Digital Techniques all Chapter PPT used for Diploma Students

EE 4271 VLSI Design
Digital Logic (Review)

Overview
• Binary logic and Gates
• Boolean Algebra
– Basic Properties
– Algebraic Manipulation
• Standard and Canonical Forms
– Minterms and Maxterms (Canonical forms)
– SOP and POS (Standard forms)
• Karnaugh Maps (K-Maps)
– 2, 3, 4, and 5 variable maps
– Simplification using K-Maps
• K-Map Manipulation
– Implicants: Prime, Essential
– Don’t Cares
• More Logic Gates
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Binary Logic
• Deals with binary variables that take 2 discrete
values (0 and 1), and with logic operations
• Three basic logic operations:
– AND, OR, NOT
• Binary/logic variables are typically
represented as letters: A,B,C,…,X,Y,Z

Binary Logic Function
F(vars) = expression
Example: F(a,b) = a’•b + b’
G(x,y,z) = x•(y+z’)
set of binary
variables
Operators ( +, •, ‘ )
Variables
Constants ( 0, 1 )
Groupings (parenthesis)

Basic Logic Operators
• AND
• OR
• NOT
• F(a,b) = a•b, F is 1 if and only if a=b=1
• G(a,b) = a+b, G is 1 if either a=1 or b=1
• H(a) = a’, H is 1 if a=0
Binary
Unary

Basic Logic Operators (cont.)
• 1-bit logic AND resembles binary
multiplication:
0 • 0 = 0, 0 • 1 = 0,
1 • 0 = 0, 1 • 1 = 1
• 1-bit logic OR resembles binary addition,
except for one operation:
0 + 0 = 0, 0 + 1 = 1,
1 + 0 = 1, 1 + 1 = 1 (≠ 102)

Truth Tables for logic operators
Truth table: tabular form that uniguely represents the relationship
between the input variables of a function and its output
A B F=A•B
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
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Boolean Algebra
2-Input AND
A B F=A+B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
2-Input OR
A F=A’
0 1
1 0
NOT

Truth Tables (cont.)
• Q: Let a function F() depend on n variables.
How many rows are there in the truth table of
F() ?
 A: 2n
rows, since there are 2n
possible
binary patterns/combinations for the n
variables

Logic Gates
• Logic gates are abstractions of electronic circuit
components that operate on one or more input
signals to produce an output signal.
2-Input AND 2-Input OR NOT (Inverter)
A A
A
B B
F G H
F = A•B G = A+B H = A’

Timing Diagram
A
B
F=A•B
G=A+B
H=A’
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
t0 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6
Input
signals
Gate
Output
Signals
Basic
Assumption:
Zero time for
signals to
propagate
Through gates
Transitions

Combinational Logic Circuit
from Logic Function
• Consider function F = A’ + B•C’ + A’•B’
• A combinational logic circuit can be constructed to implement F, by
appropriately connecting input signals and logic gates:
– Circuit input signals  from function variables (A, B, C)
– Circuit output signal  function output (F)
– Logic gates  from logic operations
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Boolean Algebra
A
B
C
F

from Logic Function (cont.)
• In order to design a cost-effective
and efficient circuit, we must
minimize the circuit’s size (area) and
propagation delay (time required for
an input signal change to be
observed at the output line)
• Observe the truth table of F=A’ + B•C’
+ A’•B’ and G=A’ + B•C’
• Truth tables for F and G are identical
 same function
• Use G to implement the logic circuit
(less components)
A B C F G
0 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 0
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Boolean Algebra

from Logic Function (cont.)
A
B
C
F
A
B
C
G

Boolean Algebra
• VERY nice machinery used to manipulate
(simplify) Boolean functions
• George Boole (1815-1864): “An investigation
of the laws of thought”
• Terminology:
– Literal: A variable or its complement
– Product term: literals connected by •
– Sum term: literals connected by +

Boolean Algebra Properties
Let X: boolean variable, 0,1: constants
1. X + 0 = X -- Zero Axiom
2. X • 1 = X -- Unit Axiom
3. X + 1 = 1 -- Unit Property
4. X • 0 = 0 -- Zero Property

Boolean Algebra Properties (cont.)
Let X: boolean variable, 0,1: constants
5. X + X = X -- Idepotence
6. X • X = X -- Idepotence
7. X + X’ = 1 -- Complement
8. X • X’ = 0 -- Complement
9. (X’)’ = X -- Involution

Duality
• The dual of an expression is obtained by exchanging
(• and +), and (1 and 0) in it, provided that the
precedence of operations is not changed.
• Cannot exchange x with x’
• Example:
– Find H(x,y,z), the dual of F(x,y,z) = x’yz’ + x’y’z
– H = (x’+y+z’) (x’+y’+ z)

Duality (cont’d)
With respect to duality, Identities 1 – 8
have the following relationship:
1. X + 0 = X 2. X • 1 = X (dual of 1)
3. X + 1 = 1 4. X • 0 = 0 (dual of 3)
5. X + X = X 6. X • X = X (dual of 5)
7. X + X’ = 1 8. X • X’ = 0 (dual of 8)

More Boolean Algebra Properties
Let X,Y, and Z: boolean variables
10. X + Y = Y + X 11. X • Y = Y • X -- Commutative
12. X + (Y+Z) = (X+Y) + Z 13. X•(Y•Z) = (X•Y)•Z -- Associative
14. X•(Y+Z) = X•Y + X•Z 15. X+(Y•Z) = (X+Y) • (X+Z)
-- Distributive
16. (X + Y)’ = X’ • Y’ 17. (X • Y)’ = X’ + Y’ -- DeMorgan’s
In general,
( X1 + X2 + … + Xn )’ = X1’•X2’ • … •Xn’, and
( X1•X2•… •Xn )’ = X1’ + X2’ + … + Xn’

Absorption Property
1. x + x•y = x
2. x•(x+y) = x (dual)
• Proof:
x + x•y = x•1 + x•y
= x•(1+y)
= x•1
= x
QED (2 true by duality, why?)

Power of Duality
1. x + x•y = x is true, so (x + x•y)’=x’
2. (x + x•y)’=x’•(x’+y’)
3. x’•(x’+y’) =x’
4. Let X=x’, Y=y’
5. X•(X+Y) =X, which is the dual of x + x•y = x.
6. The above process can be applied to any formula. So
if a formula is valid, then its dual must also be valid.
7. Proving one formula also proves its dual.

Consensus Theorem
1.xy + x’z + yz = xy + x’z
2.(x+y)•(x’+z)•(y+z) = (x+y)•(x’+z) -- (dual)
• Proof:
xy + x’z + yz = xy + x’z + (x+x’)yz
= xy + x’z + xyz + x’yz
= (xy + xyz) + (x’z + x’zy)
= xy + x’z
QED (2 true by duality).

Truth Tables (revisited)
• Enumerates all possible
combinations of variable values
and the corresponding function
value
• Truth tables for some arbitrary
functions
F1(x,y,z), F2(x,y,z), and F3(x,y,z) are
shown to the right.
x y z F1 F2 F3
0 0 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 0 1
0 1 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 0 1

Truth Tables (cont.)
• Truth table: a unique representation of a Boolean
function
• If two functions have identical truth tables, the
functions are equivalent (and vice-versa).
• Truth tables can be used to prove equality theorems.
• However, the size of a truth table grows
exponentially with the number of variables involved,
hence unwieldy. This motivates the use of Boolean
Algebra.

Boolean expressions-NOT unique
• Unlike truth tables, expressions
representing a Boolean function are NOT
unique.
• Example:
– F(x,y,z) = x’•y’•z’ + x’•y•z’ + x•y•z’
– G(x,y,z) = x’•y’•z’ + y•z’
• The corresponding truth tables for F() and
G() are to the right. They are identical.
• Thus, F() = G()
x y z F G
0 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 0

Algebraic Manipulation
• Boolean algebra is a useful tool for simplifying
digital circuits.
• Why do it? Simpler can mean cheaper, smaller,
faster.
• Example: Simplify F = x’yz + x’yz’ + xz.
F = x’yz + x’yz’ + xz
= x’y(z+z’) + xz
= x’y•1 + xz
= x’y + xz

Algebraic Manipulation (cont.)
• Example: Prove
x’y’z’ + x’yz’ + xyz’ = x’z’ + yz’
• Proof:
x’y’z’+ x’yz’+ xyz’
= x’y’z’ + x’yz’ + x’yz’ + xyz’
= x’z’(y’+y) + yz’(x’+x)
= x’z’•1 + yz’•1
= x’z’ + yz’
QED.

Complement of a Function
• The complement of a function is derived by
interchanging (• and +), and (1 and 0), and
complementing each variable.
• Otherwise, interchange 1s to 0s in the truth
table column showing F.
• The complement of a function IS NOT THE
SAME as the dual of a function.

Complementation: Example
• Find G(x,y,z), the complement of
F(x,y,z) = xy’z’ + x’yz
• G = F’ = (xy’z’ + x’yz)’
= (xy’z’)’ • (x’yz)’ DeMorgan
= (x’+y+z) • (x+y’+z’) DeMorgan again
• Note: The complement of a function can also be
derived by finding the function’s dual, and then
complementing all of the literals

Canonical and Standard Forms
• We need to consider formal techniques for the
simplification of Boolean functions.
– Identical functions will have exactly the same
canonical form.
– Minterms and Maxterms
– Sum-of-Minterms and Product-of- Maxterms
– Product and Sum terms
– Sum-of-Products (SOP) and Product-of-Sums (POS)

Definitions
• Literal: A variable or its complement
• Product term: literals connected by •
• Sum term: literals connected by +
• Minterm: a product term in which all the variables
appear exactly once, either complemented or
uncomplemented
• Maxterm: a sum term in which all the variables
appear exactly once, either complemented or
uncomplemented

Minterm
• Represents exactly one combination in the truth table.
• Denoted by mj, where j is the decimal equivalent of
the minterm’s corresponding binary combination (bj).
• A variable in mj is complemented if its value in bj is 0,
otherwise is uncomplemented.
• Example: Assume 3 variables (A,B,C), and j=3. Then, bj
= 011 and its corresponding minterm is denoted by mj
= A’BC

Maxterm
• Represents exactly one combination in the truth table.
• Denoted by Mj, where j is the decimal equivalent of
the maxterm’s corresponding binary combination (bj).
• A variable in Mj is complemented if its value in bj is 1,
otherwise is uncomplemented.
• Example: Assume 3 variables (A,B,C), and j=3. Then, bj
= 011 and its corresponding maxterm is denoted by
Mj = A+B’+C’

Truth Table notation for Minterms and
Maxterms
• Minterms and
Maxterms are easy
to denote using a
truth table.
• Example:
Assume 3 variables
x,y,z
(order is fixed)
x y z Minterm Maxterm
0 0 0 x’y’z’ = m0 x+y+z = M0
0 0 1 x’y’z = m1 x+y+z’ = M1
0 1 0 x’yz’ = m2 x+y’+z = M2
0 1 1 x’yz = m3 x+y’+z’= M3
1 0 0 xy’z’ = m4 x’+y+z = M4
1 0 1 xy’z = m5 x’+y+z’ = M5
1 1 0 xyz’ = m6 x’+y’+z = M6
1 1 1 xyz = m7 x’+y’+z’ = M7

Canonical Forms (Unique)
• Any Boolean function F( ) can be expressed as a
unique sum of minterms and a unique product
of maxterms (under a fixed variable ordering).
• In other words, every function F() has two
canonical forms:
– Canonical Sum-Of-Products (sum of minterms)
– Canonical Product-Of-Sums (product of
maxterms)

Canonical Forms (cont.)
• Canonical Sum-Of-Products:
The minterms included are those mj such that
F( ) = 1 in row j of the truth table for F( ).
• Canonical Product-Of-Sums:
The maxterms included are those Mj such that
F( ) = 0 in row j of the truth table for F( ).

Example
• Truth table for f1(a,b,c) at right
• The canonical sum-of-products form for f1
is
f1(a,b,c) = m1 + m2 + m4 + m6
= a’b’c + a’bc’ + ab’c’ + abc’
• The canonical product-of-sums form for f1 is
f1(a,b,c) = M0 • M3 • M5 • M7
= (a+b+c)•(a+b’+c’)•
(a’+b+c’)•(a’+b’+c’).
• Observe that: mj = Mj’
a b c f1
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0

Shorthand: ∑ and ∏
• f1(a,b,c) = ∑ m(1,2,4,6), where ∑ indicates that this is
a sum-of-products form, and m(1,2,4,6) indicates
that the minterms to be included are m1, m2, m4, and
m6.
• f1(a,b,c) = ∏ M(0,3,5,7), where ∏ indicates that this
is a product-of-sums form, and M(0,3,5,7) indicates
that the maxterms to be included are M0, M3, M5,
and M7.
• Since mj = Mj’ for any j,
∑ m(1,2,4,6) = ∏ M(0,3,5,7) = f1(a,b,c)

Conversion Between Canonical Forms
• Replace ∑ with ∏ (or vice versa) and replace those j’s that
appeared in the original form with those that do not.
• Example:
f1(a,b,c) = a’b’c + a’bc’ + ab’c’ + abc’
= m1 + m2 + m4 + m6
= ∑(1,2,4,6)
= ∏(0,3,5,7)
= (a+b+c)•(a+b’+c’)•(a’+b+c’)•(a’+b’+c’)

Standard Forms (NOT Unique)
• Standard forms are “like” canonical forms,
except that not all variables need appear in
the individual product (SOP) or sum (POS)
terms.
• Example:
f1(a,b,c) = a’b’c + bc’ + ac’
is a standard sum-of-products form
• f1(a,b,c) = (a+b+c)•(b’+c’)•(a’+c’)
is a standard product-of-sums form.

Conversion of SOP from standard to
canonical form
• Expand non-canonical terms by inserting
equivalent of 1 in each missing variable x:
(x + x’) = 1
• Remove duplicate minterms
• f1(a,b,c) = a’b’c + bc’ + ac’
= a’b’c + (a+a’)bc’ + a(b+b’)c’
= a’b’c + abc’ + a’bc’ + abc’ + ab’c’
= a’b’c + abc’ + a’bc + ab’c’

Conversion of POS from standard to
canonical form
• Expand noncanonical terms by adding 0 in terms of
missing variables (e.g., xx’ = 0) and using the
distributive law
• Remove duplicate maxterms
• f1(a,b,c) = (a+b+c)•(b’+c’)•(a’+c’)
= (a+b+c)•(aa’+b’+c’)•(a’+bb’+c’)
= (a+b+c)•(a+b’+c’)•(a’+b’+c’)•
(a’+b+c’)•(a’+b’+c’)
= (a+b+c)•(a+b’+c’)•(a’+b’+c’)•(a’+b+c’)

Karnaugh Maps
• Karnaugh maps (K-maps) are graphical
representations of boolean functions.
• One map cell corresponds to a row in the
truth table.
• Also, one map cell corresponds to a minterm
or a maxterm in the boolean expression
• Multiple-cell areas of the map correspond to
standard terms.

Two-Variable Map
m3
m2
1
m1
m0
0
1
0
x1
x2
0 1
2 3
NOTE: ordering of variables is IMPORTANT
for f(x1,x2), x1 is the row, x2 is the column.
Cell 0 represents x1’x2’; Cell 1 represents
x1’x2; etc. If a minterm is present in the
function, then a 1 is placed in the
corresponding cell.
m3
m1
1
m2
m0
0
1
0
x2
x1
0 2
1 3
OR

Two-Variable Map (cont.)
• Any two adjacent cells in the map differ by
ONLY one variable, which appears
complemented in one cell and
uncomplemented in the other.
• Example:
m0 (=x1’x2’) is adjacent to m1 (=x1’x2) and m2
(=x1x2’) but NOT m3 (=x1x2)

2-Variable Map -- Example
• f(x1,x2) = x1’x2’+ x1’x2 + x1x2’
= m0 + m1 + m2
= x1’ + x2’
• 1s placed in K-map for specified
minterms m0, m1, m2
• Grouping (ORing) of 1s allows
simplification
• What (simpler) function is
represented by each dashed
rectangle?
– x1’ = m0 + m1
– x2’ = m0 + m2
• Note m0 covered twice
x1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 0
x2
0 1
2 3

Minimization as SOP using K-map
• Enter 1s in the K-map for each product term in
the function
• Group adjacent K-map cells containing 1s to
obtain a product with fewer variables. Group
size must be in power of 2 (2, 4, 8, …)
• Handle “boundary wrap” for K-maps of 3 or
more variables.
• Realize that answer may not be unique

Three-Variable Map
m6
m7
m5
m4
1
m2
m3
m1
m0
0
10
11
01
00
yz
x
0 1 3 2
4 5 7 6
-Note: variable ordering is (x,y,z); yz specifies
column, x specifies row.
-Each cell is adjacent to three other cells (left or
right or top or bottom or edge wrap)

Three-Variable Map (cont.)
The types of structures
that are either minterms or
are generated by repeated
application of the
minimization theorem on a
three variable map are
shown at right.
Groups of 1, 2, 4, 8 are
possible.
minterm
group of 2 terms
group of 4 terms

Simplification
• Enter minterms of the Boolean function into
the map, then group terms
• Example: f(a,b,c) = a’c + abc + bc’
• Result: f(a,b,c) = a’c+ b
1 1 1
1 1
a
bc
1 1 1
1 1

More Examples
• f1(x, y, z) = ∑ m(2,3,5,7)
• f2(x, y, z) = ∑ m (0,1,2,3,6)
 f1(x, y, z) = x’y + xz
f2(x, y, z) = x’+yz’
yz
X 00 01 11 10
0 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1

Four-Variable Maps
• Top cells are adjacent to bottom cells. Left-edge cells
are adjacent to right-edge cells.
• Note variable ordering (WXYZ).
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Boolean Algebra
m10
m11
m9
m8
10
m14
m15
m13
m12
11
m6
m7
m5
m4
01
m2
m3
m1
m0
00
10
11
01
00
WX
YZ

Four-variable Map Simplification
• One square represents a minterm of 4 literals.
• A rectangle of 2 adjacent squares represents a
product term of 3 literals.
• A rectangle of 4 squares represents a product term
of 2 literals.
• A rectangle of 8 squares represents a product term
of 1 literal.
• A rectangle of 16 squares produces a function that is
equal to logic 1.

Example
• Simplify the following Boolean function (A,B,C,D) =
∑m(0,1,2,4,5,7,8,9,10,12,13).
• First put the function g( ) into the map, and then
group as many 1s as possible.
cd
ab
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
g(A,B,C,D) = c’+b’d’+a’bd
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

Don't Care Conditions
• There may be a combination of input values which
– will never occur
– if they do occur, the output is of no concern.
• The function value for such combinations is called a don't
care.
• They are denoted with x or –. Each x may be arbitrarily
assigned the value 0 or 1 in an implementation.
• Don’t cares can be used to further simplify a function

Minimization using Don’t Cares
• Treat don't cares as if they are 1s to generate
PIs.
• Delete PI's that cover only don't care
minterms.
• Treat the covering of remaining don't care
minterms as optional in the selection process
(i.e. they may be, but need not be, covered).

Example
• Simplify the function f(a,b,c,d)
whose K-map is shown at the
right.
• f = a’c’d+ab’+cd’+a’bc’
or
• f = a’c’d+ab’+cd’+a’bd’
x
x
1
1
x
x
0
0
1
0
1
1
1
0
1
0
x
x
1
1
x
x
0
0
1
0
1
1
1
0
1
0
0 1 0 1
1 1 0 1
0 0 x x
1 1 x x
ab
cd
00
01
11
10
00 01 11 10

Another Example
• Simplify the function
g(a,b,c,d) whose K-map is
shown at right.
• g = a’c’+ ab
or
• g = a’c’+b’d
x 1 0 0
1 x 0 x
1 x x 1
0 x x 0
x 1 0 0
1 x 0 x
1 x x 1
0 x x 0
x 1 0 0
1 x 0 x
1 x x 1
0 x x 0
ab
cd

Algorithmic minimization
• What do we do for functions with more
variables?
• You can “code up” a minimizer (Computer-
Aided Design, CAD)
– Quine-McCluskey algorithm
– Iterated consensus
• We won’t discuss these techniques here

More Logic Gates
• NAND and NOR Gates
– NAND and NOR circuits
– Two-level Implementations
– Multilevel Implementations
• Exclusive-OR (XOR) Gates
– Odd Function
– Parity Generation and Checking

More Logic Gates
• We can construct any combinational circuit with
AND, OR, and NOT gates
• Additional logic gates are used for practical reasons
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Boolean Algebra

BUFFER, NAND and NOR
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Boolean Algebra

NAND Gate
• Known as a “universal” gate because ANY
digital circuit can be implemented with NAND
gates alone.
• To prove the above, it suffices to show that
AND, OR, and NOT can be implemented using
NAND gates only.

NAND Gate Emulation
X
X
F = (X•X)’
= X’+X’
= X’
X
Y
Y
F = ((X•Y)’)’
= (X’+Y’)’
= X’’•Y’’
= X•Y
F = (X’•Y’)’
= X’’+Y’’
= X+Y
X
X
F = X’
X
Y
Y
F X•Y
F = X+Y

NAND Circuits
• To easily derive a NAND implementation of a
boolean function:
– Find a simplified SOP
– SOP is an AND-OR circuit
– Change AND-OR circuit to a NAND circuit
– Use the alternative symbols below
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Boolean Algebra

AND-OR (SOP) Emulation
Using NANDs
a) Original SOP
b) Implementation with NANDs
Two-level implementations

AND-OR (SOP) Emulation
Using NANDs (cont.)
Verify:
(a) G = WXY + YZ
(b) G = ( (WXY)’ • (YZ)’ )’
= (WXY)’’ + (YZ)’’ = WXY + YZ

SOP with NAND
(a) Original SOP
(b) Double inversion and grouping
(c) Replacement with NANDs
AND-NOT
NOT-OR

Two-Level NAND Gate
Implementation - Example
F (X,Y,Z) = m(0,6)
1. Express F in SOP form:
F = X’Y’Z’ + XYZ’
2. Obtain the AND-OR implementation for F.
3. Add bubbles and inverters to transform AND-
OR to NAND-NAND gates.

Example (cont.)
Two-level implementation with NANDs
F = X’Y’Z’ + XYZ’

Multilevel NAND Circuits
Starting from a multilevel circuit:
1. Convert all AND gates to NAND gates with AND-NOT
graphic symbols.
2. Convert all OR gates to NAND gates with NOT-OR
graphic symbols.
3. Check all the bubbles in the diagram. For every
bubble that is not counteracted by another bubble
along the same line, insert a NOT gate or
complement the input literal from its original
appearance.

Example
Use NAND gates
and NOT gates to
implement
Z=E’F(AB+C’+D’)+GH
AB
AB+C’+D’
E’F(AB+C’+D’)
E’F(AB+C’+D’)+GH

Yet Another Example!

NOR Gate
• Also a “universal” gate because ANY digital
circuit can be implemented with NOR gates
alone.
• This can be similarly proven as with the NAND
gate.
2024/5/2 PJF - 74
Boolean Algebra

NOR Circuits
• To easily derive a NOR implementation of a boolean
function:
– Find a simplified POS
– POS is an OR-AND circuit
– Change OR-AND circuit to a NOR circuit
– Use the alternative symbols below
2024/5/2 PJF - 75
Boolean Algebra

Two-Level NOR Gate
Implementation - Example
F(X,Y,Z) = m(0,6)
1. Express F’ in SOP form:
1. F’ = m(1,2,3,4,5,7)
= X’Y’Z + X’YZ’ + X’YZ + XY’Z’ + XY’Z + XYZ
2. F’ = XY’ + X’Y + Z
2. Take the complement of F’ to get F in the POS form:
F = (F’)' = (X'+Y)(X+Y')Z'
3. Obtain the OR-AND implementation for F.
4. Add bubbles and inverters to transform OR-AND
implementation to NOR-NOR implementation.

Example (cont.)
Two-level implementation with NORs
F = (F’)' = (X'+Y)(X+Y')Z'

XOR and XNOR
X Y F = XY
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
2024/5/2 PJF - 78
Boolean Algebra
Y
F
XOR: “not-equal” gate
X Y F = XY
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
X
Y
F
XNOR: “equal” gate
X

Exclusive-OR (XOR) Function
• XOR (also ) : the “not-equal” function
• XOR(X,Y) = X  Y = X’Y + XY’
• Identities:
– X  0 = X
– X  1 = X’
– X  X = 0
– X  X’ = 1
• Properties:
– X  Y = Y  X
– (X  Y)  W = X  ( Y  W)

XOR function implementation
• XOR(a,b) = ab’ + a’b
• Straightforward: 5 gates
– 2 inverters, two 2-input ANDs, one 2-input OR
– 2 inverters & 3 2-input NANDs
• Nonstraightforward:
– 4 NAND gates
2024/5/2 PJF - 80
Boolean Algebra

XOR circuit with 4 NANDs
2024/5/2 PJF - 81
Boolean Algebra

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