced lunch) families, and the sample was 86% ethnic
minority
—63% Hispanic, 14% Caucasian, 7% Pacific Islander, 6%
Black, 5%
Asian, 3% American Indian, and 2% multiracial.
Instruments
Physical activity and physical fitness knowledge test. SHAPE
America endorses the PE Metrics (NASPE, 2010) test, which
was
used to examine PA and physical fitness knowledge in this
study.
The instrument has been suggested as a valid and reliable
assessment

tool (Dyson & Williams, 2012; Zhu et al., 2011) and has been
used in
research (Hodges et al., 2014) with this age group. More
specifically,
the research team used the Standards 3 and 4 fifth grade test
that
contained 28 multiple-choice questions, of which 15 were
randomly
selected to fit the time frame for testing the children at the
beginning
of a physical education class.
Pedometers. PA was measured using Yamax DigiWalker CW600
pedometers (Tokyo, Japan). The devices were worn for 5 school
days
(Monday through Friday) between the hours of 8 a.m. and 3
p.m.
Instruments were worn on the hip at the level of the iliac crest
above
the knees on the right hip. Classroom teachers, physical
educators,
and members of the research team ensured that the devices were
worn the entire school day.
The pedometers included a 7-day memory that was used to re-
cord steps each day of the school week. Yamax DigiWalker
models
have been shown to provide an accurate recording of steps
within
± 3% of actual steps (Schneider, Crouter, Lukajic, & Bassett,
2003),
and have been shown to be a valid measure of free-living PA
(Crouter,
Schneider, Karbulut, & Bassett, 2003).
Health-related fitness. BMI was calculated using standard pro-

cedures taking a student’s weight in kilograms divided by the
square
or his or her height in meters. Height was measured to the
nearest
0.01 m using a portable stadiometer (Seca 213; Hanover, MD,
USA),
and weight was measured to the nearest 0.1 kg using a portable
med-
ical scale (BD-590; Tokyo, Japan). Height and weight were
collected
in the hallway during each student’s physical education class.
Aerobic fitness was measured using the 20-m Progressive
Aerobic
Cardiovascular Endurance Run (PACER), administered during
each
student’s physical education class. The PACER was conducted
on
a marked gymnasium floor with background music provided by
a
compact disc. Each student was instructed to run from one floor
marker to another floor marker across a 20-m distance within an
al-
lotted time frame. The allotted time given to reach the specified
dis-
tance incrementally shortened as the test progressed. If the
student
twice failed to reach the other floor marker, the test was
terminated
(Meredith & Welk, 2010). The final score was recorded in laps.
Procedures

During three consecutive weeks during the winter of 2015, re-
search team members worked with physical education teachers
to
collect PACER scores and height and weight during class. Half
the
class completed the PACER with one research team member,
and the
other half played a game with the physical education teacher,
with
students being called out to have their height and weight
measured.
Approximately halfway through class, the groups switched
stations
(no order effect was found between students who tested first
and
students who tested second). During a separate class, members
of
the research team administered the knowledge assessment test
fol-
lowing a specific protocol during which each question and
answer
was read to the students, with an approximately 20–30-s wait
time
for each question.
Analyses
BMI, PACER, and pedometer steps were stratified into tertiles
of
approximately equal number. The preliminary descriptive
analysis
included running a 2 × 3 factorial ANOVA test to examine the
differ-
ences between genders and among grade levels on PA, health-
related

fitness, and the PE Metrics knowledge test scores. The alpha
level
was adjusted using the Bonferroni method to account for
analysis
on multiple dependent variables. The primary analysis consisted
of a
3 × 3 × 3 factorial ANOVA test to examine differences among
tertiles
of BMI, PACER, and pedometer steps on the PE Metrics
knowledge
scores. A Tukey post hoc test was employed for any statistically
sig-
nificant main effects from the three-way ANOVA. All analyses
had
an initial alpha level of p ≤ 0.05 and were carried out using
STATA
(14.0) statistical software package (College Station, TX, USA).
Results
On average, students scored 38% on the PE Metrics knowledge
test. Table 1 highlights the means and standard deviations on
the PE
Metrics knowledge test (raw score out of 15) by gender, grade
level,
and tertile groupings for PA and health-related fitness. A
statisti-
cally significant main effect was found for grade level on
knowledge
test scores, F(2, 180) = 3.89, p = 0.02. Tukey post hoc tests
revealed
that children in Grades 4 and 5 scored higher on the knowledge
test

compared to children in Grade 6. A statistically significant main
ef-
fect was also found for BMI on PA knowledge, F(2, 180) =
3.64, p =
0.03. Post hoc tests revealed that children in the high BMI
tertile and
children in the low BMI tertile scored higher on the PA
knowledge
test compared to children in the medium BMI tertile. No other
main
effects were found, but there were trends that children with
high-
er PACER scores and who accumulated higher step counts
scored
higher on the PE Metrics knowledge test.
Table 1
Knowledge Scores by Gender, Grade, Physical Activity,
Aerobic
Fitness, and BMI
Category
Knowledge
score SD 95% CI
Gender
Male 5.69 3.34 5.29, 6.09
Female 5.83 2.84 5.51, 6.15
Combined 5.77 3.06 5.52, 6.02
Grade
4 6.02 2.99 5.59, 6.45
5 6.07 2.99 5.64, 6.50

6* 4.34 3.10 3.90, 4.78
School Step Counts
High 5.75 2.68 5.37, 6.12
Medium 5.57 2.98 5.15, 5.99
Low 5.22 2.73 4.83, 5.60
PACER Laps
High 5.82 3.11 5.38, 6.46
Medium 5.75 3.36 5.27, 6.22
Low 5.41 2.7 5.03, 5.79
BMI
High 6.31 3.07 5.87, 6.75
Medium* 4.93 2.93 4.72, 5.14
Low 6.13 3.09 5.91, 6.35
*Significantly different when compared to other groups.
Discussion
Similar to children in previous research (Brusseau, Kulinna, &
Cothran, 2011; Kulinna, 2004), the children in this study lacked
overall content knowledge. In fact, the average score was
38.5%.
These scores are lower than those in the previous study in which
PE
Metrics was used (Hodges et al., 2014) and indicate lower
knowl-
edge when compared across other studies (Hopple & Graham,
1995;
Kulinna, 2004). These scores are concerning, especially

considering
the lack of PA in low-income inner-city youth (Trost et al.,
2013).
Although we know that PA decreases with age and grade, we
an-
ticipated that as students advanced in grade, they would have
per-
formed better on the knowledge test simply by accumulating
more
knowledge over time. We found that fourth and fifth graders
per-
formed similarly on the test and sixth graders scored
significantly
lower compared to the earlier grades, which we believe might
be re-
lated to the sixth graders feeling they were “too cool” to take
the test
and not taking it as seriously as the younger students did. There
were
no significant differences by gender, which is similar to results
in
previous research (Brusseau, Kulinna, & Cothran, 2011). This is
im-
portant because the literature (Harmon, Brusseau, Collier, &
Lenz,
2013) makes it clear that inner-city ethnic minority boys at this
age
are more active than girls. Furthermore, boys outperformed girls
on
the PACER, which correlates to previous studies of aerobic
fitness in
at-risk youth (Brusseau, Finkelstein, Kulinna, & Pangrazi,
2014). It
appears as if knowledge does not help to alleviate the natural
gender

difference in PA or aerobic fitness, as boys were more active
and fit in
the current sample (5,194 steps and 40.3 PACER laps for boys;
4,498
steps and 34.4 PACER laps for girls; Δ = 696 steps, Δ = 5.9
laps). Our
findings suggest that knowledge is not dependent on either
grade or
gender. It is important to note that these three schools did not
offer
any type of health education and that this content (health-
related
fitness and PA) was not directly covered in academic subjects,
al-
though science classes did cover material related to the health
of
the human body. Furthermore, physical education was a
traditional
model that only met 1 day/week. Because of the time
constraints, the
physical education paraprofessionals focused exclusively on
trying
to get children active during class. Another potential issue is
that
classes were taught by paraprofessionals. Research has started
to in-
dicate that classes taught by nonspecialists result in less PA
(Hannon,
Destani, McGladrey, Williams, & Hill, 2013) and in more time
man-
aging children (Hall, Larson, Heinemann, & Brusseau, 2015). It

ap-
pears to be important for schools (especially inner-city schools)
to
find a way to incorporate content knowledge related to PA and
fit-
ness.
Of importance to our findings were the small (but not signifi -
cant) trends that the more active the child, the better he or she
per-
formed on the knowledge test. We anticipated these findings;
how-
ever, we would have expected a much larger change score. Out
of 15
questions, the difference between the low active group and the
high
active group was only a half question. These findings contradict
the
previous explorations, suggesting increased knowledge is
related to
significantly increased PA (i.e., DiLorenzo et al., 1998).
Similar to the step count trends with knowledge, knowledge
slightly increased with increases in PACER laps. This change
again
was small, < .5 question. To our knowledge, this is the first
study
to look at differences in fitness content knowledge in
comparison
to actual aerobic fitness. Aerobic fitness is an important compo-
nent for the health (Janssen & LeBlanc, 2010) and the cognition
(Chaddock-Heyman, Hillman, Cohen, & Kramer, 2014) of
children,
and we suggest that improved knowledge of this concept can
only
help with changing the needed behavior.

Body composition did not relate to increases in knowledge,
which differs from the role that body composition has in the
litera-
ture in which both PA (Brusseau, Kulinna, Tudor-Locke, et al.,
2011)
and physical fitness (Stratton et al., 2007) improve when
children’s
BMI decreases. This might be associated with the overall
increases in
BMI (Ogden, Carroll, Kit, & Flegal, 2012) in youth and the
concept
that youth can be fat and fit (Hainer, Toplak, & Stich, 2009).
Future research needs to replicate our work with children from
different ethnic and socioeconomic backgrounds to help make
the
findings more generalizable. Similarly, it is clear that content
knowl-
edge needs to be targeted in research and practical programming
in
schools to address the concerning findings of our work.
Conclusion
In conclusion, at-risk inner-city children in this sample lacked
PA and fitness knowledge. Although the lack of knowledge is
not
new, the low scores compared to those in previous research is
espe-
cially alarming considering that these children often lack the
access

and opportunity to become physically active, which have been
con-
sistently shown as barriers to activity (Sallis, Prochaska, &
Taylor,
2000). Increased opportunities for PA and improved knowledge
should be considered when planning future interventions.
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