DES111- INTRODUCTION TO DEVELOPMENT STUDIES PPT.pdf

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMICS (DEVELOPMENT STUDIES UNIT)
INTRODUCTION TO DEVELOPMENT STUDIES I (DES 111)
DEVELOPED BY
Dr. BAKARE-AREMU, Tunde Abubakar,
&
OBAKAAbel Inabo
Department of Economics
National Open University of Nigeria, Jabi-Abuja
EDITED BY
PROFESOR R.O.S DAUDA
Department of Economics, University of Lagos, Nigeria

MODULE ONE: MEANING AND IMPORTANCE OF
DEVELOPMENT STUDIES
UNIT 1: Definition and meaning of Development
and Development Studies
UNIT 2: Importance of Development Studies
UNIT 3: Development Countries and Factor that
influenced Development of Developed Countries
UNIT 4: Overview of Development Theories

UNIT 1: Definition and Meaning of Development and
Development Studies
• Main Content
3.1 Definition of Development
3.2 Nature and Meaning of Development
Studies
3.3 Development Economics versus
Development Studies
3.4 Identities of Development

Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to
• Discuss the definitions and meaning of
development.
development studies
• Explain the characteristics and nature of
development.

3.1: Meaning of Development
• For almost every writer a different definition of development exists.
➢ Development is not purely only an economic phenomenon but rather a
multi-dimensional process involving reorganization and reorientation of
entire economic and social system.
➢ Development is a process of improving the quality of all human lives with
three equally important aspects. These are sustenance, self-esteem,
and freedom from servitude.
➢ Literarily, development is an off-shoot of growth which implies a sustained
increase in the size of any organism and enriched wellbeing.
➢ In economics development means improvement in country’s economic (an
increase in National output, identifiable with a sustainable increase in average
income of citizenry of that economy) and social conditions.

3.2: Nature and Meaning of Development
Studies
➢The emergence of development studies as an
academic discipline in the second half of the
twentieth century is largely due to increasing
concern about economic prospects for the third-
world countries after decolonisation.
➢Development Economics is a branch
of economics arose out of previous studies in
colonial economies in the post-war era(Abbott,
2003 )

3.2: Nature and Meaning of Development
Studies. Cont’d
➢Development Studies could be defined as a multi-
and interdisciplinary field of study that seeks to
understand social, economic, political,
technological, ecological, gender and cultural
aspects of societal change at the local, national,
regional and global levels, and the interplay among
these parts.
➢ The nature of Development Studies is the general
outlook of what made-up the discipline, which
encompasses the characterization of the discipline as
body of knowledge, and its evolution.

➢The emergence of development studies as an
academic discipline in the second half of the
twentieth century is largely due to increasing
concern about economic prospects for the third-
world after decolonisation.
➢Development studies as a discipline
metamorphoses from economics, and it came to
being because of the inadequacy of economics as
a discipline to resolve most socio-political and
some economic problems.
3.3 Development Economics Versus Development Studies

3.3 Development Economics Versus Development
Studies Cont’d
• In sum development studies came through
economics to development economics, then
political economy and finally to development
studies.

3.4 Identities (or Core Values) of
Development
➢There are three basic components or core
values that serve as a conceptual basis and
practical guidelines for understanding the
inner meaning of development.
➢These core values are; Sustenance, Self-
esteem, and Freedom. These core values
relate to the fundamental human needs and
also represents common goals sort by all
individuals and societies.

UNIT 2: IMPORTANCE OF DEVELOPMENT
STUDIES
• Main Content
3.1 Development Studies: An Overview
3.2 Why Development Studies?
3.3 Expectation of development studies
3.4 Development Studies and the Society

OBJECTIVES
• Discuss the Historical overview of the term
development studies..
• Discuss the expected value of the study of
development studies to the society and
student (graduate).
• Analyse the reasons why development studies
should be studied

3.1: Development Studies: An
Overview
➢The foundation of development studies is few
decades old and started a while after the Second
World War.
➢Development studies is a multidisciplinary branch
of social science and it has grown in popularity as
a subject of study since the early 1990s, and has
been most widely taught and researched in
the developing and underdeveloped countries and
also in countries with a colonial history.

3.2: Why Development Studies?
➢Development studies graduates have a wide range
of career options. Many go on to work for
development research organizations, charities,
think tanks, lobby groups, conservation projects,
while others opt for roles in government,
academia, or the civil service.
➢More recently, academics turned their attention
towards Western states, seeking to address today's
(and tomorrow's) most pressing issues by
studying their cultural and political development.

3.2: Why Development Studies? Cont’d
➢Development studies is about understanding
the current political landscape by examining
their origins, which then enables academics,
politicians, and world charity organizations to
make better plans for the future.

3.3: Expectation of Development
Studies
➢Development Studies is research committed to
improvement. Knowledge generation is not an
end in itself … An implication of this is that
Development Studies addresses current, actual
problems, focusing on solving them – it tends to
be applied and action – or policy-orientated.
(Molteberg and Bergstrøm, 2000)
➢Development studies is a global industry with
huge support from big business, government,
and influential organizations like the EU and the
UN

3.3: Expectation of Development
Studies Cont’d
➢Development studies is on course to become one
of the most influential academic disciplines as
we look for ever more innovative ways to tackle
poverty, diseases, prejudice, and discrimination.
➢If you would like to join the fight for a fairer
world, then enrolling on a development studies
program is the perfect way to start.

3.4 Development Studies and the
Society
➢The goals and objectives of development studies are
human and environmental centred because it primary
focus is the societal development. They include the
following among others;
➢It focuses on at contributing to potential solutions to
resolve societal issues which development and its
absence may create
➢Development studies is context sensitive in hunt of
its goals: it evaluates societal changes within a
comparative, historical and global point of view. It’s
intends to take into account the peculiarities of
diverse society in terms of ecology, history, culture,
and technology.

• Main Content
3.1 Process of Development
3.2 Development of Developed Countries: An
Historical Overview
3.3 Reason for Non-developed of developing
countries
3.4 A way forward for developing Countries.
UNIT 3: DEVELOPED COUNTRIES AND FACTOR THAT INFLUENCED
THEIR DEVELOPMENT

UNIT’S OBJECTIVES
➢ Discuss the historical review of the development
processes of developed countries.
➢ Explain the reasons for undeveloped of developing
countries.
➢ Proffer way forwards for the developing Nations
➢ Explain the development processes of the developed
countries

3.1: Process of Development
➢Development as Modernization emphasizes process
of social change which is required to produce
economic advancement; examines changes in social,
psychological and political processes.
➢Development process can also be seen as stepwise
procedures that combine social, cultural, and
technological transformation to create growth,
progress, positive change or the addition of physical,
economic, environmental, social and demographic
components.

3.2: Development of Developed
Countries: An Historical Overview
➢The historical fact is that, today's developed
countries did not develop on the basis of the
policies and the institutions that they now
recommend to, or even force upon, the developing
countries.
➢Virtually all of today's developed countries used
tariff protection and subsidies to develop their
industries, and in the earlier stages of their
development, they did not even have such 'basic'
institutions as democracy, central banks, patent
law, or professional civil services.

3.3: Reasons for Under-development
of Developing Countries
The circumstances or situation whereby economic
growth will fail to promote economic development can
be stated and explained below:
• Inadequate Growth in comparison with Population.
• Widening Inequality in the Distribution of Income.
• Imbalance in Inter-sectoral Development.
• Environmental Degradation and Ecological
Disturbances,
• Moral, intellectual, spiritual and social decadence.
• Economic dependence.

3.4 : A Way Forward for Developing Countries
➢Correction those problems associiated
underdevelopment through policies and strategy
programmes such as;
➢ Birth control,
➢Provision of basic infrastructure facilities to boost
national output,
➢Balance development strategy,
➢Taken care of ecology and environment,
➢ Income redistribution,
➢Stabilising the polity security wise, and
➢Provide social safety net. Also,

3.4 : A Way Forward for Developing
Countries Cont’d.
➢The conditions attached to bilateral and
multilateral financial assistance to developing
countries should be radically changed.
➢on the recognition that the orthodox recipe is
not working, and that there can be no single
recipe of 'best practice' policies that everyone
should use, one size fit all policies.

UNIT 4: OVERVIEW OF DEVELOPMENT
THEORIES
Main Content
3.1 Meaning of Development theories
3.2 Evolution of Development theories
3.3 Some selected theories of Development
3.3.1 Mercantilism Theory
3.3.2 Classical Growth Theories
3.3.3 Neo-Classical Growth Theories
3.3.4 Harrod-Domar Growth Model
3.3.5 Endogenous Growth Model
3.4 Applicability of these theories to Nigerian
Economy

UNIT’S OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
• Discuss the historical evolution of the development
processes..
• DiscusstheMeaningofdevelopmenttheory
• Discusssomedevelopmentandgrowththeories
• Examinetheapplicabilityofthesedevelopmentandgrowth
theorytotheAfricanNations,especiallyNigeria.

3.1: Meaning of DevelopmentTheories
➢It should be noted that development
theories came-up as result of global
yearnings for development of developing
and underdeveloped countries, then,
some developed nations became a
template or caveat upon which the
development models were built for other
to learn.

➢Development theories seek to
explain development processes
and development inequalities based on
particularcharacterisationsofdevelopment.
➢Development theory could also be seen as a collection
of models about how desirable change in society is best
achieved.
3.1: Meaning of DevelopmentTheories

3.2: Evolution of Development Theories
➢The evolution of economic theory or model of
growth could be traced back to the work of
mercantilists in the beginning of industrial
revolution. Mercantilism is an economics
theory Popular at the start of the industrial
revolution, although was not really a theory of
economic growth but provided an insight to
economic growth model.

3.2: Evolution of Development Theories
➢The modern evolution of economic growth
theories can be drawn back from Adam
Smith’s book (The father of classical
economists), Wealth of Nation (1776), in his
book, he emphasized a view that the growth
of an economy depends principally on division
of labor.

3.3: Some Selected Theories of
Development: An Introduction
There are hundreds of growth theory in the literature but most commonly
discussed would briefly explained here. The different models of economic
growth stress alternative causes of economic growth. The principal
theories of economic growth include:
i. Mercantilism – Wealth of a nation determined by accumulation of gold
and running trade surplus
ii. Classical theory – Adam Smith placed emphasis on the role of
increasing returns to scale (economies of scale/specialisation)
iii.Neo-classical-theory – Growth based on supply-side factors such as:
labour productivity, size of the workforce, factor inputs.

3.3: Some Selected Theories of
Development: An Introduction Cont’d
iv. Endogenous growth theories – Rate of economic growth strongly
influenced by human capital and rate of indigenous technological
innovation.
v. Keynesian demand-side – Keynes argued that aggregate demand
could play a role in influencing economic growth in the short and
medium-term. Though most growth theories ignore the role of
aggregate demand, some economists argue recessions can cause
hysteresis effects and lower long-term economic growth..

3.4 Applicability of these Theories to
Nigerian Economy
• The most applicable theory to the Nigerian
situation is the endogenous growth theory
which borrow it’s mechanism from the
weaknesses of previous growth model. Such
weaknesses which includes the unrealistic
assumptions of constant income-saving
proportion, constant output ratio, constant
level of technology, saving-capital ratio also
assumed to be constant.

Abridged References for Module One
1. Kothari, U. (ed), A Radical History of Development Studies:
Individuals, Institutions and Ideologies – but see The Journal of
Peasant Studies 34/1 (2007) for an alternative view.
2. Kothari, U. (ed), A Radical History of Development Studies:
Individuals, Institutions and Ideologies
3. Abbott, Lewis F. (2003) Theories of Industrial
Modernization and Enterprise Development: A Review. ISR/Google
Books, Second revised edition
4. Rist, G., The History of Development: From Western
Origins to Global Faith Joint Congressional Committee on
Inaugural Ceremonies
5. Roman P.M (1994) The Origin of Endogeneous Model. The
Journal Of Economic Perspectives 8(1) 3-22
6. Caroll C. (2011) The Rebeto, AK Growth Model.
Econ2jhi.edu.

MODULE TWO:COLONISATION, INDUSTRIALISATION
AND DEVELOPMENT
UNIT 1: Colonization and Industrialization
UNIT 2: Rural Development and Urbanization
UNIT 3: Gender Issues in Development
UNIT 4: Health Issues in Development

UNIT 1: Colonization and Industrialization
Main Content
3.1 Meaning and definition of Colonization
3.2 Meaning and definition of industrialization
3.3 The links between Colonization and
Industrialization
3.4 Problems of Industrialization in Nigeria

OBJECTIVES
colonization.
industrialization
• Explain the linkages between colonization and
industrialization
• Proffer solution to problem of industrialization in
Nigeria..

3.1: Meaning and Definition of
Colonisation
• Colonization is a process by which a central
system of power dominates the surrounding
land and its components.
• Colonization refers strictly to migration, for
example, to settler colonies in America or
Australia, trading posts, and plantations,
while colonialism to the existing indigenous
peoples of styled "new territories".

3.2 Meaning and Definition of
Industrialization
• Industrialization is a sustained economic
development based on factory production,
division of labor, concentration of industries and
population in certain geographical areas, and
urbanization.
• An industrialized nation is a country with a large
manufacturing sector concentrated in a
geographical area commonly referred to as
industrial area

3.3 The Links between Colonization
and Industrialization
➢ The industrial revolution in the Europe was spurs by
the African and Asian colonies because both men and
materials for their then nascent industries were taken
majorly from these two continents.
➢ Even African were used to fight the world wars and
many could not returned (see Walter Rodney: How
Europe Underdeveloped Africa)

3.4 Problems of Industrialization in
Nigeria
• Generally, three sets of explanations for the
unequal spread of industrialization have been
proposed. For a long time, it was maintained that
barriers to the spread of industrialization were
cultural. Some societies simply did not possess
those attitudes to work, savings, risk taking or
cooperation which are necessary for the efficient
operation of markets and modern industries.

3.4 Problems of Industrialization in
Nigeria
• Since the 1950s, the emphasis has shifted to
economic obstacles, including narrow markets, poor
infrastructure, weak financial institutions, falling
terms of trade, and rapid population growth
• A third set of radical theories seeks to explain
backwardness as the result of dis-equalizing
tendencies emanating from world capitalism.

UNIT 2: RURAL DEVELOPMENT AND
URBANIZATION
Main Content
3.1 Meaning of Rural Area and Rural
Development
3.2 Meaning of Urban Area and Urbanization
3.3 Rural-Urban Migrations
3.4 Factors that lead to problem of Urbanization
and Solutions to Problems associated with
Urbanisation

OBJECTIVES
• Understand the definitions and meaning of
rural area
• Understand the definitions and meaning of
urban area
• Understand the term urbanisation
• Proffer solution to problem of urbanisation in
Nigeria.

3.1: Meaning of Rural Area and Rural
Development
➢A rural area or countryside is a geographic
area that is located outside towns and cities.
Whatever is not urban is considered rural. A
typical rural area has the following
characteristics; a low population density, small
settlements and mostly agricultural areas.
➢A rural area can also be conceived as an area
of land outside the densely populated urban
areas in a town or city

3.2 Meaning of Urban Area and
Urbanization
• Urban Area is a human settlement with high
population density and infrastructure of
built environment.
• Urban areas are created through Urbanization and
are categorized by urban morphology as cities,
towns, conurbations, or suburbs.
• Urbanization is closely linked to modernization,
industrialization, and the sociological process of
rationalization.

3.3: Rural-Urban Migration
• Rural-Urban migration is the movement of people from the countryside
to the city. This causes three things to happen:
1. Urban growth - towns and cities are expanding, covering a greater area of
land.
2. Urbanisation - an increasing proportion of people living in towns and
cities. ( and Mega cities - those with over 10 million people).
3. Rural depopulation is usually when numbers of working age people
migrate from the countryside to earn more money in the city. They leave
behind the old and the young.

Factors that lead to problem of Urbanization and
Solution to problem of Urbanization
• The factors that lead to influx of people from rural area
to urban cities is explained in 3.3 above further
created another set of problems in the urban area
which did not exclude any urban cities around the
world.
• The Solutions are as follows
1. Building sustainable and environmentally friendly cities
2. Provision of essential services
3. Creation of more jobs and skills development
4. Population control

MODULE TWO: Colonisation, Industrialisation and Development.
Unit Three: Gender Issues in Development
• CONTENTS
• Introduction
• Objectives
• Main Content
• Meaning of Gender
• Gender and Household income
• Problems of Gender inequality
• Solutions to Gender inequality

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES
• INTRODUCTION
• This unit is to discuss meaning of gender, gender and
household income, problems of gender inequality and
solutions to gender inequality
• OBJECTIVES
• At the end of this unit student should be able to:
• Discuss the meaning of gender.
• Analyze gender and household income.
• Discuss problems of gender inequality.
• Proffer solutions to gender inequality

MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Meaning of Gender.
• Gender is defined as the different social and
cultural roles, expectations and constraints
placed upon girls/women and boys/men
because of their sex (the biological differences
between them).
• Gender refers to the socially constructed
characteristics of women and men – such as
norms, roles and relationships of and between
groups of women and men (WHO, 2019).
• Gender is the range of characteristics
pertaining to, and differentiating
between, masculinity and femininity.
Source:http://www.ariafilaloblog.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/international-trade.jpg

MAIN CONTENT CONTD
3.1.1 Key Concepts and Terminologies
• Gender analysis: Looking at the impact of development
on girls/women and boys/men by separating data by sex,
and understanding how work, for example, is divided,
valued and rewarded. It examines how an activity,
decision or plan will affect each gender.
• Gender awareness: Understanding that socially and
culturally determined differences between girls/women
and boys/men based on learned behaviour affect their
ability to access and control resources.
• Gender balance (or gender parity): The equal
participation of women and men at all levels of an
organisation and in all areas of work.
• Gender blindness: Failing to recognise that the roles and
responsibilities of girls/women and boys/men are often
determined by gender, which can affect quality of life.

MAIN CONTENT CONTD
Key Concepts and Terminologies
Cont’d.
• Gender champions: In the workplace, managers and
staff who spearhead, support and sustain gender
equality and gender equality initiatives in their
organisation, and support staff who focus on its technical
aspects.
• Gender equality: Equal rights, responsibilities and
opportunities for everyone, regardless of their sex. It
does not mean that girls/women and boys/men will
become the same but that their interests, needs and
priorities are considered equally important, while
recognising the diversity of different groups of
girls/women and boys/men. It is considered a human
rights issue and a precondition and indicator of
sustainable people-centred development.
• Gender mainstreaming: The process of assessing the

MAIN CONTENT CONTD
Key Concepts and Terminologies Cont’d.
• Gender sensitive: Being sensitive to the different needs
and experiences of male and female users of a
programme. In an ODL context, it means producing
courses or learning materials to meet the needs of all
learners.
• Knowledge Management (KM): A set of principles, tools
and practices that enable the creation of knowledge and
allow people in a specific context to share, translate and
apply what they know to create value and improve
effectiveness.
• Knowledge Management Systems: Tools and practices to
organise store and make accessible the combined
knowledge of an organisation. Logical Framework
Analysis (LFA): A planning and management tool used to
present the key components of a plan, project or
programme in a table or framework format.

MAIN CONTENT CONTD
3.1.2 The Difference between Gender
Equity and Gender Equality
.
• In short, gender equality describes the
achievement of equal outcomes for women,
men and gender diverse people.
• Gender equity describes the process we
need to undertake to achieve gender
equality, by being fair to women and men.

MAIN CONTENT CONTD
3.2 Gender and Household Income.
Women within poor households tend to
be more vulnerable than men.
In terms of income, women usually have
access to fewer assets, face a different
set of constraints, adopt different
strategies from men, and
pursue different outcomes.
One cannot assume that the wants and
needs of men and women will be the
same. The livelihood strategies of
women often focus on meeting the basic
needs of their children for whom they
often bear a disproportionate share of
the responsibility within the household

MAIN CONTENT CONTD
3.2 Gender and Household Income
Con’td.
• Human capital theories refer to the
education, knowledge, training,
experience, or skill of a person
which makes them potentially
valuable to an employer.
• This has historically been
understood as a cause of the
gendered wage and income gap but
is no longer a predominant cause

MAIN CONTENT CONTD
3.3 Problems of Gender Inequality
• The subordination and subjugation
of women is sanctified by our deep-
rooted traditions.
• Patriarchy, dowry and
commoditization of women are
institutions which reinforces
gender discrimination.
• Therefore, gender equality cannot
be achieved through affirmative

MAIN CONTENT CONTD
3.3 Problems of Gender Inequality
Cont’d
• The problems of gender inequality
has been raising on for decades, as
the modern society has redefined
the role of a woman, which is vastly
different from what it’s used to be
in the middle ages.
• However, patriarchy and gender
inequality is always a touchy topic
when it comes to Africa because it

MAIN CONTENT CONTD
3.3.1 Causes of Gender Inequality in
Nigeria
• . Improper Education: “Knowledge
is power.” It might not be a strong
point, but this is pointing more
towards some parts of Nigeria that
are rejecting western views on
women, to stick to cultural ones.
• ii. Tradition and Culture: Tradition
is said to be the custom of a
particular society, while culture is

MAIN CONTENT CONTD
3.4 Solutions to Gender Inequality
• Researchers at the ODI argue for
the need to develop the following
in social protection in order to
reduce gender inequality and
increase growth:
• Community childcare to give
women greater opportunities to
seek employment
• Support parents with the care costs

MAIN CONTENT CONTD
3.4 Solutions to Gender Inequality Cont’d
• Inclusion of programme participants (women
and men) in designing and evaluating social
protection programmes
• Gender-awareness and analysis training for
programme staff
• Collect and distribute information on
coordinated care and service facilities (e.g.
access to micro-credit and micro-
entrepreneurial training for women)
• Developing monitoring and evaluation systems
that include sex-disaggregated data.

MODULE TWO CONT’D.
Unit Four: Health Issues in Economic Development
• CONTENTS
• Introduction
• Objectives
• Main Content
• Meaning of Health and Health
Education
• Healthcare and Healthcare Outcomes
• Healthcare Delivery System in Nigeria
• Healthcare Policy and Programme in
Nigeria

INTRODUCTION AND
OBJECTIVES
• Introduction
• The unit will look at the meaning of health and health
education, healthcare and healthcare outcomes,
healthcare delivery system in Nigeria and healthcare
policy and programme in Nigeria
• Objective
• At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
• Discuss the meaning of health and health education
• Analyze healthcare and healthcare outcomes.
• Discuss healthcare delivery system in Nigeria.
• Evaluate healthcare policy and programme in
Nigeria

MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Meaning of Health and
Health Education
• In the late 1940’s, the World Health Organization
developed a more holistic concept of health as “a
state of complete physical, mental and social well-
being and not merely as the absence of disease or
infirmity” (WHO, 1947; p. 1-2).
• Rather than restricting health to an absence of
illness, health was conceptualized more in terms of
the presence of absolute and positive qualities.
• This holistic and more utopian view of health
encompasses and extends the traditional medical
view by conceiving health as a positive state of well-
being in which physical health is only one of the
aspects involved.

MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Meaning of Health and Health
Education Cont’d
• Along with that, social, psychological, physical,
economic and political aspects were incorporated in
the definition of health, and regarded as
components of paramount importance for health
and well-being.
• By adding the psychological and social criteria, the
authors of the World Health Organization concept
of health not only acknowledged that health and
illness are essentially multicausal.
• But also shifted the focus from a strictly medical
perspective in which absence of illness was the
criteria used to evaluate a person’s status.

MAIN CONTENT CONTD
3.2 Healthcare and
Healthcare Outcomes
• Health care, health-care, or healthcare is the
maintenance or improvement of health via
the prevention, diagnosis,
and treatment of disease, illness, injury, and
other physical and mental impairments in people.
• Health care is delivered by health professionals in allied
health fields. Physicians and physician associates are a part
of these health professionals.
• Dentistry, midwifery, nursing, medicine, optometry, audiolo
gy, pharmacy, psychology, occupational therapy, physical
therapy and other health professions are all part of health
care.
• It includes work done in providing primary care, secondary
care, and tertiary care, as well as in public health.

MAIN CONTENT CONTD
3.2 Healthcare and Healthcare
Outcomes Cont’d
• Health outcomes are changes in health that result from
measures or specific health care investments or
interventions.
• Health outcomes include preventing death after a heart
attack through in-hospital care.
• It is important to distinguish outcomes from outputs.
• Health outputs have been the traditional way to quantify
healthcare delivery and are an important source of data
but do not provide the information required to measure
value and improve healthcare.
• Outcomes include patient-reported measures about
patients’ care and specific data about the efficacy of the
treatment patients receive in addressing their condition.
• A health outcome is the: ‘change in the health of an
individual, group of people or population which is
attributable to an intervention or series of interventions’

MAIN CONTENT CONTD
3.3 Healthcare Delivery
System in Nigeria
• Healthcare provision in Nigeria is a concurrent responsibility
of the three tiers of government in the country (Akhtar,
1991).
• Private providers of healthcare have a visible role to play in
health care delivery.
• The use of traditional medicine (TM) and complementary
and alternative medicine (CAM) has increased significantly
over the past few years.
• The federal government's role is mostly limited to
coordinating the affairs of the university teaching
hospitals, Federal Medical Centres (tertiary healthcare)
while the state government manages the various general
hospitals (secondary healthcare) and the local
government focus on dispensaries (primary healthcare),
(Vogel, 1993) which are regulated by the federal
government through the NPHCDA.

System in Nigeria cont’d
Table 2: Coverage Levels of Some Key Maternal New-born
and Child Health (MNCH) Services in Nigeria
Indicator 20
03
20
08
20
13
Percentage of married women aged 15-49 who are
currently using contraceptives (any method)
13 15 15
Antenatal care attendance by skilled provider
during pregnancy for most recent births
58 58 61
Delivery in a health facility 33 35 36
Delivery assisted by skilled provider 35 38 39
Trends in vaccination coverage
BCG 48 50 51
DPT3 21 35 38
Polio 3 29 39 54
Measles 36 41 42
All 13 23 25
None 27 29 21

MAIN CONTENT CONTD
3.4 Healthcare Policy and Programme
in Nigeria
• The country has several sub-sectoral policies and
plans, including the Reproductive Health Policy, the
National Human Resources for Health (HRH) Policy
and Plan, the National Health Promotion Policy, the
Health Financing Policy, and the National Strategic
Plan of Action for Nutrition, amongst others.
• There is an existing framework for the oversight of
programme implementation, starting with the
National Council on Health, at the highest level.
• There are various national coordination platforms,
including the Health Partners Coordinating
Committee, chaired by the Minister of Health, the
Development Partners Group for Health, and
different thematic technical Groups and Task Teams.

MAIN CONTENT CONTD.
3.4 Healthcare Policy and Programme in
Nigeria Cont’d
• The Nigerian health system has been evolving
over the years through health care reforms
aiming to address the public health challenges
confronting it. (Scott-Emuakpor, 2010). This
includes:
• National Health Insurance Scheme (NHIS),
• National Immunization
• Coverage Scheme (NICS),
• Midwives Service Scheme (MSS)
• Nigerian Pay for Performance scheme (P4P).

MAIN CONTENT CONTD.
3.4 Healthcare Policy and Programme in
Nigeria Cont’d
• After many attempts at implementing legislation on health
insurance since 1960, NHIS, although established in 1999, was
eventually launched only in 2005. The goals of the NHIS were
to:
• ensure access to quality health care services,
• provide financial risk protection,
• reduce rising costs of health care services and
• ensure efficiency in health care through programmes such as
the:
– Formal Sector Social Health Insurance Programme (FSSHIP),
– Mobile Health,
– Voluntary Contributors Social Health Insurance Programme (VCSHIP),
– Tertiary Institution Social Health Insurance Programme (TISHIP),
– Community Based Social Health Insurance Programme (CBSHIP),
– Public Primary Pupils Social Health Insurance Programme (PPPSHIP),
– and the provision of health care services for children under 5 years,
prison inmates, disabled persons, retirees and the elderly.

Abridged Reference for
Module Two
• Udry, J. R. (1994). Demography, 31 (4): 561–573. doi:10.2307/2061790.
• Haig, D. (2004). The inexorable rise of gender and the decline of sex: Social
change in academic titles, 1945–2001". Archives of Sexual Behavior, 33 (2):
87–96. doi:10.1023/B:ASEB.0000014323.56281.0d.
• WHO (2015). What do we mean by "sex" and "gender"?". World Health
Organization.
• Lindsey, L.L. (2010). Ch. 1. The sociology of gender. Gender Roles: A
sociological perspective. Pearson. ISBN 978-0-13-244830-7.
• Guideline for the study and evaluation of gender differences in the clinical
evaluation of drugs"(PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 April 2015.
Retrieved 3 August2014.
• U.S. food and Drug Administration.(2019). Evaluation of Sex-Specific Data in
Medical Device Clinical Studies – Guidance for Industry and Food and Drug
Administration Staff". U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 22 August 2014.
Retrieved 26 February 2019.
• WHO (2019). Gender, equity and human rights.
• https://www.who.int/gender-equity-rights/understanding/gender-
definition/en/

Module Two Cont’d
• Akhtar, R. (1991) Health care patterns and planning in developing countries. Greenwood Press, 1991. pp
264
• Balog, J. E. (1978). An historical review and philosophical analysis of alternative concepts of health and
their relationship to health education (Unpublished dissertation). Maryland: University of Maryland.
• Bauer, W. W., & Schaller, W. E. (1955). Your Health Today. New York: Harper and Row. 2nd Edition.
• Donatelle, R. (2009). Promoting healthy behavior change. Health: The basics. (pp. 4). 8th edition. San
Francisco, CA: Pearson Education, Inc.
• Oberteuffer, D. (1960). School health education. 3rd Edition. New York: Harper and Brothers
• World Health Organization. (1998). List of basic terms. Health Promotion Glossary. (pp. 4). Retrieved
May 1, 2009, frogym oyohttp://www.who.int/hpr/NPHj/ddoocs/hp_glossary_en.pdf.
• Scott-Emuakpor, A (2010). The evolution of health care systems in Nigeria: which way forward in the
twenty-first century, Niger Med J; 51:53-65.
• Segre, M., & Ferraz, F. C. (1997). O conceito de saúde. Revista de Saúde Pública, 31 (5) 538-42.
• UNESCO. (2018). International technical guidance on sexuality education: An evidence-informed
approach. Paris: UNESCO. 2018. p. 82. ISBN 978-92-3-100259-5.
• Vogel, R.J. (1993). Financing health care in Sub-Saharan Africa. Greenwood Press, 1993. pp 18
• WHO. (2019). Health Education. World Health Organization. Retrieved on October 26, 2019 from
https://www.who.int/topics/health_education/en/

MODULE THTREE: EDUCATION AND
ENVIRONMENT
Unit One: Education
• CONTENTS
• Introduction
• Objectives
• Main Content
• The meaning of education.
• Types of education.
• Importance of education.
• Nigerian educational system

INTRODUCTION AND
OBJECTIVE
• Introduction
• In this unit we will discuss the meaning of education,
types of education, importance of education and the
Nigerian educational system.
• Objective
• Discuss the meaning of education.
• Enumerate types of education.
• Discuss importance of education.
• Evaluate Nigerian educational system

MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Meaning of Education
• Education is the process of facilitating learning,
or the acquisition of knowledge, skills, values,
beliefs, and habits.
• Educational methods include storytelling,
discussion, teaching, training, and directed
research. Education frequently takes place
under the guidance of educators, however
learners may also educate themselves (Dewey,
1944).
• Education can take place in formal or informal
settings and any experience that has a
formative effect on the way one thinks, feels, or
acts may be considered educational. The

MAIN CONTENT CONTD.
3.2 Types of Education
• Education, as a process of gaining different knowledge, skills
and values, is marked by its diversity.
• There are many learning methods, goals and education types
which are a vital part of different education systems.
• Within the Nigerian education system one can differentiate
between four types: indigenous, formal, informal and non-
formal education.

MAIN CONTENT CONTD.
3.3 Importance of Education
• The following are reasons why education is
important:
• For a Happy and Stable life
• Money
• Equality
• Makes you self-dependent
• Turns your dreams into reality
• Makes the world a safer and more peaceful place
• Makes you confident
• Society
• For economic growth of the nation
• Saves you from being fooled/cheated

MAIN CONTENT CONTD.
3.4 Evaluation of Educational System in Nigeria
• Education in Nigeria is overseen by the Ministry of
Education. Local authorities take responsibility for
implementing state-controlled policy regarding public
education and state schools.
• Nigeria’s education system encompasses three different
sectors: basic education (nine years), post-basic/senior
secondary education (three years), and tertiary
education (four to six years, depending on the program
of study).
• Nigeria's central government has been dominated by
instability since declaring independence from Britain,
and, as a result, a unified set of education policies has
not yet been successfully implemented.

MODULE THREE: EDUCATION
AND ENVIRONMENT
UNIT 2: The Environment
• CONTENTS
• Introduction
• Objectives
• Main Content

INTRODUCTION AND
OBJECTIVE
• Introduction
• In this unit we will discuss the meaning of meaning of
environment, types of environment, importance of
environment and evaluate environmental management
in Nigeria.
• Objective
• Discuss the meaning of environment.
• Enumerate types of environment.
• Discuss importance of environment.
• Evaluate environmental management in Nigeria

MAIN CONTENT.
3.1 Meaning of Environment
• The word Environment is derived from the French word
“Environ” which means “surrounding”.
• Our surrounding includes biotic factors like human
beings, Plants, animals, microbes, etc and abiotic factors
such as light, air, water, soil, etc.
• Environment is a complex of many variables, which
surrounds man as well as the living organisms.
Environment includes water, air and land and the
interrelation ships which exist among and between
water, air and land and human beings and other living
creatures such as plants, animals and microorganisms
(Kalavathy, 2004).
• She suggested that environment consists of an
inseparable whole system constituted by physical,
chemical, biological, social and cultural elements, which
are interlinked individually and collectively in myriad
ways.

MAIN CONTENT CONT’D.
3.2 Types of Environment
• i. Essential life-supporting biophysical environment: It includes all
the biophysical entities as well as the processes that contribute to
providing all humans and other living beings the basic material
needs of life, that is, oxygen, water, food, and habitat. The
“essential life-supporting biophysical environment” is also termed
as “environment”, “natural environment”, “biophysical
environment”, “biosphere”, or “ecological system”. These words are
used almost synonymously.
• ii. Non-essential life-assisting environment: It includes all the
entities or processes that assist human life in various ways, but
cannot be considered essential for the physical survival of life on
this planet. It includes social systems, language, technology,
economic system, education, and various aspects of human
civilization. Although we can survive physically, without these
entities the life will be largely in wild or natural form. “Non-
essential life-assisting environment” is also known as
“anthropogenic environment”, “social environment”, “man-made
environment”, or “built environment” (Adekola, & Ogundipe,
2017).

3.2.1 Components of Environment
• Our environment has been classified into four
major components:
• Hydrosphere: It includes all water bodies such as lakes,
ponds, rivers, streams and ocean etc.
• Lithosphere: It means the mantle of rocks constituting
the earth’s crust.
• Atmosphere: It is a thin layer which contains gases like
oxygen, carbon dioxide etc. and which protects the solid
earth and human beings from the harmful radiations of
the sun.
• Biosphere. It is otherwise known as the life layer, it refers
to all organisms on the earth’s surface and their
interaction with water and air. It consists of plants,
animals and micro-organisms, ranging from the tiniest
microscopic organism to the largest whales in the sea.

3.3 Importance of Environment
• Environment plays an important role in the healthy living
of human beings.
• It matters because it is the only home that humans have,
and it provides air, food, and other needs.
• Humanity's entire life support system depends on the
well-being of all the environmental factors.
• Environment plays an important role in regulating air and
climate.
• Another reason the environment is so important is
because it is a source of natural beauty, and it is
necessary for proper physical and mental health too.
• To have a healthy life we need fresh air, clean water, and
surrounding

3.3 Importance of Environment Cont’d
• Soil is one of the components of environment. It is useful
for the growth of plants which are source of food to the
animals around.
• Food materials are obtained from plants, animals and
other natural sources.
• The clothing requirements like wool, cotton are obtained
from plants and animals.
• We obtain many medicines from the nature which cause
no side effects than artificial drugs.
• The natural environment is a free gift of nature and we
need to conserve it for the benefit of life in future. So it's
our responsible to take precautions against the pollution

3.4 Evaluation of Environmental Management in
Nigeria
• Effective strategies for environmental management in
Nigeria are described below
• Effective and Efficient Waste Management Board
(WMB)
• Non-Moribund Ministry of Environment
• Embracing Effective Horticulture and Greening of the
Environment
• Effective and Efficient Transport Management
Agency/Authority
• A Central and Well-Managed Motor Park

MODULE THREE: EDUCATION AND ENVIRONMENT
UNIT THREE: How Education and Environment
Enhance Human Wellbeing in Developing
Countries in Africa And Asia
• CONTENTS
• Introduction
• Objectives
• Main Content

INTRODUCTION AND
OBJECTIVE
• Introduction
• In this unit we will discuss the meaning of education,
types of education, importance of education and
evaluate Nigerian educational system.
• Objective

MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Education and Human Capital Development in Africa
• The process of human capital development could be
thought of as involving two basic economic agents-
individuals or households and firms, pursuing their own
self-interest, but with positive spillovers for the entire
society.
• For individuals, educational enhancement and skill
acquisition are prerequisites for success in the labour
market and better quality of life.
• For firms, providing training to their workforce is a
mechanism for improving their basic, technical and
managerial skills, and in the end ensuring profitability.
• The externality outcomes from the human capital
investment decisions and actions of households and
firms bring in public policy makers or government (a
third economic agent) whose goal, among others, is to
improve national competitiveness, and standards of
living.

MAIN CONTENT CONT’D
3.1.1. Overview of Human Capital Base in Africa
• The weak human capital base of Africa is reflected in low
literacy rate of many countries in the region.
• Inadequate institutions and support mechanisms for
education and skill development continue to limit access
to institutions of training and learning.
• Weak human capital base in Africa is also reflected in the
educational attainment of adult population.
• A greater amount of educational attainment indicates
more skilled and productive workers to facilitate
economic growth and transformation.
• The abundance of well- educated human resources also
helps to facilitate the absorption of advanced
technologies from developed economies.

3.2 Education and Human Capital Development in Asia
• Nelson Mandela once said, "Education is the most
powerful weapon which you can use to change the
world."
• Education does not just enable individuals to improve
their lot in life; it enriches an economy's human capital,
which is vital to prosperity and social progress.
• Nowhere is the value of human capital to development
more apparent than in East Asia.
• The top four (of 157) spots in the World Bank's recently
introduced Human Capital Index -- a composite measure
of survival, learning-adjusted years of schooling and
health -- are occupied by East Asian economies:
Singapore, South Korea, Japan and Hong Kong.
• The index estimates that a child born today in Singapore
will be 88% as productive when she grows up as she

3.3 Environment and Enhancement of Human Wellbeing in
Africa
• The term human well-being refers to people’s ability to
live a life they value and can comprise cultural heritage,
health, access to land and natural resources as well as
more material factors such as income-generating
opportunities.
• What constitutes human wellbeing differs for each group
and will reflect its history, local culture and norms,
political and socio-economic conditions, geography and
ecological circumstances.
• Environment is the foundation and support of human
existence and survival and the guarantee of sustainable
human development; environmental protection has
undoubtedly become a common understanding and
development strategy of all countries of the world.
• Environment and enhancement of human wellbeing in

3.4 Environment and Enhancement of Human Wellbeing in Asia
• he focus on environmental problems in South Asia as in
the case of other developing countries is more on local
and regional systems such as cropland, forests, water and
marine resources on which the bulk of the population
depends for its livelihood.
• In prioritizing the shared environmental concerns for the
region the following emerge as the most prominent:
• Land degradation.
• Deforestation and loss in biodiversity.
• Water availability and quality
• Atmospheric pollution

MODULE THREE CONTD.
Unit Four: How education and environment
enhance human wellbeing in developing
countries in the pacific and Latin America.
• CONTENTS
• Introduction
• Objectives
• Main Content
• Discuss education and human capital development
in the Pacific
• Assess education and human capital development
in Latin America
• Evaluate environment and enhancement of human
wellbeing in the Pacific
• Discuss environment and enhancement of human
wellbeing in Latin America

INTRODUCTION AND
OBJECTIVE
• Introduction
• The unit will discuss education and human capital development
in the Pacific, education and human capital development in the
Latin America, evaluate environment and enhancement of human
wellbeing in the Pacific and discuss environment and enhancement
of human wellbeing in Latin America
• Objective
• Discuss education and human capital development in the
Pacific
• Assess education and human capital development in
Latin America
• Evaluate environment and enhancement of human
wellbeing in the Pacific
• Discuss environment and enhancement of human
wellbeing in Latin America

MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Education and Human Capital Development
in the Pacific
• Human capital theory rests on the assumption that formal
education is highly instrumental and necessary to improve
the productive capacity of a population. In short, human
capital theorists argue that an educated population is a
productive population.
• The provision of formal education is seen as an investment
in human capital, which proponents of the theory have
considered as equally or even more worthwhile than that of
physical capital (Woodhall, 1997).
• An emerging gender trend is that girls stay at school
longer
and are more successful than their male counterparts in
external examinations. This is also reflected in the highe
r education level at the University of the South Pacific

3.1.1 Education for Continuity and Development
• Education, unlike schooling, was not introduced to the Pacific islands; it
was carried out in villages by older members of society prior to the
coming of the missionaries.
• A number of early studies by anthropologists have captured some of
the ways in which societies in the islands ensured that their values,
skills and attitudes were passed on to the younger generation.
• This type of education is referred to as 'informal' to
differentiate it from 'formal' education wh1ch takes place in
a school setting. Informal education was (and is) concerned
with the continuity of society in which adult members
passed on to the younger generation what they acquired
through experience.
• Much of the learning took place in practical situations in
which young members of society would observe and imitate
the adults and, with adult supervision, would learn to
develop appropriate skills in various fields.

3.1.1 Education for Continuity and Development
Cont’d
• Similarly, by observing adults or those older than themselves, the young people would
learn appropriate attitudes towards their elders, peers and members of outside groups.
• The elders of the tribe or group would relate legends and stories to the young which
would explain their history, their origins, their value systems and their view of the
universe.
• Learning was pragmatic and practical; its outcomes were easily observable in terms of
the acquisition of food and other necessary materials and comforts for the family, and
the demonstration of acceptable attitudes, values and behaviour for community
survival.
• Today, informal education exists side by side with formal education and it plays an
important role in teaching survival skills, particularly in rural areas where the extended
family is still largely intact and the economy predominantly at the subsistence level.
• In towns, many functions performed by informal education are passed on to the
schools, but because of the inability of schools to perform such tasks much is lost.
• The parents and elders of the present generation in the South Pacific did not receive as
much schooling as their children, but when and if they move from their villages to
towns to join their children and relatives who may work there, they might be able to
continue to play some role in the informal education of the young people in that
setting.

MAIN CONTENT CONTD.
3.2 Education and Human Capital Development
in Nigeria
• Human Capital Development implies the acquisition of
knowledge and intellectual stock through the means of
education, for expansion of productivity, efficiency,
performance and output.
• Education is an extremely important element in the
organisation of modern society. There is now growing
awareness in both developed and developing countries
of the role of education.
• According to Adawo (2011) Nigeria had the fastest
growing educational industry in the African continent.
• Today, the total number of universities in Nigeria has
increased geometrically without a corresponding
increase in funding and undermines the place of
education on the current legislative list in the 1999
constitution that provided the legal framework for
educational management in Nigeria.

MAIN CONTENT CONTD.
3.3 Environment and
Enhancement of Human
Wellbeing in the Pacific
• As countries of the Pacific island region enter the 1990s
they face a range of environmental problems more
extensive and more serious than ever before.
• Many of the potentially most damaging problems are
caused predominantly by the activities of countries
outside the region. Problems of ozone depletion, climate
change, hazardous waste dumping, and driftnet fishing
fall into this category.
• But particularly during the last two decades a range of
environmental problems have arisen associated with
economic development in most if not all Pacific island
countries.

MAIN CONTENT CONTD.
Environment and Enhancement of Human
Wellbeing in Latin America.
• There is a degree of economic and cultural dependence
on the natural environment and a clear vulnerability to
climate change and a wide range of natural disasters.
• The Pacific region is blessed with its coral reefs, and their
ecosystems and biodiversity. More than 80% of Pacific
islanders live in or near coastal areas and draw from the
coral reef for their livelihood (United Nations, 2010).
• The coral reef supports approximately 25% of all marine
life, including over 4,000 species of fish, providing
valuable spawning, nursery, and refuge and feeding areas
for large varieties of organisms. Coral reefs also play vital
roles as natural breakwaters, minimizing wave impacts
during storms and cyclones.
• Hence, the motto for the Second Pacific Year of the Coral
Reef 2008 was “Strong reefs, strong islands).

Module THREE
• Aigbokhan, B. Imahe, O. & Ailemen, M.T. (2007) Education expenditure and
human capital development in Nigeria: any correlation so far? Research paper.
Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma.
• Aniekwu, N. & Ozochi, C,A. (2010). Restructuring education, training and human
resources development in the Nigerian construction industry. Journal of science
and technology education research 1(5)92-98.
• Dahl, A. L., & Baumgart, I. S. (1982). The state of the environment in the South
Pacific." SPREP/SPC (Noumea: 1982).
• Nakpodia, E.D. (2011). Human resource management in school administration in
Delta state Nigeria. kam la-Raj journal of social sciences, 23(3) 179-187 Peters,
R.S. (1966). Ethics and Education. London: Allen & Unwin.
• Sanguinetti, P. (2016). Skilling up: Human capital and Latin America. World
Economic Forum. https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/12/skilling-up-human-
capital-and-latin-america
• United Nations. (2010).
Sustainable development in the Pacific: Progress and challenges.
Pacific Regional Report for the MSI + 5 Review Pacific Regional Report for the 5-
Year Review of the Mauritius Strategy for Further Implementation of the
Barbados Programme of Action for Sustainable Development of SIDS (MSI+5)
ESCAP Sub regional Office for the Pacific, Suva, Fiji April 2010. Accessed from
https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/11783Pacific_Region
al_Synthesis-MSI5-Final.pdf
• Woodhall, M. (1997). Human capital concepts. Education, culture, economy, and
society, 219-223

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