Data Analysis, Intepretation

DATA ANALYSIS, INTERPRETATION
AND PRESENTATION

OVERVIEW
 Qualitative and quantitative
 Simple quantitative analysis
 Simple qualitative analysis
 Tools to support data analysis
 Theoretical frameworks: grounded theory,
distributed cognition, activity theory
 Presenting the findings: rigorous notations,
stories, summaries

WHY DO WE ANALYZE DATA
The purpose of analysing data is to obtain usable and useful
information. The analysis, irrespective of whether the data is
qualitative or quantitative, may:
• describe and summarise the data
• identify relationships between variables
• compare variables
• identify the difference between variables
• forecast outcomes

SCALES OF MEASUREMENT
Many people are confused about what type of
analysis to use on a set of data and the
relevant forms of pictorial presentation or
data display. The decision is based on the
scale of measurement of the data. These
scales are nominal, ordinal and numerical.
Nominal scale
A nominal scale is where:
the data can be classified into a non-
numerical or named categories, and
the order in which these categories can be
written or asked is arbitrary.
Ordinal scale
An ordinal scale is where:
the data can be classified into non-numerical or named
categories
an inherent order exists among the response categories.
Ordinal scales are seen in questions that call for
ratings of quality (for example, very good, good, fair,
poor, very poor) and agreement (for example, strongly
agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree).
Numerical scale
A numerical scale is:
where numbers represent the possible response
categories
there is a natural ranking of the categories
zero on the scale has meaning
there is a quantifiable difference within categories and
between consecutive categories.

When using a quantitative methodology, you are normally testing theory through the testing
of a hypothesis.
In qualitative research, you are either exploring the application of a theory or model in a different
context or are hoping for a theory or a model to emerge from the data. In other words,
although you may have some ideas about your topic, you are also looking for ideas,
concepts and attitudes often from experts or practitioners in the field.

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATIONS
give overview of data
Number of errors made
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17
User
Numberoferrorsmade
Internet use
< once a day
once a day
once a week
2 or 3 times a week
once a month
Number of errors made
0
2
4
6
8
10
0 5 10 15 20
User
Numberoferrorsmade

Visualizing log data
Interaction
profiles of players
in online game
Log of web page
activity

QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS
"Data analysis is the process
of bringing order, structure
and meaning to the mass of
collected data. It is a
messy, ambiguous, time-
consuming, creative, and
fascinating process. It does
not proceed in a linear
fashion; it is not neat.
Qualitative data analysis is
a search for general
statements about
relationships among
categories of data."
Marshall and Rossman, 1990:111
Hitchcock and Hughes take
this one step further:
"…the ways in which the
researcher moves from a
description of what is the
case to an explanation of
why what is the case is the
case."
Hitchcock and Hughes 1995:295

Simple qualitative analysis
• Unstructured - are not directed by a script. Rich but not
replicable.
• Structured - are tightly scripted, often like a questionnaire.
Replicable but may lack richness.
• Semi-structured - guided by a script but interesting issues can
be explored in more depth. Can provide a good balance
between richness and replicability.

Simple qualitative analysis
• Recurring patterns or themes
– Emergent from data, dependent on observation
framework if used
• Categorizing data
– Categorization scheme may be emergent or pre-specified
• Looking for critical incidents
– Helps to focus in on key events

TOOLS TO SUPPORT DATA
ANALYSIS
• Spreadsheet – simple to use, basic graphs
• Statistical packages, e.g. SPSS
• Qualitative data analysis tools
– Categorization and theme-based analysis, e.g. N6
– Quantitative analysis of text-based data
• CAQDAS Networking Project, based at the University of Surrey
(http://caqdas.soc.surrey.ac.uk/)

Theoretical frameworks for
qualitative analysis
• Basing data analysis around theoretical frameworks provides
further insight
• Three such frameworks are:
– Grounded Theory
– Distributed Cognition
– Activity Theory

Grounded Theory
• Aims to derive theory from systematic analysis of data
• Based on categorization approach (called here ‘coding’)
• Three levels of ‘coding’
– Open: identify categories
– Axial: flesh out and link to subcategories
– Selective: form theoretical scheme
• Researchers are encouraged to draw on own theoretical
backgrounds to inform analysis

Distributed Cognition
• The people, environment & artefacts are regarded as one
cognitive system
• Used for analyzing collaborative work
• Focuses on information propagation & transformation

Activity Theory
• Explains human behavior in terms of our practical activity with
the world
• Provides a framework that focuses analysis around the concept of
an ‘activity’ and helps to identify tensions between the different
elements of the system
• Two key models: one outlines what constitutes an ‘activity’; one
models the mediating role of artifacts

Engeström’s (1999) activity
system model

Presenting the findings
• Only make claims that your data can support
• The best way to present your findings depends on the audience,
the purpose, and the data gathering and analysis undertaken
• Graphical representations (as discussed above) may be
appropriate for presentation
• Other techniques are:
– Rigorous notations, e.g. UML
– Using stories, e.g. to create scenarios
– Summarizing the findings

SUMMARY
• The data analysis that can be done depends on the
data gathering that was done
• Qualitative and quantitative data may be gathered
from any of the three main data gathering approaches
• Percentages and averages are commonly used in
Interaction Design
• Mean, median and mode are different kinds of
‘average’ and can have very different answers for the
same set of data
• Grounded Theory, Distributed Cognition and Activity
Theory are theoretical frameworks to support data
analysis
• Presentation of the findings should not overstate the
evidence

Data Analysis, Intepretation

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