Introduction to digital logic
- 1. B O O L E A N A L G E B R A M A P S I M P L I F I C A T I O N L O G I C G A T E S C O M B I N A T I O N A L C I R C U I T S E Q U E N T I A L C I R C U I T Review of Digital Logic
- 2. Boolean Algebra Boolean algebra is a mathematical system for the manipulation of variables that can have one of two values. In formal logic, these values are “true” and “false.” In digital systems, these values are “on” and “off,” 1 and 0, or “high” and “low.” Boolean expressions are created by performing operations on Boolean variables. Common Boolean operators include AND, OR, and NOT.
- 3. Boolean Algebra A Boolean operator can be completely described using a truth table. The truth table for the Boolean operators AND and OR are shown at the right. The AND operator is also known as a Boolean product. The OR operator is the Boolean sum.
- 4. Boolean Algebra The truth table for the Boolean NOT operator is shown at the right. The NOT operation is most often designated by an overbar. It is sometimes indicated by a prime mark ( „ ) or an “elbow” ( ).
- 5. Boolean Algebra A Boolean function has: • At least one Boolean variable, • At least one Boolean operator, and • At least one input from the set {0,1}. It produces an output that is also a member of the set {0,1}.
- 6. Boolean Algebra The truth table for the Boolean function: is shown at the right. To make evaluation of the Boolean function easier, the truth table contains extra (shaded) columns to hold evaluations of subparts of the function.
- 7. Boolean Algebra As with common arithmetic, Boolean operations have rules of precedence. The NOT operator has highest priority, followed by AND and then OR. This is how we chose the (shaded) function subparts in our table.
- 8. Boolean Algebra Digital computers contain circuits that implement Boolean functions. The simpler that we can make a Boolean function, the smaller the circuit that will result. Simpler circuits are cheaper to build, consume less power, and run faster than complex circuits. With this in mind, we always want to reduce our Boolean functions to their simplest form. There are a number of Boolean identities that help us to do this.
- 9. Boolean Algebra Most Boolean identities have an AND (product) form as well as an OR (sum) form. We give our identities using both forms. Our first group is rather intuitive:
- 10. Boolean Algebra Our second group of Boolean identities should be familiar to you from your study of algebra:
- 11. Boolean Algebra Our last group of Boolean identities are perhaps the most useful. If you have studied set theory or formal logic, these laws are also familiar to you.
- 12. Boolean Algebra We can use Boolean identities to simplify the function: as follows:
- 13. Boolean Algebra Sometimes it is more economical to build a circuit using the complement of a function (and complementing its result) than it is to implement the function directly. DeMorgan‟s law provides an easy way of finding the complement of a Boolean function. Recall DeMorgan‟s law states:
- 14. Boolean Algebra DeMorgan‟s law can be extended to any number of variables. Replace each variable by its complement and change all ANDs to ORs and all ORs to ANDs. Thus, we find the the complement of: is:
- 15. Boolean Algebra Through our exercises in simplifying Boolean expressions, we see that there are numerous ways of stating the same Boolean expression. These “synonymous” forms are logically equivalent. Logically equivalent expressions have identical truth tables. In order to eliminate as much confusion as possible, designers express Boolean functions in standardized or canonical form.
- 16. Boolean Algebra There are two canonical forms for Boolean expressions: sum-of-products and product-of-sums. Recall the Boolean product is the AND operation and the Boolean sum is the OR operation. In the sum-of-products form, ANDed variables are ORed together. For example: In the product-of-sums form, ORed variables are ANDed together: For example:
- 17. Boolean Algebra It is easy to convert a function to sum-of-products form using its truth table. We are interested in the values of the variables that make the function true (=1). Using the truth table, we list the values of the variables that result in a true function value. Each group of variables is then ORed together.
- 18. Boolean Algebra The sum-of-products form for our function is: We note that this function is not in simplest terms. Our aim is only to rewrite our function in canonical sum-of-products form.
- 19. Map Simplification Simplification using Boolean algebra are difficult for long expression. For such case Karnaugh Map or K- Map is used. Each combination of variables is called min-terms. A function of n-variables will have 2^n min- terms.
- 21. Map Simplification F = AC’ + BC
- 22. Logic Gates Boolean functions are implemented in digital computer circuits called gates. A gate is an electronic device that produces a result based on two or more input values. In reality, gates consist of one to six transistors, but digital designers think of them as a single unit. Integrated circuits contain collections of gates suited to a particular purpose.
- 23. Logic Gates The three simplest gates are the AND, OR, and NOT gates. They correspond directly to their respective Boolean operations, as you can see by their truth tables.
- 24. Logic Gates Another very useful gate is the exclusive OR (XOR) gate. The output of the XOR operation is true only when the values of the inputs differ. Note the special symbol for the XOR operation.
- 25. Logic Gates NAND and NOR are two very important gates. Their symbols and truth tables are shown at the right.
- 26. Logic Gates NAND and NOR are known as universal gates because they are inexpensive to manufacture and any Boolean function can be constructed using only NAND or only NOR gates.
- 27. Logic Gates Gates can have multiple inputs and more than one output. A second output can be provided for the complement of the operation. We’ll see more of this later.
- 28. Combinational Logic Logic circuits for digital systems may be combinational or sequential. A combinational circuit consists of input variables, logic gates, and output variables.
- 29. Combinational Logic A combinational circuit that performs the addition of two bits is called a half adder. The truth table for the half adder is listed below: S = x‟y + xy‟ C = xy S: Sum C: Carry
- 31. Combinational Logic One that performs the addition of three bits(two significant bits and a previous carry) is a full adder.
- 32. Combinational Logic S = x‟y‟z + x‟yz‟ + xy‟z‟ + xyz C = xy + xz + yz C
- 34. Combinational Logic Full-adder can also implemented with two half adders and one OR gate (Carry Look-Ahead adder). S = z ⊕ (x ⊕ y) = z‟(xy‟ + x‟y) + z(xy‟ + x‟y)‟ = xy‟z‟ + x‟yz‟ + xyz + x‟y‟z C = z(xy‟ + x‟y) + xy = xy‟z + x‟yz + xy
- 35. Combinational Logic Decoders are another important type of combinational circuit. Among other things, they are useful in selecting a memory location according a binary value placed on the address lines of a memory bus. Address decoders with n inputs can select any of 2n locations. This is a block diagram for a decoder.
- 36. Combinational Logic This is what a 2-to-4 decoder looks like on the inside. If x = 0 and y = 1, which output line is enabled?
- 37. Combinational Logic It selects a single output from several inputs. The particular input chosen for output is determined by the value of the multiplexer‟s control lines. To be able to select among n inputs, log2n control lines are needed. This is a block diagram for a multiplexer .
- 38. Combinational Logic This is what a 4-to-1 multiplexer looks like on the inside. If S0 = 1 and S1 = 0, which input is transferred to the output?
- 39. Combinational vs. Sequential Logic Logic Circuit Logic Circuit Out OutIn In (a) Combinational (b) Sequential State Output = f(In) Output = f(In, Previous In)
- 40. Sequential Circuit Combinational logic circuits are perfect for situations when we require the immediate application of a Boolean function to a set of inputs. There are other times, however, when we need a circuit to change its value with consideration to its current state as well as its inputs. These circuits have to “remember” their current state. Sequential logic circuits provide this functionality for us.
- 41. Sequential Circuit As the name implies, sequential logic circuits require a means by which events can be sequenced. State changes are controlled by clocks. A “clock” is a special circuit that sends electrical pulses through a circuit. Clocks produce electrical waveforms such as the one shown below.
- 42. Sequential Circuit State changes occur in sequential circuits only when the clock ticks. Circuits can change state on the rising edge, falling edge, or when the clock pulse reaches its highest voltage.
- 43. Sequential Circuit Circuits that change state on the rising edge, or falling edge of the clock pulse are called edge- triggered. Level-triggered circuits change state when the clock voltage reaches its highest or lowest level.
- 44. Sequential Circuit To retain their state values, sequential circuits rely on feedback. Feedback in digital circuits occurs when an output is looped back to the input. A simple example of this concept is shown below. If Q is 0 it will always be 0, if it is 1, it will always be 1. Why?
- 45. Sequential Circuit You can see how feedback works by examining the most basic sequential logic components, the SR flip-flop. The “SR” stands for set/reset. The internals of an SR flip-flop are shown below, along with its block diagram.
- 46. Sequential Circuit The behavior of an SR flip-flop is described by a characteristic table. Q(t) means the value of the output at time t. Q(t+1) is the value of Q after the next clock pulse.
- 47. Sequential Circuit The SR flip-flop actually has three inputs: S, R, and its current output, Q. Thus, we can construct a truth table for this circuit, as shown at the right. Notice the two undefined values. When both S and R are 1, the SR flip- flop is unstable.
- 48. Sequential Circuit If we can be sure that the inputs to an SR flip-flop will never both be 1, we will never have an unstable circuit. This may not always be the case. The SR flip-flop can be modified to provide a stable state when both inputs are 1. • This modified flip-flop is called a JK flip- flop, shown at the right. - The “JK” is in honor of Jack Kilby.
- 49. Sequential Circuit At the right, we see how an SR flip-flop can be modified to create a JK flip-flop. The characteristic table indicates that the flip-flop is stable for all inputs.
- 50. Sequential Circuit Another modification of the SR flip-flop is the D flip-flop, shown below with its characteristic table. You will notice that the output of the flip-flop remains the same during subsequent clock pulses. The output changes only when the value of D changes.
- 51. Sequential Circuit The D flip-flop is the fundamental circuit of computer memory. D flip-flops are usually illustrated using the block diagram shown below. The characteristic table for the D flip-flop is shown at the right.
- 53. Sequential Circuit The behavior of sequential circuit is determined by the inputs, outputs and the state of the flip-flops. State table relates outputs and next state as a function of inputs and present state. Information can also be represented by state diagram in which state is represented by circle and transition between states by arrows.