Encoder

ISTITUTO TECNICO INDUSTRIALE
“M. PANETTI”ANNO SCOLASTICO 2003-04
CLASSE VET.B
MISURA DELLA VELOCITA’ CON ENCODER OTTICO

ALUNNO: MISCEO NICOLA

Coordinatore: Prof. Panella Ettore

GENERALITA’
Si vuole progettare un dispositivo in grado di fornire il numero di giri di un’asse rotante. Ad esempio la
velocità di un motore in corrente continua.
In figura 1 è rappresentato lo schema a blocchi del sistema di misura.

ENCODER
OTTICO A
128 INPULSI

CONVERTITORE
FREQUENZATENSIONE

f = K ⋅n

Vo = K ⋅ f = K ⋅ n

Figura 1. Schema a blocchi del sistema di misura

Il circuito consente di contare i giri del motore, collegando il perno dell’Encoder Ottico al perno del
motorino di cui si vuole misurare il numero di giri.
Si riporta una breve descrizione del funzionamento.
L’Encoder genera un segnale costituito da 128 impulsi per ogni giro completo del suo asse.
La frequenza del segnale di uscita dell’Encoder vale:

f =

Ke ⋅ n
60

dove Ke è il numero di fessure interne dell’Encoder cioè:

f =

128 ⋅ n
60

Si è indicato con n il numero di giri/minuto.
Il convertitore frequenza/tensione trasforma la frequenza in una tensione con la legge lineare che risulta:

Vo = Kc ⋅ f
dove Kc è la costante del convertitore frequenza/tensione.
Si ha:

Vo = Kc ⋅

128 ⋅ n
= K ⋅n
60

dove K =

1

128 ⋅ Kc
60

è una costante.
In definitiva si ricava:

Vo = K ⋅ n
e che la tensione di uscita è direttamente proporzionale al numero di giri del motore.
Si descrivono in dettaglio i componenti del sistema di misura.
ENCODER
Sono trasduttori di posizione di tipo digitale in grado di fornire un numero espresso in un particolare codice
in funzione dello spostamento. Essi possono essere di tipo assoluto o incrementale, i quali a loro volta si
suddividono in lineare o angolare come in figura 2 e 3.

Fig.2. Struttura interna dell’Encoder lineare

Fig.3. Struttura interna dell’Encoder angolare

Gli Encoder lineari sono costituiti da un nastro solidale all’organo in movimento, suddiviso in un certo
numero di piste che, ad intervalli lineari di spazio, presentano zone umane e trasparenti corrispondenti a
configurazioni numeriche differenti.
Il sistema di lettura, generalmente di tipo ottico è costituito da tante coppie di sorgenti e rilevatori di luce
quante sono le piste ed è in grado di trasformare in numero binario le zone opache e trasparenti.
Questo trasduttore di posizione, a causa della discretizzazione costitutiva, può sembrare che abbia un valore
risolutivo inferiore rispetto ai tradizionali trasduttori di posizione di tipo analogico.
In realtà il potere risolutivo vieni aumentato aumentando le piste dell’encoder.
La risoluzione dei sistemi analogici, invece, resta limitata dal rapporto segnale-rumore degli amplificatore
elettronici utilizzati.
Un’ inconveniente degli encoder a codice binario naturale si ha quando il trasduttore, passando da una
posizione alla successiva determina la commutazione di almeno due bit.
Per ovviare a tale inconveniente si codifica il nastro o il disco con un codice binario che determina la
commutazione di un solo bit.
Uno di questi codici, come è noto, è il Gray.
Gli encoder fin qui descritti vengono definitidi tipo assoluto in quanto la posizione sotto lettura è
immediatamente codificata in un numero.
Gli encoder incrementali sono costituiti da fenditure trasparenti equidistanziate praticate sul nastro lineare o
sul disco circolare.
Il sistema di lettura fornisce un impulso ogni qualvolta si presenta una fenditura sotto il suo campo d’azione.
Un dispositivo di conteggio digitale incrementa la configurazione numerica ad ogni impulso generato.
Nel progetto si è usato, l’Encoder Incrementale Angolare ENC1J della casa giapponese BOURNS
rappresentato schematicamente in figura 4. Per ulteriori informazioni visitare il sito (www.bourns.com).

2

+V
M
A
B

N.C.

Figura 4. Encoder angolare incrementale

All’interno del perno rotante dell’Encoder è fissato un disco, segmentato con due serie di fenditure a 128
fessure trasversali sfalsate di ¼ di posizione.
In tal modo sulle uscite A e B si prelevano 128 impulsi a giro come indicato in figura 5.

A

B

Figura 5. Segnali ottenuti dal sistema di lettura

Il segnale in frequenza si può prelevare sia dall’uscita A che B e convertire in tensione.
Se le uscite A e B sono collegate agli ingressi di un flip-flop di tipo D come in figura 6 l’uscita Q segnala il
verso di rotazione orario o antiorario dell’asse rotante.

Figura 6. Circuito per discriminare il senso di rotazione dell’asse rotante

Più è elevato il numero di fessure più è precisa la lettura, perché ad ogni più piccolo movimento del perno si
preleva sull’uscita dell’Encoder un numero maggiore di impulsi.
Da un lato del disco è applicato un diodo emittente e dal lato opposto due fotodiodi riceventi: fotodiodo A e
fotodiodo B.
Alimentando l’Encoder, il diodo emittente emette verso il disco un fascio luminoso che, attraversa le
fenditure ed eccita i fotodiodi.
L’encoder dispone di cinque piedini:
+Vcc...alimentazione positiva
Massa...potenziale di riferimento
Fase A...uscita A
Fase B...uscita B
N.C. ...non connesso

3

La tensione di alimentazione, deve essere compresa fra 4.75 e 5.25 Volt. Valore nominale Vcc=5V.
L’uscita A fornisce un’onda quadra la cui frequenza è proporzionale alla velocità di rotazione.
Analogamente sull’uscita B.

CONVERTITORE FREQUENZA-TENSIONE
Il convertitore frequenza-tensione, è un circuito in grado di fornire in uscita una tensione proporzionale alla
frequenza del segnale di ingresso:

Vo = K ⋅ f
In Figura 7 si mostra lo schema a blocchi di un possibile convertitore frequenza-tensione:

Vi

COMPARATORE

MONOSTABILE

FILTRO
PASSA-BASSO

Vo

Figura 7. Schema a blocchi di un convertitore frequenza-tensione

Il comparatore ha il compito di squadrare il segnale analogico di ingresso se necessario. Il monostabile
genera un impulso di durata Tm ogni T secondi. Ovviamente per un corretto funzionamentodovrà risultare:

Tm < T
Il filtro passa-basso fornisce il valore medio Vo della tensione del monostabile i cui livelli di uscita sono 0 e
Vcc:

Vo = Vcc ⋅ Tm ⋅ f = K ⋅ f

La costante K di tale convertitore vale:

K = Vcc ⋅ Tm
Nel progetto si è usato il convertitore frequenza/tensione LM331 della National secondo lo schema suggerito
dal costruttore e riportato in figura 8.

Figura 8. Convertitore frequenza-tensione con LM331

4

Il costruttore indica che l’integrato può operare con frequenza max f = 10 KHz dando in uscita una
tensione max

Vo max = f ⋅ 2.09 ⋅

RL
⋅ Rt ⋅ C t
RS

La frequenza di 10 KHz corrisponde ad un numero di giri:

60 ⋅ f 60 ⋅ 10 ⋅ 10 3 ~
n=
=
= 4687 giri
min
128
128
Pertanto il sistema è in grado di misurare assi rotanti ad un numero di giri max 5000 giri/minuto.

Si riportano i data Sheet degli integrati utilizzati.

5

Features
■
■
■
■
■
■

Two channel quadrature output
Bushing or servo mount
Square wave signal
Index channel available
Small size
Resolution to 256 PPR

■
■
■

CMOS and TTL compatible
Long life
High operating speed

EN - Rotary Optical Encoder
Electrical Characteristics
Output ..............................................................................................2-bit gray code, Channel A leads Channel B by 90 º (electrical) with clockwise rotation
Resolution ..................................................................................................................................................................................25 to 256 cycles per revolution
Insulation Resistance (500 VDC) ......................................................................................................................................................................1,000 megohms
Electrical Travel..........................................................................................................................................................................................................Continuous
Supply Voltage............................................................................................................................................................................................5.0 VDC ±0.25 VDC*
Supply Current..................................................................................................................................................................................................26 mA maximum
Output Voltage
Low Output ....................................................................................................................................................................................................0.8 V maximum
High Output ........................................................................................................................................................................................................4 V minimum
Output Current
Low Output ..................................................................................................................................................................................................25 mA minimum
Rise/Fall Time ......................................................................................................................................................................................................200 ns (typical)
Shaft RPM (Ball Bearing)............................................................................................................................................................................3,000 rpm maximum
Power Consumption......................................................................................................................................................................................136 mW maximum
Pulse Width (Electrical Degrees, Each Channel) ..............................................................................................................................................180 º ±45 º TYP.
Pulse Width (Index Channel) ....................................................................................................................................................................................360 º ±90 º
Phase (Electrical Degrees, Channel A to Channel B)..........................................................................................................................................90 º ±45 º TYP.
Index Channel Centered on 1-1 State Combination of A and B Channels ..................................................................................................................0 º ±45 º
*Consult factory for other voltages up to 5 VDC.

Environmental Characteristics
Operating Temperature Range ..........................................................................................................................................-40 ºC to +75 ºC (-40 °F to +167 °F)
Storage Temperature Range..............................................................................................................................................-40 °C to +85 °C (-40 °F to +185 °F)
Humidity....................................................................................................................................................................MIL-STD-202, Method 103B, Condition B
Vibration ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................5 G
Shock ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................50 G
Rotational Life
A & C Bushings (300 rpm maximum)** ..............................................................................................................................................10,000,000 revolutions
W, S & T Bushings (3,000 rpm maximum)** ....................................................................................................................................200,000,000 revolutions
IP Rating ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................IP 40

Mechanical Characteristics
Mechanical Angle ............................................................................................................................................................................................360 ° Continuous
Torque (Starting and Running)
A & C Bushings (Spring Loaded for Optimum Feel) ................................................................................................................1 N-cm (1.5 oz-in.) maximum
W, S & T Bushings (Ball Bearing Shaft Support) ................................................................................................................0.07 N-cm (0.1 oz-in.) maximum
Mounting Torque ....................................................................................................................................................1.7 to 2.0 N-cm (15 to 18 lb.-in.) maximum
Shaft End Play ......................................................................................................................................................................0.30 mm (0.012 ”) T.I.R. maximum
Shaft Radial Play ..................................................................................................................................................................0.12 mm (0.005 ”) T.I.R. maximum
Weight ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................11 gms. (0.4 oz.)
Terminals ........................................................................................................................................................................Axial or radial pc pins or ribbon cable
Soldering Condition ....................................................................Recommended hand soldering using Sn95/Ag5 no clean solder, 0.025 ” wire diameter.
Maximum temperature 399 °C (750 °F) for 3 seconds. No wash process to be used with no clean flux.
Part can be wave soldered at 260 °C (500 °F) for 5 seconds, no wash process with no clean flux.
Marking....................................................................................................................................Manufacturer’s trademark, name, part number, and date code.
Hardware ..................................................................One lockwasher and one mounting nut supplied with each encoder, except on servo mount versions.
**For resolutions ≤ 128 quadrature cycles per shaft revolution.

Specifications are subject to change without notice.

General Information
ROTARY OPTICAL
The Bourns® EN model is a self-contained rotary optical encoder. It
produces a 2-bit quadrature signal which is suitable for digital systems
where both magnitude and direction of adjustment must be provided.
The EN encoder is ideal for use as a digital panel control or as a position
sensing device in applications where long life, reliability, high resolution
and precise linearity are critical.
The EN series encoder converts rotary input into electrical signals
which can be used by microprocessors without A/D conversion.

Bourns encoder output signals are square wave digital pulses which do
not require debounce circuitry. Both features make it possible to
significantly reduce the memory overhead, wiring and wiring
interconnects required by other types of control devices.
EN optical encoders offer a useful rotational life of from 10 million to
200 million shaft revolutions, making them ideal for extended service
applications. The Bourns encoder is also compact and well suited for
situations where the available space is limited.

Quadrature Output Table
STANDARD RESOLUTIONS AVAILABLE

OUTPUT TABLE
OUTPUT VOLTAGE
Channel A
Channel B
Index
Channel
(Optional)

4.0 V (Min)
0.8 V (Max)
4.0 V (Min)
0.8 V (Max)
4.0 V (Min)
0.8 V (Max)

1
0
1
0
1
0
1 cycle
360 ° ± 90 °


Clockwise rotation

(Full quadrature output cycles
per shaft revolution)
25*
125
50*
128
64
200
100
256
For Non-Standard Resolutions—
Consult Factory
* Channel B leads Channel A

Dimensional Drawings

How To Order
Optional
Radial Leads

2.54
TYP.
(.100)

.635
SQ.
(.025)

DIMENSIONS:

9.525
(.375)
8.636
(.34 )

MM
(IN.)

18.5
(.73)

6.35
(.250)

BOURNS EN SERIES OPTICAL ENCODER

15.88
(.625)

E N C 1 J - B 2 8 - L 0 0 1 2 8
2.36
(.093)
21.21
(.835)

1/4-32 UNEF
3.167 + .000/ – .0076
DIA.
(.1247 + .000/ – .0003)

9.53
(.375)

1.37
(.054)

Bushing Style C

7.14 + .000/ – .0508
DIA.
(.281 + .000/ – .002)

10.32 + .000/ – .0508
DIA.
(.4062 + .000/ – .002)
9.53
(.375)

6.342 + .000/ – .0076
DIA.
(.2497 + .000/ – .0003)
3/8-32 UNEF

9.53
(.375)

9.53
(.375)

1.57
3/8-32 UNEF
(.062)
6.342 + .000/ – .0076
DIA.
(.2497 + .000/ – .0003)

1/4-32 UNEF
1.57
(.062)
3.167 + .000/ – .0076
DIA.
(.1247 + .000/ – .003)

Bushing Style S
(Ball Bearing)

Bushing Style A

GROUND

1.57
(.062)
21.8
(.86)

Vcc

.254 ± .076
(.010 .003)

.787 ± .254
(.031 ± .010)

SHAFT LENGTH*
Code Description
1/2 " Long
16
5/8 " Long
20
7/8 " Long
28

SWITCHING
CONFIGURATION
Code Description
Channel A
Leads
Channel B
1
By 90 °
(Clockwise
Rotation)**
Code 1
Switching
2
With Index
Channel

Anti-rotation Lug
View

Bushing Style T
(Ball Bearing)

TERMINATION DIAGRAM
INDEX
OR CHANNEL A
N.C.

R.

ANTI-ROTATION
LUG POSITION
Code Description
None
D
9:00 Position
J
Rear MountP
ing Bracket

RESOLUTION
Cycles Per
Code Revolution
25
00025
50
00050
64
00064
100
00100
125
00125
128
00128
200
00200
256
00256

1.57
(.062)
1.57
(.062)

3.167 + .000/ – .0076
DIA.
(.1247 + .000/ – .003)

CHANNEL B

Optional
Radial Leads

-

A

+

B
19.05 ± .0127
DIA.
(.7500 ± .0005)
22.2 + .0127 / – .1270
DIA.
(.875 + .0005 / – .0050)

Servo Mount Style W (Ball Bearing)

Consult factory for options not shown, including:
• Wire lead or cable options
• Connectors
• Non-standard resolutions
• Special shaft/bushing sizes and features
• Special performance characteristics
• PCB mounting bracket

TERMINAL***
CONFIGURATION
Code Description
L
Axial, MultiPurpose Pin
Radial, MultiR
Purpose Pin
Rear Ribbon
M
Cable with
Connector
Side Ribbon
N
Cable with
Connector
Rear Ribbon
W
Cable - No
Connector
Side Ribbon
Y
Cable - No
Connector

SHAFT STYLE
Code
B
D
C

Description
1/4 " Dia., Plain End
1/8 " Dia., Plain End
1/4 " Dia., Single
Flatted

Use With
Bushings (Code)
A, S
C, T, W
A, S

BUSHING CONFIGURATION
Code Description
A
3/8 "D X 3/8 "L Threaded
C
S
(Ball Bearing)
T
(Ball Bearing)
Servo Mount 7/8 "D
W
(Ball Bearing)
* Shaft length measured from mounting surface.
** 25 and 50 ppr is reversed (Channel B leads Channel A)
*** Standard ribbon cable is 10 " long
Consult factory for other lengths.

REV. 04/03

LM231A/LM231/LM331A/LM331
Precision Voltage-to-Frequency Converters
General Description
The LM231/LM331 family of voltage-to-frequency converters
are ideally suited for use in simple low-cost circuits for
analog-to-digital conversion, precision frequency-to-voltage
conversion, long-term integration, linear frequency modulation or demodulation, and many other functions. The output
when used as a voltage-to-frequency converter is a pulse
train at a frequency precisely proportional to the applied input voltage. Thus, it provides all the inherent advantages of
the voltage-to-frequency conversion techniques, and is easy
to apply in all standard voltage-to-frequency converter applications. Further, the LM231A/LM331A attain a new high
level of accuracy versus temperature which could only be attained with expensive voltage-to-frequency modules. Additionally the LM231/331 are ideally suited for use in digital
systems at low power supply voltages and can provide
low-cost
analog-to-digital
conversion
in
microprocessor-controlled systems. And, the frequency from
a battery powered voltage-to-frequency converter can be
easily channeled through a simple photoisolator to provide
isolation against high common mode levels.
The LM231/LM331 utilize a new temperature-compensated
band-gap reference circuit, to provide excellent accuracy

over the full operating temperature range, at power supplies
as low as 4.0V. The precision timer circuit has low bias currents without degrading the quick response necessary for
100 kHz voltage-to-frequency conversion. And the output
are capable of driving 3 TTL loads, or a high voltage output
up to 40V, yet is short-circuit-proof against VCC.

Features
n Guaranteed linearity 0.01% max
n Improved performance in existing voltage-to-frequency
conversion applications
n Split or single supply operation
n Operates on single 5V supply
n Pulse output compatible with all logic forms
n Excellent temperature stability, ± 50 ppm/˚C max
n Low power dissipation, 15 mW typical at 5V
n Wide dynamic range, 100 dB min at 10 kHz full scale
frequency
n Wide range of full scale frequency, 1 Hz to 100 kHz
n Low cost

Typical Applications

DS005680-1

*Use stable components with low temperature coefficients. See Typical Applications section.
**0.1µF or 1µF, See “Principles of Operation.”

FIGURE 1. Simple Stand-Alone Voltage-to-Frequency Converter
with ± 0.03% Typical Linearity (f = 10 Hz to 11 kHz)

Teflon ® is a registered trademark of DuPont

© 1999 National Semiconductor Corporation

DS005680

www.national.com

LM231A/LM231/LM331A/LM331 Precision Voltage-to-Frequency Converters

June 1999

Absolute Maximum Ratings (Note 1)
If Military/Aerospace specified devices are required, please contact the National Semiconductor Sales Office/
Distributors for availability and specifications.
LM231A/LM231
40V
Continuous
Continuous
−0.2V to +VS
TMIN
TMAX
−25˚C to +85˚C

1.25W
100˚C/W

260˚C

260˚C

500V

Operating Ambient Temperature Range
Power Dissipation (PD at 25˚C)
and Thermal Resistance (θjA)
(N Package) PD
θjA
Lead Temperature (Soldering, 10 sec.)
Dual-In-Line Package (Plastic)
ESD Susceptibility (Note 4)
N Package

LM331A/LM331
40V
Continuous
Continuous
−0.2V to +VS
TMIN
TMAX
0˚C to +70˚C

1.25W
100˚C/W

Supply Voltage
Output Short Circuit to Ground
Output Short Circuit to VCC
Input Voltage

500V

TA = 25˚C unless otherwise specified (Note 2)
Parameter

Typ

Max

Units

4.5V ≤ VS ≤ 20V

± 0.003

± 0.01

% Full-

TMIN ≤ TA ≤ TMAX

VFC Non-Linearity (Note 3)

Conditions

Min

± 0.006

± 0.02

% Full-

VS = 15V, f = 10 Hz to 11 kHz

± 0.024

± 0.14

%Full-

Scale
Scale
VFC Non-Linearity
In Circuit of Figure 1
Conversion Accuracy Scale Factor (Gain)

Scale
VIN = −10V, RS = 14 kΩ

LM231, LM231A

0.95

1.00

1.05

kHz/V

LM331, LM331A

0.90

1.00

1.10

kHz/V

± 30
± 20

± 150
± 50

ppm/˚C

Temperature Stability of Gain

TMIN ≤ TA ≤ TMAX, 4.5V ≤ VS ≤ 20V

LM231/LM331
LM231A/LM331A

ppm/˚C

Change of Gain with VS

4.5V ≤ VS ≤ 10V

0.01

0.1

%/V

0.006

0.06

%/V

Rated Full-Scale Frequency

10V ≤ VS ≤ 40V
VIN = −10V

Gain Stability vs Time


10.0

kHz

± 0.02

% Full-

(1000 Hrs)
Overrange (Beyond Full-Scale) Frequency

Scale
VIN = −11V

%

10

INPUT COMPARATOR

±3
±4
±3

± 10
± 14
± 10

mV

Bias Current

−80

−300

nA

Offset Current

±8

± 100

nA

VCC−2.0

V

0.667

0.70

x VS

0V ≤ VPIN 5 ≤ 9.9V
5 = 10V

± 10

± 100

nA

200

1000

nA

= 10V

200

500

nA

Offset Voltage
LM231/LM331


LM231A/LM331A


Common-Mode Range


−0.2

mV
mV

TIMER
Timer Threshold Voltage, Pin 5
Input Bias Current, Pin 5
All Devices

0.63
VS = 15V

LM231/LM331

VPIN

LM231A/LM331A

VPIN

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5

2


(Continued)

TA = 25˚C unless otherwise specified (Note 2)
Parameter

Conditions

Min

Typ

Max

Units

0.22

0.5

V

TIMER
VSAT PIN 5 (Reset)

I = 5 mA

CURRENT SOURCE (Pin 1)
Output Current

RS = 14 kΩ, VPIN 1 = 0

LM231, LM231A

126

135

144

µA

LM331, LM331A

116

136

156

µA

0.2

1.0

µA

0.02

10.0

nA

2.0

50.0

Change with Voltage

0V ≤ VPIN

1

≤ 10V

Current Source OFF Leakage
LM231, LM231A, LM331, LM331A
All Devices

TA = TMAX

Operating Range of Current (Typical)

(10 to 500)

nA
µA

REFERENCE VOLTAGE (Pin 2)
LM231, LM231A

1.76

1.89

2.02

LM331, LM331A

1.70

1.89

2.08

± 60
± 0.1

Stability vs Temperature
Stability vs Time, 1000 Hours

VDC
VDC
ppm/˚C
%

LOGIC OUTPUT (Pin 3)
VSAT

I = 5 mA
I = 3.2 mA (2 TTL Loads), TMIN≤TA≤TMAX

0.15

V

0.40

V

± 0.05

OFF Leakage

0.50

0.10

1.0

µA

SUPPLY CURRENT
LM331, LM331A

VS = 5V
VS = 40V

2.0

3.0

4.0

mA

2.5

4.0

6.0

mA

VS = 5V
VS = 40V

LM231, LM231A

1.5

3.0

6.0

mA

2.0

4.0

8.0

mA

Note 1: Absolute Maximum Ratings indicate limits beyond which damage to the device may occur. DC and AC electrical specifications do not apply when operating
the device beyond its specified operating conditions.
Note 2: All specifications apply in the circuit of Figure 4, with 4.0V≤VS≤40V, unless otherwise noted.
Note 3: Nonlinearity is defined as the deviation of fOUT from VIN x (10 kHz/−10 VDC) when the circuit has been trimmed for zero error at 10 Hz and at 10 kHz, over
the frequency range 1 Hz to 11 kHz. For the timing capacitor, CT, use NPO ceramic, Teflon ® , or polystyrene.
Note 4: Human body model, 100 pF discharged through a 1.5 kΩ resistor.

3

www.national.com

Functional Block Diagram

DS005680-2

Pin numbers apply to 8-pin packages only.

FIGURE 2.

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4

Typical Performance Characteristics
(All electrical characteristics apply for the circuit of Figure 4, unless otherwise noted.)
Nonlinearity Error
as Precision V-to-F
Converter (Figure 4)

Nonlinearity Error vs Power
Supply Voltage

Nonlinearity Error

DS005680-26
DS005680-27
DS005680-25

Frequency vs Temperature

VREF vs Temperature

Output Frequency vs
VSUPPLY

DS005680-29

DS005680-28

DS005680-30

100 kHz Nonlinearity Error
(Figure 5)

Nonlinearity Error
(Figure 1)

DS005680-31

Input Current (Pins 6,7) vs
Temperature

DS005680-32

5

DS005680-33

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Typical Performance Characteristics
Power Drain vs VSUPPLY

(Continued)

Output Saturation Voltage vs
IOUT (Pin 3)

Nonlinearity Error, Precision
F-to-V Converter (Figure 7)

DS005680-34
DS005680-35

DS005680-36

PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION OF A SIMPLIFIED
VOLTAGE-TO-FREQUENCY CONVERTER
The LM231/331 are monolithic circuits designed for accuracy and versatile operation when applied as
voltage-to-frequency
(V-to-F)
converters
or
as
frequency-to-voltage (F-to-V) converters. A simplified block
diagram of the LM231/331 is shown in Figure 3 and consists
of a switched current source, input comparator, and 1-shot
timer.
The operation of these blocks is best understood by going
through the operating cycle of the basic V-to-F converter,
Figure 3, which consists of the simplified block diagram of
the LM231/331 and the various resistors and capacitors connected to it.
The voltage comparator compares a positive input voltage,
V1, at pin 7 to the voltage, Vx, at pin 6. If V1 is greater, the
comparator will trigger the 1-shot timer. The output of the
timer will turn ON both the frequency output transistor and
the switched current source for a period t = 1.1 RtCt. During
this period, the current i will flow out of the switched current
source and provide a fixed amount of charge, Q = i x t, into
the capacitor, CL. This will normally charge Vx up to a higher
level than V1. At the end of the timing period, the current i will
turn OFF, and the timer will reset itself.
Now there is no current flowing from pin 1, and the capacitor
CL will be gradually discharged by RL until Vx falls to the level
of V1. Then the comparator will trigger the timer and start another cycle.
The current flowing into CL is exactly IAVE = i x (1.1xRtCt) x
f, and the current flowing out of CL is exactly Vx/RL ≅ VIN/RL.
If VIN is doubled, the frequency will double to maintain this
balance. Even a simple V-to-F converter can provide a frequency precisely proportional to its input voltage over a wide
range of frequencies.

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DS005680-4

FIGURE 3. Simplified Block Diagram of Stand-Alone
Voltage-to-Frequency Converter and
External Components
DETAIL OF OPERATION, FUNCTIONAL BLOCK
DIAGRAM (Figure 2)
The block diagram shows a band gap reference which provides a stable 1.9 VDC output. This 1.9 VDC is well regulated
over a VS range of 3.9V to 40V. It also has a flat, low temperature coefficient, and typically changes less than 1⁄2%
over a 100˚C temperature change.
The current pump circuit forces the voltage at pin 2 to be at
1.9V, and causes a current i = 1.90V/RS to flow. For Rs = 14k,
i = 135 µA. The precision current reflector provides a current
equal to i to the current switch. The current switch switches
the current to pin 1 or to ground depending on the state of
the RS flip-flop.
The timing function consists of an RS flip-flop, and a timer
comparator connected to the external RtCt network. When
the input comparator detects a voltage at pin 7 higher than
pin 6, it sets the RS flip-flop which turns ON the current
switch and the output driver transistor. When the voltage at
pin 5 rises to 2⁄3 VCC, the timer comparator causes the RS
flip-flop to reset. The reset transistor is then turned ON and
the current switch is turned OFF.
However, if the input comparator still detects pin 7 higher
than pin 6 when pin 5 crosses 2⁄3 VCC, the flip-flop will not be
reset, and the current at pin 1 will continue to flow, in its attempt to make the voltage at pin 6 higher than pin 7. This
6


1 µF capacitor can be used. When the RC time constants are
matched at pin 6 and pin 7, a voltage step at VIN will cause
a step change in fOUT. If CIN is much less than CL, a step at
VIN may cause fOUT to stop momentarily.
A 47Ω resistor, in series with the 1 µF CL, is added to give
hysteresis effect which helps the input comparator provide
the excellent linearity (0.03% typical).

(Continued)

condition will usually apply under start-up conditions or in the
case of an overload voltage at signal input. It should be
noted that during this sort of overload, the output frequency
will be 0; as soon as the signal is restored to the working
range, the output frequency will be resumed.
The output driver transistor acts to saturate pin 3 with an ON
resistance of about 50Ω. In case of overvoltage, the output
current is actively limited to less than 50 mA.
The voltage at pin 2 is regulated at 1.90 VDC for all values of
i between 10 µA to 500 µA. It can be used as a voltage reference for other components, but care must be taken to ensure that current is not taken from it which could reduce the
accuracy of the converter.

DETAIL OF OPERATION OF PRECISION V-TO-F
CONVERTER (Figure 4)
In this circuit, integration is performed by using a conventional operational amplifier and feedback capacitor, CF.
When the integrator’s output crosses the nominal threshold
level at pin 6 of the LM231/331, the timing cycle is initiated.
The average current fed into the op amp’s summing point
(pin 2) is i x (1.1 RtCt) x f which is perfectly balanced with
−VIN/RIN. In this circuit, the voltage offset of the LM231/331
input comparator does not affect the offset or accuracy of the
V-to-F converter as it does in the stand-alone V-to-F converter; nor does the LM231/331 bias current or offset current. Instead, the offset voltage and offset current of the operational amplifier are the only limits on how small the signal
can be accurately converted. Since op amps with voltage offset well below 1 mV and offset currents well below 2 nA are
available at low cost, this circuit is recommended for best accuracy for small signals. This circuit also responds immediately to any change of input signal (which a stand-alone circuit does not) so that the output frequency will be an
accurate representation of VIN, as quickly as 2 output pulses’
spacing can be measured.
In the precision mode, excellent linearity is obtained because the current source (pin 1) is always at ground potential
and that voltage does not vary with VIN or fOUT. (In the
stand-alone V-to-F converter, a major cause of non-linearity
is the output impedance at pin 1 which causes i to change as
a function of VIN).
The circuit of Figure 5 operates in the same way as Figure 4,
but with the necessary changes for high speed operation.

PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION OF BASIC VOLTAGETO-FREQUENCY CONVERTER (Figure 1)
The simple stand-alone V-to-F converter shown in Figure 1
includes all the basic circuitry of Figure 3 plus a few components for improved performance.
A resistor, RIN = 100 kΩ ± 10%, has been added in the path to
pin 7, so that the bias current at pin 7 (−80 nA typical) will
cancel the effect of the bias current at pin 6 and help provide
minimum frequency offset.
The resistance RS at pin 2 is made up of a 12 kΩ fixed resistor plus a 5 kΩ (cermet, preferably) gain adjust rheostat. The
function of this adjustment is to trim out the gain tolerance of
the LM231/331, and the tolerance of Rt, RL and Ct.
For best results, all the components should be stable
low-temperature-coefficient components, such as metal-film
resistors. The capacitor should have low dielectric absorption; depending on the temperature characteristics desired,
NPO ceramic, polystyrene, Teflon or polypropylene are best
suited.
A capacitor CIN is added from pin 7 to ground to act as a filter
for VIN. A value of 0.01 µF to 0.1 µF will be adequate in most
cases; however, in cases where better filtering is required, a

7

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(Continued)

DS005680-5

*Use stable components with low temperature coefficients. See Typical Applications section.
**This resistor can be 5 kΩ or 10 kΩ for VS = 8V to 22V, but must be 10 kΩ for VS = 4.5V to 8V.
***Use low offset voltage and low offset current op amps for A1: recommended type LF411A

FIGURE 4. Standard Test Circuit and Applications Circuit, Precision Voltage-to-Frequency Converter

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8


In the precision circuit, an operational amplifier provides a
buffered output and also acts as a 2-pole filter. The ripple will
be less than 5 mV peak for all frequencies above 1 kHz, and
the response time will be much quicker than in Figure 6.
However, for input frequencies below 200 Hz, this circuit will
have worse ripple than Figure 6. The engineering of the filter
time-constants to get adequate response and small enough
ripple simply requires a study of the compromises to be
made. Inherently, V-to-F converter response can be fast, but
F-to-V response can not.

(Continued)

DETAILS OF OPERATION, FREQUENCY-TOVOLTAGE CONVERTERS (Figure 6 and Figure 7)
In these applications, a pulse input at fIN is differentiated by
a C-R network and the negative-going edge at pin 6 causes
the input comparator to trigger the timer circuit. Just as with
a V-to-F converter, the average current flowing out of pin 1 is
IAVERAGE = i x (1.1 RtCt) x f.
In the simple circuit of Figure 6, this current is filtered in the
network RL = 100 kΩ and 1 µF. The ripple will be less than 10
mV peak, but the response will be slow, with a 0.1 second
time constant, and settling of 0.7 second to 0.1% accuracy.

DS005680-6

*Use stable components with low temperature coefficients.

See Typical Applications section.
**This resistor can be 5 kΩ or 10 kΩ for VS = 8V to 22V, but must be 10 kΩ for VS = 4.5V to 8V.
***Use low offset voltage and low offset current op amps for A1: recommended types LF411A or LF356.

FIGURE 5. Precision Voltage-to-Frequency Converter,
100 kHz Full-Scale, ± 0.03% Non-Linearity

9

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(Continued)

DS005680-7
DS005680-8


FIGURE 6. Simple Frequency-to-Voltage Converter,
10 kHz Full-Scale, ± 0.06% Non-Linearity


FIGURE 7. Precision Frequency-to-Voltage Converter,
10 kHz Full-Scale with 2-Pole Filter, ± 0.01%
Non-Linearity Maximum
Light Intensity to Frequency Converter

DS005680-9

*L14F-1, L14G-1 or L14H-1, photo transistor (General Electric Co.) or similar

Temperature to Frequency Converter

DS005680-10

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(Continued)
Basic Analog-to-Digital Converter Using
Voltage-to-Frequency Converter

Long-Term Digital Integrator Using VFC

DS005680-11
DS005680-12

Analog-to-Digital Converter with Microprocessor

DS005680-13

Remote Voltage-to-Frequency Converter with 2-Wire Transmitter and Receiver

DS005680-14

11

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(Continued)

Voltage-to-Frequency Converter with Square-Wave Output Using ÷ 2 Flip-Flop

DS005680-15

Voltage-to-Frequency Converter with Isolators

DS005680-16


DS005680-17

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(Continued)

DS005680-18


DS005680-19

Connection Diagram
Dual-In-Line Package

DS005680-21

Order Number LM231AN, LM231N, LM331AN,
or LM331N
See NS Package Number N08E

13

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DS005680-22

Schematic Diagram

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14

inches (millimeters) unless otherwise noted

Dual-In-Line Package (N)
Order Number LM231AN, LM231N, LM331AN, or LM331N
NS Package N08E

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NATIONAL’S PRODUCTS ARE NOT AUTHORIZED FOR USE AS CRITICAL COMPONENTS IN LIFE SUPPORT
DEVICES OR SYSTEMS WITHOUT THE EXPRESS WRITTEN APPROVAL OF THE PRESIDENT AND GENERAL
COUNSEL OF NATIONAL SEMICONDUCTOR CORPORATION. As used herein:
1. Life support devices or systems are devices or
systems which, (a) are intended for surgical implant
into the body, or (b) support or sustain life, and
whose failure to perform when properly used in
accordance with instructions for use provided in the
labeling, can be reasonably expected to result in a
significant injury to the user.
National Semiconductor
Corporation
Americas
Tel: 1-800-272-9959
Fax: 1-800-737-7018
Email: support@nsc.com
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Fax: +49 (0) 1 80-530 85 86
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2. A critical component is any component of a life
support device or system whose failure to perform
can be reasonably expected to cause the failure of
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Fax: 65-2504466
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Tel: 81-3-5639-7560
Fax: 81-3-5639-7507

National does not assume any responsibility for use of any circuitry described, no circuit patent licenses are implied and National reserves the right at any time without notice to change said circuitry and specifications.

LM231A/LM231/LM331A/LM331 Precision Voltage-to-Frequency Converters

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