EE5440 – Computer Architecture - Lecture 2
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This document summarizes a lecture on computer architecture and instruction set architecture. It discusses memory locations and addresses, including how memory is organized into words and bytes that each have a unique address. It also describes memory operations like read and write. Instruction sequencing and different instruction set architectures like RISC and CISC are covered. Finally, it examines addressing modes like register, immediate, indirect, and indexed addressing that specify how instruction operands are accessed in memory.
EE5440 – Computer Architecture - Lecture 2
- 1. EE5440 COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE Mr. Dilawar Lecturer, Computer Science Faculty, Bakhtar University Kabul, Afghanistan.
- 2. Previous Lecture • The different types of computers • The basic structure of a computer and its operation • Machine instructions and their execution • Integer, floating-point, and character representations • Addition and subtraction of binary numbers • Basic performance issues in computer systems • A brief history of computer development
- 4. Lecture Outline • Memory Locations and Addresses • Memory Operations • Instructions and Instruction Sequencing • Addressing Modes
- 5. Memory Locations and Addresses • How memory is organized • Consist of millions of storage cells, each store one bit of information. • Bits are normally handled in groups of fixed size. • Requires single basic operation. • Each n-bit group is called word. • n-length describes the word length. • Memory can be represented as a collection of words.
- 6. Memory Locations and Addresses • Modern PCs have word length from 16 to 64. • E.g: if 32-bit word length – a single word can store 32-bit signed number or four ASCII- encoded characters, each occupying 8 bits (byte).
- 7. Memory Locations and Addresses • Machine instructions may require one or more words. • Each word requires a distinct address in order to be accessed. • 0 to 2k-1, for some suitable value of k. • A memory can have up to 2k addressable locations, constitutes address space of the computer. • E.g: a 24-bit address generates an address space of 224 (16,777,216) locations.
- 8. Memory Locations and Addresses Byte Addressability • Three basic information quantities: bit, byte, and word. • The most practical assignment is to have successive addresses refer to successive byte locations in the memory.. • Byte-addressable memory is used for this assignment. • Byte locations have address 0, 1, 2, …… thus, if the word length of the machine is 32-bits, locations are located 0, 4, 8, ….. Consisting four bytes.
- 9. Memory Locations and Addresses Big-Endian and Little-Endian Assignments • Two ways that byte addresses can be assigned across words: • Big-Endian – When lower byte addresses are used for the more significant bytes (the leftmost bytes) of the word. • Little-Endian – Opposite ordering, where the lower byte addresses are used for the less significant bytes (the rightmost bytes) of the word.
- 10. Memory Locations and Addresses Big-Endian and Little-Endian Assignments
- 11. Memory Locations and Addresses Accessing Numbers and Characters • A number occupies one word, and can be accessed by specifying its word address. • Individual characters can be accessed by their byte address.
- 12. Memory Operations • Two basic operations involving the memory are needed, namely, Read and Write. • Read Operation: • Transfers a copy of contents to memory and contents in memory are unchanged. • Processor sends address to the memory and makes request for access. • Memory reads the data stored and sends them to the processor. • Write Operation: • Vice versa.
- 13. Instructions and Instruction Sequencing • A computer must have instructions capable of performing four types of operations: • Data transfers between the memory and the processor registers • Arithmetic and logic operations on data • Program sequencing and control • I/O transfers
- 14. Instructions and Instruction Sequencing Register Transfer Notation – RTN • That may be involved in such transfers are memory locations, processor registers, or registers in the I/O subsystem. • Locations are represented symbolically with convenient names. • LOC, PLACE, VAR2, R0, R5, DATAIN, OUTSTATUS etc… • The contents of any location are denoted by placing square brackets around its name – transfer of information.
- 15. Instructions and Instruction Sequencing Assembly Language Notation • Instructions specifies operation to be performed and the operand. • These operations are represented through mnemonics such as LD and STR or ST. • Assembly language for different processors or different.
- 16. Instructions and Instruction Sequencing RISC and CISC Instruction Sets • Nature of instruction – distinguish different computers. • One of the approach is – Reduced Instruction Set Computers • That high performance can be achieved • Each instruction occupies exactly one word in memory. • Operands needed to execute a given arithmetic or logic are in registers. • Instructions are performed in pipelined fashion to overlap activity and reduce total execution time of a program.
- 17. Instructions and Instruction Sequencing RISC and CISC Instruction Sets • Alternative approach is – Complex Instruction Set Computers • Each instruction occupies more than one word. • More complicated operations • Before RISC computers in 1970s.
- 18. Instructions and Instruction Sequencing Introduction to RISC Instruction Sets • Two key characteristics of RISC instruction sets are: • Each instruction fits in a single word. • A load/store architecture is used, in which • Memory operands are accessed only using Load and Store instructions. • All operands involved in an arithmetic or logic operation must be in processor register or must be explicitly given.
- 19. Instructions and Instruction Sequencing Introduction to RISC Instruction Sets • Memory location can be specified through addressing modes.
- 20. Instructions and Instruction Sequencing Introduction to RISC Instruction Sets • Let us now consider a typical arithmetic operation. • Machine instructions
- 21. Instructions and Instruction Sequencing Instruction Execution and Straight-Line Sequencing • Program counter • Straight-line sequencing • Two-phase procedure: • Instruction fetch • Instruction Register • Instruction execute
- 22. Instructions and Instruction Sequencing Branching • Instead of long list of Load and Add • It is possible to use a program loop. • Branch Instruction • Branch Target • Conditional Branch
- 23. Addressing Modes • Program operates on data that resides in the computer memory. • Different data structures are used for the organization of data. • HLL statements are converted to several low-level instructions. • The different ways for specifying the locations of instruction operands are known as addressing modes.
- 24. Addressing Modes
- 25. Addressing Modes Implementation of Variables and Constants • Variable is represented by a register or memory location to hold its value. • Operands can be accessed using • Register mode • Absolute mode • Constants can be represented in assembly language using immediate mode.
- 26. Addressing Modes Indirection and Pointers • The register acts as a pointer to the list • An item in the list is accessed indirectly by using the address in the register. • In indirect addressing, effective address of the operand is the contents of a register.
- 27. Addressing Modes Indirection and Pointers • Indirection and the use of pointers are important and powerful concepts in programming. • They permit the same code to be used to operate on different data.
- 28. Addressing Modes Indirection and Pointers • Indirection and the use of pointers are important and powerful concepts in programming. • They permit the same code to be used to operate on different data. • As another example of pointers, consider the C-language
- 29. Addressing Modes Indexing and Arrays • The effective address of the operand is generated by adding a constant value to the contents of a register – Index mode. • The register used in this mode as the index register. • We indicate the Index mode • The effective address of the operand is given by
- 30. Addressing Modes Indexing and Arrays
- 31. Addressing Modes Indexing and Arrays
- 32. Summery • Memory Locations and Addresses • Memory Operations • Instructions and Instruction Sequencing • Addressing Modes
- 33. Thank You For your Patience
Editor's Notes
- #6: We will first consider how the memory of a computer is organized.
- #8: 16 M – 1 MB (2^20) = 1048576 32-bit – 4 GB : 1 GB is 2^30 K for Kilo and T for Tera
- #10: The words “more significant” and “less significant” are used in relation to the weights (powers of 2) assigned to bits when the word represents a number. Both little-endian and big-endian assignments are used in commercial machines.
- #13: The Write operation transfers an item of information from the processor to a specific memory location, overwriting the former contents of that location. To initiate a Write operation, the processor sends the address of the desired location to the memory, together with the data to be written into that location. The memory then uses the address and data to perform the write.
- #14: The tasks carried out by a computer program consist of a sequence of small steps, such as adding two numbers, testing for a particular condition, reading a character from the keyboard, or sending a character to be displayed on a display screen.
- #15: We need to describe the transfer of information from one location in a computer to another. Transfer and Move are same – means copy.
- #16: We need another type of notation to represent machine instructions and programs. For this, we use assembly language. For example, a generic instruction that causes the transfer described above, from memory location LOC to processor register R2, is specified by the statement
- #20: At the start of execution of a program, all instructions and data used in the program are stored in the memory of a computer. Processor registers do not contain valid operands at that time. If operands are expected to be in processor registers before they can be used by an instruction, then it is necessary to first bring these operands into the registers. This task is done by Load instructions which copy the contents of a memory location into a processor register.
- #21: When the program containing this statement is compiled, the three variables, A, B, and C, are assigned to distinct locations in the memory. To carry out this action, the contents of memory locations A and B are fetched from the memory and transferred into the processor where their sum is computed. This result is then sent back to the memory and stored in location C. We say that Add is a three-operand, or a three-address, instruction of the form. Add destination, source1, source2 The Store instruction is of the form Store source, destination
- #22: We assume that the word length is 32 bits and the memory is byte-addressable. The four instructions of the program are in successive word locations, starting at location i. Since each instruction is 4 bytes long, the second, third, and fourth instructions are at addresses i + 4, i + 8, and i + 12.
- #23: Consider the task of adding a list of n numbers. The program outlined in Figure 2.5 is a generalization of the program in Figure 2.4. The addresses of the memory locations containing the n numbers are symbolically given as NUM1, NUM2, . . . , NUMn, and separate Load and Add instructions are used to add each number to the contents of register R2. After all the numbers have been added, the result is placed in memory location SUM. We now introduce branch instructions. This type of instruction loads a new address into the program counter. As a result, the processor fetches and executes the instruction at this new address, called the branch target, instead of the instruction at the location that follows the branch instruction in sequential address order. A conditional branch instruction causes a branch only if a specified condition is satisfied. If the condition is not satisfied, the PC is incremented in the normal way, and the next instruction in sequential address order is fetched and executed. Branch_if_[R4]>[R5] LOOP Branch_greater_than R4, R5, LOOP BGT R4, R5, LOOP
- #26: We access an operand by specifying the name of the register or the address of the memory location where the operand is located. In the addressing modes that follow, the instruction does not give the operand or its address explicitly. Instead, it provides information from which an effective address (EA) can be derived by the processor when the instruction is executed. The effective address is then used to access the operand.
- #27: To execute the Load instruction in Figure 2.7, the processor uses the value B, which is in register R5, as the effective address of the operand. It requests a Read operation to fetch the contents of location B in the memory. The value from the memory is the desired operand, which the processor loads into register R2. Indirect addressing through a memory location is also possible, but it is found only in CISC-style processors.
- #29: In many RISC-type processors, one general-purpose register is dedicated to holding a constant value zero. Usually, this is register R0. Its contents cannot be changed by a program instruction.
- #30: The contents of the register are not changed in the process of generating the effective address. In an assembly-language program, whenever a constant such as the value X is needed, it may be given either as an explicit number or as a symbolic name representing a numerical value. The
- #31: In Figure 2.9a, the index register, R5, contains the address of a memory location, and the value X defines an offset (also called a displacement) from this address to the location where the operand is found. Here, the constant X corresponds to a memory address, and the contents of the index register define the offset to the operand. In either case, the effective address is the sum of two values; one is given explicitly in the instruction, and the other is held in a register.