Enhancing Thinking through Problem based Learning Approaches 1st Edition Oon-Seng Tan
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- 5. Enhancing Thinking through Problem based Learning Approaches 1st Edition Oon-Seng Tan Digital Instant Download Author(s): Oon-Seng Tan ISBN(s): 9789812437181, 9812437185 Edition: 1st File Details: PDF, 1.57 MB Year: 2003 Language: english
- 8. Other Educational books from Thomson Learning Problem-based Learning Innovation: Using problems to power learning in the 21st century by Oon-Seng Tan Educational Psychology: A Practitioner-Researcher Approach (An Asian Edition) by TAN Oon Seng, Richard D. PARSONS, Stephanie Lewis HINSON and Deborah SARDO-BROWN www.thomsonlearningasia.com
- 9. International Perspectives Edited by OON-SENG TAN i-xviii_ET.cFM 12/10/03, 9:05 AM 3 Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States
- 10. Enhancing Thinking Through Problem-Based Learning Approaches: International Perspectives Edited by Oon-Seng Tan Copyright © 2004 by (a division of ). ™ is a trademark used herein under license. For more information, please contact: (a division of ) 5 Shenton Way #01-01 UIC Building Singapore 068808 Or visit our Internet site at http://www.com ALL RIGHTS RESERVED No part of this work covered by the copyright hereon may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means – graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, web distribution or information storage and retrieval systems – without the written permission of the publisher. For permission to use material from this product, contact us by Tel: (65) 6410 1200 Fax: (65) 6410 1208 Email: offices in Asia: Bangkok, Beijing, Hong Kong, Kuala Lumpur, Manila, Mumbai, Seoul, Singapore, Taipei, Tokyo. Printed in Singapore 1 2 3 4 5 SLP 06 05 04 03 ISBN 981-243-718-5 i-xviii_ET.cFM 12/10/03, 9:05 AM 4
- 11. CONTENTS Foreword by Professor George Watson vii Preface ix List of Contributors xiii 1 Cognition, Metacognition, and Problem-based Learning 1 Oon-Seng Tan 2 Psychological Tools in Problem-based Learning 17 Cindy E. Hmelo-Silver, Ellina Chernobilsky, and Maria Carolina DaCosta 3 Critical Thinking, Metacognition, and 39 Problem-based Learning Peggy A. Weissinger 4 Exploring the Cognitive Processes of Problem-based 63 Learning and Their Relationship to Talent Development William Y. Wu and Victor Forrester 5 Reflective Practice and Problem-based Learning 79 Course Portfolio Mary Sue Baldwin and Valerie McCombs 6 Teachers as Coaches of Cognitive Processes in 101 Problem-based Learning Boon-Tiong Ho
- 12. 7 Problem-based Learning in Medical Education: 117 Curriculum Reform and Alignment of Expected Outcomes Matthew C. E. Gwee 8 Collaboration, Dialogue, and Critical Openness through 133 Problem-based Learning Processes Moira G. C. Lee and Oon-Seng Tan 9 Facilitating Collaborative Inquiry:A Case Illustration 145 Ruth O. Beltran and Shane John Merritt 10 Toward a Model for Web-enhanced 167 Problem-based Learning Barbara Grabowski, Younghoon Kim, and Tiffany Koszalka 11 Integrating Problem-based Learning and 187 Technology in Education George Watson 12 Looking Ahead: The Best Way Forward for Problem-based 203 Learning Approaches Oon-Seng Tan vi Contents
- 13. FOREWORD For an educational innovation to have sustainable impact, it must be both grounded in theory and prolifically practiced. This appears to be the case for problem-based learning (PBL), which has gained significant momentum over the past decade in its use across different levels of education and disciplines. While much has been written and shared about the rationale for PBL and the practical aspects of its implementation, a need remains for literature and research to inform educators and PBL practitioners further about the psychological basis of PBL and strategies for enhancement of this active and interactive mode of learning. Enhancing Thinking through Problem-based LearningApproaches: International Perspectives is a timely contribution as many institutions worldwide have embarked on using PBL for educational reform and curricular innovation. I first met the editor, Dr. Oon-SengTan, when we invited him to deliver a keynote address for the conference PBL2002: A Pathway to Better Learning hosted by the University of Delaware. Oon-Seng has been instrumental in many major PBL developments in Singapore and the Asia- Pacific region. When he was Director of the Temasek Centre for Problem- Based Learning, he won national recognition for his PBL initiatives. He also chaired the Second Asia-Pacific Conference in PBL in 2000, which was hosted in Singapore.At the university, he encouraged staff development in PBL and helped revamp the educational psychology curriculum with the use of PBL.At the recentAsia-Pacific Conference on Education 2003, Oon- Seng was program chair and made it a point to feature PBL as a major theme, in which I had the privilege to give a keynote address. I was deeply impressed by the interest in PBL expressed by many participants in the region, many of them already using PBL in a wide variety of settings. In this book, Oon-Seng cleverly captures the art and science of PBL from the perspectives of pedagogy, psychology, and technology. His experience, enthusiasm, and expertise in psychology aptly position him as editor of this publication. The contributions come from an international pool of highly experienced and qualified PBL practitioners who are themselves champions and pioneers of PBL projects in their own institutions.
- 14. The international perspectives provide an excellent affirmation of key ideas and principles of PBL across a spectrum of contexts. Many of the contributors are familiar names in PBL networks internationally. Readers should be able to benefit tremendously from the rich and practical ideas presented. I congratulate Dr. Oon-Seng Tan and the international team of contributors for their ideas, insights, and contributions in this volume and highly recommend it to educators worldwide in their quest to enhance thinking through PBL innovations. George Watson Associate Dean, College of Arts and Science Unidel Professor of Physics and Astronomy University of Delaware viii Foreword
- 15. PREFACE Knowledge in this new millennium is increasingly characterized by the creative integration of information and learning from diverse disciplines. Biotechnology, the life sciences, telecommunications, material science, nanotechnology, and supercomputers are examples of multidisciplinary pursuits and learning. More than two millennia ago, the Greek thinker Aristotle believed that knowledge begins with experience and that the “intuitive leap” from uncertainty to knowledge is made possible by the mind. The word knowledge, which is epistemê in Greek, is translated as scientia in Latin. While information is growing at an ever-increasing speed, useful knowledge is fragmenting just as fast. To cope, we need to learn to integrate learning from different disciplines and develop strategies for the deep learning of things new and important to humanity. We need a new science of dealing with knowledge and information, and a new art of learning. Problem-based learning (PBL) approaches are a step in that direction. They involve confronting ill-structured situations—situations where we are uncertain about information and solutions—and mastering the art of intuitive leap in the process of resolving the situations.That is why in PBL processes the mind of the learner—in other words, enhancing thinking—is our focus from the perspectives of pedagogy, psychology, and technology. The collection in this book attempts to provide international perspectives on how PBL practices can enhance thinking. The discussions are structured along three themes.The first is the psychology of cognition, metacognition, and self-regulated learning. The second is the idea of making thinking and mind visible through dialogue and inquiry. The use of dialogue in collaborative learning is an important aspect of developing higher-order thinking. The third theme is the use of technology, which is not only a tool but an important catalyst to enhance problem-based thinking. The possibilities and impact of technology are important considerations for any educational innovation. Chapter 1 provides an overview of developments in the psychology of cognition and learning and explains why PBL can be a powerful vehicle for ix
- 16. realizing the kinds of thinking competencies needed to address the challenges of the world today. In Chapter 2, Cindy Hmelo-Silver and her colleagues from Rutgers University reveal how the cognitive outcomes of PBL, such as constructing a solid knowledge base and becoming better at reasoning and self-directed learning, are underpinned by the development of psychological tools in the learning process. Peggy Weissinger of Indiana University–Purdue University elucidates in Chapter 3, from perspectives of both theory and practice, how critical thinking and inquiry are embedded in PBL.WilliamWu andVictor Forrester from Hong Kong Baptist University share their exploration of PBL incorporating the multiple intelligences model and focusing on PBL for talent development, in Chapter 4. Good pedagogy begins with teachers themselves practicing what they advocate. Mary Sue Baldwin andValerie McCombs have done superb work at their Center for Problem-Based Learning at Samford University in encouraging the use of PBL peer-reviewed course portfolios. In Chapter 5, Mary and Valerie demonstrate how reflective practice is enhanced through teaching portfolios. In Chapter 6, Boon-Tiong Ho from the National Institute of Education, Singapore, provides teachers with models of cognitive coaching for bringing about effective cognitive developments in PBL classrooms. PBL is used most prolifically in medical education. With his rich experience of using PBL in the Faculty of Medicine at the National University of Singapore, Matthew Gwee provides in Chapter 7 valuable insights on curriculum reform through the congruence of mission, development, and practice, and the alignment and strategic connection of key aspects of pedagogy. In Chapter 8, Moira Lee and Oon-Seng Tan examine the paradigms and philosophical bases for collaborative learning and dialogue to provide a better understanding of critical openness. Ruth Beltran and Shane Merritt illustrate in Chapter 9 the practice of collaborative inquiry through a case introduced at the University of Sydney. In Chapter 10, Barbara Grabowski and her collaborators provide examples, through two major projects sponsored by the National Aeronautics Space Administration, of how PBL can enhance learning and thinking through the use of web-based resources and tools. George Watson reveals in Chapter 11 the potential for integrating PBL and technology in education and demonstrates the possibilities through excellent work done at the University of Delaware. The book concludes by summarizing and reflecting on key ideas on PBL, looking ahead and pointing to possibilities of improving PBL practices in the light of developments in pedagogy, psychology, and technology. Some x Preface
- 17. promises and implications for educational practices and further research are discussed. It is my hope that this book will act as a catalyst for further discussions pertaining to the synergy of pedagogy, psychology, and technology in PBL practices. Oon-Seng Tan PhD Head of Psychological Studies, National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University President, Educational Research Association of Singapore Preface xi
- 18. CONTRIBUTORS Oon-Seng Tan, PhD, is Associate Professor and Head of Psychological Studies at the National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. He is also Director of the Singapore Centre for Teaching Thinking and the current elected President of the Educational Research Association, Singapore. He was Director of the Temasek Centre for Problem-Based Learning when he won the Enterprise Challenge InnovatorAward from the Prime Minister’s Office for co-pioneering a project on educational innovation. Dr. Tan is a frequent keynote speaker at international conferences on problem-based learning (PBL) and publishes extensively on cognition and learning. He is the author of Problem-based Learning Innovation: Using Problems to Power Learning in the 21st Century, as well as the main co-author of Educational Psychology: A Practitioner– Researcher Approach (An Asian Edition). Mary Sue Baldwin, MSN, EdS, is Director of the Teaching, Learning and Scholarship Center (formerly Center for Problem-Based Learning) at Samford University. She is also Co-Director of the Problem-Based Learning: Peer Review grant sponsored by Samford and the Pew Charitable Trusts. Drawing upon her experiences in nursing and her involvement as one of the PBL pioneers at Samford, she has co-authored articles, portfolios, and a monograph on the use of PBL in nursing education as well as made numerous presentations on the use and documentation of PBL. Ruth O. Beltran, MA, OTRP, AccOT, studied occupational therapy and sociology at the University of the Philippines. She is teaching in the undergraduate and graduate programs in occupational therapy at the School of Occupation and Leisure Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Sydney. She has practiced as an occupational therapist in mental health in the Philippines andAustralia and taught at the University of the Philippines before joining Sydney University. At Sydney, Ruth has conducted educational projects in the Philippines, Thailand, and Singapore. Her publications and research interests are in the areas of refugee and migrant
- 19. xiv Contributors mental health, occupational therapy and mental health, and occupational therapy theory. Ellina Chernobilsky holds a Master’s degree in Teaching from the University of Memphis,Tennessee. She is pursuing a doctoral degree at the Department of Educational Psychology, Rutgers University. A language teacher for a number of years, Ellina’s area of interest is language development and language learning. She is also interested in innovative teaching strategies and methods and how they can be applied in language teaching. Maria Carolina DaCosta is a PhD student in Educational Psychology at Rutgers University. Her research interests include how people reason when dealing with complex problems and the role of critical thinking in complex decision making. She has taught educational psychology at Rutgers. Maria has a joint MBA degree from Fundacao Getulio Vargas in Brazil and the University of Texas at Austin and was director of business development for Latin America at Intellifact International (a business research and information portal based in Austin, Texas). Victor Forrester, EdD, isAssistant Professor at the Department of Education Studies, Hong Kong Baptist University. He has published extensively on cognition and learning and is a reviewer for several international journals. Dr. Forrester has been a speaker at numerous international conferences on PBL. His research interests include gender studies, change management, and curriculum development. Barbara Grabowski, PhD, is Associate Professor of Education in the Instructional Systems Program at the Pennsylvania State University and Principal Investigator of two major research grants from the National Aeronautics and SpaceAdministration (NASA). Her prior experience with a distance delivery program and as a designer of multimedia materials drives her research on learning with technology. She has written extensively, including some 40 technical reports on technology use, and has made numerous presentations and addresses worldwide. She has been recognized by the International University Continuing Education Association for the programs she has developed, and she received an outstanding book award for Individual Differences: Learning and Instruction (with Jonassen).
- 20. Matthew C. E. Gwee is Professor of Pharmacology in the Faculty of Medicine, National University of Singapore. He is also Interim Director of the Medical Education Unit and Chairman of the Problem-Based Learning Committee in the faculty, as well as Associate Director of the Centre for Development of Teaching and Learning of the university. Professor Gwee also serves as a member of the University Committee on Educational Policy. Cindy E. Hmelo-Silver, PhD, is Assistant Professor of Educational Psychology at Rutgers University. She received her PhD in Cognitive Studies from Vanderbilt University and served postdoctoral fellowships at the Georgia Institute of Technology and the University of Pittsburgh’s Learning Research and Development Center. Her research focuses on complex learning, scaffolding collaborative knowledge construction, and complex systems. She was awarded the Best Paper by a New Investigator from the American Educational Research Association’s Division I for her research on PBL. She edited a special issue of the Journal of the Learning Sciences on learning through problem solving and co-edited Problem-based Learning: A Research Perspective on Learning Interactions. Boon-Tiong Ho, MEd, is a lecturer at the Science andTechnology Education Academic Group, National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. His introduction to PBL began with the training he received from the Illinois Mathematics and ScienceAcademy in 1995. Since then, he has conducted numerous PBL workshops and studies. His other research interests include teacher education, science education, curriculum development, teaching of thinking, school effectiveness and improvement, and organizational management. He is completing his doctoral study in the field of science teacher education with a focus on pedagogical content knowledge. Younghoon Kim has participated as a research assistant in the KaAMS (Kids as Airborne Mission Scientists) research project funded by a NASA grant. His research interests include problem- and inquiry-based learning; technology tools to promote learners’critical, reflective, and metacognitive thinking; and distributed cognition in technology-enhanced learning environments. He is a PhD candidate in Instructional Systems at the Pennsylvania State University studying the cultivation of students’reflective thinking in an online learning context. Contributors xv
- 21. xvi Contributors TiffanyA.Koszalka, PhD, isAssociate Professor in the Instructional Design, Development and Evaluation Program at Syracuse University in Syracuse, New York. She has worked in the fields of instructional and educational technologies for over 20 years and has managed large-scale projects integrating leading-edge technology into case-based and PBL environments. Most recently, she has collaborated on research projects funded by NASA and the National Science Foundation that focus on the use of Internet technologies to enhance multiple teaching and learning methods, including PBL. She has written on learning environment design factors that influence reflective thinking in PBL environments and the design of PBL lesson plans. Moira G.C.Lee, PhD, is manager of the Staff and Educational Development Division, Human Resource and Staff Development Department atTemasek Polytechnic in Singapore. Her abiding interest is in adult learning and her doctoral research at the University of Nottingham focused on collaborative learning. She has published in both these areas. Dr. Lee has conducted doctoral seminars on models of adult learning in the Asian setting. Her areas of educational specialization include professional development workshops on qualitative educational research, professional staff development, teacher mentoring, and adult learning. Valerie McCombs, MEd, is an instructional design specialist in the Instructional Technology Department at the University of Alabama at Birmingham. She was the Electronic Portfolio Coordinator and Research Associate for the Center for Problem-Based Learning at Samford University when the portfolios were written. During her tenure at Samford, she was responsible for designing and managing the center’s web site, conducting research, and assisting in the publication of the newsletter PBL Insight. Her latest publication is Assessing and Researching Problem-based Learning. Shane Merritt, MA in Psychology, is from the Indigenous Kamilaroi people of Northern New South Wales. He lectures and develops subjects in mental health at the University of Sydney. Before joining the university in 1997, Shane had worked as a graduate drugs and alcohol counselor, in mental health, and with charity organizations in London. During that period, he worked with AIDS patients, single parents, and people with obsessive compulsive disorders. Shane is also a psychologist registered with the New South Wales Psychologists Registration Board and is a full member of the Australian Psychological Society.
- 22. GeorgeWatson, PhD, isAssociate Dean in the College ofArts and Science and Unidel Professor of Physics and Astronomy at the University of Delaware. He joined the faculty in 1987 after a postdoctoral position at AT&T Bell Laboratories and receiving a PhD in physics from Delaware. He was the principal investigator on a grant from the National Science Foundation program on institution-wide reform of undergraduate education, which led to the creation of the Institute for Transforming Undergraduate Education at Delaware, a faculty development enterprise for PBL and instructional technology. He is the principal investigator on projects to develop PBL curricula for physics and to reform science and mathematics education in Peru. Peggy A. Weissinger, EdD, is Director of Instructional Design and Development in the Office for Professional Development at Indiana University–Purdue University, Indianapolis, and an adjunct faculty in the School of Education. In her on-campus research, she has looked at critical thinking foundation skills of graduate students enrolled in a PBL curriculum. She is also a co-facilitator of a faculty learning community focusing on PBL. She was state president for the NationalAssociation for Developmental Education and is a national core committee member of the Professional and Organizational Development Network in Higher Education. WilliamY.Wu, PhD, a counseling and educational psychologist by training from the University of California Los Angeles, is with the Department of Education Studies, Hong Kong Baptist University, teaching educational psychology. He is one of three directors of the Thinking Qualities Initiative Project, Centre for Educational Development, at the same university. He has been experimenting with the direct teaching of higher-order thinking skills, PBL, and the infusion of thinking skills into the school curriculum in Hong Kong. Contributors xvii
- 23. Cognition, Metacognition, and Problem-based Learning 1 Cognition, Metacognition, and Problem-based Learning Oon-Seng Tan Cognition and Pedagogy Once upon a time, good pedagogy was about making content knowledge “visible” to students. Teaching involved providing clear explanations to students in disseminating knowledge and solving problems. In the industrial age, this sufficed for the classroom. Toward the last decade of the 20th century, good pedagogy was about making teachers’ thinking visible. In other words, effective teaching was characterized by modeling the process of learning so that students could observe and learn process skills, problem- solving skills, and thinking skills while acquiring content knowledge. In the 21st century, the knowledge-based economy—fueled by information explosion and accessibility, rapid proliferation of technology, globalization, and demands for new competencies—calls for a different paradigm in pedagogy. Educators have to unlearn the old ways and confront new ways of looking at knowledge and at participation in the learning process. Pedagogy in the 21st century has to go beyond making content visible and making teachers’thinking visible. Good pedagogy today is about making students’ thinking visible. The challenge of education is to design CHAPTER 1
- 24. 2 Oon-Seng Tan learning environments and processes where students’ways of thinking and knowing are manifested in active, collaborative, self-regulated, and self- directed learning. The role of the teacher is to enable students to recognize the state, repertoire, and depth of various dimensions of their thinking and to sharpen their abilities to deal with real-world problems. The “visibility” of students’cognition is a prerequisite for effective mediation and facilitation. The progressive challenges of pedagogy can be summed up as follows: ● Making content knowledge visible to learners ● Making teachers’ thinking visible to learners ● Making learners’thinking visible to themselves, their peers, and the teacher Developments in Psychology Behavioristic psychology, as the science of learning, provided the basis for effective teaching and learning in the first half of the last century. The behavioristic establishment led by Skinner continued its influence and contributions through the 1960s and 1970s (Skinner, 1953, 1987, 1989a, b). Making content knowledge visible to the learner was probably underpinned by behavioral science where specific behavioral objectives followed by the management and reinforcement of learning led to the attainment of the desired knowledge and skills. In the 1960s, recognition of Piaget’s work gained momentum (although Piaget began his work in the 1920s). Piaget addressed the internal world of the individual in relation to intelligence and questions pertaining to the structure of the mind (Piaget, 1956, 1959; Piaget & Inhelder, 1969). His work was based on three interrelated conceptions: (1) the relation between action and thought, (2) the construction of the cognitive structure, and (3) the role of self-regulation. According to Piaget, logical thinking and reasoning about complex situations represents the highest form of cognitive development. Sternberg (1990) noted that Piaget dealt primarily with the relationship of intelligence to the internal world of the individual and that Piaget believed intelligence essentially matures from the inside and directs itself outward. In the 1970s, cognitive psychology gained new ground as interest in “mentalism” grew (Bourne, Dominowski, & Loftus, 1979). Vygotsky (1978), in contrast to Piaget, believed that intelligence begins in the social environment and directs itself inward and that all psychological processes
- 25. Cognition, Metacognition, and Problem-based Learning 3 are in genesis essentially social processes, initially shared among people. Vygotsky (1978, 1962) posited that higher mental processes are functions of mediated activity. He contributed significantly to the understanding of intelligence in the theory of internalization, the theory of the convergence of speech and practical activity, and the zone of proximal development (Vygotsky, 1978). In the classroom, an expert teacher may model many approaches of a problem-solving process for the students.The students will need to internalize these processes as their own problem-solving activities if they are to develop effective self-regulation and metacognitive abilities. Within the context of the gradual internalization of cognitive activities through interaction, Vygotsky (1978) defined the zone of proximal development as “the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by individual problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers” (p. 86). In his view, logical memory, voluntary attention, categorical perception, and self-regulation of behavior represent the highest forms of psychological functioning. The cognitive revolution rooted in major works such as those of Piaget and Vygotsky provided much impetus for the psychology of thinking. Although the general goal of thoughtfulness as a hallmark of liberal education has often been articulated, the 1980s saw emphasis on the “teaching of thinking” as a relatively new concept (Resnick, 1987; Costa & Lowery, 1989). Staff development in teaching thinking was stressed, and making teachers’thinking visible was in many ways the next wave of good pedagogy. Feuerstein contributed to our further understanding of cognition and mediation. Feuerstein began his work in the 1950s, but his contributions gained recognition only in the 1990s. He had an interesting way of thinking beyond the traditions of his time. Instead of being concerned about what students failed to learn, he turned his focus to what they could learn. When assessment was static and summative, he made it dynamic and truly formative (i.e., developmental). When others were modifying teaching materials for children with learning disabilities, he chose to invest his energies in modifying these learners directly. When behaviorists were looking at stimuli and output behaviors, Feuerstein chose to focus on not only the organism but also the inner structure of cognition. While intervention programs were often concerned with content, he was more concerned with cognitive processes pertaining to learning to learn and thinking about thinking. While psychoanalysts were concerned with
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