![ever done before, to excite in the public mind an active interest in
the science of mineralogy.[43]
Dr. Bruce, while abroad, had been personally and intimately
conversant with the Hon. Mr. Greville, of Paddington Green, near
London, a descendant of the noble house of Warwick, the possessor
of one of the finest private cabinets in Europe, and a zealous
cultivator of mineralogy. Count Bournon, one of those loyal French
exiles, who found a home in England, during the storm of the French
revolution, was almost domesticated at Mr. Greville's, and was hardly
second to any man in mineralogical, and particularly in
crystallographical knowledge. His connexions with men of science on
the continent, were of the first order, and to be familiar at Mr.
Greville's, and with Count Bournon, was to have access to every
thing connected with science in England and France. Dr. Bruce was
also at home at Sir Joseph Banks's, the common resort of learned
and illustrious men. Thus he enjoyed every advantage in England,
and when he went to the continent, the abundant means of
introduction which he possessed, brought him into contact with the
distinguished men of Paris, and of other cities which he visited. The
learned and estimable Abbé Haüy was among his personal friends
and correspondents; and many others might be mentioned in the
same character, whose names are among the first in the ranks of
science, in various countries of Europe.
Returned to his own country, after being so long familiar with the
fine collections in natural history, and especially in mineralogy, in
various countries in Europe, Dr. Bruce manifested a strong desire to
aid in bringing to light the neglected mineral treasures of the United
States. He soon became a focus of information on these subjects.
Specimens were sent to him from many and distant parts of the
country, both as donations and for his opinion respecting their
nature. In relation to mineralogy he conversed, he corresponded
extensively, both with Europe and America; he performed
mineralogical tours; he kindly sought out and encouraged the young
mineralogists of his own country, and often expressed a wish to see](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/24709843-250522033313-06f30632/85/Digitaltwinenabled-Smart-Control-Engineering-A-Framework-And-Case-Studies-Jairo-Viola-29-320.jpg)
![Extract of a letter from Dr. H. H. Hayden of Baltimore, to the Editor,
dated January 5, 1819.
"It (the necronite) occurs in a primitive marble, or limestone,
which is obtained 21 miles from Baltimore, and a small distance from
the York and Lancaster road. It was first noticed by myself at
Washington's monument, in which this marble is principally
employed.
"It occurs, for the most part, in isolated masses in the blocks, or
slabs, both in an amorphous and crystallized state. It is most
commonly associated with a beautiful brown mica, of the colour of
titanium; small but regular crystals of sulphuret of iron, tremolite,
and small prismatic crystals of titanium, which are rare. The form of
the crystals is a rhomboid, approximating very much to that of the
felspar, and which has inclined some to consider it as such. Also, the
hexaedral prism, resembling that of the beryl. This form is rare, and
has not, as yet, I believe, been found complete. Its colour is a bluish
white, and clear white. Its structure much resembles felspar, being
lamellar; sometimes opaque, semi-transparent and transparent, at
least in moderately thin pieces. It scratches glass, carbonat of lime,
and even felspar, in a slight degree. In all our efforts, it has been
found infusible, per se, or with borate of soda, and even from all the
force of heat that could be excited in a smith's furnace, it came out
unchanged in any degree. The acids seem to have no sensible effect
upon it, either cold or hot. This is all that I can say of it at present,
except that it possesses a most horrid smell.[44] I have since found
in a marble of the same kind, but from a different quarry, and a few
miles distant from the first, a quartz almost as fetid as the necronite,
and likewise associated with small prisms of titanium.
"These substances carry with them a degree of interest in another
point of view. They seem to invalidate the opinion that the fetid
smell of secondary limestone, slate, &c. is derived from the
decomposition of animal matter. As their gangue is decidedly a rock
of primitive formation."](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/24709843-250522033313-06f30632/85/Digitaltwinenabled-Smart-Control-Engineering-A-Framework-And-Case-Studies-Jairo-Viola-34-320.jpg)
![tanning and dying, and are well satisfied that the discoverer has not
overrated, or erroneously estimated, the value of his own results.
We are persuaded that the highly useful arts alluded to, will derive
important aid from the use of a material so abundant and cheap as
chesnut wood.
To Professor Silliman.
Springfield, Mass. Feb. 27, 1819.
Dear Sir,
I send you a more particular account of the newly discovered
properties of the chesnut.
This tree, Fagus Castanea, Linn. is very abundant in New-England
and the middle states; and occurs in the mountainous districts, as
far southward as South-Carolina, or perhaps even Georgia. It is one
of the stateliest trees of the forest; scarcely less distinguished by the
beauty of its foliage, than by the durability of its wood.
By repeated analyses, conducted with the minutest attention to
every circumstance which could ensure accuracy, it appears,
incredible as it may seem, that the chesnut wood contains twice as
much tannin as ross'd[45] oak bark, and six-sevenths as much
colouring matter (which gives a black with iron,) as logwood. I am
aware that nothing could be farther from the common apprehension
than such results; but the uniform success of a great variety of
experiments in tanning and dying, in addition to the other kind of
evidence, should satisfy the most incredulous.
The leather tanned with it, has, in every instance, been superior to
that tanned in a comparative experiment, with oak bark; being
firmer, less porous, and at the same time more pliable. The reason
for this difference, will probably be found in the high state of
oxygenizement of the bark, particularly of the epidermis, by which it
is rendered to a certain degree acrid and corrosive. Dr. Bancroft was
perhaps the first who noticed the oxygenizement of barks. He
attributes the dark brown colour of the epidermis of his quercitron,](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/24709843-250522033313-06f30632/85/Digitaltwinenabled-Smart-Control-Engineering-A-Framework-And-Case-Studies-Jairo-Viola-41-320.jpg)
![The Bismuth mine in which these ores are found is the property of
Mr. Ephraim Lane. Letters addressed, post paid, to him at New
Stratford, town of Huntington, Connecticut, will find him through the
Post Office; and he will, for a reasonable compensation, pack boxes
more or less extensive, for mineralogists and others. As Mr. Lane is
by occupation a farmer, and is obliged to blast a quartz gangue in
order to obtain his specimens, he cannot be expected to transmit
them gratis. His mine, which has been sunk only ten feet, affords
native bismuth, native silver, magnetical and common iron pyrites,
and copper pyrites, (the two latter crystallized) galena, blende,
tungsten, tellurium, &c.
It is expected that the shaft will soon be sunk deeper, when
probably a more abundant supply of good specimens will be
obtained.
N. B. The silver and galena are the least abundant.
March 8th, 1819.
FOOTNOTES:
[28] Vide Edin. Review for Sept. 1818. p. 374.
[29] Referring to the ridges of Greenstone near New-Haven.
[30] Or, according to the Wernerian Geologists, Transition? Editor.
[31] The modesty of the writer has prevented him from applying
to the formations which he has well described, the terms
transition and secondary, which there can be little doubt do in
fact belong to them. His strata of highly inclined limestone,
appear to belong to the transition class of Werner, and his flat
strata, to the secondary. It may be observed in this place, that
the specimens alluded to in the text (passim,) appear to be
correctly described by Mr. Cornelius, and to justify his geological
inferences as far as hand-specimens seen at a distance from their](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/24709843-250522033313-06f30632/85/Digitaltwinenabled-Smart-Control-Engineering-A-Framework-And-Case-Studies-Jairo-Viola-45-320.jpg)
![native beds, can form a safe basis for general geological
inductions. Editor.
[32] Copied partly from Manuscripts of the late Dr. Muhlenberg, of
Lancaster, Pennsylvania.
[33] This large species I understand has been mistaken by a
writer on Natural History for Boa constrictor: this is mentioned to
show how remotely it is possible to diverge from accuracy in this
science.
[34] I have been since informed by Mr. Lesueur, that to his taste
the poison was bitter.
[35] The terminal caudal plates of this individual were bifid, as in
the one of Peale's Museum.
[36] This last is the animal, beyond a doubt, judging from the
detailed description and plate, which has lately been erected into
a new genus, under the name of
Scoliophus..............................the identity is immediately
obvious, to any one acquainted with the specific characters of the
above-mentioned coluber. And I presume it can be made
apparent, to any one tolerably versed in the science, should proof
be thought necessary.
[37] Dr. Barton remarked that this part is rounded, (cauda teres,)
this observation was not autoptical, but dictated most probably by
the appearance of Catesby's figure. In the young animal the tail is
less compressed than in the old one.
[38] Here we might properly enough notice the high-ways,
streets, and pavements of cities, &c. on which the materials being
minutely divided by attrition, are in a better state for the sun to
act freely on, and will consequently yield greater products than
equal areas of undisturbed surface, under like circumstances of
heat.
[39] Perhaps there is no body in nature absolutely incombustible,
but I use the term here in common acceptation.
[40] It may be easily proved that water evaporates (though
slowly) at a temperature many degrees below its freezing point;
and these vapours are more subtle and elastic than those formed
at the boiling point of that fluid.
REMARK.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/24709843-250522033313-06f30632/85/Digitaltwinenabled-Smart-Control-Engineering-A-Framework-And-Case-Studies-Jairo-Viola-46-320.jpg)
![It is indeed proved that vapour is formed from water at the
lowest temperatures, but is less elastic, the lower the
temperature, as appears from its sustaining a continually
decreasing column of mercury, the lower the temperature at
which the vapour is formed. Vide Dalton's and Gay Lussac's
experiments. Editor.
[41] We have taken the liberty to give Mr. Atwater's Memoir a
more extensive Title, for reasons that will be obvious on a perusal
of the piece.
[42] Genus, platanus—species, occidentalis, popular name,
sycamore, or button-wood.
[43] The collection of Mr. Perkins became, in 1807, (partly by the
liberality of its possessor, and partly by purchase,) the property of
Yale College, and is now in the cabinet of that institution. It is
believed that few cabinets of equal extent, ever contained more
instructive and beautiful specimens, with less that is unmeaning
or superfluous. The cabinet of Dr. Bruce has, since his death,
been purchased by a gentleman in New-York, for 5000 dollars.
Editor.
[44] On account of its peculiar cadaverous odour Dr. Hayden
proposes to call this mineral (should it prove to be a new one)
Necronite, from the Greek Νεκρος.
[45] That is, the inner bark deprived of the epidermis or outer
bark, by the shaving knife.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/24709843-250522033313-06f30632/85/Digitaltwinenabled-Smart-Control-Engineering-A-Framework-And-Case-Studies-Jairo-Viola-47-320.jpg)
Digitaltwinenabled Smart Control Engineering A Framework And Case Studies Jairo Viola
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- 5. A Framework and Case Studies Digital-Twin-Enabled Smart Control Engineering Synthesis Lectures on Engineering, Science, andTechnology Jairo Viola · YangQuan Chen
- 6. Synthesis Lectures on Engineering, Science, and Technology
- 7. The focus of this series is general topics, and applications about, and for, engineers and scientists on a wide array of applications, methods and advances. Most titles cover subjects such as professional development, education, and study skills, as well as basic introductory undergraduate material and other topics appropriate for a broader and less technical audience.
- 8. Jairo Viola · YangQuan Chen Digital-Twin-Enabled Smart Control Engineering A Framework and Case Studies
- 9. Jairo Viola Department of Mechanical Engineering University of California, Merced Merced, CA, USA YangQuan Chen Department of Mechanical Engineering University of California, Merced Merced, CA, USA ISSN 2690-0300 ISSN 2690-0327 (electronic) Synthesis Lectures on Engineering, Science, and Technology ISBN 978-3-031-22139-2 ISBN 978-3-031-22140-8 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-22140-8 MATLAB® and Simulink® are registered trademarks of The MathWorks, Inc. See mathworks.com/trademarks for a list of additional trademarks. © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
- 10. Preface This book presents the digital twin from a control engineering point of view, enabling smart control engineering, a new control paradigm that introduces smartness into classic control systems to produce smart feedback control systems for Industry 4.0 applica- tions. A novel systematic developing framework is introduced for digital twin applications focused on control systems. It leverages the classic control engineering steps of Modeling, Analysis, and Design (MAD) with breaking technologies like multiphysics simulation, machine and deep learning, or data analytics to create digital twins that provide a realistic representation of the physical system to be controlled. Likewise, the concept of smart control engineering is presented, focused on its integration with digital twins to intro- duce smartness into control systems. Besides, a set of enabling capabilities resulting from digital twin integration is analyzed like fault detection, prognosis, lifecycle analysis, and control performance assessment. Two case study examples of digital twin for process and motion controls are presented to demonstrate the applicability of the systematic design framework. The book has a support website where the readers can find the codes for the case study presented in the book which can be found at https://www.theedgeai.com/dta ndscebook. The book is designed from the control engineering point of view but can be followed by the science and engineering community. It is organized as follows: Chapter 1 presents what is and what is not a digital twin, its requirements, structure, challenges, applications, and state of the art regarding the current trends of digital twin in different fields like bioengineering, smart cities, transportation, logistics, and controls. Chapter 2 presents a systematic design framework for the digital twin for its application in control systems design. Likewise, a case study of the digital twin application for the design and control of a uniformity temperature control system is presented. Chapter 3 is dedicated to the Enabling capabilities resulting from digital twin for con- trol systems design like control performance assessment, fault detection, prognosis, and health management. Also, a case study for digital twin enabling capabilities is presented for the fault detection and Remaining Useful Life estimation of the uniformity temperature control developed in Chap. 2. Chapter 4 introduces the concept of Smart Control Engineering as a new control paradigm based on smart systems combined with control theory enabled by digital twins v
- 11. vi Preface and self-optimizing control as well as a digital twin-based simulation benchmark for smart control engineering. In addition, two case studies are developed to analyze smart control engineering: the uniformity temperature control developed in Chaps. 2 and 3 and a smart mechatronic system. Finally, Chap. 5 discusses future research directions of digital twin, smart control engi- neering, and the associated enabling capabilities like fault detection and Self-Optimizing Control. Merced, CA, USA March 2022 Jairo Viola YangQuan Chen
- 12. Acknowledgements The purpose of this monograph is to present digital twin (DT) and smart control engi- neering (SCE) as drivers for introducing smartness in the classic closed-loop control. This book presents DT foundations, a systematic development framework for DT applications in control systems, the enabling capabilities derived from the introduction of digital twin, and the concept of smart control engineering powered by DT. This book is based on a series of our published papers and parts of the planned Ph.D. dissertation of the first author. While some of these materials were reused, we have rewritten most parts of this monograph. In this journey through the novel field of digital twin and its applications in making control systems smart, we are grateful to many. Jairo Viola would like to thank his mother Carmenza and sister Diana for their sup- port. Also, he gratefully acknowledges the MESA Lab members Carlos Rodriguez, Derek Hollenbeck, and Mauricio Calderon for their constructive discussions and selfless help during the writing of this book. YangQuan Chen would like to thank his wife Dr. Huifang Dou and sons Daniel, David, and Duyun for their full support during this pandemic time. We both wish to thank our industrial partners Dr. Tao Zhang, Dr. Kai Liu, and in particular Fred Egley for his vision on “More intelligence in more subsystems” in the semiconductor industry. We are grateful to Professor Jing Wang for her host of our visits to her lab at the Beijing University of Chemical Technology and for her collab- oration in IAI (Industrial Artificial Intelligence) and DT (digital twin). Thanks go to Mr. Furkan Guc, a new Ph.D. student at the MESA Lab for his time and efforts in read- ing the whole draft with some useful feedback. Y. Chen was supported in part by an NSF INFEWS grant (award #CBET-1856112, 2019-2023) and a State of California SGC project (#2019CCR20014) “Mobile Biochar Production for Methane Emission Reduction and Soil Amendment.” vii
- 13. viii Acknowledgements Finally, we would like to thank Oliver Jackson of Springer for his continuous trust and support in our book project proposal. Remarks from the book proposal peer reviewers are acknowledged to be helpful for us to improve our presentation. Merced, CA, USA March 2022 Jairo Viola YangQuan Chen
- 14. Contents 1 Digital Twin Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.2 What Is a Digital Twin? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1.3 Digital Twin Requirements and Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1.4 Challenges on the Digital Twin Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1.5 What Is Not a Digital Twin? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1.6 Digital Twin Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 1.7 A Literature Review of Digital Twin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 1.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 2 A Digital Twin Development Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 2.1 Development Framework for Digital Twins Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 2.2 Digital Twin Frameworks in the Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 2.3 A Step-by-Step Digital Twin Construction Showcase: Temperature Control with a Thermal Infrared Camera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 2.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 3 Digital Twin Enabling Capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 3.2 Modeling, Analysis, and Design Methodology for Control Engineering Practice and Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 3.3 Control Performance Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 3.4 Parallel Control under Artificial, Computational, and Parallel Execution Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 3.5 Fault Diagnosis, Prognosis, and Health Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 3.6 Self-Optimizing Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 3.7 Edge Computing Devices for Digital Twin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 3.8 A Case Study: Fault Detection and Remaining Useful Life Analysis for Thermal Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 ix
- 15. x Contents 3.9 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 4 Smart Control Engineering Enabled by Digital Twin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 4.2 What Is a Smart System? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 4.3 Smart Control Engineering: A New Frontier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 4.4 Case Study 1: Self-Optimizing Control Based on Globalized Constrained Nelder–Mead Test Benchmark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 4.4.1 Results and Discussions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 4.5 Case Study 2: Velocity and Position Control of a Smart Mechatronic System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 4.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 5 Summary and Future Research Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 5.2 Digital Twin Multimodel Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 5.3 Digital Twin Standardization and Interoperability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 5.4 Convergence, Stability, and Globalness Analysis of Self-Optimizing Control Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 5.5 Accelerated Learning Using Faster Convergence Optimization Algorithms for Self-Optimizing Control and Behavioral Matching . . . . . . 105 5.6 Parallel Computing and Digital Twin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 5.7 Digital Twin for Control Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
- 16. Abbreviations ACP Artificial, Computational, and Parallel Execution AIC Akaike Information Criteria BIC Bayesian Information Criteria BJ Box–Jenkins Model CPA Control Performance Assessment CPC Cognitive Process Control CPS Cyber-Physical Systems DT Digital Twin FOPDT First-Order Plus Dead Time system GCNM Globalized Constraint Nelder–Mead optimization IA Artificial Intelligence IAE Integral Absolute Error IAI Industrial Artificial Intelligence ICT Information and Communication Technologies IID Independent and Identically Distributed Random Variables IIoT Industrial Internet of Things IoT Internet of Things ISE Integral Square Error ITAE Integral Time Absolute Error LTI Linear Time-Invariant System MAD Modeling, Analysis, and Design MBD Model-Based Design MDL Minimum Description Length MIMO Multiple-Input Multiple-Output System MPC Model Predictive Control MWAS MATLAB Web App Server nAIC Normalized Akaike Information Criteria NM Nelder–Mead Optimization Algorithm NRMS Normalized Root Mean Square Value PCA Principal Component Analysis xi
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- 18. Art. XVI. Analysis of Wacke, by Dr. J. W. Webster, of Boston. One hundred parts exposed to a red heat in a platina crucible lost 18.5, acquired an umber brown colour, and a degree of hardness sufficient to scratch glass. One hundred parts reduced to fine powder were mixed with four times the weight of soda, and exposed to heat, gradually increased for three quarters of an hour; at the expiration of which time, the whole had acquired a pasty consistence. The crucible was now removed from the fire, its outer surface carefully wiped. Muriatic acid was poured on till all effervescence ceased. The solution obtained was evaporated to dryness, gradually assuming an orange red colour. Water was now poured upon the mass, after which it was filtered, and the powder remaining carefully dried; after ignition, and while warm, it weighed 28 parts. This powder was insoluble in muriatic acid, and of a white colour. To the filtered solution, reduced by evaporation, carbonate of potash was added, the precipitate was collected on a filter, washed and dried; it weighed 23 parts. This powder was redissolved in sulphuric acid, sulphate of potash added, and crystals of alum finally obtained; hence this powder was alumine. To the liquor from which the silex and alumine had thus been separated, acetic acid was added; the whole evaporated to dryness; the excess of acid being removed, a small quantity of water was poured on, and after strong ignition, the precipitate weighed 4.5. Into a very small tubulated retort I introduced a portion from the same mass, whence the piece submitted to analysis was broken, and obtained over mercury the carbonic acid in the usual manner. This was equal to 2.32; by deducting this from 18.5 the loss during exposure to red heat, we shall have 16.18, the proportion of water.
- 19. The oxide of iron was separated from the solutions after the addition of acetic acid, by ammonia, and weighed 26 parts. Silex 28. Alumine 23. Lime 4.5 Carbonic acid 2.32 Water 16.18 Oxide of iron 26. —— 100
- 21. AGRICULTURE AND ECONOMICS. Art. XVII. On the Comparative Quantity of Nutritious Matter which may be obtained from an Acre of Land when cultivated with Potatoes or Wheat, by Dr. Eli Ives, Professor of Materia Medica and Botany in Yale College. In a good season an acre of suitable land well cultivated will produce 400 bushels of potatoes. In Woodbridge, a town adjoining New-Haven, a crop of 600 bushels of potatoes has been obtained from a single acre. A bushel of potatoes weighs 56 pounds. Multiply 400, the number of bushels, by 56, the weight of a single bushel, gives 22400, the number of pounds of potatoes produced upon one acre. Thirty bushels of wheat are considered a good crop as the product of one acre of land. About ⅚ of wheat may be considered as nutritious matter. According to the experiments of Dr. Pearson and Einhoff, about one-third of the potato is nutritious matter. From the analysis of Einhoff, 7680 parts of potatoes afforded 1153 parts of starch— fibrous matter analogous to starch 540 parts—albumen 107 parts— mucilage 312 parts. The sum of these products amounts to about one-third of the potatoes subject to the experiment. Sir Humphry Davy observes, that one-fourth of the weight of potatoes at least may be considered nutritious matter. One-fourth of 22400, the product of an acre of ground, cultivated with potatoes, is 5600. The whole weight of a crop of wheat calculated at 30 bushels to the acre, and at 60 pounds to the bushel,
- 22. gives 1800. Deducting one-sixth from the wheat as matter not nutritious, and the weight is reduced to 1500. The nutritious matter of the crop of potatoes to that of wheat is as 5600 to 1500, or as 56 to 15. The starch might be obtained by a very simple machine, recommended by Parmentier; and in seasons when potatoes are abundant, the potatoes might be converted to starch, and the starch preserved for any length of time, and used as a substitute for wheaten flour. The machine alluded to is a cylinder of wood about three feet long and six inches in diameter, covered with sheet tin, punched outward so as to form a coarse grater, and turned by a crank. This cylinder is placed in a box of boards whose sides slope a little inward upon the principle of a hopper, and a tub of water is placed beneath: The potatoes are thrown into this box, and as the crank is turned they are crushed, and the starch or fecula subsides to the bottom of the water. It is well known, that potatoes are largely used in England mixed with flour to form a very good bread; the starch of the potato would of course answer much better.
- 24. MISCELLANEOUS Art. XVIII. Biographical Notice of the late Archibald Bruce, M. D. Professor of Materia Medica, and Mineralogy in the Medical Institution of the State of New-York, and Queen's College, New- Jersey; and Member of various Learned Societies in America and Europe. With a Portrait. (Communicated.) Doctor Archibald Bruce, (the subject of this Memoir) was a native of the city of New-York, in North America. He was born in the month of February, in the year seventeen hundred and seventy-seven. His father was, at that time, at the head of the medical department of the British army, (then stationed at New-York) to which he had been attached from his youth, having been many years previously resident at New-York, as surgeon to the artillery department; where he was married, in or about the year seventeen hundred and sixty-seven, to Judith, a daughter of Nicholas Bayard, formerly of the same city, at that time the widow of Jeremiah Van Rensselaer of Greenbush; by whom he had another son, (who died an officer in the British army in Ireland) and a daughter, who died while a child. William Bruce, (the father above-mentioned,) and his brother Archibald, together with a sister, were natives of the town of Dumfries in Scotland, where their father was many years resident as the parochial clergyman; and so continued until his decease, much respected. Both sons applied themselves to the science of medicine and surgery. William, as above stated, became a physician in the British
- 25. army, and died, in that station, of the yellow fever, in the island of Barbadoes. And Archibald received a commission of surgeon in the British navy, in which he continued until disqualified by old age, when he retired from business, and died a few years since in London. For many years he acted as surgeon to the several ships commanded by Sir Peter Parker, captain, and afterward admiral. Doctor William Bruce, before his final separation from his family, on the occasion of his being ordered to the West-India station, had always declared that his son Archibald should never be educated for the medical profession; and finally enjoined such instruction upon his wife and friends, to whom the charge of the boy was committed. After his decease, the same injunction was repeated by the uncle, then in Europe, who was ever averse to his nephew's making choice of this profession: much pains were therefore early exerted to divert him from such inclination. The momentous state of political affairs, induced his mother to send him to Halifax, under the care of William Almon, M. D. a particular friend of her husband, with whom, however, remaining but a short time, he returned to New-York; and was placed at a boarding-school at Flatbush, Long Island, under the direction of Peter Wilson, LL.D. who was in high standing as a teacher of the languages.
- 26. Archibald Bruce M. D. In 1791, he was admitted a student of the arts in Columbia college. Nicholas Romayne, M.D. was at this time among the physicians of highest consideration in New-York, and was engaged in delivering lectures on different subjects of medical science in Columbia College. Having pursued the early part of his medical studies with Dr. William Bruce, he felt a generous gratitude for the
- 27. instruction and attention which he had received from him, and endeavoured to requite them by advising with his son, and promoting his views, as far as lay in his power. Here commenced a friendship which increased with advancing years, and terminated but with life. At this period, young Bruce began to evince a desire to oppose the inclination of his father and friends by studying medicine; this study, without their knowledge, and while a student of the arts in the senior class, he commenced by attending Dr. Romayne's lectures. Such was the strong bent of his mind towards the study of medicine, and its collateral physical pursuits, that the persuasion and remonstrances of his friends proved alike ineffectual, and he soon gave free scope to the prevailing inclination. The collection and examination of minerals, a pursuit not then at all attended to in this country, was his particular relief from other studies; for even during his recreation, he was ever on the look-out for something new or instructing in mineralogy. Dr. Romayne being about visiting Europe, young Bruce pursued his studies with Samuel Bard, M.D.; and having attended the usual courses in Columbia College, he left the United States for Europe in 1798, and in 1800 he obtained the degree of doctor in medicine from the University of Edinburgh, after defending a Thesis, De Variola Vaccina. Having now finished his medical studies, he was prepared to visit the continent of Europe with peculiar advantage; for his continued attachment to mineralogy, a liberal distribution of American specimens then comparatively new in Europe, and his social habits and dispositions, which were very conciliating, secured him the best introductions from Edinburgh, and laid the foundation of permanent friendships. During a tour of two years, he visited France, Switzerland, and Italy; and collected a mineralogical cabinet of great value and extent. After his return to England, he married in London, and came out to New-York in the autumn of 1803, to enter on the active duties of a practitioner of medicine.
- 28. Previous to the year 1805, the practice of physic in the state of New-York was regulated by no public authority, and of course was not in the happiest condition to promote the respectability and usefulness of the profession. To remove, as far as possible, the existing inconveniences, Dr. Bruce became an active agent, and in conjunction with Dr. Romayne and other medical gentlemen of New- York, succeeded in establishing the state and county medical societies, under the sanction of the state legislature. This act "may be considered among the first efforts made in this country to reduce medicine to a regular science, by investing the privileges of medical men in the body of the members of the profession." In the organization of the College of Physicians and Surgeons of the state of New-York, Dr. Bruce and Dr. Romayne were eminently active, and by their united exertion and perseverance, (opposed by much professional talent) they obtained a charter from the regents. In this new institution, as professor of the materia medica, and of his favourite pursuit, mineralogy, he exhibited the fruits of arduous study, with a dignity of character, and urbanity of manner, which commanded the respect of the profession, and the regard of the students. The ruling passion in Dr. Bruce's mind, was a love of natural science, and especially of mineralogy. Towards the study of this science, he produced in his own country a strong impulse, and he gave it no small degree of eclat. His cabinet, composed of very select and well characterized specimens; purchased by himself, or collected in his own pedestrian and other tours in Europe, or, in many instances, presented to him by distinguished mineralogists abroad; and both in its extent, and in relation to the then state of this country, very valuable, soon became an object of much attention. That of the late B. D. Perkins, which, at about the same time, had been formed by Mr. Perkins in Europe, and imported by him into this country, was also placed in New-York, and both cabinets (for both were freely shown to the curious, by their liberal and courteous proprietors) contributed more than any causes had
- 29. ever done before, to excite in the public mind an active interest in the science of mineralogy.[43] Dr. Bruce, while abroad, had been personally and intimately conversant with the Hon. Mr. Greville, of Paddington Green, near London, a descendant of the noble house of Warwick, the possessor of one of the finest private cabinets in Europe, and a zealous cultivator of mineralogy. Count Bournon, one of those loyal French exiles, who found a home in England, during the storm of the French revolution, was almost domesticated at Mr. Greville's, and was hardly second to any man in mineralogical, and particularly in crystallographical knowledge. His connexions with men of science on the continent, were of the first order, and to be familiar at Mr. Greville's, and with Count Bournon, was to have access to every thing connected with science in England and France. Dr. Bruce was also at home at Sir Joseph Banks's, the common resort of learned and illustrious men. Thus he enjoyed every advantage in England, and when he went to the continent, the abundant means of introduction which he possessed, brought him into contact with the distinguished men of Paris, and of other cities which he visited. The learned and estimable Abbé Haüy was among his personal friends and correspondents; and many others might be mentioned in the same character, whose names are among the first in the ranks of science, in various countries of Europe. Returned to his own country, after being so long familiar with the fine collections in natural history, and especially in mineralogy, in various countries in Europe, Dr. Bruce manifested a strong desire to aid in bringing to light the neglected mineral treasures of the United States. He soon became a focus of information on these subjects. Specimens were sent to him from many and distant parts of the country, both as donations and for his opinion respecting their nature. In relation to mineralogy he conversed, he corresponded extensively, both with Europe and America; he performed mineralogical tours; he kindly sought out and encouraged the young mineralogists of his own country, and often expressed a wish to see
- 30. a journal of American mineralogy upon the plan of that of the School of Mines at Paris. This object, it is well known, he accomplished, and in 1810, published the first number of this work. Owing to extraneous causes, it was never carried beyond one volume; but it demonstrated the possibility of sustaining such a work in the United States, and will always be mentioned in the history of American science, as the earliest original purely scientific journal of America. Dr. Bruce had, in a high degree, the feelings of a man of science. He was ever forward to promote its interests, and both at home and abroad, was considered as one of its most distinguished American friends. Many strangers of distinction came introduced to him, and his urbanity and hospitality rarely left him without guests at his board. During the latter part of his life, he seems to have been less interested in science. His journal had been so long suspended, that it was considered as virtually relinquished; his health was undermined by repeated attacks of illness, and science and society had to lament his sudden departure, when he had scarcely attained the meridian of life. He died in his native place on the 22d of February, 1818, of an apoplexy, in the 41st year of his age.
- 32. INTELLIGENCE. Art. XIX. 1. Dr. J. W. Webster's Lectures. Dr. J. W. Webster, some months since, commenced a course of Lectures in the town of Boston, on Geology and Mineralogy. Having finished his first course, he is now occupied with a second on the same subjects, and we understand receives the patronage of some of the most respectable citizens of Boston and its vicinity. He makes Geology the groundwork of his plan, and fills up by describing the metals and minerals met with in each class of rocks, after the rock has been noticed. A pretty full account is given of the coal formations, (several of which Dr. W. has visited) and of the modes of searching and boring. A view is given of the formations of Paris and the Isle of Wight, with specimens from those districts. In the volcanic part, a description (from personal observation) is given of St. Michael's. The structure of veins; the forming and destroying effects of water; the physiognomy of the dry land and submarine; the origin of islands and coral reefs, and a view of the principal mountain ranges throughout the world conclude the course. 2. Dr. Webster's Cabinet. Dr. Webster, having spent two or three years in Europe, in professional studies, during which time he devoted much attention to mineralogy and geology, with the ample aids afforded by the cabinets and distinguished teachers in Scotland, France, and England, has recently returned to his own country, and has brought with him a very select and considerably extensive cabinet of minerals, with which, and with American specimens, he illustrates his
- 33. lectures. We understand that the collection contains some thousand specimens, and is good in the English and Scotch minerals; also in the Siberian coppers; it contains a suite of three hundred geological specimens from Freyberg, from granite to gravel. The geological part is extensive, and was increased by numerous pedestrian tours in England and Scotland; most of the geological specimens have been examined, in company with Professor Jameson. The volcanic part is good, from the extensive opportunities which Dr. Webster enjoyed in the Azores, in which, on his return to this country, he spent some time, and found much to interest him. His observations will soon be given to the public, in a work entitled Remarks on the Azores or Western Islands. It is well known that they are volcanic, and of course afford the usual volcanic substances. The most interesting part is that occupied by the boiling fountains, in many respects similar to the Geysers of Iceland, excepting that the water is not ejected to any considerable height; but the incrustations, the sinter, and sulphur, are every way equal to any specimens which Dr. Webster saw in Sir G. Mackenzie's collection. We are much gratified in noticing both what Dr. Webster has done and is still doing. We are persuaded that he will do much towards promoting the cultivation of American mineralogy and geology, and especially in the enlightened community in which he resides. We cordially wish him success, and trust that it will be ensured by the patronage of the citizens of Boston. 3. Supposed identity of Copal and Amber. A correspondent, whose paper is withheld from publication till some additional experiments can be made, conceives that copal and amber are originally the same substance, and the product of the same tree. 4. The Necronite.—(A supposed new mineral.)
- 34. Extract of a letter from Dr. H. H. Hayden of Baltimore, to the Editor, dated January 5, 1819. "It (the necronite) occurs in a primitive marble, or limestone, which is obtained 21 miles from Baltimore, and a small distance from the York and Lancaster road. It was first noticed by myself at Washington's monument, in which this marble is principally employed. "It occurs, for the most part, in isolated masses in the blocks, or slabs, both in an amorphous and crystallized state. It is most commonly associated with a beautiful brown mica, of the colour of titanium; small but regular crystals of sulphuret of iron, tremolite, and small prismatic crystals of titanium, which are rare. The form of the crystals is a rhomboid, approximating very much to that of the felspar, and which has inclined some to consider it as such. Also, the hexaedral prism, resembling that of the beryl. This form is rare, and has not, as yet, I believe, been found complete. Its colour is a bluish white, and clear white. Its structure much resembles felspar, being lamellar; sometimes opaque, semi-transparent and transparent, at least in moderately thin pieces. It scratches glass, carbonat of lime, and even felspar, in a slight degree. In all our efforts, it has been found infusible, per se, or with borate of soda, and even from all the force of heat that could be excited in a smith's furnace, it came out unchanged in any degree. The acids seem to have no sensible effect upon it, either cold or hot. This is all that I can say of it at present, except that it possesses a most horrid smell.[44] I have since found in a marble of the same kind, but from a different quarry, and a few miles distant from the first, a quartz almost as fetid as the necronite, and likewise associated with small prisms of titanium. "These substances carry with them a degree of interest in another point of view. They seem to invalidate the opinion that the fetid smell of secondary limestone, slate, &c. is derived from the decomposition of animal matter. As their gangue is decidedly a rock of primitive formation."
- 35. Another new mineral observed by Dr. Hayden. "Exclusive of the interest which the necronite has excited with me and several others, I have besides stumbled upon another substance, if possible still more interesting. I discovered it in an imperfect state, about 4 years since, but not until recently have I been able to find it perfect, in beautiful garnet coloured cubic crystals ¼ of an inch square or nearly. These crystals are very liable or subject to decomposition, in which state they present a perfect but spongy cube. Although they resemble the cubic zeolite, yet they have nothing of its character with them besides." Remark. Dr. Hayden without doubt alludes to the chabasie of the Abbé Haüy, formerly but inaccurately called the cubic zeolite; for it is really a rhomboid very nearly approaching a cube—its angles being 93° 48′, and 86° 12′. 5. Preservation of Dead Bodies. From Thenard's Chemistry, vol. iii. Paris ed. p. 713. The author declines describing the methods of embalming commonly employed, and proceeds to describe the mode which was for the first time employed by Dr. Chaussier. "This process consists in placing the dead body thoroughly emptied and washed, in water kept constantly saturated with corrosive sublimate. This salt gradually combines with the flesh, gives it firmness, renders it imputrescible, and incapable of being attacked by insects and worms. "I have seen, (adds the author) a head thus prepared, which had been exposed alternately to the sun and rain during several years, without having suffered the slightest change. It was very little deformed, and easily recognized, although the flesh had become as hard as wood." 6. Matches kindling without fire.
- 36. (From Thenard's Chemistry, Vol. ii. p. 525.) This match is prepared by mingling two parts of the oxymuriate of potash and one of sulphur, which by means of a little gum is attached to a common sulphur match. This match on being dipped into, or rather slightly wet with, strong sulphuric acid, (oil of vitriol) immediately catches fire. The author has not added the caution that the sulphur and salt should be pulverized separately; if rubbed together in a mortar, they will explode with some danger to the operator, provided the quantity be over a few grains. Matches made upon this principle, have been for some time made and sold in this country. They are sometimes put up in little japanned cases with a small phial, from which when inverted with the mouth open, nothing will drop, and yet the match kindles on being thrust in quite to the bottom. The truth is, these bottles contain a little amianthus moistened with sulphuric acid, which thus kindles the match, but as the acid soon weakens by attracting water from the air, it is better to use a phial of the acid in the liquid state. A few drops answer the purpose, and when this is weakened, it is easily renewed. 7. Cleaveland's Mineralogy. Our opinion of this work was fully expressed in the review of it in our first number. In the Edinburgh Review for September, 1818, this work is again reviewed, and in a manner which must gratify every friend to American science. It will be necessary to cite only a single sentence. After commending the condensed and honest manner in which the work is printed, (for they say, that the same matter which here fills one volume would in England have been spread over three,) the reviewer adds, "We should be glad to see it reprinted exactly upon the plan of the original; and we have no doubt that it would be found the most useful work on mineralogy in our language." More need not be—more scarcely could be said.
- 37. 8. A new Alkali. A new alkali has recently been discovered in Sweden, by M. Arfwedson. It is found in the petalite, a mineral from Utoen, in Sweden, in a proportion not over 5 pr. ct.; also in the triphane or spodumene, in the proportion of 8 per cent. and in what is called crystallized lepidolite, in the proportion of 4 per cent. In its general properties it very nearly resembles the other alkalies. When heated in contact with platinum it acts on it. In the galvanic circuit it was decomposed "with bright scintillations, and the reduced metal being separated, afterward burnt." This metal resembles sodium. The new alkali has been called lithia. (Jour. of Science of the Roy. Inst.) 9. Ignited Platinum Wire. In our last we mentioned the lamp without flame, the ignition of platinum wire being sustained by means of the vapour of alcohol. Sir H. Davy has discovered that the vapour of camphor answers the same purpose: "If a piece of camphor, or a few small fragments in a heap, be placed in any convenient situation, as on a shilling, the bottom of a glass, &c. and a piece of platinum wire, either coiled or pressed up together, be heated and laid upon it, the platinum will glow as long as any camphor remains, and will frequently light it up into a flame." Jour. Roy. Inst. 10. Red Rain. A red rain fell in Naples, (March 14, 1818,) the common people were much alarmed, and called it blood or fire. An earthy powder was collected, which when dry was yellow, unctuous, and of an earthy taste; its specific gravity 2.07. Its analysis presented silex 33—alumine 15.5—chrome 1.— iron 14.5—carbonic acid 9., and a combustible substance of a carbonaceous nature.
- 38. It is thought that this powder had not a volcanic origin, and that the presence of chrome assimilates it with meteoric stones. Ibid. 11. Gnephalium. Professor Ives has discovered a new species of gnephalium with decurrent leaves, of which a plate and description will appear in our next number. 12. Augite. M. Haüy has united the fassalite and the bakalite with the sahlite, a sub-species of augite. (See Mem. of the Museum of Nat. Hist. vol. 3.) 13. A New Vegetable Alkali, Has been found by Messrs. Pelletier and Caventon in the Feve St. Ignace and the Nux Vomica. It has been named the vaucquelin, in honour of M. Vaucquelin. (Journal de Physique, for Aug. 1818.) 14. New Minerals. Two new mineral species have been discovered, the scorrodite from Schnuburg in Saxony, and the tungstate of lead from Zinnwald in Bohemia. Ibid. 15. New Metal. A new metal has been discovered by Berzilius, in the mines of Fahlun in Sweden, to which he has given the name of Selenium. Ibid. 16. Pure Alumine. A large bed of this substance, perfectly pure, has been found at Argenton, Department de L'Endre. Ibid. 17. Collections of American Minerals.
- 39. We are informed that under the auspices of Col. Gibbs, a collection of American minerals by states, according to the arrangement of the minerals of the departments of France, in the cabinet of the school of mines at Paris, was begun some time since, at the rooms of the Hist. Society in New-York; and recently in the University of Cambridge. In the arrangement of the latter, he has been assisted by Dr. J. W. Webster, lecturer on mineralogy and geology in Boston. 18. C. S. Rafinesque, Esq. We are requested to announce that a Journal of this gentleman's "Travels and Discoveries in the West, will be published this year by Cramer and Spear of Pittsburg, and that the results of his zoological and botanical labours consist in the discovery of about 15 new genera, and 180 new species of plants; about 75 new genera, and 600 new species of animals, whereof nearly 70 are new fishes, 20 new quadrupeds, 30 new reptiles, 112 new shells, 250 new fossils, &c." "He has inquired how the deep valleys have been excavated, where lakes existed, where the old falls of the Ohio were, the extent and origin of the coal region, &c." 19. Medical College of Ohio. Extract of a letter from Cincinnati, Jan. 10th, 1819. The legislature of the state of Ohio have just established a medical college in this city, and have by an unanimous vote passed a law incorporating the Faculty. In the act, Dr. Samuel Brown of Alabama is named as Professor of Anatomy, Dr. Daniel Drake of Cincinnati, Professor of the Institutes and Practice of Medicine, Dr. Coleman Rogers, Professor of Surgery, and Dr. Slack, Professor of Chemistry. The other Professors are to be appointed by the Faculty, and it is believed that Dr. Richardson of Lexington, Kentucky, will be called to the Obstetrical chair. Very high expectations are entertained of the importance of this institution in the west. 20. Notes on Ohio.
- 40. Caleb Atwater, Esq. of Circleville, Ohio, has issued proposals for publishing the above work, (mentioned in our last number) with a prospectus exhibiting its principal features. We doubt not it will contain valuable information concerning a very interesting portion of the United States, and every effort on the part of men of intelligence and enlarged views, to make the western and southwestern states better known, deserves, and it is believed will receive, adequate support. 21. Discovery of American Tungsten and Tellurium. Neither of these metals, so far as we are informed, has been announced as existing in either of the Americas. It is well known to mineralogists, that tungsten is very rare, and that tellurium is found only in Transylvania. We have now the pleasure to state that both these metals exist in the Bismuth mine, in the town of Huntington, parish of New Stratford, in Connecticut, 20 miles west of New-Haven. During the examination of some ores, brought to us by Mr. Ephraim Lane, the proprietor of this mine, we obtained the tungsten in the state of yellow oxid, and the tellurium in the metallic state. The tungsten is stated to be abundant in the mine; it is the ferruginous species, known to mineralogists by the name of wolfram. We cannot yet say whether the tellurium is abundant, having obtained it from only two pieces; from these we extracted also tungsten, so that it may possibly constitute a new mineral species. Further particulars will be given in our next Number. 22. Mr. Sheldon's Application of Chesnut Wood to the Arts of Tanning and Dying. REMARKS. A considerable time since, we were confidentially made acquainted with the discovery detailed in the following letter. We have repeated the most important of Mr. Sheldon's experiments, both in relation to
- 41. tanning and dying, and are well satisfied that the discoverer has not overrated, or erroneously estimated, the value of his own results. We are persuaded that the highly useful arts alluded to, will derive important aid from the use of a material so abundant and cheap as chesnut wood. To Professor Silliman. Springfield, Mass. Feb. 27, 1819. Dear Sir, I send you a more particular account of the newly discovered properties of the chesnut. This tree, Fagus Castanea, Linn. is very abundant in New-England and the middle states; and occurs in the mountainous districts, as far southward as South-Carolina, or perhaps even Georgia. It is one of the stateliest trees of the forest; scarcely less distinguished by the beauty of its foliage, than by the durability of its wood. By repeated analyses, conducted with the minutest attention to every circumstance which could ensure accuracy, it appears, incredible as it may seem, that the chesnut wood contains twice as much tannin as ross'd[45] oak bark, and six-sevenths as much colouring matter (which gives a black with iron,) as logwood. I am aware that nothing could be farther from the common apprehension than such results; but the uniform success of a great variety of experiments in tanning and dying, in addition to the other kind of evidence, should satisfy the most incredulous. The leather tanned with it, has, in every instance, been superior to that tanned in a comparative experiment, with oak bark; being firmer, less porous, and at the same time more pliable. The reason for this difference, will probably be found in the high state of oxygenizement of the bark, particularly of the epidermis, by which it is rendered to a certain degree acrid and corrosive. Dr. Bancroft was perhaps the first who noticed the oxygenizement of barks. He attributes the dark brown colour of the epidermis of his quercitron,
- 42. to this cause; and as a confirmation of the idea, I have observed that ink made of the epidermis of another kind of bark, though at first not to be distinguished by the colour from that made of the cellular and cortical parts, is incomparably less permanent. As a material for making ink, the wood of the chesnut is probably unrivalled. Combined with iron in any proportion, it gives, as it is dilute or concentrated, a pure blue or blue-black; while galls, sumach, &c. &c. unless combined with a greater proportion than is consistent with the highest degree of permanency, afford a black more or less inclining to a reddish brown. The lake of the chesnut is indeed a blue, and not to be distinguished by the eye from indigo; but when diffused on paper, this same substance becomes an intense shining black. In dying, little difference is observable between the chesnut and galls, and sumach, except that the former has a rather greater affinity for wool, &c. than the latter, and of course requires less boiling. Its permanency has been completely tested by long exposure to the sun and the weather; but no doubt can exist on this head, if the position of Berthollet be true, that permanent blacks are formed only by the combination of iron and tannin. To prepare the chesnut wood for the purposes of tanning, a mode has been devised for reducing it to a suitable degree of fineness. This method consists in the application of knives, either in the direction of, or transversely to the grain, by a rotatory motion. This mode obviously involves the greatest possible economy of moving power. Messrs. B. and M. Stebbins, of West-Springfield, who are making arrangements for going largely into the exportation of the article, have in construction a machine upon this plan. As might be expected, the inspissated aqueous extract of the chesnut, bears a near resemblance in many particulars, to catechu. Professor Dewey, of William's College, who at my request, has gone through an extensive and elaborate course of experiments, informed me that he obtained a quarter more of the gelatinous precipitate from the former, than from the latter. By the taste, the two
- 43. substances are not to be distinguished, except that the former is more pungent. It leaves upon the tongue, the same permanent and refreshing sweetness, for which the other is so much prized in the east; where it is used as an article of luxury, with betel nut. Might not the extract be advantageously substituted for catechu, in the celebrated life preserving composition of Dr. Pearson; the object being to concentrate the greatest possible quantity of nutritious and tonic substances in the smallest weight. The colouring properties of the two substances, are entirely different. After the discovery, twelve or fifteen years since, of the composition of the terra japonica, attempts were made in England to introduce it into the materia tingentia, as a substitute for galls; but unfortunately, like the extract of quercitron, it affords with iron nothing but a meagre olive; and Dr. Bancroft states, that in a great number of trials, he was unable, by the greatest accumulation, to produce any thing like a black, even upon wool, much less upon cotton and silk. A singular fact, which I observed in the course of my experiments, is worthy of notice. I had prepared for a certain purpose, solutions from the wood of the trunk of a tree, about three feet, and from that of a limb about three inches in diameter. The same quantity of wood and of the solvent was employed in both cases. On adding to each the same quantity of the solution of gelatine, abundant precipitates immediately appeared, as usual, apparently much the same in quantity; but to my astonishment, the size of the several congeries in each, bore a near proportion to that of the sticks from which they were obtained, not differing much from that of middling and of very small flakes of snow. Is not this an extraordinary fact, evincive of a complication in the arrangement of these bodies hitherto unsuspected. May it not at some future period, lead to a nomenclature of precipitates; affording, like the crystallography of Haüy, a new and accurate mode of determining the compositions of substances; and perhaps throwing light upon the obscure subject of chemical, or if you please, electro-chemical affinities. The size of a stick might probably be ascertained with almost as much precision,
- 44. as by actual admeasurement. The solutions in this experiment, were formed by maceration in cold water. When hot water was employed, and the process was completed in two or three hours, the appearance of the precipitate was very different, the congeries being smaller, irregular, and not well defined. I have only to add, that having taken measures to secure the discovery, both in this country and Europe, it is my wish to bring it into general use as speedily as possible. I am, Sir, very respectfully, Your obedient servant, WILLIAM SHELDON. P. S. In a short article for some future number, I may send you an account of the operation of the machine, and of some other particulars. 23. Additional note concerning the Tungsten and Tellurium. We have not room to insert in the present number, a description and a chemical examination of the ores of tungsten and tellurium recently discovered in Connecticut; they will appear in our next. In the mean time it may be stated, that the tungsten and tellurium are found blended in the same pieces, but whether in mere mixture, or in chemical combination, is not yet quite determined. Many specimens of the tungsten exist without the tellurium, but every piece which has afforded tellurium has also afforded tungsten, and in greater abundance. Even in well defined crystals, both metals have been found in the same crystal, and where the external appearance was homogeneous. In other specimens a difference seems to be apparent, and a proper ore of tellurium appears to be blended with a proper ore of tungsten. This latter ore is the wolfram, composed of oxid of tungsten, or as some choose to say, tungstic oxid combined with iron and manganese. The crystals, however, are octahedral, a fact which we believe is not mentioned of this species by authors, although this form is found in the calcareous tungsten.
- 45. The Bismuth mine in which these ores are found is the property of Mr. Ephraim Lane. Letters addressed, post paid, to him at New Stratford, town of Huntington, Connecticut, will find him through the Post Office; and he will, for a reasonable compensation, pack boxes more or less extensive, for mineralogists and others. As Mr. Lane is by occupation a farmer, and is obliged to blast a quartz gangue in order to obtain his specimens, he cannot be expected to transmit them gratis. His mine, which has been sunk only ten feet, affords native bismuth, native silver, magnetical and common iron pyrites, and copper pyrites, (the two latter crystallized) galena, blende, tungsten, tellurium, &c. It is expected that the shaft will soon be sunk deeper, when probably a more abundant supply of good specimens will be obtained. N. B. The silver and galena are the least abundant. March 8th, 1819. FOOTNOTES: [28] Vide Edin. Review for Sept. 1818. p. 374. [29] Referring to the ridges of Greenstone near New-Haven. [30] Or, according to the Wernerian Geologists, Transition? Editor. [31] The modesty of the writer has prevented him from applying to the formations which he has well described, the terms transition and secondary, which there can be little doubt do in fact belong to them. His strata of highly inclined limestone, appear to belong to the transition class of Werner, and his flat strata, to the secondary. It may be observed in this place, that the specimens alluded to in the text (passim,) appear to be correctly described by Mr. Cornelius, and to justify his geological inferences as far as hand-specimens seen at a distance from their
- 46. native beds, can form a safe basis for general geological inductions. Editor. [32] Copied partly from Manuscripts of the late Dr. Muhlenberg, of Lancaster, Pennsylvania. [33] This large species I understand has been mistaken by a writer on Natural History for Boa constrictor: this is mentioned to show how remotely it is possible to diverge from accuracy in this science. [34] I have been since informed by Mr. Lesueur, that to his taste the poison was bitter. [35] The terminal caudal plates of this individual were bifid, as in the one of Peale's Museum. [36] This last is the animal, beyond a doubt, judging from the detailed description and plate, which has lately been erected into a new genus, under the name of Scoliophus..............................the identity is immediately obvious, to any one acquainted with the specific characters of the above-mentioned coluber. And I presume it can be made apparent, to any one tolerably versed in the science, should proof be thought necessary. [37] Dr. Barton remarked that this part is rounded, (cauda teres,) this observation was not autoptical, but dictated most probably by the appearance of Catesby's figure. In the young animal the tail is less compressed than in the old one. [38] Here we might properly enough notice the high-ways, streets, and pavements of cities, &c. on which the materials being minutely divided by attrition, are in a better state for the sun to act freely on, and will consequently yield greater products than equal areas of undisturbed surface, under like circumstances of heat. [39] Perhaps there is no body in nature absolutely incombustible, but I use the term here in common acceptation. [40] It may be easily proved that water evaporates (though slowly) at a temperature many degrees below its freezing point; and these vapours are more subtle and elastic than those formed at the boiling point of that fluid. REMARK.
- 47. It is indeed proved that vapour is formed from water at the lowest temperatures, but is less elastic, the lower the temperature, as appears from its sustaining a continually decreasing column of mercury, the lower the temperature at which the vapour is formed. Vide Dalton's and Gay Lussac's experiments. Editor. [41] We have taken the liberty to give Mr. Atwater's Memoir a more extensive Title, for reasons that will be obvious on a perusal of the piece. [42] Genus, platanus—species, occidentalis, popular name, sycamore, or button-wood. [43] The collection of Mr. Perkins became, in 1807, (partly by the liberality of its possessor, and partly by purchase,) the property of Yale College, and is now in the cabinet of that institution. It is believed that few cabinets of equal extent, ever contained more instructive and beautiful specimens, with less that is unmeaning or superfluous. The cabinet of Dr. Bruce has, since his death, been purchased by a gentleman in New-York, for 5000 dollars. Editor. [44] On account of its peculiar cadaverous odour Dr. Hayden proposes to call this mineral (should it prove to be a new one) Necronite, from the Greek Νεκρος. [45] That is, the inner bark deprived of the epidermis or outer bark, by the shaving knife.
- 48. CONTENTS. GEOLOGY, TOPOGRAPHY, AND MINERALOGY. Page Art. I. On the Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, and Curiosities of Parts of Virginia, Tennessee, and of the Alabama and Mississippi Territories, &c. with Miscellaneous Remarks, &c. In a Letter to the Editor. By the Rev. Elias Cornelius 317 Art. II. On the Origin of Prairies. By Mr. R. W. Wells 331 Art. III. Sketch of the Mineralogy and Geology of the Vicinity of Williams' College, Williamstown, Mass. By Professor Dewey, of Williams' College, in a letter to the Editor 337 Art. IV. On the Tourmalines and other Minerals found at Chesterfield and Goshen, Massachusetts, by Col. George Gibbs 346 Art. V. Observations on the Minerals connected with the Gneiss range of Litchfield county, by Mr. John P. Brace, of Litchfield, Conn. 351 BOTANY. Art. VI. An Account of two North American Species of Rottböllia, discovered on the Sea-coast in the State of Georgia, by Dr. William Baldwin, of Philadelphia 355 Art. VII. Floral Calendar kept at Deerfield, Massachusetts, with Miscellaneous Remarks, by Dr. Stephen W. Williams, of Deerfield 359
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