![one Province with Switzerland and Saxony) and came to swell the
number of their colleagues in Valais and Freiburg.
In 1836, however, when the second revolutionary wave was passing
over Europe, the Radicals won power in the majority of the cantons
(including Lucerne, Freiburg, and Solothurn). They were not yet in a
position to dislodge the Jesuits, but there was constant friction, and
a serious struggle for the federal authority began. The aim of the
Radicals was to capture and strengthen the federal government, and
expel the Jesuits (and other religions) from the whole of Switzerland.
They and the "young Swiss" were part of the international Liberal
movement, which was everywhere anti-clerical. [42] In 1844 the
struggle became more violent. The Jesuits of Valais refusing to admit
government control of their schools, a band of armed Radicals
marched upon Sion and had to be defeated by the armed
inhabitants. In the same year the Jesuits entered Lucerne for the
first time. A wealthy Catholic farmer named Leu threw all his energy
into their cause, and the Jesuits aided by sending a preacher
occasionally to show, by suave and conciliatory sermons, that the
suspicion of them was wholly unfounded. In face of a storm of
Protestant and Radical threats the Council decided to admit the
Jesuits.
There now spread through the country a struggle of passion which
was soon to culminate in a deadly civil war. Leu was murdered, and
Catholics and Radicals faced each other with intense hatred.
Opinions may differ as to the conduct of the Jesuits in pressing their
ministry, since it is clear that the purely political differences would
not have stained the hills and valleys of Switzerland with blood. The
war that followed was a religious war, and mainly a war over the
Jesuits. In the spring of 1845 it was announced that an army of
11,000 Radicals was marching on Lucerne. The Catholic
Confederation sent round the fiery cross, and gathered an army
sufficiently strong to defeat and scatter the Radicals. It was over the
corpses of these opponents that the Jesuits entered Lucerne and
began to teach, with passion still seething on every side. A graver](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/44283-250324055519-26dcce0d/85/Embedded-Systems-Handbook-1st-Edition-Richard-Zurawski-30-320.jpg)
![struggle impended, and both sides hastily organised. The seven
Catholic cantons (to whose enterprise the French Jesuits contributed
98,000 francs) formed a Sonderbund [Separate Alliance], and aimed
at setting up a Catholic Republic. The Federal Diet at Berne ordered
them to dissolve, and when they refused, pitted the federal army
against the Catholic troops. A bloody and disastrous war ended in a
victory for the federal troops in 1847, the Sonderbund was
destroyed, and the Jesuits (with the other religious orders) were
excluded from Switzerland by the Constitution of 1848. The Jesuits
had not waited for the troops to enter Freiburg and Lucerne; they
had fled to the Tyrol and Austria.
In the Netherlands the story of the Jesuits during the nineteenth
century has been one of great prosperity, checked only by a few
early reverses. No sooner had the Pope issued the bull of
restoration, and the French rule been destroyed, than the ex-Jesuits
who lingered in the country as secular priests and the Fathers of the
Faith (who had at last entered the Society) proceeded to organise
their body. A novitiate was opened at Rumbeke and another at
Destelbergen, in Belgium. The Congress of Vienna, however, placed
the united Netherlands under the control of William of Nassau, and
he watched the progress of the Jesuits with uneasiness. The former
father of the Faith, the Count de Broglie, was now bishop of Ghent,
and he and other prelates and nobles sedulously assisted the
Jesuits. The controversies which were bound to arise after the union
of Protestant Holland and Catholic Belgium under one crown soon
raged furiously, and William, in the summer of 1816, ordered the
Jesuits to close their novitiate at Destelbergen. They were forced to
retire, but de Broglie encouraged them to resist the King, and lent
them his palace for the maintenance of their community. De Broglie
himself was afterwards banished for assailing the Constitution, and
the fathers were put out of the palace at the point of the bayonet in
1818. As William threatened to expel them from the country, they
removed the novitiate to Switzerland, and assumed an appearance
of submission. As, however, they continued to stir the Catholics,
William ordered the bishops in 1824 to forbid them to give retreats](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/44283-250324055519-26dcce0d/85/Embedded-Systems-Handbook-1st-Edition-Richard-Zurawski-31-320.jpg)
![to the clergy, and in the following year he closed two of their
residences.
This succinct account will suffice to introduce the Catholic revolution
of 1830, in which Belgium won its independence. We are again
asked to regard the Jesuits as idle spectators of the fierce Catholic
agitation which ended in the rebellion; but, in view of their
experience under William, it seems wiser to accept the Dutch
assurance that they played a large, if secret, part in it. The
revolution was just, however, and there were other grounds than
religion in the dissatisfaction of the Belgians. [43] From that date
Belgium has been a golden land for the Jesuits, and Protestant
Holland has suffered them to prosper in peace. After 1830 they
literally overran Belgium; they numbered 117 in 1834, and 454 in
1845. After that date came the great revolutionary storm of 1848,
and Belgium was almost the one land in which the hunted Jesuits
could find refuge. Leopold of Saxe-Coburg was too prudent a
Protestant to interfere with them, and from the Belgian frontier they
maintained the strength of their struggling colleagues in France. In
Holland they were treated with leniency by the successor of William;
and, when the storm broke upon their German colleagues in 1872,
they were able to receive the refugees and maintain houses on the
frontier for the invasion of Germany, as they do to-day.
It is needless to show, in fine, how the restored Jesuits spread again
over the foreign missions. After 1830 especially, when their number
had increased, they began to regain their lost Provinces. In 1834 six
fathers landed at Calcutta to restore the Indian Province, and when
the Portuguese missionaries and authorities tried to expel them, they
succeeded in getting the protection of the English authorities.
Madaura, the richest of their old fields, was restored to them in
1837. Here again the existing missionaries protested so violently that
for many years the few Jesuits led a hard and almost fruitless
existence. In 1842 some of the Jesuit missionaries secured the
charge of a native college in Bengal, but the prince was compelled to
evict them after a few years. There was an angry feeling and great](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/44283-250324055519-26dcce0d/85/Embedded-Systems-Handbook-1st-Edition-Richard-Zurawski-32-320.jpg)
![FOOTNOTES:
[41] It seems to have been on account of this slanderous attack
on the Pope, as well as to give it an air of impartiality, that
General Roothaan publicly denied that the Jesuits had assisted
the author. The learned Abbé Guettée, in the Histoire des
Jésuites, which he published soon afterwards, tells us that, not
yet knowing his hostility to them, some of the Jesuits of Paris
freely acknowledged to him their share in the work. In any case,
the Jesuits were obviously in close co-operation with the writer,
since he speaks constantly of having before his eyes unpublished
documents which belonged to the Society.
[42] There were, of course, more important issues at stake in the
Swiss struggle. The franchise was narrow, and the government
aristocratic in the cantons, and the central or federal power was
weak. The Radicals mainly aimed at reforming these features, but
they were hardly less inflamed at the privileges given to the
Jesuits. In Valais the fathers travelled free on the public services.
[43] Historians usually include among the causes the enforcement
of a system of secular education only in the schools. But—as Sir
Robert Stout kindly pointed out to me—the Catholic prelates in
their letter to the French Minister of the Interior, dated 30th May
1806, had previously "willingly" accepted this arrangement. They
agreed that it was enough to teach religion in the churches.
CHAPTER XVI
THE LAST PHASE
If we attempt to sum up in few words the story of the Jesuits during
the first few decades after their suppression, we must say that there
was little change in their spirit, and that they were wholly bent on
returning to their former position. In actual conduct there is a
material change. The industrial and commercial system, which had
formed one of the most irregular roots of their power in the earlier](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/44283-250324055519-26dcce0d/85/Embedded-Systems-Handbook-1st-Edition-Richard-Zurawski-34-320.jpg)
![We left them on the eve of the revolution of 1848. Except in
Switzerland, where their obstinacy in asserting their rights had been
one of the chief causes of a civil war and made their prospects
worse than ever, they still dreamed of erasing the revolution from
the chronicle of Europe and beginning again at 1750. Hence the
fearful storm of 1848 broke on them almost unexpectedly. They had
only recently been forced to retire from France, so that the outbreak
in that country affected them little. But the storm passed on to
Austria and Italy, even Rome, and drove the Jesuits before it. A
Jesuit writer observes sadly that "the first attack of the
revolutionaries everywhere was on the Jesuits." Naturally; there
were no more vehement opponents in Europe of the new age which
the revolutionary movement represented. They had themselves
traced the revolutionary spirit to their temporary absence from the
schools of Europe, and the revolutionaries [44] concluded that the
reign of terror had had their support. So from Rhineland, Austria,
Galicia, Venice, Turin, Rome, Naples, and Sicily—the only Provinces
of the Society which seemed secure—the Jesuits were driven by
armed and angry crowds, and a vast colony of bewildered refugees
shuddered in Belgium.
The Emperor of Austria was forced on 7th May to sign their
expulsion from the whole of his empire, but it was in Italy that they
suffered most. Since 1840 the authorities of the Society had received
a succession of painful shocks. The Carlists had lost and the fathers
had been driven from Spain: in 1845 they had been forced to
dissolve the communities in France: in 1847 the Swiss Catholics had
lost, and the Jesuit houses had been wrecked. They had attached
themselves everywhere to losing causes. Manning was in Rome in
the winter 1847-48, and his diary records the coming of the
revolution to Rome, and flight of the Jesuits. Pius IX. had exhausted
his Liberalism, and the Romans were uneasy and suspicious. Then,
in January and February 1848, news came that the revolutionaries
had triumphed in Sicily and Naples, and the Jesuits were flying
north. By March the Jesuits at Rome were ready to fly at a moment's
notice, as Manning found when he visited them. On 29th March they](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/44283-250324055519-26dcce0d/85/Embedded-Systems-Handbook-1st-Edition-Richard-Zurawski-36-320.jpg)
![half the Jesuits—or 7400 Jesuits—were excluded from their
respective countries.
As France was still overwhelmingly Catholic, the successive
Governments were unable to enforce the law, and the Jesuits quietly
returned to their work. It is enough to say that during the next
twenty years, until France had become predominantly non-Catholic
and disposed to insist on their exclusion, the 2900 Jesuits actually
increased their number; the property of the unauthorised
Congregations rose in value from 400,000,000 to 1,000,000,000
francs; the higher education was controlled to a great extent by the
Jesuits, whose pupils passed largely into the army and navy. It is
hardly necessary to recall the successive blunders by which the
Jesuits (and other religious) brought on themselves the sentence of
expulsion in 1901. In 1886 Boulanger became Minister of War and
popular idol. His Radical friends soon distrusted him, and the
Monarchists and Catholics fanned the popular agitation to have him
made Dictator. In this case we have positive and sufficient
information of the complicity of the Jesuits. Count von Hoensbroech,
then a young Jesuit, heard from the lips of Father du Lac, the most
prominent of the French Jesuits, that he had collected large sums of
money for the "Deliverer of France" and the overthrow of the "dirty
and impious Republic." [45] We can hardly doubt that they had been
equally zealous for the Duc de Chambord, and were later as zealous
for the cause of the Duc d'Orleans.
Boulanger fled, to escape arrest, in 1889, and the Republicans
added to the reckoning against the Jesuits. In 1897-99 occurred the
famous agitation for the retrial of Dreyfus, and once more the
Jesuits ranged themselves on the losing side of tyranny and
prejudice. By the end of the century France had become
overwhelmingly non-Catholic, and was not disposed to tolerate
further the intrigues and wealth of bodies which had no legal
existence in the country. The Jesuits, in particular, were a menace to
the Republic. The new century opened therefore with an anti-clerical
campaign which is still fresh in our memories. Waldeck-Rousseau](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/44283-250324055519-26dcce0d/85/Embedded-Systems-Handbook-1st-Edition-Richard-Zurawski-44-320.jpg)
![Austria. A coalition of Liberals and Socialists in Belgium would at any
time put an end to the Catholic power, as the anti-clerical voters are
in the majority, and the Jesuits would not long survive the change.
Yet one of the most singular features of the whole singular story of
the Jesuits is that they have increased enormously during this half-
century of afflictions. The growth of the Society during the last
hundred years is seen in the following table:—
1838 3,067 members.
1844 4,133 "
1853 5,209 "
1861 7,144 "
1884 11,840 members.
1906 15,661 "
1912 16,545 [46] "
Of the present members, 3531 are on the foreign missions; and the
re-opening of these fields, under less adventurous conditions,
accounts for much of the growth of the Society. The advance of the
United States and the British Colonies, with their large percentage of
Irish and Italian immigrants, accounts for a good deal of the
remainder. The Jesuits of the United States now number 2300; and
there are 373 in Canada and 100 in Australasia. It is most probable
that the future of the Jesuits lies in the Protestant countries.
Probably the Jesuits will, in twenty years' time, be excluded from
every "Catholic" kingdom, yet number more than 20,000.
Their progress and activity in England may be more closely
described in illustration of this tendency. We saw how the survivors
of the old English mission joined with the Fathers of the Faith in
1814 and 1815 to re-establish the Society. They then numbered 73,
and had several chapels, besides the estate and house at
Stonyhurst. They advanced with the general body of the Roman
Catholics, especially when the stronger current of immigration from
Ireland began in the forties. The secular clergy were still very much](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/44283-250324055519-26dcce0d/85/Embedded-Systems-Handbook-1st-Edition-Richard-Zurawski-48-320.jpg)
![opposed to them, however, and Dr. Griffiths, the Vicar Apostolic of
the London district, refused to allow them to set up a community in
the metropolis. After years of pressure at Rome they secured the
interest of Dr. (later Cardinal) Wiseman, and were admitted to settle
in Farm St., among the wealthiest Catholics. When Wiseman
succeeded Griffiths in 1847 (and the hierarchy was established in
1850) they were cordially patronised and made greater progress.
They then numbered 554. With the accession of Manning the
patronage ceased and their work was restricted. They were eager to
found schools for middle-class boys; but Manning sternly refused, in
defiance of the favour of Pius IX., and they were compelled to
establish their schools at such places as Beaumont and Wimbledon,
outside his jurisdiction. When they pressed for a school of higher
studies, a kind of Catholic university, Manning hastily founded his ill-
fated school at Kensington and refused their co-operation, with the
natural result that the wealthier Catholics, under the influence of the
Jesuits, would not support it. Bishop Vaughan of Salford was not
much more indulgent to them.
The secret of Manning's opposition is said by his biographer to have
been his wish to raise the dignity of the secular priesthood, which
Catholics are too apt to think lower than the monastic state. This
was, however, not merely a mystic theory on the part of the
Cardinal. He despised the comparative indolence and petty
hypocrisies of the religious orders generally, and had a particular
dislike of the intrigue, the secrecy, the insubordination, and the
pursuit of wealthy people, of the Jesuits. [47] Manning refused
sacerdotal faculties to his nephew, Father Anderdon, and forced the
Jesuits to surrender a site in West London for which they had paid
more than £30,000. Cardinal Vaughan, however, relaxed his coercive
policy when he was transferred to Westminster.
The English Province has now (1912) 729 members, and about fifty
churches; though the Catholic Directory gives only 285 English Jesuit
priests, and 226 French refugees, in this country. The feeling against
them amongst the secular clergy and the other religious](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/44283-250324055519-26dcce0d/85/Embedded-Systems-Handbook-1st-Edition-Richard-Zurawski-49-320.jpg)
![Congregations is almost as strong as ever. Their obvious preference
for the wealthier quarters of cities is sneeringly discussed in clerical
circles, and it is said that they intrigue incessantly to draw the more
comfortable Catholics from other parishes. The poverty of their
literary and scholastic output,—mainly, a number of slight and
superficial controversial works, more intent on making small points
than on substantial and accurate erudition,—and their remarkable
failure to produce men of distinction, are regarded as a grave
reflection on their body, in view of their wealth, numbers, and
leisure. It is not, however, believed that they indulge any other
intrigue than an amiable zeal among the Catholic laity to add to their
own comfort and prestige. [48]
Returning, in conclusion, to the question at the beginning of this
chapter, we find it impossible to give a general answer and embrace
all the existing Jesuits in a formula. The Jesuits of Spain, with their
political machinations, their sordid legacy-hunting, and their
eagerness to support the Spanish Government in the judicial murder
of their enemies, are a very different body from the Jesuits of
England or Germany or the United States. The Jesuits of Cuba and
the Philippines were, until 1898, little different from the more
parasitical Jesuit missionaries of the seventeenth or eighteenth
century. The modern age has affected the Jesuits much as some
ancient revolution in the climate of the earth modified its living
inhabitants. Where the old tropical conditions more or less linger
(say, in Chile or Peru) the Jesuits are hardly changed; and we find
the alteration in exact proportion to the environment. There is no
change in the inner principles and ideals. "All for the Glory of the
Society," as Mgr. Talbot sardonically translated their Latin motto, is
still the ruling principle; the Society remains the Esau of the Roman
clerical world. It still chiefly seeks the wealthy and powerful; it is the
arch-enemy of progress and liberalism in Catholic theology; its
scholarship is singularly undistinguished in proportion to its
resources; [49] it embarks on political intrigue, even for the
destruction of State-forms, whenever its interest seems to require; it
is hated by a very large proportion of the Catholic clergy and laity in](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/44283-250324055519-26dcce0d/85/Embedded-Systems-Handbook-1st-Edition-Richard-Zurawski-50-320.jpg)
![every country. Let a liberal Pope again come to power and
Modernism prevail, and it is not impossible that Catholicism itself will
again angrily suppress the perverse and irregular construction of the
Spanish soldier-diplomatist, and insist that religious ideals shall be
pursued only by scrupulously clean and unselfish exertions.
FOOTNOTES:
[44] I use the phrase of historians, but may observe that this
was, in the main, a middle-class movement to secure liberty of
opinion and other elementary political rights.
[45] Fourteen Years, ii. 164.
[46] It must be borne in mind always that "members" does not
necessarily mean priests. Rather less than half are priests: the
remainder are scholastics or lay coadjutors.
[47] I am speaking here on what I heard, in clerical days, from
men who were intimate with Manning. Purcell's Life is misleading.
The author intended to be candid, but the Jesuits and others
made such threats, when it became known what disclosures the
book would contain, that he was compelled to omit much. The
suppression of truth has greatly injured its historical value.
[48] There are in Count von Hoensbroech's book some scathing
reflections on the character and culture of the English Jesuits.
The Count underwent part of his Jesuit training in England.
[49] Let me recall that I do not personally expect the Society to
produce anything but theologians, and of these it has produced
many in the nineteenth century. In controversial theology,
however, the work of the Jesuits is grossly unscholarly and
casuistic; truth seems to be a secondary consideration. But it is so
often claimed that the Jesuits are a learned body in the more
general sense, that it is necessary to invite reflection on their
record. Of the fifteen thousand living Jesuits, and their
predecessors for a century, who has won even secondary rank in
letters, history, or philosophy? In science there are only Father
Secchi, the single distinguished product of their science-schools,
and Father Wasmann, whose philosophy (apart from his
observations) is the laughing-stock of biology.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/44283-250324055519-26dcce0d/85/Embedded-Systems-Handbook-1st-Edition-Richard-Zurawski-51-320.jpg)
Embedded Systems Handbook 1st Edition Richard Zurawski
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- 5. Embedded Systems Handbook 1st Edition Richard Zurawski Digital Instant Download Author(s): Richard Zurawski ISBN(s): 9780849328244, 0849328241 Edition: 1 File Details: PDF, 11.61 MB Year: 2005 Language: english
- 6. Published Books Industrial Communication Technology Handbook Edited by Richard Zurawski Embedded Systems Handbook Edited by Richard Zurawski Forthcoming Books Electronic Design Automation for Integrated Circuits Handbook Luciano Lavagno, Grant Martin, and Lou Scheffer Series Editor RICHARD ZURAWSKI INDUSTRIAL INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY SERIES © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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- 9. To my wife, Celine © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
- 10. International Advisory Board Alberto Sangiovanni-Vincentelli, University of California, Berkeley, U.S. (Chair) Giovanni De Micheli, Stanford University, U.S. Stephen A. Edwards, Columbia University, U.S. Aarti Gupta, NEC Laboratories, Princeton, U.S. Rajesh Gupta, University of California, San Diego, U.S. Axel Jantsch, Royal Institute of Technology, Sweden Wido Kruijtzer, Philips Research, The Netherlands Luciano Lavagno, Cadence Berkeley Laboratories, Berkeley, U.S., and Politecnico di Torino, Italy Robert de Simone, INRIA, France Grant Martin, Tensilica, U.S. Pierre G. Paulin, ST Microelectronics, Canada Antal Rajnák, Volcano AG, Switzerland Françoise Simonot-Lion, LORIA, France Thomas Weigert, Motorola, U.S. Reinhard Wilhelm, University of Saarland, Germany Lothar Thiele, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Switzerland © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
- 11. Preface Introduction The purpose of the Embedded Systems Handbook is to provide a reference useful to a broad range of professionals and researchers from industry and academia involved in the evolution of concepts and technologies, as well as development and use of embedded systems and related technologies. The book provides a comprehensive overview of the field of embedded systems and applications. The emphasis is on advanced material to cover recent significant research results and technology evolution and developments. It is primarily aimed at experienced professionals from industry and academia, but will also be useful to novices with some university background in embedded systems and related areas. Some of the topics presented in the book have received limited coverage in other publications either owing to the fast evolution of the technologies involved, or material confidentiality, or limited circulation in the case of industry-driven developments. The book covers extensively the design and validation of real-time embedded systems, design and verification languages, operating systems and scheduling, timing and performance analysis, power aware computing, security in embedded systems, the design of application-specific instruction-set processors (ASIPs),system-on-chip (SoC)and network-on-chip (NoC),testing of core-based ICs,network embedded systems and sensor networks, and embedded applications to include in-car embedded electronic systems, intelligent sensors, and embedded web servers for industrial automation. The book contains 46 contributions, written by leading experts from industry and academia directly involved in the creation and evolution of the ideas and technologies treated in the book. Many of the contributions are from industry and industrial research establishments at the forefront of the developments shaping the field of embedded systems: Cadence Systems and Cadence Berkeley Labs (USA), CoWare (USA), Microsoft (USA), Motorola (USA), NEC Laboratories (USA), Philips Research (The Netherlands), ST Microelectronics (Canada), Tensilica (USA), Volcano (Switzerland), etc. The contributions from academia and governmental research organizations are represented by some of the most renowned institutions such as Columbia University, Duke University, Georgia Institute of Technology, Princeton University, Stanford University, University of California at Berkeley/Riverside/ San Diego/Santa Barbara, University of Texas at Austin/Dallas, Virginia Tech, Washington University — from the United States; Delft University of Technology (Netherlands), IMAG (France), INRIA/IRISA (France), LORIA-INPL (France), Malardalen University (Sweden), Politecnico di Torino (Italy), Royal Institute of Technology — KTH (Sweden), Swiss Federal Institute of Technology — ETHZ (Switzerland), Technical University of Berlin (Germany), Twente University (The Netherlands), Universidad Politecnica de Madrid (Spain), University of Bologna (Italy), University of Nice Sophia Antipolis (France), University of Oslo (Norway), University of Pavia (Italy), University of Saarbrucken (Germany), University of Toronto (Canada), and many others. The material presented is in the form of tutorials, surveys, and technology overviews. The contributions are grouped into sections for cohesive and comprehensive presentation of the treated areas. The reports on recent technology developments, deployments, and trends frequently cover material released to the profession for the first time. The book can be used as a reference (or prescribed text) for university (post)graduate courses: Section I (Embedded Systems) provides “core” material on embedded systems. Selected illustrations of actual applications are presented in Section VI (Embedded Applications). Sections II and III (System-on-Chip Design, and Testing of Embedded Core-Based Integrated Circuits) offer material on recent advances in system-on-chip design and testing of core-based ICs. Sections IV and V (Networked Embedded Systems, and Sensor Networks) are suitable for a course on sensor networks. © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
- 12. x Preface The handbook is designed to cover a wide range of topics that comprise the field of embedded sys- tems and applications. The material covered in this volume will be of interest to a wide spectrum of professionals and researchers from industry and academia, as well as graduate students, from the fields of electrical and computer engineering, computer science and software engineering, as well as mechatronic engineering. It is an indispensable companion for those who seek to learn more about embedded systems and applications, and those who want to stay up to date with recent technical developments in the field. It is also a comprehensive reference for university or professional development courses on embedded systems. Organization Embedded systems is a vast field encompassing numerous disciplines. Not every topic, however important, can be covered in a book of reasonable volume without superficial treatment. Choices need to be made with respect to the topics covered, balance between research material and reports on novel industrial developments and technologies, balance between so-called“core”topics and new trends, and other aspects. The “time-to-market” is another important factor in making those decisions, along with the availability of qualified authors to cover the topics. One of the main objectives of any handbook is to give a well-structured and cohesive description of fundamentals of the area under treatment. It is hoped that the section Embedded Systems has achieved this objective. Every effort was made to make sure that each contribution in this section contains introductory material to assist beginners with the navigation through more advanced issues. This section does not strive to replicate or replace university level material, but, rather, tries to address more advanced issues, and recent research and technology developments. To make this book timely and relevant to a broad range of professionals and researchers, the book includes material reflecting state-of-the-art trends to cover topics such as design of ASIPs, SoC com- munication architectures including NoC, design of heterogeneous SoC, as well as testing of core-based integrated circuits. This material reports on new approaches, methods, technologies, and actual sys- tems. The contributions come from the industry driving those developments, industry-affiliated research institutions, and academic establishments participating in major research initiatives. Application domains have had a considerable impact on the evolution of embedded systems, in terms of required methodologies and supporting tools, and resulting technologies. A good example is the accel- erated evolution of the SoC design to meet demands for computing power posed by DSP, network and multimedia processors. SoCs are slowly making inroads into the area of industrial automation to imple- ment complex field-area intelligent devices which integrate the intelligent sensor/actuator functionality by providing on-chip signal conversion, data and signal processing, and communication functions. There is a growing tendency to network field-area intelligent devices around industrial communication networks. Similar trends appear in the automotive electronic systems where the Electronic Control Units (ECUs) are networked by means of safety-critical communication protocols such as FlexRay, for instance, for the purpose of controlling vehicle functions such as electronic engine control, anti-locking break system, active suspension, etc. The design of this kind of networked embedded system (this also includes hard real-time industrial control systems) is a challenge in itself due to the distributed nature of processing elements, sharing a common communication medium and safety-critical requirements. With the auto- motive industry increasingly keen on adopting mechatronic solutions, it was felt that exploring, in detail, the design of in-vehicle electronic embedded systems would be of interest to the readers of this book. The applications part of the book also touches the area of industrial automation (networked control systems) where the issues are similar. In this case, the focus is on the design of web servers embedded in the intelligent field-area devices, and the security issues arising from internetworking. Sensor networks are another example of networked embedded systems, although, the “embedding” factorisnotsoevidentasinotherapplications; particularlyforwirelessandself-organizingnetworkswhere the nodes may be embedded in the ecosystem, battlefield, or a chemical plant, for instance. The area of © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
- 13. Preface xi wireless sensor networks has now evolved into a relative maturity. Owing to novelty, and growing import- ance, it has been included in the book to give a comprehensive overview of the area, and present new research results which are likely to have a tangible impact on further developments and technology. The specifics of the design automation of integrated circuits have been deliberately omitted in this book to keep the volume at a reasonable size and in view of the publication of another handbook which covers these aspect in a comprehensive way: The Electronic Design Automation for Integrated Circuits Handbook, CRC Press, FL, 2005, Editors: Luciano Lavagno, Grant Martin, and Lou Scheffer. The aim of the Organization section is to provide highlights of the contents of the individual chapters to assist readers with identifying material of interest, and to put topics discussed in a broader context. Where appropriate, a brief explanation of the topic under treatment is provided, particularly for chapters describing novel trends, and with novices in mind. The book is organized into six sections: Embed- ded Systems, System-on-Chip Design, Testing of Embedded Core-Based Integrated Circuits, Networked Embedded Systems, Sensor Networks, and Embedded Applications. I Embedded Systems This section provides a broad introduction to embedded systems. The presented material offers a com- bination of fundamental and advanced topics, as well as novel results and approaches, to cover the area fairly comprehensively. The presented topics include issues in real-time and embedded systems, design and validation, design and verification languages, operating systems, timing and performance analysis, power aware computing, and security. Real-Time and Embedded Systems This subsection provides a context for the material covered in the book. It gives an overview of real-time and embedded systems and their networking to include issues, methods, trends, applications, etc. The focus of the chapter Embedded Systems: Toward Networking of Embedded Systems is on network- ing of embedded systems. It briefly discusses the rationale for the emergence of these kinds of systems, their benefits, types of systems, diversity of application domains and requirements arising from that, as well as security issues. Subsequently, the chapter discusses the design methods for networked embedded systems, which fall into the general category of system-level design. The methods overviewed focus on two separate aspects, namely the network architecture design and the system-on-chip design. The design issues and practices are illustrated by examples from the automotive application domain. After that, the chapter introduces selected application domains for networked embedded systems, namely: industrial and building automation control, and automotive control applications. The focus of the discussion is on the networking aspects. The chapter gives an overview of the networks used in industrial applications, including the industrial Ethernet and its standardization process; building automation control; and net- works for automotive control and other applications from the automotive domain — but the emphasis is on networks for safety critical solutions. Finally, general aspects of wireless sensor/actuator networks are presented, and illustrated by an actual industrial implementation of the concept. At the end of the chapter, a few paragraphs are dedicated to the security issues for networked embedded systems. An authoritative introduction to real-time systems is provided in Real-Time in Embedded Systems. The chapter covers extensively the areas of design and analysis, with some examples of analysis, as well as tools; operating systems (an in-depth discussion of real-time embedded operating systems is presented in the chapter Real-Time Embedded Operating Systems Standards and Perspectives); scheduling (the chapter Real-Time Embedded Operating Systems: The Scheduling and Resource Management Aspects presents an authoritative description and analysis of real-time scheduling); communications to include descriptions of selected fieldbus technologies and Ethernet for real-time communications; and component based design, as well as testing and debugging. This is essential reading for anyone interested in the area of real-time systems. © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
- 14. xii Preface Design and Validation of Embedded Systems The subsection Design and Validation of Embedded Systems contains material presenting design methodo- logyforembeddedsystemsandsupportingtools,aswellasselectedsoftwareandhardwareimplementation aspects. Models of Computation (MoC) — which are essentially abstract representations of computing systems — are used throughout to facilitate design and validation stages of systems development and approaches to validation as well as available methods and tools. The verification methods, together with an overview of verification languages, are presented in subsection Design and Verification Lan- guages. In addition, the subsection presents novel research material including a framework used to introduce different models of computation particularly suited to the design of heterogeneous multi- processor SoC, and a mathematical model of embedded systems based on the theory of agents and interactions. A comprehensive introduction to the design methodology for embedded systems is presented in the chapter Design of Embedded Systems. It gives an overview of the design issues and stages. Then, the chapter presents, in quite some detail, the functional design, function/architecture and hardware/software codesign, and hardware/software coverification and hardware simulation. Subsequently, the chapter dis- cusses selected software and hardware implementation issues. While discussing different design stages and approaches, the chapter also introduces and evaluates supporting tools. An excellent introduction to the topic of models of computation, particularly for embedded systems, is presented in the chapter Models of Embedded Computation. The chapter introduces the origin of MoC,and the evolution from models of sequential and parallel computation to attempts to model heterogeneous architectures. In the process, the chapter discusses, in relative detail, selected nonfunctional properties such as power consumption, component interaction in heterogeneous systems, and time. It also presents a new framework used to introduce four different models of computation, and shows how different time abstractions can serve different purposes and needs. The framework is subsequently used to study the coexistence of different computational models; specifically the interfaces between two different MoCs and the refinement of one MoC into another. This part of the chapter is particularly relevant to the material on the design of heterogeneous multiprocessor SoC presented in the section System-on-Chip Design. A comprehensive survey of selected models of computation is presented in the chapter Modeling Formalisms for Embedded System Design. The surveyed formalisms include Finite State Machines (FSM), Finite State Machines with Datapath (FSMD), Moore machine, Mealy machine, Codesign Finite State Machines (CFSM), Program State Machines (PSM), Specification and Description Language (SDL), Message Sequence Charts (MSC), Statecharts, Petri nets, synchronous/reactive models, discrete event system, Dataflow Models, etc. The presentation of individual models is augmented by numerous examples. The chapter System Validation briefly discusses approaches to requirements capture, analysis and validation, and surveys available methods and tools to include: descriptive formal methods such as VDM, Z, B, RAISE (Rigorous Approach to Industrial Software Engineering), CASL (Common Algebraic Specification Language), SCR (Software Cost Reduction), and EVES; deductive verifiers: HOL, Isabelle, PVS, Larch, Nqthm, and Nuprl; state exploration tools: SMV (Symbolic Model Verifier), Spin, COSPAN (COordination SPecification Analysis), MEIJE, CADP, and Murphi. It also presents a mathematical model of embedded systems based on the theory of agents and interactions. To underline a novelty of this form- alism, classical theories of concurrency are surveyed to include process algebras, temporal logic, timed automata, (Gurevich’s) ASM (Abstract State Machine), and rewriting logic. As an illustration, the chapter presents a specification of a simple scheduler. Design and Verification Languages This section gives a comprehensive overview of languages used to specify, model, verify, and program embedded systems. Some of those languages embody different models of computation discussed in the previous section. A brief overview of Architecture Description Languages (ADL) is presented in © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
- 15. Preface xiii Embedded Applications (Automotive Networks); the use of this class of languages, in the context of describing in-car embedded electronic systems, is illustrated through the EAST-ADL language. An authoritative introduction to a broad range of languages used in embedded systems is presen- ted in the chapter Languages for Embedded Systems. The chapter surveys some of the most representative and widely used languages. Software languages: assembly languages for complex instruction set computers (CISC), reduced instruction set computers (RISC), digital signal processors (DSPs) and very-long instruc- tion word processors (VLIWs), and for small (4- and 8-bit) microcontrollers; the C and C++ Languages; Java; and real-time operating systems. Hardware languages: Verilog and VHDL. Dataflow languages: Kahn Process Networks and Synchronous Dataflow (SDF). Hybrid languages: Esterel, SDL, and SystemC. Each group of languages is characterized for their specific application domains and illustrated with ample code examples. An in-depth introduction to synchronous languages is presented in The Synchronous Hypothesis and Synchronous Languages. Before introducing the synchronous languages, the chapter discusses the concept of synchronous hypothesis: the basic notion, mathematical models, and implementation issues. Sub- sequently, it overviews the structural languages used for modeling and programming synchronous applications. Imperative languages, Esterel and SyncCharts, provide constructs to deal with control- dominated programs. Declarative languages, Lustre and Signal, are particularly suited for applications based on intensive data computation and dataflow organization. Future trends are also covered. The chapter Introduction to UML and the Modeling of Embedded Systems gives an overview of the use of UML (Unified Modeling Language) for modeling embedded systems. The chapter presents a brief overview of UML and discusses UML features suited to represent the characteristics of embedded systems. The UML constructs, the language use, and other issues are introduced through an example of an automatic teller machine. The chapter also briefly discusses a standardized UML profile (a spe- cification language instantiated from the UML language family) suitable for modeling of embedded systems. A comprehensive survey and overview of verification languages is presented in the chapter Verification Languages. It describes languages for verification of hardware, software, and embedded systems. The focus is on the support that a verification language provides for dynamic verification based on simulation, as well as static verification based on formal techniques. Before discussing the languages, the chapter provides some background on verification methods. This part introduces basics of simulation-based verification, formal verification, and assertion-based verification. It also discusses selected logics that form the basis of languages described in the chapter: propositional logic, first-order predicate logic, temporallogics,andregularand ω-regularlanguages. Thehardwareverificationlanguages(HVLs)covered include: e, OpenVera, Sugar/PSL, and ForSpec. The languages for software verification overviewed include programming languages: C/C++, and Java; and modeling languages: UML, SDL, and Alloy. Languages for SoCs and embedded systems verification include system-level modeling languages: SystemC, SpecC, and SystemVerilog. The chapter also surveys domain-specific verification efforts, such as those based on Esterel and hybrid systems. Operating Systems and Quasi-Static Scheduling Thissubsectionoffersacomprehensiveintroductiontoreal-timeandembeddedoperatingsystemstocover fundamentals and selected advanced issues. To complement this material with new developments, it gives an overview of the operating system interfaces specified by the POSIX 1003.1 international standard and related to real-time programming and introduces a class of operating systems based on virtual machines. The subsection also includes research material on quasi-static scheduling. The chapter Real-Time Embedded Operating Systems: Standards and Perspectives provides a compre- hensive introduction to the main features of real-time embedded operating systems. It overviews some of the main design and architectural issues of operating systems: system architectures, process and thread model, processor scheduling, interprocess synchronization and communication, and network sup- port. The chapter presents a comprehensive overview of the operating system interfaces specified by © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
- 16. xiv Preface the POSIX 1003.1 international standard and related real-time programming. It also gives a short description of selected open-source real-time operating systems to include eCos, µClinux, RT-Linux and RTAI, and RTEMS. The chapter also presents a fairly comprehensive introduction to a class of operating systems based on virtual machines. Task scheduling algorithms and resource management policies, put in the context of real-time systems, are the main focus of the chapter Real-Time Embedded Operating Systems: The Schedul- ing and Resource Management Aspects. The chapter discusses in detail periodic task handling to include Timeline Scheduling (TS), Rate-Monotonic (RM) scheduling, Earliest Deadline First (EDF) algorithm, and approaches to handle tasks with deadlines less than periods scheme; and aperi- odic task handling. Protocols for accessing shared resources discussed include Priority Inherit- ance Protocol (PIP) and Priority Ceiling Protocol (PCP). Novel approaches, which provide effi- cient support for real-time multimedia systems, for handling transient overloads and execution overruns in soft real-time systems working in dynamic environments are also mentioned in the chapter. The chapter Quasi-Static Scheduling of Concurrent Specifications presents methods aimed at efficient synthesis of uniprocessor software with an aim to improve speed of the scheduled design. The proposed approach starts from a specification represented in terms of concurrent communicating processes, derives an intermediate representation based on Petri nets or Boolean Dataflow Graphs, and finally attempts to obtain a sequential schedule to be implemented on a processor. The potential benefits result from replacement of explicit communication among processes by data assignment and reduced amount of context switches due to a reduction of the number of processes. Timing and Performance Analysis Many embedded systems, particularly hard real-time systems, impose strict restrictions on the execution time of tasks which are required to be completed within certain time bounds. For this class of systems, schedulability analysis requires the upper bounds for the execution times of all tasks to be known in order to verify whether the system meets its timing requirements. The chapter Determining Bounds on Execution Times presents architecture of the aiT timing-analysis tool and an approach to timing analysis implemented in the tool. In the process, the chapter discusses cache-behavior prediction, pipeline analysis, path analysis using integer linear programming, and other issues. The use of this approach is put in the context of upper bounds determination. In addition, the chapter gives a brief overview of other approaches to timing analysis. The validation of nonfunctional requirements of selected implementation aspects such as deadlines, throughputs, buffer space, power consumption, etc., comes under performance analysis. The chapter Performance Analysis of Distributed Embedded Systems discusses issues behind performance analysis and its role in the design process. It also surveys a few selected approaches to performance analysis for distributed embedded systems to include simulation-based methods, holistic scheduling analysis, and compositional methods. Subsequently, the chapter introduces the performance network approach, as stated by authors, influenced by the worst-case analysis of communication networks. The presented approach allows one to obtain upper and lower bounds on quantities such as end-to-end delay and buffer space; it also covers all possible corner cases independent of their probability. Power Aware Computing Embedded nodes, or devices, are frequently battery powered. The growing power dissipation, with the increase in density of integrated circuits and clock frequency, has a direct impact on the cost of packaging and cooling, as well as reliability and lifetime. These and other factors make the design for low power consumption a high priority for embedded systems. The chapter Power Aware Embed- ded Computing presents a survey of design techniques and methodologies aimed at reducing static and dynamic power dissipation. The chapter discusses energy and power modeling to include instruction © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
- 17. Preface xv level and function level power models, micro-architectural power models, memory and bus models, and battery models. Subsequently, the chapter discusses system/application level optimizations which explore different task implementations exhibiting different power/energy versus quality-of-service characterist- ics. Energy efficient processing subsystems: voltage and frequency scaling, dynamic resource scaling, and processor core selection, are also overviewed in the chapter. Finally, the chapter discusses energy efficient memory subsystems: cache hierarchy tuning, novel horizontal and vertical cache partitioning schemes, dynamic scaling of memory elements, software controlled memories, scratch-pad memories, improving access patterns to on-chip memory, special purpose memory subsystems for media streaming, and code compression, and interconnect optimizations. Security in Embedded Systems Thereisagrowingtrendfornetworkingof embeddedsystems. Representativeexamplesof suchsystemscan be found in automotive, train, and industrial automation domains. Many of those systems are required to be connected to other networks to include LAN, WAN, and the Internet. For instance, there is a growing demand for remote access to process data at the factory floor. This, however, exposes systems to potential security attacks, which may compromise their integrity and cause damage. The limited resources of embedded systems pose considerable challenge for the implementation of effective security policies which, in general, are resource demanding. An excellent introduction to the security issues in embedded systems is presented in the chapter Design Issues in Secure Embedded Systems. The chapter outlines security requirements in computing systems, classifies abilities of attackers, and discusses security implementation levels. Security constraints in the embedded systems designs discussed include energy considerations, processing power limitations, flexibility and availability requirements, and cost of imple- mentation. Subsequently, the chapter presents the main issues in the design of secure embedded systems. It also covers, in detail, attacks and countermeasures of cryptographic algorithm implementations in embedded systems. II System-on-Chip Design Multi-Processor Systems-on-Chip (MPSoC), which combine the advantages of parallel processing with the high integration levels of SoCs, emerged as a viable solution to meet the demand for computational power required by applications such as network and media processors. The design of MPSoCs typically involves integration of heterogeneous hardware and software IP components. However, the support for reuse of hardware and software IP components is limited, thus potentially making the design process labor-intensive, error-prone, and expensive. Selected component-based design methodologies for the integration of heterogeneous hardware and software IP components are presented in this section together with other issues such as design of ASIPs, communication architectures to include NoC, and platform based design, to mention some. Those topics are presented in eight chapters introducing the SoC concept and design issues; design of ASIPs; SoC communication architectures; principles and guidelines for the NoC design; platform-based design principles; converter synthesis for incompatible protocols; a component-based design automation approach for multiprocessor SoC platforms; an interface-centric approach to the design and programming of embedded multiprocessors; and an STMicroelectronics developed exploration multiprocessor SoC platform. A comprehensive introduction to the SoC concept, in general, and design issues is provided in the chapter System-on-Chip and Network-on-Chip Design. The chapter discusses basics of SoC; IP cores and virtual components; introduces the concept of architectural platforms and surveys selected industry offerings; and provides a comprehensive overview of the SoC design process. A retargetable framework for ASIP design is presented in A Novel Methodology for the Design of Application-Specific Instruction-Set Processors. The framework, which is based on machine descriptions in the LISA language, allows for automatic generation of software development tools including HLL C-compiler, assembler, linker, simulator, and graphical debugger frontend. In addition, synthesizable © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
- 18. xvi Preface hardware description language code can be derived for architecture implementation. The chapter also gives an overview of various machine description languages in the context of their suitability for the design of ASIP; discusses the ASIPs design flow, and the LISA language. On-chip communication architectures are presented in the chapter State-of-the-Art SoC Communica- tion Architectures. The chapter offers an in-depth description and analysis of three most relevant, from industrial and research viewpoints, architectures to include ARM developed AMBA (Advanced Micro- Controller Bus Architecture) and new interconnect schemes, namely Multi-Layer AHB and AMBA AXI; IBM developed CoreConect; and STMicroelectronics developed STBus. In addition, the chapter surveys other architectures such as Wishbone, Sonics SiliconBackplane Micronetwork, Peripheral Interconnect Bus (PI-Bus),Avalon,and CoreFrame. The chapter also offers analysis of selected architectures and extends the discussion of on-chip interconnects to NoC. Basic principles and guidelines for the NoC design are introduced in Network-on-Chip Design for Gigascale Systems-on-Chip. It discusses a rationale for the design paradigm shift of SoC communication architectures from shared busses to NoCs; and briefly surveys related work. Subsequently, the chapter presents details of NoC building blocks to include switch, network interface, and switch-to-switch links. In discussing the design guidelines, the chapter uses a case study of a real NoC architecture (Xpipes) which employs some of the most advanced concepts in NoC design. It also discusses the issue of heterogeneous NoC design, and the effects of mapping the communication requirements of an application onto a domain-specific NoC. An authoritative discussion of the platform-based design (PBD) concept is provided in the chapter Platform-Based Design for Embedded Systems. The chapter introduces PBD principles and outlines the interplay between micro-architecture platforms and Application Program Interface (API),or programmer model, which is a unique abstract representation of the architecture platform via the software layer. The chapter also introduces three applications of PBD: network platforms for communication protocol design, fault-tolerantplatformsforthedesignof safety-criticalapplications,andanalogplatformsformixed-signal integrated circuit design. An approach to synthesis of interface converters for incompatible protocols in a component- based design automation is presented in Interface Specification and Converter Synthesis. The chapter surveys several approaches for synthesizing converters illustrated by simple examples. It also intro- duces more advanced frameworks based on abstract algebraic solutions that guarantee converter correctness. The chapter Hardware/Software Interface Design for SoC presents a component-based design automa- tion approach for MPSoC platforms. It briefly surveys basic concepts of MPSoC design and discusses some related platform and component-based approaches. It provides a comprehensive overview of hardware/software IP integration issues to include bus-based and core-based approaches, integrating soft- ware IP,communication synthesis (the concept is presented in detail in Interface Specification and Converter Synthesis),andIPderivation. Thefocalpointof thechapterisanewcomponent-baseddesignmethodology and the design environment for the integration of heterogeneous hardware and software IP components. The presented methodology, which adopts the automatic communication synthesis approach and uses a high-level API,generates both hardware and software wrappers, as well as a dedicated operating system for programmable components. The IP integration capabilities of the approach and accompanying software tools are illustrated by redesigning a part of a VDSL modem. The chapter Design and Programming of Embedded Multiprocessors: An Interface-Centric Approach presents a design methodology for implementing media processing applications as MPSoCs centered around the Task Transaction Level (TTL) interface. The TTL interface can be used to build executable specifications; it also provides a platform interface for implementing applications as communicating hardware and software tasks on a platform infrastructure. The chapter introduces the TTL interface in the context of the requirements, and discusses mapping technology which supports structured design and programming of embedded multiprocessor systems. The chapter also presents two case studies of implementations of TTL interface on different architectures: a multi-DSP © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
- 19. Preface xvii architecture, using an MP3 decoder application to evaluate this implementation; and a smart-imaging multiprocessor. The STMicroelectronics developed StepNPTM flexible MPSoC platform and its key architectural com- ponents are described in A MultiProcessor SoC Platform and Tools for Communications Applications. The platform was developed with an aim to explore tool and architectural issues in a range of high-speed communications applications, particularly packet processing applications used in network infrastructure SoCs. Subsequently, the chapter reviews the MultiFlex modeling and analysis tools developed to support the StepNP platform. The MultiFlex environment supports two parallel programming models: a distrib- uted system object component (DSOC) message passing model and a symmetrical multiprocessing (SMP) model using shared memory. It maps these models onto the StepNP MPSoC platform. The use of the plat- form and supporting environment are illustrated by two examples mapping IPv4 packet forwarding and traffic management applications onto the StepNP platform. Detailed results are presented and discussed for a range of architectural parameters. III Testing of Embedded Core-Based Integrated Circuits The ever-increasing circuit densities and operating frequencies, as well as the use of the SoC designs, have resulted in enormous test data volume for today’s embedded core-based integrated circuits. According to the Semiconductor Industry Association, in the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS), 2001 Edition, the density of ICs can reach 2 billion transistors per square cm, and 16 billion transistors per chip are likely by 2014. Based on that, according to some estimates (A. Khoche and J. Rivoir, “I/O bandwidth bottleneck for test: is it real?” Test Resource Partitioning Workshop, 2002), the test data volume for ICs in 2014 is likely to increase 150 times in reference to 1999. Some other problems include the growing disparity between performance of the design and the automatic test equipment which makes at-speed testing, particularly of high-speed circuits, a challenge and results in increasing yield loss; high cost of manually developed functional tests; and growing cost of high-speed and high-pincount testers. This section contains two chapters introducing new techniques addressing some of the issues indicated above. The chapter Modular Testing and Built-In Self-Test of Embedded Cores in System-on-Chip Integrated Circuits presents a survey of techniques that have been proposed in the literature for reducing test time and test data volume. The techniques surveyed rely on modular testing of embedded cores and built-in self test (BIST). The material on modular testing of embedded cores in a system-on-a-chip describes wrapper design and optimization, test access mechanism (TAM) design and optimization, test scheduling, integrated TAM optimization and test scheduling, and modular testing of mixed-signal SOCs. In addition, the chapter reviews a recent deterministic BIST approach in which a reconfigurable interconnection network (RIN) is placed between the outputs of the linear-feedback shift register (LFSR) and the inputs of the scan chains in circuit under test. The RIN, which consists only of multiplexer switches, replaces the phase shifter that is typically used in pseudo-random BIST to reduce correlation between the test data bits that are fed into the scan chains. The proposed approach does not require any circuit redesign and it has minimal impact on circuit performance. Hardware-based self-testing techniques (BIST) have limitations due to performance, area, and design timeoverhead,aswellasproblemscausedbytheapplicationof nonfunctionalpatterns(whichmayresultin higherpowerconsumptionduringtesting,over-testing,yieldlossproblems,etc.). Theembeddedsoftware- based self-testing technique has a potential to alleviate the problems caused by using external testers, as well as structural BIST problems. The embedded software-based self-testing utilizes on-chip programmable resources (such as embedded microprocessors and DSPs) for on-chip test generation, test delivery, signal acquisition, response analysis, and even diagnosis. The chapter Embedded Software-Based Self-Testing for SoC Design discusses processor self-test methods targeting stuck-at faults and delay faults; presents a brief description of a processor self-diagnosis method; presents methods for self-testing of buses and global © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
- 20. xviii Preface interconnects as well as other nonprogrammable IP cores on SoC; describes instruction-level design-for- testability (DfT) methods based on insertion of test instructions to increase the fault coverage and reduce the test application time and test program size; and outlines DSP-based self-test for analog/mixed-signal components. IV Networked Embedded Systems Networked embedded systems (NES) are essentially spatially distributed embedded nodes (implemented on a board, or a single chip in future) interconnected by means of wireline or/and wireless communication infrastructure and protocols, interacting with the environment (via sensor/actuator elements) and each other, and, possibly, a master node performing some control and coordination functions to coordinate computing and communication in order to achieve certain goal(s). An example of a network embedded system may be an in-vehicle embedded network comprising a collection of ECUs networked by means of safety-critical communication protocols, such as FlexRay or TTP/C, for the purpose of controlling vehicle functions, such as electronic engine control, anti-locking brake system, active suspension, etc. (for details of automotive applications see the last section in the book). An excellent introduction to NES is presented in the chapter Design Issues in Networked Embedded Sys- tems. This chapter outlines some of the most representative characteristics of NES, and surveys potential applications. It also explains design issues for large-scale distributed NES such as environment interac- tion, life expectancy of nodes, communication protocol, reconfigurability, security, energy constraints, operating systems, etc. Design methodologies and tools are discussed as well. The topic of middleware for NES is addressed in Middleware Design and Implementation for Networked Embedded Systems. This chapter discusses the role of middleware in NES and the challenges in design and implementation, such as remote communication, location independence, reuse of the existing infrastruc- ture,providingreal-timeassurances,providingarobustDOCmiddleware,reducingmiddlewarefootprint, and support for simulation environments. The focal points of the chapter are the sections describing the design and implementation of nORB (a small footprint real-time object request broker tailored to spe- cific embedded sensor/actuator applications), and the rationale behind the adopted approach, namely to address the NES design and implementation challenges. V Sensor Networks The distributed (wireless) sensor networks are a relatively new and exciting proposition for collecting sensory data in a variety of environments. The design of this kind of network poses a particular challenge due to limited computational power and memory size, bandwidth restrictions, power consumption restriction if battery powered, communication requirements, and unattended mode of operation in case of inaccessible and/or hostile environments, to mention some. It provides a fairly comprehensive discussion of the design issues related to, in particular, self-organizing wireless networks. It introduces fundamental concepts behind sensor networks, discusses architectures, energy-efficient Medium Access Control (MAC), time synchronization, distributed localization, routing, distributed signal processing, security, and it surveys selected software solutions. A general introduction to the area of wireless sensor networks is provided in Introduction to Wireless Sensor Networks. A comprehensive overview of the topic is provided in Issues and Solutions in Wireless Sensor Networks, which introduces fundamental concepts, selected application areas, design challenges, and other relevant issues. The chapter Architectures for Wireless Sensor Networks provides an excellent introduction to various aspects of the architecture of wireless sensor networks. It includes the description of a sensor node architecture and its elements: sensor platform, processing unit, communication interface, and power source. In addition, it presents a mathematical model of power consumption by a node, to account for energy consumption by radio, processor, and sensor elements. The chapter also discusses architectures © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
- 21. Exploring the Variety of Random Documents with Different Content
- 22. were slain in the struggle. Some of their provincial houses also were sacked or closed, and the inmates had to fly for their lives. In the following year, 1835, the Society was again proscribed, by the Regent Christina, and the Jesuits were scattered. They now sided openly with Don Carlos. Alleging, as usual, that they were indifferent to politics and must discharge the spiritual services demanded of them under any banner, they followed in the rear of the advancing Carlists and opened colleges in the districts conquered by them. One Jesuit guarded the conscience of Don Carlos, another was tutor to his children, and others ministered in his camps. At length an abler Christinist General, Espartero, cleared the Carlists from the Basque Provinces and closed the Jesuit houses. By the time of the revolution of 1848 there were none but a few disguised and timid survivors of the Society in Spain. From Portugal the Jesuits were rigorously excluded during fifteen years after the restoration of the Society. John VI., a constitutional and sober monarch, refused to irritate his subjects by admitting them, and had no need of their stifling influence on education in Portugal. He resisted all the pressure of Rome in their interest, and observed the Liberal Constitution which he had accepted. His granddaughter Maria succeeded to his throne and policy in 1826, under the regency of her uncle, Dom Miguel. Here again the Jesuits were admitted in virtue of an act of treachery and throve in an atmosphere of savagery. Dom Miguel intrigued for the throne, and, when he took an oath to respect the Liberal Constitution, was permitted to occupy it. "His Jesuit training," says the Cambridge Modern History (x. 321), "would make it easy for him to rest content with the absolution of the Church for a breach of faith committed on behalf of the good cause." He at once violated his oath and turned with ferocity upon the Liberals. It is estimated by some of the Portuguese writers that more than 60,000 were executed, deported, or imprisoned in the next four years. Such was the second of the leading Catholic monarchs to seek the aid of the Jesuits. None of the members of the old Portuguese
- 23. Province could be discovered, or induced to resume work in a bitterly hostile world, and eight Jesuits had to be sent from France, in 1829, to begin the work of restoration. They make little pretence of an enthusiastic reception in this case. None of their former property was restored, and for a time they had to take refuge in the houses of rival orders. They had, however, their usual good fortune to attract the sympathy of noble ladies, and were enabled to secure their old house at Lisbon in the following year. When the King saw that no violent upheaval followed their arrival, he began to patronise them, and secured for them their famous college at Coimbra. In the same year they had the satisfaction of establishing a house at Pombal, where their old antagonist had died, and their superior describes, in an edifying letter, how he at once "ran to say a prayer over the tomb of the Marquis"; he was deeply pained, it seems, to find that the remains of Pombal had not even yet been interred, while the children of Ignatius were received with honour in his name-place. But the ferocity of Miguel had already deeply stirred the population, and in the following year the defrauded young Queen's father, Don Pedro, Emperor of Brazil, crossed the ocean to secure her rights and the Constitution. The Jesuits were painfully perplexed. Don Pedro seems to have felt that he could not hope for a lasting triumph without the aid of the Jesuits, and he made a secret offer to them, in an autograph letter (in March), of his protection and favour if they would desert Miguel. The issue was uncertain, and, when Don Pedro entered Lisbon in July, the Jesuits assured him that his letter had reached their hands too late for them to consider his offer. They had remained ideally neutral in the war, and had nursed the cholera victims in both camps with religious impartiality. The people of Lisbon saved Don Pedro from the dilemma which this excellent or prudent conduct imposed on him. On 29th July a mixed throng of soldiers and citizens assaulted and sacked the Jesuit residence. It would have gone very hard with the fathers themselves had not certain English naval officers chivalrously saved them. In the following May (1834) Don Pedro renewed the sentence of
- 24. suppression. From their handsome college at Coimbra they were conveyed to Lisbon, to face the hoots and taunts of a rejoicing mob, and then to be deposited in prison. The French afterwards secured their release from prison, but they have never since had a legal existence in the land of Pombal. We turn next to England, to study the fortunes of the followers of Ignatius up to the middle of the nineteenth century. In the latter part of the eighteenth century the Jesuits had availed themselves of the more tolerant spirit of the age of the Georges, and again increased to a considerable body. Their colleges in Spain, France, and Belgium received numbers of young Catholic aspirants, and we find that at the time of the suppression of the Society the English Province boasted 274 members, of whom 143 were actually in England. The suppression in Spain and France reduced their colleges; the two colleges at Bruges were violently closed by the authorities in 1773; there remained only a house at Liège and the English missions at Liverpool, Preston, Bristol, and a few other towns. They continued to live in community in these residences after the abolition of the Society, and minister as secular priests. In 1794 their situation was again altered by the French invasion of Belgium, when the English fathers were expelled from their last continental seat, at Liège. The disaster proved, however, to be the starting-point of their more prosperous modern development in England. One of their old pupils, Thomas Weld, offered them a house and estate at Stonyhurst, near Preston, and on 29th August the refugees reached what was destined to be one of their most important centres. They opened a school—to be directed by certain "gentlemen from Liège"—and quietly awaited the future. In the meantime the ex-Jesuits who had remained in England bore their disgrace very impatiently. One of their number, Father Thorpe, wrote in 1785 so scurrilous a Sketch of the Life and Government of Pope Clement XIV. that his colleagues had to withdraw it from publication at the demand of their own admirers. In the following
- 25. year the English ex-Jesuits opened a correspondence with their rebellious colleagues in Russia, and, although they could devise no pretext whatever for disobeying the Pope in England, they offered to unite with the Russians. Their proposal was declined or postponed, and they waited until the Pope officially recognised the Russian Society in 1801. By that time the Abbé de Broglie had led his little colony of Fathers of the Faith from Austria to London and opened a college at Kensington. Some of the ex-Jesuits and many emigrant French priests were attracted to this authorised Congregation, but Paccanari was now an object of suspicion to most of them, and, on the other hand, there was increasing hope of a restoration of the Society. The proposal to enlist under the Russian General was now revived, and both ex-Jesuits and Fathers of the Faith made their way, secretly and individually, to Russia and renewed their vows. By the year 1804 there were between eighty and ninety Jesuits in England. The general and violent hatred of the French had led to much sympathy with the clerical victims of the Revolution, but England was not yet prepared for this substantial resurrection of the Jesuits. Stonyhurst was growing into a large and busy colony, owing to the continued bounty of Weld and the return of surviving members of the old province, and in 1804, and more peremptorily in 1807, the Government ordered the dissolution of their communities. Such an order was a feeble check on their growth, and they took advantage of the successive movements which aided the restoration of Catholicism. The stream of French emigrants, the Act of Toleration of 1791, the beginning of Irish immigration, and the advocacy of Catholic Emancipation by Pitt enabled the Catholics to enter the nineteenth century in increased numbers. The Catholic Relief Act of 1829 so inflated them that they then estimated their numbers in London alone as 146,000, or nearly a tenth of the population; to-day they number about one-fiftieth of the population of London. The Jesuits shared the growth with the rest of the clergy. Between 1826 and 1835 they built eleven new churches, and in 1830 the Roman authorities made a formal province of the English group. The Irish
- 26. fathers had been detached from the English in 1829, and formed a vice-province. Ten years later began the Catholic movement within the Church of England, to the considerable profit of Rome. The early history of the Jesuits in the United States is one of the most interesting chapters in their modern story. When the Society was abolished and its members momentarily discouraged, John Carroll, a member of the suppressed English Province, led a small group of fathers to the North American Colony. He became friendly with Washington and other leaders of the insurrection, and is said to have had some influence in shaping the Liberal clauses of the new Constitution. In 1789 he became Bishop of Baltimore, and another ex-Jesuit, Father Neale, was afterwards made his coadjutor. This transferred the American mission from the control of the English Vicar Apostolic, and made Carroll head of the Church in the United States. In 1803 we find Carroll writing to General Gruber that there are a dozen aged ex-Jesuits in Maryland and Pennsylvania, with sufficient property (of the older Maryland mission) to support thirty; they wish to join Gruber's authorised Society and receive an accession of strength. The Russian Jesuits had justified their rebellion on the ground that the secular monarch had forbidden them to lay aside their habits; the Americans said it was enough that there was in America no secular monarch to forbid them to wear it. The Papacy counted for little with any of them. Gruber complied, and the foundations were laid of the prosperity of the Jesuits in the United States. In the early years little progress was made. The newcomers were young foreigners, and the population was scattered and generally hostile. One of the German fathers was actually arrested and tried for not betraying the confession of a thief, but the controversy which followed rather promoted their interest. They shrewdly established their chief college and centre at Georgetown, near Washington, and gradually won the regard of American statesmen, who visited and granted privileges to the college. By the year 1818 there were 86 Jesuits in the United States, and recruits were arriving from Europe. A novitiate had been opened at White Marsh in 1815, but few novices could be secured in
- 27. America. In fact, as they followed their usual custom of making no charge for education, they had a severe struggle with poverty everywhere. In 1822 the authorities at Rome ordered them to close the school at Washington, as it could no longer maintain itself without charging. The rector, Father Kelly, defied his superiors for a time, and maintained the school on the fees of pupils; but Americanism was not yet sufficiently developed to sustain this, and Father Kelly was expelled from the Society. Memories of the "black robes" lingered among the Indians, and it was suggested, time after time, that the fathers should return to their work among them, and amongst the blacks of the south and the islands. Their historian makes a lengthy and very earnest apology for their refusal, during ten or twenty years, to listen to this suggestion. They remembered how their work amongst the Indians had been "misinterpreted"; they were too few in number to spare men for distant fields; in time, they foresaw the greatness of the United States and "preferred the certain to the uncertain." The truth seems to be that commerce in blankets and beaver-skins was not possible in the nineteenth century. After 1840, however, they sent missionaries among the Indians, and won a great affection among them. By that time the Missouri Province alone had 148 Jesuits, and the Maryland Province 103. It is clear that the early Jesuits laboured devotedly to arrest the enormous lapse from the Church of Rome in the United States in the first half of the nineteenth century. We need pay little attention to their boasts of conversions. Catholic immigrants were now arriving in millions, and were passing out into the lonely districts and small towns, where their faith was quickly forgotten. In 1636 the Bishop of Charlestown estimated the loss at nearly four millions in his diocese alone. Many of the Jesuits went out among the struggling pioneers and led lives of great self-sacrifice. Their energies were, however, mainly concentrated on the aggrandisement of their schools and conciliation of politicians in cities like Washington. They made sure of power in the great Republic they foresaw. It may be added that the Society was at the same time spreading in Mexico. Restored
- 28. under Ferdinand, they undertook, as in Spain, to check or destroy the Liberal principles which had taken root in Mexico. For this they were banished in 1821, when the news came of the Liberal triumph in Spain, and did not return to open activity until 1843. In the Germanic lands, except Belgium, the restored Jesuits had a severe struggle throughout the nineteenth century. Austria and Bavaria refused to publish the bull of restoration or comply with it, to the great mortification of the Jesuits. Metternich, at least, retained the spirit of Joseph II., and Ferdinand II. was not yet disposed to tempt his subjects by readmitting them. Prussia was, of course, still closed against the Jesuits as Jesuits. The first serious attempt to gain a footing in Germany was made in 1820, when the fathers who had been driven from Russia appeared on the Austrian frontier and humbly asked permission to cross the Emperor's territory. They might "cross," he drily answered; and when they secured the customary intervention of noble dames, he permitted them to go and teach loyalty among his poor subjects in Galicia and his restless subjects in Hungary. He granted funds for this purpose, and they soon had a flourishing Province in Galicia, and a general control of education. Even here they were subject to the bishops, and the imperial decrees intimate that there was much suspicion and hostility. In 1829, Styria and other provinces were opened to them, though the opposition was so violent that at Gratz we find them complaining of having to lodge in some kind of inn, with an actress for neighbour. Ferdinand II. died in 1836, but his successor could do little for them in face of the prevailing hostility. Father Beckx, the future General, was in Vienna at the time. A Jesuit had at last brought a ray of hope into the German camp by converting the Duke and Duchess of Anhalt-Köthen, and Father Beckx was confessor to the Duchess at Vienna—and secret agent of the Society. He writes in 1837 that their enemies are very powerful, and Josephite principles triumphant; the Jesuits have only one public institution in Austria, and are forbidden to teach. Ferdinand, however, was not indisposed to enlist their aid in fighting Liberalism, and they quietly spread in the outlying
- 29. provinces. The Tyrol was opened to them in 1838, and from their old college at Innspruck they proceeded to capture its schools. We shall see presently how the revolutionary storm of 1848 drove them from their new acquisitions. In Switzerland the fortunes of the Jesuits were more romantic. During the suppression they continued to live in communities, and carefully concealed the offensive title from the eyes of Protestant citizens. After 1814 they began to induce their lay followers to petition the authorities to sanction their return to life, and the long and bitter struggle over the Society began. The canton of Solothurn was then more than eighty per cent. Catholic, and in 1816 the Grand Council was urged to restore the Society. It refused, and they then made cautious efforts in Valais and Freiburg. I am aware that in all these cases the Jesuits do not appear in connection with the petition; a few influential Catholics appeal for the return, and the Jesuits are depicted as serenely aloof from the negotiations. We are accustomed to pretences of this character. In 1818 the Grand Council of Freiburg (which also was nearly ninety per cent. Catholic) decided by sixty-nine votes to forty-two to readmit the Jesuits and entrust its schools to them. At the same time they recovered their old house at Brigue, and began to spread in Catholic Valais. From the beginning of the third decade of the nineteenth century the Radicals began their attacks on the growing Jesuits. In 1823 the fathers secured their old college at Freiburg, which they had long coveted. Since their settlement in Freiburg this college had been in the hands of the Franciscan monks, who had adopted the ideas of Pestalozzi, the great Swiss educationist, and were doing admirable work. The bishop complained to the authorities of the friars' innovations, and they were replaced by the Jesuits. The Radicals of the town were malicious enough to suggest that the Jesuits had intrigued to bring about this result,—of which, of course, there is no proof,—and on the night of 9-10th March they attacked the college, and were with difficulty prevented from burning it. In the following year the Jesuits were expelled from the Netherlands (which formed
- 30. one Province with Switzerland and Saxony) and came to swell the number of their colleagues in Valais and Freiburg. In 1836, however, when the second revolutionary wave was passing over Europe, the Radicals won power in the majority of the cantons (including Lucerne, Freiburg, and Solothurn). They were not yet in a position to dislodge the Jesuits, but there was constant friction, and a serious struggle for the federal authority began. The aim of the Radicals was to capture and strengthen the federal government, and expel the Jesuits (and other religions) from the whole of Switzerland. They and the "young Swiss" were part of the international Liberal movement, which was everywhere anti-clerical. [42] In 1844 the struggle became more violent. The Jesuits of Valais refusing to admit government control of their schools, a band of armed Radicals marched upon Sion and had to be defeated by the armed inhabitants. In the same year the Jesuits entered Lucerne for the first time. A wealthy Catholic farmer named Leu threw all his energy into their cause, and the Jesuits aided by sending a preacher occasionally to show, by suave and conciliatory sermons, that the suspicion of them was wholly unfounded. In face of a storm of Protestant and Radical threats the Council decided to admit the Jesuits. There now spread through the country a struggle of passion which was soon to culminate in a deadly civil war. Leu was murdered, and Catholics and Radicals faced each other with intense hatred. Opinions may differ as to the conduct of the Jesuits in pressing their ministry, since it is clear that the purely political differences would not have stained the hills and valleys of Switzerland with blood. The war that followed was a religious war, and mainly a war over the Jesuits. In the spring of 1845 it was announced that an army of 11,000 Radicals was marching on Lucerne. The Catholic Confederation sent round the fiery cross, and gathered an army sufficiently strong to defeat and scatter the Radicals. It was over the corpses of these opponents that the Jesuits entered Lucerne and began to teach, with passion still seething on every side. A graver
- 31. struggle impended, and both sides hastily organised. The seven Catholic cantons (to whose enterprise the French Jesuits contributed 98,000 francs) formed a Sonderbund [Separate Alliance], and aimed at setting up a Catholic Republic. The Federal Diet at Berne ordered them to dissolve, and when they refused, pitted the federal army against the Catholic troops. A bloody and disastrous war ended in a victory for the federal troops in 1847, the Sonderbund was destroyed, and the Jesuits (with the other religious orders) were excluded from Switzerland by the Constitution of 1848. The Jesuits had not waited for the troops to enter Freiburg and Lucerne; they had fled to the Tyrol and Austria. In the Netherlands the story of the Jesuits during the nineteenth century has been one of great prosperity, checked only by a few early reverses. No sooner had the Pope issued the bull of restoration, and the French rule been destroyed, than the ex-Jesuits who lingered in the country as secular priests and the Fathers of the Faith (who had at last entered the Society) proceeded to organise their body. A novitiate was opened at Rumbeke and another at Destelbergen, in Belgium. The Congress of Vienna, however, placed the united Netherlands under the control of William of Nassau, and he watched the progress of the Jesuits with uneasiness. The former father of the Faith, the Count de Broglie, was now bishop of Ghent, and he and other prelates and nobles sedulously assisted the Jesuits. The controversies which were bound to arise after the union of Protestant Holland and Catholic Belgium under one crown soon raged furiously, and William, in the summer of 1816, ordered the Jesuits to close their novitiate at Destelbergen. They were forced to retire, but de Broglie encouraged them to resist the King, and lent them his palace for the maintenance of their community. De Broglie himself was afterwards banished for assailing the Constitution, and the fathers were put out of the palace at the point of the bayonet in 1818. As William threatened to expel them from the country, they removed the novitiate to Switzerland, and assumed an appearance of submission. As, however, they continued to stir the Catholics, William ordered the bishops in 1824 to forbid them to give retreats
- 32. to the clergy, and in the following year he closed two of their residences. This succinct account will suffice to introduce the Catholic revolution of 1830, in which Belgium won its independence. We are again asked to regard the Jesuits as idle spectators of the fierce Catholic agitation which ended in the rebellion; but, in view of their experience under William, it seems wiser to accept the Dutch assurance that they played a large, if secret, part in it. The revolution was just, however, and there were other grounds than religion in the dissatisfaction of the Belgians. [43] From that date Belgium has been a golden land for the Jesuits, and Protestant Holland has suffered them to prosper in peace. After 1830 they literally overran Belgium; they numbered 117 in 1834, and 454 in 1845. After that date came the great revolutionary storm of 1848, and Belgium was almost the one land in which the hunted Jesuits could find refuge. Leopold of Saxe-Coburg was too prudent a Protestant to interfere with them, and from the Belgian frontier they maintained the strength of their struggling colleagues in France. In Holland they were treated with leniency by the successor of William; and, when the storm broke upon their German colleagues in 1872, they were able to receive the refugees and maintain houses on the frontier for the invasion of Germany, as they do to-day. It is needless to show, in fine, how the restored Jesuits spread again over the foreign missions. After 1830 especially, when their number had increased, they began to regain their lost Provinces. In 1834 six fathers landed at Calcutta to restore the Indian Province, and when the Portuguese missionaries and authorities tried to expel them, they succeeded in getting the protection of the English authorities. Madaura, the richest of their old fields, was restored to them in 1837. Here again the existing missionaries protested so violently that for many years the few Jesuits led a hard and almost fruitless existence. In 1842 some of the Jesuit missionaries secured the charge of a native college in Bengal, but the prince was compelled to evict them after a few years. There was an angry feeling and great
- 33. outcry against them in India well into the middle of the century. In 1854 they received charge of the vicariate of Bombay, in 1858 of Poonah, and in 1859 of Bengal. China was re-entered, very modestly, in 1841, and the various Republics of South America admitted them whenever the Catholics alternated in power with the Liberals. They entered Argentina in 1836, but were banished again in 1843; they were permitted to settle in Guatemala in 1853, and expelled when the Liberals came to power in 1871. But it would be little more than a calendar of dates to record their appearances and disappearances in the South American States, and on the foreign missions generally. In 1845, of 5000 Jesuits, 518 were missionaries: in 1855 there were 1110 on the missions: in 1884 they counted 2575 on the missions. They no longer presented to the historian the interesting features of their early years; Jesuits no longer flaunted the silk robes of a mandarin or the mythological vesture of a Saniassi, no vast estates or commerce sent gold to their European brethren, no troops of soldiers marched at their command, no quaint rites or rebellions against bishops engaged the Roman Congregations. They had entered the age of prose.
- 34. FOOTNOTES: [41] It seems to have been on account of this slanderous attack on the Pope, as well as to give it an air of impartiality, that General Roothaan publicly denied that the Jesuits had assisted the author. The learned Abbé Guettée, in the Histoire des Jésuites, which he published soon afterwards, tells us that, not yet knowing his hostility to them, some of the Jesuits of Paris freely acknowledged to him their share in the work. In any case, the Jesuits were obviously in close co-operation with the writer, since he speaks constantly of having before his eyes unpublished documents which belonged to the Society. [42] There were, of course, more important issues at stake in the Swiss struggle. The franchise was narrow, and the government aristocratic in the cantons, and the central or federal power was weak. The Radicals mainly aimed at reforming these features, but they were hardly less inflamed at the privileges given to the Jesuits. In Valais the fathers travelled free on the public services. [43] Historians usually include among the causes the enforcement of a system of secular education only in the schools. But—as Sir Robert Stout kindly pointed out to me—the Catholic prelates in their letter to the French Minister of the Interior, dated 30th May 1806, had previously "willingly" accepted this arrangement. They agreed that it was enough to teach religion in the churches. CHAPTER XVI THE LAST PHASE If we attempt to sum up in few words the story of the Jesuits during the first few decades after their suppression, we must say that there was little change in their spirit, and that they were wholly bent on returning to their former position. In actual conduct there is a material change. The industrial and commercial system, which had formed one of the most irregular roots of their power in the earlier
- 35. centuries, has disappeared; they no longer haunt the courts of kings as they had done; they, as a rule, show less arrogance to the non- Jesuit clergy and the bishops; they are less lax in their casuistry; they shrink from regicide. Much of this change is, however, plainly attributable to their new situation. There is, for instance, hardly a single country where they enjoy an unbroken prosperity for even thirty years during the first half of the nineteenth century, so that we could hardly look for large estates or traffic; and their foreign missions are only slowly and laboriously constructed. As to regicide, the new age has a more humane way of dealing with superfluous kings. If they do not counsel kings, it is clearly not from lack of desire to do so. On the whole, let us say that the dreadful age, as they conceive it, into which they are reborn has improved their conduct in spite of themselves. We have now to see how, as the age increases in wickedness, to use their phrase, the Jesuits continue to improve: how they retain their worst features only in lands which they pronounce godly and just, and are so innocent as to cast suspicion on the dark legends about them where heresy and unbelief abound. This last phase of Jesuit activity is very important, yet too close to us for proper historical study. Enough can be said, however, to show that what may be called the intermediate view of Jesuit degeneration is disputable. There are those (i.e. all Jesuits and their admirers) who hold that the Jesuits were never open to grave censure as a body; and there are those who maintain that the Jesuit of the nineteenth or twentieth century is as bad as the Jesuit of the seventeenth, and would poison a pope or forge a cheque complacently in the interest of the Society. A third view is that their heavy and repeated chastisements have made their evil features a thing of history. During the first half of the nineteenth century, however, we have seen that they had no idea of burying their past; they were to co- operate with kings in restoring the old order, and we have not the least ground to think that, had they restored it, they would have used their power otherwise than they did in the seventeenth century. It remains to see if they become wiser in the next half-century.
- 36. We left them on the eve of the revolution of 1848. Except in Switzerland, where their obstinacy in asserting their rights had been one of the chief causes of a civil war and made their prospects worse than ever, they still dreamed of erasing the revolution from the chronicle of Europe and beginning again at 1750. Hence the fearful storm of 1848 broke on them almost unexpectedly. They had only recently been forced to retire from France, so that the outbreak in that country affected them little. But the storm passed on to Austria and Italy, even Rome, and drove the Jesuits before it. A Jesuit writer observes sadly that "the first attack of the revolutionaries everywhere was on the Jesuits." Naturally; there were no more vehement opponents in Europe of the new age which the revolutionary movement represented. They had themselves traced the revolutionary spirit to their temporary absence from the schools of Europe, and the revolutionaries [44] concluded that the reign of terror had had their support. So from Rhineland, Austria, Galicia, Venice, Turin, Rome, Naples, and Sicily—the only Provinces of the Society which seemed secure—the Jesuits were driven by armed and angry crowds, and a vast colony of bewildered refugees shuddered in Belgium. The Emperor of Austria was forced on 7th May to sign their expulsion from the whole of his empire, but it was in Italy that they suffered most. Since 1840 the authorities of the Society had received a succession of painful shocks. The Carlists had lost and the fathers had been driven from Spain: in 1845 they had been forced to dissolve the communities in France: in 1847 the Swiss Catholics had lost, and the Jesuit houses had been wrecked. They had attached themselves everywhere to losing causes. Manning was in Rome in the winter 1847-48, and his diary records the coming of the revolution to Rome, and flight of the Jesuits. Pius IX. had exhausted his Liberalism, and the Romans were uneasy and suspicious. Then, in January and February 1848, news came that the revolutionaries had triumphed in Sicily and Naples, and the Jesuits were flying north. By March the Jesuits at Rome were ready to fly at a moment's notice, as Manning found when he visited them. On 29th March they
- 37. were expelled; and in the same month the Viennese conquered their Emperor, the Venetians rebelled and drove out the Jesuits, and the Piedmontese won a Liberal Constitution from Charles Albert. Manning speculates on the causes of the intense hostility to the Jesuits, and traces it to their alliance with ultramontanism and political reaction. As the historian tells, the revolution of 1848 had in most countries only a temporary triumph, and in the course of 1849 and 1850 the Jesuits returned to their provinces. In very many places they returned to find their comfortable home a heap of ruins, but the storm had had one consoling effect. It had proved that the Jesuits were the chief enemies of Liberalism, and to the Jesuits must be entrusted the task of extinguishing such sparks as remained of the revolutionary fire. Pius IX. had been driven to Gaeta, while the Romans set up their short-lived Triumvirate and declared papal rule at an end. He returned to Rome in the spring of 1850, when French troops had cleared out his opponents, and from that moment he became the closest ally of the Jesuits. His first act was to canonise several members of the Society. He took a Jesuit confessor, and, with the aid of Cardinal Antonelli and the Society, set up the selfish and repressive system which the English ambassador described as "the opprobrium of Europe." At last, it seemed, the spectre of revolution was definitively laid, and a prospect of real restoration lay before the Society. At Rome the Jesuits had enormous power. Their influence is seen in the declaration of the Immaculate Conception in 1854 and the appalling Encyclical against modern culture and aspirations of 1864. To them in 1866 the Pope entrusted his chief organ, the Civiltà Cattolica, and they had a large part in agitating for, and ultimately passing, the declaration that the Pope is infallible in 1870. During all this period they controlled Catholic culture, if not the Papacy. Their power was at the same time restored in Sicily, Naples, and Venice, so that Italy (except Piedmont) was covered with their colleges and residences. In Austria the Emperor, embittered by his hour of humiliation, now opened the whole of his dominions to them, and they collected
- 38. fathers from all parts of the world to come and restore the prosperity of the Austrian Province. In Belgium they prospered luxuriantly; and they made quiet and stealthy progress in Holland, Bavaria, Switzerland, Saxony, and Prussia, where they were not authorised. In France Napoleon III. cancelled the decrees against them, and cherished them as one of the supports of his throne. In England they found a friend in Wiseman and made rapid progress; in the United States they were growing with the phenomenal growth of the population. The age of trouble was over. The sage old fathers at the Gesù and the Roman College saw chaos returning to order. In 1853, at the beginning of this happier turn of their fortunes, Roothaan died, and Beckx, the son of a Belgian shoemaker, was elected General. The one cloud on the horizon was Piedmont, where the earlier affection for the Jesuits had died, but it had been proved, apparently, that France and Austria would check the ambition of that State. But France was drawn to Sardinia, and in 1859 Victor Emmanuel began to extend his rule over Italy. From that time until 1870 the Society heard of nothing but disaster. In 1860 Victor Emmanuel annexed Tuscany, Emilia, and Romagna, and the Jesuits were driven from their homes into the Papal States. In the same year Garibaldi landed in Sicily, put an end to the brutal rule of the Catholic King, and ejected the 300 Jesuits from their palatial college at Palermo and other residences. In the autumn he entered Naples, and swept further hundreds of the Jesuits before him. We learn from a letter of protest which Father Beckx addressed to Victor Emmanuel, that in the two years the Society had lost 3 institutions in Lombardy, 6 in Modena, 11 in the Papal States, 19 in Naples, and 15 in Sicily. Of 308 Jesuits in their most prosperous Province of Sicily only 8 aged and ailing fathers were allowed to remain on the island. Of 5500 members of the Society no less than 1500 were homeless, and were not even allowed to find shelter in Catholic houses in their native Provinces. In 1866 the Austrians were ejected from Venice, and further scores of Jesuits were driven from their homes. In 1868, it may be added, the Jesuits were again banished from Spain, to which they had returned under Isabella II.
- 39. There was a great concentration of Jesuits in Rome and the remaining Papal States, and desperate efforts were made to secure that at least this remnant of earthly principality should remain loyal to the Pope. To the great joy of the Jesuits an Œcumenical Council gathered at the Vatican, and the design of declaring the Pope personally infallible in matters of faith or morals was eagerly pressed. In the long and heated conflict of affirming bishops and denying bishops, and bishops who thought a declaration inexpedient, the Jesuits were very active, scorning the idea that it could be imprudent to enhance the power of the Pope. Then came the Franco-German War, the withdrawal of the one Catholic force which could save Rome from Victor Emmanuel, and the clouds gathered more thickly than ever. The Jesuits had declared their opinion of the "usurper" too freely to have any illusion as to the issue. When the Piedmontese troops entered by the breach at the Porta Pia on 20th September, the Jesuits knew that they were doomed. A detachment of soldiers at once proceeded to the house attached to the Gesù and took up quarters there. Whatever the reason was, the new Italian Government proceeded very slowly in the work of expelling the Jesuits. For some weeks soldiers and fathers lived together at the Gesù—the fathers afterwards said that the soldiers chose the General's room for practising the drum and trumpet—and the various residences were confiscated "in the public interest" at wide intervals. In October the novitiate at St. Andreas, with its large estates, was taken and the novices forced to enlist. In January 1772 one of their smaller churches was handed over to the secular clergy; in January 1873 a second church and the Roman College (which was used by the Ministry of War) were annexed. At last, in June 1873, a law was published enacting that the monks and religious of all orders must quit Italy. One house was to be reserved at Rome for each order, so that they might communicate with the Vatican, but this privilege was refused to the Jesuits. They were hated by the great majority of the educated Italians, who recalled with anger their support of the bloody reigns of Ferdinand of
- 40. Naples, Ferdinand VII. of Spain, Miguel of Portugal, and Gregory XVI. and Pius IX. They had sided with reaction and lost. There was no general sympathy when, in October, Father Beckx, now a feeble old man of seventy-eight, went sorrowfully to his exile in Florence, and the remaining Italian Jesuits were pensioned and scattered. The novitiate at Sant Andreas was rented by the American Seminary (and Father Beckx was allowed to die there some years later). The Gesù was entrusted to other priests, and the sacred rooms of Ignatius and the other saints of the Society were respectfully preserved. The Roman College became a State school: I remember seeing a vast Congress of Freethinkers hold their fiery meetings in its dark chambers and airy quadrangle thirty years afterwards, at the invitation of the civic authorities of Rome. It was just one hundred years since the Roman Jesuits had been scattered by Clement XIV. But the catastrophe in Italy was not the only affliction to mark that dark centenary. They had in the previous year, when they were awaiting the sentence of Victor Emmanuel, heard that their fathers were expelled from the new German Empire. For some years they had made quiet, but considerable, progress in Prussia, Bavaria, and Saxony, as well as Austria. They had opened a number of colleges at Cologne and in the Rhine Province, always a rich field for their work, and had institutions at Posen, Münster, Metz, Mayence, Bonn, Strassburg, Essen, Aix-la-Chapelle, Marienthal, Ratisbon, and many other places. From the Rhine Province and Bavaria and Baden they sent so many recruits to the German College at Rome, who would return to work in Germany and further the influence of the Jesuits in seminaries and bishoprics and universities, that Frederick William III. was compelled to forbid any of his subjects to go to the German College or any other Jesuit institution. Frederick William IV. genially overlooked their progress, and they spread over the States which were presently to form the German Empire. But the birth of the German Empire coincided with the declaration of papal infallibility, and a strong agitation for the expulsion of the Jesuits arose. The prolonged check on Jesuit activity in Germany had
- 41. permitted the growth of a more virile and honest culture among the secular clergy, and many of the best Catholic scholars were amazed at the papal claim. Politicians and Protestants generally were concerned about this victory of ultramontanism, and attributed it largely to the intrigues of the Jesuits. Even before 1870 the Catholic statesmen of Bavaria were in conflict with the Church over its extreme pretensions. When, in 1870, two more Catholic Provinces were added to Germany, bringing its Catholic population up to fifteen millions, Bismarck watched attentively every step in the growth of ultramontanism. The dissenters at the Vatican Council had very serious ground indeed for their plea of inexpediency, as far as Germany was concerned. Even Austria threatened to break its Concordat with the Papacy when the news of the declaration of infallibility arrived. Over Protestant Germany a feeling of intense hostility spread, and the Old Catholics joined in the outcry. Petitions for the expulsion of the Jesuits began to reach the Reichstag, and the Government proceeded to act. A measure was debated in the Reichstag in June 1872, and on the 4th of July it was signed and promulgated. Six months were allowed for the settlement of their affairs, and in the course of that time the whole of their communities were dissolved. As communities they retired upon Switzerland, Austria, Holland, and Belgium, but the law permitted them to enter the Empire as individual citizens, and Bismarck knew that it availed little to expel Jesuits with a fork. Dr. Falk, a strenuous Liberal, was made Minister of Public Instruction, and he framed a series of measures (the "May Laws") for the complete control of education by the State and for determining the qualifications of teachers in such a way that no disguised Jesuit could return to his desk. The control of schools had hitherto been left generally to the bishops, on whose indulgence or zeal, as far as the Catholic schools were concerned, the Jesuits could generally rely. A stormy controversy ended in the passing of the Laws, and Germany entered upon that long and bitter struggle of the Catholics against the Government which is known as the Kulturkampf. To this day the Jesuits have been unable, in spite of the most industrious
- 42. intrigue, to secure readmission into the German Empire. They still hover about the frontiers, in Holland, Austria, and Belgium, and maintain large colleges in which hundreds of the sons of the wealthier Catholics are educated in orthodox principles. Individually, they live frequently in Berlin and control the incessant demand of the Centre Party for their rehabilitation. "Exile" has no effect on their growth and prosperity, for the 755 expelled Jesuits of 1872 now number 1186. It is not impossible that they will secure return by some such bargain as that which contributed to the ending of the Kulturkampf. Bismarck saw a "red terror" growing more rapidly and threateningly than the "black terror," and he made peace with the Catholic clergy and Rome on the understanding that they would combat Socialism in Germany. Socialism continues to grow, and it would not be surprising if the Emperor at length enlists the sons of Ignatius in his desperate struggle against it. If he does, the Society will find a luxuriant field for growth among the 22,000,000 Catholics of the Empire, until the last deadly struggle with Social Democracy sets in. For the inner spirit and character of the modern German Jesuits I must refer the reader to Count von Hoensbroech's invaluable Fourteen Years a Jesuit (2 vols., Engl. transl., 1911). The whole story from beginning to end is a sober but pitiful indictment of the Jesuits, and shows how little change there is below their accommodating expressions. We find the Jesuits hovering about the houses of the wealthy, using their influence with the women, extorting money by the most questionable means, practising and teaching mental reservation at every turn, and intriguing for political power through the Catholic laity, as they had done through three centuries. When Father Anderledy (a future General of the Society) was convicted, in the 'forties, of maintaining studies in the Cologne residence, contrary to Prussian law, he flatly denied the charge, making the mental reservation that from that moment the school should cease to exist. The Jesuit historian who records the fact says: "What presence of mind!" When Hoensbroech, intending to enter the German service, asked the learned Jesuit Franzelin whether he might take an oath to
- 43. observe the laws (which then included the May Laws), he was told that he might, with the mental reserve that he did not respect any laws denounced by the Church. Numbers of instances of deliberate lying (with mental reserve) are given, and the work exhibits the character, the training, and the educational activity of the Jesuits in an extremely unattractive light. It is an indispensable document for the study of modern Jesuit character. The German Jesuits were, as I said, expelled in 1872; the Italian Jesuits followed in 1873. At that time the Jesuits of France were enjoying the reaction of public opinion which followed the attempts of the Communists. Under Napoleon III. they had quickly recovered, and as early as 1855 there had once more been appeals for their expulsion. They returned to their schools and colleges after the disturbances of 1871, and the Conservative Government permitted them to prosper. A reaction set in in the later 'seventies, when Gambetta vigorously led the anti-clerical forces and began to denounce the Society. The Catholics had almost succeeded in overthrowing the Republic and enthroning the Duc de Chambord. When (in 1877) they went on to demand the employment of French troops for the re-establishment of the Pope in his temporal power, they lost the cause of their Church. From that year Catholicism has decreased in France, shrinking from 30,000,000 to about 5,000,000 followers in thirty years. Within two years there was an enormous growth of the anti-clerical feeling, especially against the Jesuits. They, and the great majority of the religious orders, had no legal right to existence in France. Only three or four Congregations, of a philanthropic character, were authorised by French law. Yet these useful bodies made no progress, while the unauthorised Congregations held property of the value of 400,000,000 francs. Jules Ferry now became Minister of Education, and framed a law to prevent any member of an unauthorised Society from teaching. When the Catholic Senate rejected it, the unauthorised Congregations were dissolved by decree (1880). Once more the Jesuits were banished from France, and 2904 members of the Society were added to the number of exiles. In 1880 more than
- 44. half the Jesuits—or 7400 Jesuits—were excluded from their respective countries. As France was still overwhelmingly Catholic, the successive Governments were unable to enforce the law, and the Jesuits quietly returned to their work. It is enough to say that during the next twenty years, until France had become predominantly non-Catholic and disposed to insist on their exclusion, the 2900 Jesuits actually increased their number; the property of the unauthorised Congregations rose in value from 400,000,000 to 1,000,000,000 francs; the higher education was controlled to a great extent by the Jesuits, whose pupils passed largely into the army and navy. It is hardly necessary to recall the successive blunders by which the Jesuits (and other religious) brought on themselves the sentence of expulsion in 1901. In 1886 Boulanger became Minister of War and popular idol. His Radical friends soon distrusted him, and the Monarchists and Catholics fanned the popular agitation to have him made Dictator. In this case we have positive and sufficient information of the complicity of the Jesuits. Count von Hoensbroech, then a young Jesuit, heard from the lips of Father du Lac, the most prominent of the French Jesuits, that he had collected large sums of money for the "Deliverer of France" and the overthrow of the "dirty and impious Republic." [45] We can hardly doubt that they had been equally zealous for the Duc de Chambord, and were later as zealous for the cause of the Duc d'Orleans. Boulanger fled, to escape arrest, in 1889, and the Republicans added to the reckoning against the Jesuits. In 1897-99 occurred the famous agitation for the retrial of Dreyfus, and once more the Jesuits ranged themselves on the losing side of tyranny and prejudice. By the end of the century France had become overwhelmingly non-Catholic, and was not disposed to tolerate further the intrigues and wealth of bodies which had no legal existence in the country. The Jesuits, in particular, were a menace to the Republic. The new century opened therefore with an anti-clerical campaign which is still fresh in our memories. Waldeck-Rousseau
- 45. passed his Associations' Bill in 1901, and the Jesuits now were once more expelled. Combes and Rouvier completed the work in subsequent years. There is, however, no very drastic action taken against invading religious, and the Jesuits frequent Paris as they do Berlin. The number of members of the French Provinces of the Society has risen to 3071 (many of whom are on the foreign missions), and from comfortable homes in England (where we have 226) and other countries, with their funds safely invested, they await the day of recall. But the general collapse of the Church in France makes it certain that they will never be readmitted. Apart from the Latin-American Republics, in connection with which it would be tedious to enumerate the various expulsions and recalls of the Jesuits, and Portugal the Society has made great progress in other countries. Of Portugal little need be said; the situation is similar to that in France. The Jesuits had no authorised existence in the country, and, when Portugal was at length enabled to assert its will (after the revolution of 1910), it sharply dismissed them. Here again the country is predominantly non-Catholic, if we confine our attention to voters, and the Jesuits are never likely to return. Spain has become the refuge, and almost the last hope in the Latin world, of the expatriated Jesuits. In the corrupt and worthless reign of Isabella II. they had been suffered to return to their posts and prosper. Properly speaking, they have had no legal right to exist in Spain since they were abolished by Christina in 1835. The Concordat of 1852 stipulates for the admission of the Oratorians and Vincentians and "one other" Congregation; but casuistic skill has interpreted this to mean "one for each diocese," and all have been admitted. The abominable rule of their patroness Isabella ended in revolution in 1868; the frivolous Queen was deposed, and the Jesuits shared the fate of her other strange favourites. With the accession of Alfonso XII., however, they returned to Spain, and obtained the wealth and power which they enjoy to-day. The secrecy of the Society emboldens its apologists to make the most audacious denials of these constant charges of wealth, power,
- 46. and intrigue, but it constantly happens that some confiscated document or disaffected admirer betrays them. Such an instance may be quoted in connection with the Spanish Jesuits. In 1896 a devout Catholic, a former pupil and employee of the Jesuits, Señor Ceballos y Cruzada, quarrelled with and turned against them. In the little work in which he expounds his grievances (El Imperio del Jesuitismo) he tells us some interesting facts about their wealth and activity. There is in Spain a vast Catholic Society known as the Association of Fathers of Families, which is quite as much concerned with sound politics as sound morals. Señor Ceballos shows how the Jesuits secretly use and direct it for their political aims, and for thwarting rival ecclesiastical bodies. As to their wealth, he says that they have 11 colleges worth from 1,000,000 to 12,000,000 reales each, while their chief house at Loyola has property of incalculable value. At his own college, at Deusto, there were about 300 pupils paying 1500 pesetas a year each; in none of them is education gratuitous. The schooling is very poor and antiquated, and few of their scholars later rise to any distinction. It is curious to know that these wealthy Jesuit institutions have the British flag ready to be hoisted in case of revolution (which they yearly expect). There is, however, little need for proof of the wealth and political influence of the Jesuits in Spain. In the struggle which is proceeding between the reformers, of all parties, and the supporters of the deeply corrupt political system, the Jesuits use their whole strength as educators, and intrigue far beyond their schools, in the interest of corruption; and, true to their maxim of educating and capturing the sons of the wealthier classes, they have permitted the mass of the people to remain at an appalling level of illiteracy. The great majority of the men of Spain, in the large towns, hate them intensely, and await with impatience the day when, like their Portuguese neighbours, they will expel their insidious enemies. A few years ago a drama entitled Paternidad was put upon the stage of one of the chief theatres at Barcelona, and received with the wildest enthusiasm. It was written by a Catholic priest, Segismondo Pey- Ordeix, and represented the Jesuits of modern Spain as practising
- 47. the most corrupt devices known in the history of the Society. The sternly critical works of the great Spanish writer, Perez Galdos, are just as enthusiastically received at Madrid and in all the cities. Spaniards watch with indignation the concentration of exiled Jesuits on their territory. To the exiled French communities of 1880 were added the 147 Jesuits of Cuba and the Philippines in 1898, and these are now reinforced by the Portuguese. They now number 3859. In 1901, 1906, and recently, the Liberals have attempted or threatened to deal with them; but there is too much collusion in the Cortes between the opposing parties, and the Jesuits have too strong an influence at the Palace: I am informed that the present Queen has surrendered entirely to the pressure of the Queen-mother and the Jesuits. Unless the King has the courage to lighten the labouring vessel of royalty by sacrificing the Jesuits, which would give him immense popularity, Spain will, within ten years, follow the example of Portugal. Several of the South American Republics, and Mexico, have already reached a state of permanent triumph of the Liberal elements, and expelled the Jesuits for ever. As this work proceeds with the growth of education, it is natural to presume that they will all in time exclude the Jesuits. Italy also will return to its strict law, when the Government discovers that the shrinking influence of the Papacy is no longer a valuable ally against advanced schools. At present the law is not enforced, and there are large numbers of Jesuits in the country; the Italian Province numbers more than a thousand members. At Rome they control the Gregorian University, the German and Latin-American Colleges, the Biblical Institute, and other papal establishments. Restrained in some measure by Leo XIII., they have recovered all their influence at the Vatican under the present mediæval Pontiff, and they are amongst the most ardent supporters of the reactionary policy with which he is paralysing higher culture in the Church of Rome. The higher secular clergy are little less anxious than the Socialists and Freemasons to see them suppressed. The same forces are at work against them in Belgium, where they number 1200 (including foreign missionaries), and
- 48. Austria. A coalition of Liberals and Socialists in Belgium would at any time put an end to the Catholic power, as the anti-clerical voters are in the majority, and the Jesuits would not long survive the change. Yet one of the most singular features of the whole singular story of the Jesuits is that they have increased enormously during this half- century of afflictions. The growth of the Society during the last hundred years is seen in the following table:— 1838 3,067 members. 1844 4,133 " 1853 5,209 " 1861 7,144 " 1884 11,840 members. 1906 15,661 " 1912 16,545 [46] " Of the present members, 3531 are on the foreign missions; and the re-opening of these fields, under less adventurous conditions, accounts for much of the growth of the Society. The advance of the United States and the British Colonies, with their large percentage of Irish and Italian immigrants, accounts for a good deal of the remainder. The Jesuits of the United States now number 2300; and there are 373 in Canada and 100 in Australasia. It is most probable that the future of the Jesuits lies in the Protestant countries. Probably the Jesuits will, in twenty years' time, be excluded from every "Catholic" kingdom, yet number more than 20,000. Their progress and activity in England may be more closely described in illustration of this tendency. We saw how the survivors of the old English mission joined with the Fathers of the Faith in 1814 and 1815 to re-establish the Society. They then numbered 73, and had several chapels, besides the estate and house at Stonyhurst. They advanced with the general body of the Roman Catholics, especially when the stronger current of immigration from Ireland began in the forties. The secular clergy were still very much
- 49. opposed to them, however, and Dr. Griffiths, the Vicar Apostolic of the London district, refused to allow them to set up a community in the metropolis. After years of pressure at Rome they secured the interest of Dr. (later Cardinal) Wiseman, and were admitted to settle in Farm St., among the wealthiest Catholics. When Wiseman succeeded Griffiths in 1847 (and the hierarchy was established in 1850) they were cordially patronised and made greater progress. They then numbered 554. With the accession of Manning the patronage ceased and their work was restricted. They were eager to found schools for middle-class boys; but Manning sternly refused, in defiance of the favour of Pius IX., and they were compelled to establish their schools at such places as Beaumont and Wimbledon, outside his jurisdiction. When they pressed for a school of higher studies, a kind of Catholic university, Manning hastily founded his ill- fated school at Kensington and refused their co-operation, with the natural result that the wealthier Catholics, under the influence of the Jesuits, would not support it. Bishop Vaughan of Salford was not much more indulgent to them. The secret of Manning's opposition is said by his biographer to have been his wish to raise the dignity of the secular priesthood, which Catholics are too apt to think lower than the monastic state. This was, however, not merely a mystic theory on the part of the Cardinal. He despised the comparative indolence and petty hypocrisies of the religious orders generally, and had a particular dislike of the intrigue, the secrecy, the insubordination, and the pursuit of wealthy people, of the Jesuits. [47] Manning refused sacerdotal faculties to his nephew, Father Anderdon, and forced the Jesuits to surrender a site in West London for which they had paid more than £30,000. Cardinal Vaughan, however, relaxed his coercive policy when he was transferred to Westminster. The English Province has now (1912) 729 members, and about fifty churches; though the Catholic Directory gives only 285 English Jesuit priests, and 226 French refugees, in this country. The feeling against them amongst the secular clergy and the other religious
- 50. Congregations is almost as strong as ever. Their obvious preference for the wealthier quarters of cities is sneeringly discussed in clerical circles, and it is said that they intrigue incessantly to draw the more comfortable Catholics from other parishes. The poverty of their literary and scholastic output,—mainly, a number of slight and superficial controversial works, more intent on making small points than on substantial and accurate erudition,—and their remarkable failure to produce men of distinction, are regarded as a grave reflection on their body, in view of their wealth, numbers, and leisure. It is not, however, believed that they indulge any other intrigue than an amiable zeal among the Catholic laity to add to their own comfort and prestige. [48] Returning, in conclusion, to the question at the beginning of this chapter, we find it impossible to give a general answer and embrace all the existing Jesuits in a formula. The Jesuits of Spain, with their political machinations, their sordid legacy-hunting, and their eagerness to support the Spanish Government in the judicial murder of their enemies, are a very different body from the Jesuits of England or Germany or the United States. The Jesuits of Cuba and the Philippines were, until 1898, little different from the more parasitical Jesuit missionaries of the seventeenth or eighteenth century. The modern age has affected the Jesuits much as some ancient revolution in the climate of the earth modified its living inhabitants. Where the old tropical conditions more or less linger (say, in Chile or Peru) the Jesuits are hardly changed; and we find the alteration in exact proportion to the environment. There is no change in the inner principles and ideals. "All for the Glory of the Society," as Mgr. Talbot sardonically translated their Latin motto, is still the ruling principle; the Society remains the Esau of the Roman clerical world. It still chiefly seeks the wealthy and powerful; it is the arch-enemy of progress and liberalism in Catholic theology; its scholarship is singularly undistinguished in proportion to its resources; [49] it embarks on political intrigue, even for the destruction of State-forms, whenever its interest seems to require; it is hated by a very large proportion of the Catholic clergy and laity in
- 51. every country. Let a liberal Pope again come to power and Modernism prevail, and it is not impossible that Catholicism itself will again angrily suppress the perverse and irregular construction of the Spanish soldier-diplomatist, and insist that religious ideals shall be pursued only by scrupulously clean and unselfish exertions. FOOTNOTES: [44] I use the phrase of historians, but may observe that this was, in the main, a middle-class movement to secure liberty of opinion and other elementary political rights. [45] Fourteen Years, ii. 164. [46] It must be borne in mind always that "members" does not necessarily mean priests. Rather less than half are priests: the remainder are scholastics or lay coadjutors. [47] I am speaking here on what I heard, in clerical days, from men who were intimate with Manning. Purcell's Life is misleading. The author intended to be candid, but the Jesuits and others made such threats, when it became known what disclosures the book would contain, that he was compelled to omit much. The suppression of truth has greatly injured its historical value. [48] There are in Count von Hoensbroech's book some scathing reflections on the character and culture of the English Jesuits. The Count underwent part of his Jesuit training in England. [49] Let me recall that I do not personally expect the Society to produce anything but theologians, and of these it has produced many in the nineteenth century. In controversial theology, however, the work of the Jesuits is grossly unscholarly and casuistic; truth seems to be a secondary consideration. But it is so often claimed that the Jesuits are a learned body in the more general sense, that it is necessary to invite reflection on their record. Of the fifteen thousand living Jesuits, and their predecessors for a century, who has won even secondary rank in letters, history, or philosophy? In science there are only Father Secchi, the single distinguished product of their science-schools, and Father Wasmann, whose philosophy (apart from his observations) is the laughing-stock of biology.
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