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The document summarizes key aspects of the nervous system. It describes the central nervous system (CNS) as comprising the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system (PNS) as nerves outside the CNS. The PNS has sensory and motor divisions, with the motor division further divided into somatic and autonomic systems. Neurons are the basic functional units and come in sensory, motor, and interneuron types. Neurons communicate via electrical signals called action potentials that propagate along axons and between neurons at synapses using neurotransmitters. The reflex arc provides an involuntary response pathway. The CNS develops from the neural tube and contains regions like the cerebral hemispheres, brainstem, and cerebellum

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Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Seventh Edition Elaine N. Marieb Chapter 7 The Nervous System
Functions of the Nervous System Slide 7.1a Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings 1. Sensory input – gathering information To monitor changes occurring inside and outside the body (changes = stimuli) 2. Integration – to process and interpret sensory input and decide if action is needed. 3. Motor output A response to integrated stimuli The response activates muscles or glands
Structural Classification of the Nervous System Slide 7.2 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Central nervous system (CNS) Brain Spinal cord  Peripheral nervous system (PNS) Nerve outside the brain and spinal cord
Functional Classification of the Peripheral Nervous System Slide 7.3a Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Sensory (afferent) division Nerve fibers that carry information to the central nervous system Figure 7.1
Functional Classification of the Peripheral Nervous System Slide 7.3b Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Motor (efferent) division Nerve fibers that carry impulses away from the central nervous system Figure 7.1
Functional Classification of the Peripheral Nervous System Slide 7.3c Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Motor (efferent) division Two subdivisions  Somatic nervous system = voluntary  Autonomic nervous system = involuntary Figure 7.1
Organization of the Nervous System Slide 7.4 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 7.2
Nervous Tissue: Support Cells (Neuroglia or Glia) Slide 7.5 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Astrocytes  Abundant, star-shaped cells  Brace neurons  Form barrier between capillaries and neurons  Control the chemical environment of the brain (CNS) Figure 7.3a
Nervous Tissue: Support Cells Slide 7.6 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Microglia (CNS)  Spider-like phagocytes  Dispose of debris  Ependymal cells (CNS)  Line cavities of the brain and spinal cord  Circulate cerebrospinal fluid Figure 7.3b, c
Nervous Tissue: Support Cells Slide 7.7a Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Oligodendrocytes (CNS) Produce myelin sheath around nerve fibers in the central nervous system Figure 7.3d
Neuroglia vs. Neurons • Neuroglia divide. • Neurons do not. • Most brain tumors are “gliomas.” • Most brain tumors involve the neuroglia cells, not the neurons. • Consider the role of cell division in cancer!
Support Cells of the PNS Slide 7.7b Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Satellite cells Protect neuron cell bodies  Schwann cells Form myelin sheath in the peripheral nervous system Figure 7.3e
Nervous Tissue: Neurons Slide 7.8 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Neurons = nerve cells Cells specialized to transmit messages Major regions of neurons Cell body – nucleus and metabolic center of the cell Processes – fibers that extend from the cell body (dendrites and axons)
Neuron Anatomy Slide 7.9b Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Cell body Nucleus Large nucleolus Figure 7.4a
Neuron Anatomy Slide 7.10 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Extensions outside the cell body  Dendrites – conduct impulses toward the cell body  Axons – conduct impulses away from the cell body (only 1!) Figure 7.4a
Axons and Nerve Impulses Slide 7.11 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Axons end in axonal terminals  Axonal terminals contain vesicles with neurotransmitters  Axonal terminals are separated from the next neuron by a gap Synaptic cleft – gap between adjacent neurons Synapse – junction between nerves
Essential Marieb.ppt
Nerve Fiber Coverings Slide 7.12 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Schwann cells – produce myelin sheaths in jelly-roll like fashion  Nodes of Ranvier – gaps in myelin sheath along the axon Figure 7.5
Application • In Multiple Scleroses the myelin sheath is destroyed. • The myelin sheath hardens to a tissue called the scleroses. • This is considered an autoimmune disease. • Why does MS appear to affect the muscles?
Neuron Cell Body Location Slide 7.13 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Most are found in the central nervous system Gray matter – cell bodies and unmylenated fibers Nuclei – clusters of cell bodies within the white matter of the central nervous system  Ganglia – collections of cell bodies outside the central nervous system
Functional Classification of Neurons Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Sensory (afferent) neurons Carry impulses from the sensory receptors Cutaneous sense organs Proprioceptors – detect stretch or tension  Motor (efferent) neurons Carry impulses from the central nervous system
Functional Classification of Neurons Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Interneurons (association neurons) Found in neural pathways in the central nervous system Connect sensory and motor neurons
Neuron Classification Slide 7.15 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 7.6
Structural Classification of Neurons Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Multipolar neurons – many extensions from the cell body Figure 7.8a
Structural Classification of Neurons Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Bipolar neurons – one axon and one dendrite Figure 7.8b
Structural Classification of Neurons Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Unipolar neurons – have a short single process leaving the cell body Figure 7.8c
How Neurons Function (Physiology) Slide 7.17 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Irritability – ability to respond to stimuli  Conductivity – ability to transmit an impulse  The plasma membrane at rest is polarized Fewer positive ions are inside the cell than outside the cell
Starting a Nerve Impulse Slide 7.18 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Depolarization – a stimulus depolarizes the neuron’s membrane  A deploarized membrane allows sodium (Na+) to flow inside the membrane  The exchange of ions initiates an action potential in the neuron Figure 7.9a–c
The Action Potential Slide 7.19 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  If the action potential (nerve impulse) starts, it is propagated over the entire axon  Potassium ions rush out of the neuron after sodium ions rush in, which repolarizes the membrane  The sodium-potassium pump restores the original configuration This action requires ATP
Nerve Impulse Propagation Slide 7.20 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  The impulse continues to move toward the cell body  Impulses travel faster when fibers have a myelin sheath Figure 7.9c–e
Continuation of the Nerve Impulse between Neurons Slide 7.21 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Impulses are able to cross the synapse to another nerve Neurotransmitter is released from a nerve’s axon terminal The dendrite of the next neuron has receptors that are stimulated by the neurotransmitter An action potential is started in the dendrite
How Neurons Communicate at Synapses Slide 7.22 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 7.10
The Reflex Arc Slide 7.23 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Reflex – rapid, predictable, and involuntary responses to stimuli  Reflex arc – direct route from a sensory neuron, to an interneuron, to an effector Figure 7.11a
Simple Reflex Arc Slide 7.24 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 7.11b, c
Types of Reflexes and Regulation Slide 7.25 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Autonomic reflexes Smooth muscle regulation Heart and blood pressure regulation Regulation of glands Digestive system regulation  Somatic reflexes Activation of skeletal muscles
Central Nervous System (CNS) Slide 7.26 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  CNS develops from the embryonic neural tube The neural tube becomes the brain and spinal cord The opening of the neural tube becomes the ventricles Four chambers within the brain Filled with cerebrospinal fluid
Regions of the Brain Slide 7.27 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Cerebral hemispheres  Diencephalon  Brain stem  Cerebellum Figure 7.12
Cerebral Hemispheres (Cerebrum) Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Paired (left and right) superior parts of the brain  Include more than half of the brain mass Figure 7.13a
Cerebral Hemispheres (Cerebrum) Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  The surface is made of ridges (gyri) and grooves (sulci) Figure 7.13a
Lobes of the Cerebrum Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Fissures (deep grooves) divide the cerebrum into lobes  Surface lobes of the cerebrum Frontal lobe Parietal lobe Occipital lobe Temporal lobe
Lobes of the Cerebrum Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 7.15a
Specialized Areas of the Cerebrum Slide 7.30 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Somatic sensory area – receives impulses from the body’s sensory receptors  Primary motor area – sends impulses to skeletal muscles  Broca’s area – involved in our ability to speak
Essential Marieb.ppt
Sensory and Motor Areas of the Cerebral Cortex Slide 7.31 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 7.14
Specialized Area of the Cerebrum Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Cerebral areas involved in special senses Gustatory area (taste) Visual area Auditory area Olfactory area
Specialized Area of the Cerebrum Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Interpretation areas of the cerebrum Speech/language region Language comprehension region General interpretation area
Specialized Area of the Cerebrum Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 7.13c
Layers of the Cerebrum Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Gray matter Outer layer Composed mostly of neuron cell bodies Figure 7.13a
Layers of the Cerebrum Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  White matter Fiber tracts inside the gray matter Example: corpus callosum connects hemispheres Figure 7.13a
Layers of the Cerebrum Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Basal nuclei – internal islands of gray matter  Regulates voluntary motor activities by modifying info sent to the motor cortex  Problems = ie unable to control muscles, spastic, jerky  Involved in Huntington’s and Parkinson’s Disease Figure 7.13a
Diencephalon Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Sits on top of the brain stem  Enclosed by the cerebral heispheres  Made of three parts Thalamus Hypothalamus Epithalamus
Diencephalon Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 7.15
Thalamus Slide 7.35 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Surrounds the third ventricle  The relay station for sensory impulses  Transfers impulses to the correct part of the cortex for localization and interpretation
Hypothalamus Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Under the thalamus  Important autonomic nervous system center Helps regulate body temperature Controls water balance Regulates metabolism
Hypothalamus Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  An important part of the limbic system (emotions)  The pituitary gland is attached to the hypothalamus
Epithalamus Slide 7.37 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Forms the roof of the third ventricle  Houses the pineal body (an endocrine gland)  Includes the choroid plexus – forms cerebrospinal fluid
Brain Stem Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Attaches to the spinal cord  Parts of the brain stem Midbrain Pons Medulla oblongata
Brain Stem Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 7.15a
Midbrain Slide 7.39 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Mostly composed of tracts of nerve fibers Reflex centers for vision and hearing Cerebral aquaduct – 3rd-4th ventricles
Pons Slide 7.40 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  The bulging center part of the brain stem  Mostly composed of fiber tracts  Includes nuclei involved in the control of breathing
Medulla Oblongata Slide 7.41 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  The lowest part of the brain stem  Merges into the spinal cord  Includes important fiber tracts  Contains important control centers Heart rate control Blood pressure regulation Breathing Swallowing Vomiting
Cerebellum Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Two hemispheres with convoluted surfaces  Provides involuntary coordination of body movements
Cerebellum Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 7.15a
Protection of the Central Nervous System Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Scalp and skin  Skull and vertebral column  Meninges Figure 7.16a
Protection of the Central Nervous System Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Cerebrospinal fluid  Blood brain barrier Figure 7.16a
Meninges Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Dura mater Double-layered external covering Periosteum – attached to surface of the skull Meningeal layer – outer covering of the brain Folds inward in several areas
Meninges Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Arachnoid layer Middle layer Web-like  Pia mater Internal layer Clings to the surface of the brain
Cerebrospinal Fluid Slide 7.46 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Similar to blood plasma composition  Formed by the choroid plexus  Forms a watery cushion to protect the brain  Circulated in arachnoid space, ventricles, and central canal of the spinal cord
Ventricles and Location of the Cerebrospinal Fluid Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 7.17a
Ventricles and Location of the Cerebrospinal Fluid Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 7.17b
Blood Brain Barrier Slide 7.48 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Includes the least permeable capillaries of the body  Excludes many potentially harmful substances  Useless against some substances Fats and fat soluble molecules Respiratory gases Alcohol Nicotine Anesthesia
Traumatic Brain Injuries Slide 7.49 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Concussion Slight brain injury No permanent brain damage  Contusion Nervous tissue destruction occurs Nervous tissue does not regenerate  Cerebral edema Swelling from the inflammatory response May compress and kill brain tissue
Cerebrovascular Accident (CVA) Slide 7.50 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Commonly called a stroke  The result of a ruptured blood vessel supplying a region of the brain  Brain tissue supplied with oxygen from that blood source dies  Loss of some functions or death may result
Spinal Cord Slide 7.52 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Extends from the medulla oblongata to the region of T12  Below T12 is the cauda equina (a collection of spinal nerves)  Enlargements occur in the cervical and lumbar regions Figure 7.18
Alzheimer’s Disease Slide 7.51 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Progressive degenerative brain disease  Mostly seen in the elderly, but may begin in middle age  Structural changes in the brain include abnormal protein deposits and twisted fibers within neurons  Victims experience memory loss, irritability, confusion and ultimately, hallucinations and death
Spinal Cord Anatomy Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Exterior white mater – conduction tracts Figure 7.19
Spinal Cord Anatomy Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Internal gray matter - mostly cell bodies Dorsal (posterior) horns Anterior (ventral) horns Figure 7.19
Spinal Cord Anatomy Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Central canal filled with cerebrospinal fluid Figure 7.19
Spinal Cord Anatomy Slide 7.54 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Meninges cover the spinal cord  Nerves leave at the level of each vertebrae Dorsal root  Associated with the dorsal root ganglia – collections of cell bodies outside the central nervous system Ventral root
Peripheral Nervous System Slide 7.55 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Nerves and ganglia outside the central nervous system  Nerve = bundle of neuron fibers  Neuron fibers are bundled by connective tissue
Structure of a Nerve Slide 7.56 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Endoneurium surrounds each fiber  Groups of fibers are bound into fascicles by perineurium  Fascicles are bound together by epineurium Figure 7.20
Classification of Nerves Slide 7.57 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Mixed nerves – both sensory and motor fibers  Afferent (sensory) nerves – carry impulses toward the CNS  Efferent (motor) nerves – carry impulses away from the CNS
Spinal Nerves Slide 7.63 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  There is a pair of spinal nerves at the level of each vertebrae for a total of 31 pairs
Spinal Nerves Slide 7.64 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 7.22a
Autonomic Nervous System Slide 7.67 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  The involuntary branch of the nervous system  Consists of only motor nerves  Divided into two divisions Sympathetic division Parasympathetic division
Comparison of Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems Slide 7.69 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 7.24
Anatomy of the Autonomic Nervous System Slide 7.73 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 7.25
Autonomic Functioning Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Sympathetic – “fight-or-flight” Response to unusual stimulus Takes over to increase activities Remember as the “E” division = exercise, excitement, emergency, and embarrassment
Autonomic Functioning Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Parasympathetic – housekeeping activites Conserves energy Maintains daily necessary body functions Remember as the “D” division - digestion, defecation, and diuresis
Development Aspects of the Nervous System Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  The nervous system is formed during the first month of embryonic development  Any maternal infection can have extremely harmful effects  The hypothalamus is one of the last areas of the brain to develop
Development Aspects of the Nervous System Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  No more neurons are formed after birth, but growth and maturation continues for several years (new evidence!)  The brain reaches maximum weight as a young adult  However, we can always grow dendrites!

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Essential Marieb.ppt

  • 1. Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Seventh Edition Elaine N. Marieb Chapter 7 The Nervous System
  • 2. Functions of the Nervous System Slide 7.1a Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings 1. Sensory input – gathering information To monitor changes occurring inside and outside the body (changes = stimuli) 2. Integration – to process and interpret sensory input and decide if action is needed. 3. Motor output A response to integrated stimuli The response activates muscles or glands
  • 3. Structural Classification of the Nervous System Slide 7.2 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Central nervous system (CNS) Brain Spinal cord  Peripheral nervous system (PNS) Nerve outside the brain and spinal cord
  • 4. Functional Classification of the Peripheral Nervous System Slide 7.3a Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Sensory (afferent) division Nerve fibers that carry information to the central nervous system Figure 7.1
  • 5. Functional Classification of the Peripheral Nervous System Slide 7.3b Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Motor (efferent) division Nerve fibers that carry impulses away from the central nervous system Figure 7.1
  • 6. Functional Classification of the Peripheral Nervous System Slide 7.3c Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Motor (efferent) division Two subdivisions  Somatic nervous system = voluntary  Autonomic nervous system = involuntary Figure 7.1
  • 7. Organization of the Nervous System Slide 7.4 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 7.2
  • 8. Nervous Tissue: Support Cells (Neuroglia or Glia) Slide 7.5 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Astrocytes  Abundant, star-shaped cells  Brace neurons  Form barrier between capillaries and neurons  Control the chemical environment of the brain (CNS) Figure 7.3a
  • 9. Nervous Tissue: Support Cells Slide 7.6 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Microglia (CNS)  Spider-like phagocytes  Dispose of debris  Ependymal cells (CNS)  Line cavities of the brain and spinal cord  Circulate cerebrospinal fluid Figure 7.3b, c
  • 10. Nervous Tissue: Support Cells Slide 7.7a Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Oligodendrocytes (CNS) Produce myelin sheath around nerve fibers in the central nervous system Figure 7.3d
  • 11. Neuroglia vs. Neurons • Neuroglia divide. • Neurons do not. • Most brain tumors are “gliomas.” • Most brain tumors involve the neuroglia cells, not the neurons. • Consider the role of cell division in cancer!
  • 12. Support Cells of the PNS Slide 7.7b Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Satellite cells Protect neuron cell bodies  Schwann cells Form myelin sheath in the peripheral nervous system Figure 7.3e
  • 13. Nervous Tissue: Neurons Slide 7.8 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Neurons = nerve cells Cells specialized to transmit messages Major regions of neurons Cell body – nucleus and metabolic center of the cell Processes – fibers that extend from the cell body (dendrites and axons)
  • 14. Neuron Anatomy Slide 7.9b Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Cell body Nucleus Large nucleolus Figure 7.4a
  • 15. Neuron Anatomy Slide 7.10 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Extensions outside the cell body  Dendrites – conduct impulses toward the cell body  Axons – conduct impulses away from the cell body (only 1!) Figure 7.4a
  • 16. Axons and Nerve Impulses Slide 7.11 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Axons end in axonal terminals  Axonal terminals contain vesicles with neurotransmitters  Axonal terminals are separated from the next neuron by a gap Synaptic cleft – gap between adjacent neurons Synapse – junction between nerves
  • 18. Nerve Fiber Coverings Slide 7.12 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Schwann cells – produce myelin sheaths in jelly-roll like fashion  Nodes of Ranvier – gaps in myelin sheath along the axon Figure 7.5
  • 19. Application • In Multiple Scleroses the myelin sheath is destroyed. • The myelin sheath hardens to a tissue called the scleroses. • This is considered an autoimmune disease. • Why does MS appear to affect the muscles?
  • 20. Neuron Cell Body Location Slide 7.13 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Most are found in the central nervous system Gray matter – cell bodies and unmylenated fibers Nuclei – clusters of cell bodies within the white matter of the central nervous system  Ganglia – collections of cell bodies outside the central nervous system
  • 21. Functional Classification of Neurons Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Sensory (afferent) neurons Carry impulses from the sensory receptors Cutaneous sense organs Proprioceptors – detect stretch or tension  Motor (efferent) neurons Carry impulses from the central nervous system
  • 22. Functional Classification of Neurons Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Interneurons (association neurons) Found in neural pathways in the central nervous system Connect sensory and motor neurons
  • 23. Neuron Classification Slide 7.15 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 7.6
  • 24. Structural Classification of Neurons Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Multipolar neurons – many extensions from the cell body Figure 7.8a
  • 25. Structural Classification of Neurons Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Bipolar neurons – one axon and one dendrite Figure 7.8b
  • 26. Structural Classification of Neurons Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Unipolar neurons – have a short single process leaving the cell body Figure 7.8c
  • 27. How Neurons Function (Physiology) Slide 7.17 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Irritability – ability to respond to stimuli  Conductivity – ability to transmit an impulse  The plasma membrane at rest is polarized Fewer positive ions are inside the cell than outside the cell
  • 28. Starting a Nerve Impulse Slide 7.18 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Depolarization – a stimulus depolarizes the neuron’s membrane  A deploarized membrane allows sodium (Na+) to flow inside the membrane  The exchange of ions initiates an action potential in the neuron Figure 7.9a–c
  • 29. The Action Potential Slide 7.19 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  If the action potential (nerve impulse) starts, it is propagated over the entire axon  Potassium ions rush out of the neuron after sodium ions rush in, which repolarizes the membrane  The sodium-potassium pump restores the original configuration This action requires ATP
  • 30. Nerve Impulse Propagation Slide 7.20 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  The impulse continues to move toward the cell body  Impulses travel faster when fibers have a myelin sheath Figure 7.9c–e
  • 31. Continuation of the Nerve Impulse between Neurons Slide 7.21 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Impulses are able to cross the synapse to another nerve Neurotransmitter is released from a nerve’s axon terminal The dendrite of the next neuron has receptors that are stimulated by the neurotransmitter An action potential is started in the dendrite
  • 32. How Neurons Communicate at Synapses Slide 7.22 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 7.10
  • 33. The Reflex Arc Slide 7.23 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Reflex – rapid, predictable, and involuntary responses to stimuli  Reflex arc – direct route from a sensory neuron, to an interneuron, to an effector Figure 7.11a
  • 34. Simple Reflex Arc Slide 7.24 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 7.11b, c
  • 35. Types of Reflexes and Regulation Slide 7.25 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Autonomic reflexes Smooth muscle regulation Heart and blood pressure regulation Regulation of glands Digestive system regulation  Somatic reflexes Activation of skeletal muscles
  • 36. Central Nervous System (CNS) Slide 7.26 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  CNS develops from the embryonic neural tube The neural tube becomes the brain and spinal cord The opening of the neural tube becomes the ventricles Four chambers within the brain Filled with cerebrospinal fluid
  • 37. Regions of the Brain Slide 7.27 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Cerebral hemispheres  Diencephalon  Brain stem  Cerebellum Figure 7.12
  • 38. Cerebral Hemispheres (Cerebrum) Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Paired (left and right) superior parts of the brain  Include more than half of the brain mass Figure 7.13a
  • 39. Cerebral Hemispheres (Cerebrum) Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  The surface is made of ridges (gyri) and grooves (sulci) Figure 7.13a
  • 40. Lobes of the Cerebrum Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Fissures (deep grooves) divide the cerebrum into lobes  Surface lobes of the cerebrum Frontal lobe Parietal lobe Occipital lobe Temporal lobe
  • 41. Lobes of the Cerebrum Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 7.15a
  • 42. Specialized Areas of the Cerebrum Slide 7.30 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Somatic sensory area – receives impulses from the body’s sensory receptors  Primary motor area – sends impulses to skeletal muscles  Broca’s area – involved in our ability to speak
  • 44. Sensory and Motor Areas of the Cerebral Cortex Slide 7.31 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 7.14
  • 45. Specialized Area of the Cerebrum Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Cerebral areas involved in special senses Gustatory area (taste) Visual area Auditory area Olfactory area
  • 46. Specialized Area of the Cerebrum Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Interpretation areas of the cerebrum Speech/language region Language comprehension region General interpretation area
  • 47. Specialized Area of the Cerebrum Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 7.13c
  • 48. Layers of the Cerebrum Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Gray matter Outer layer Composed mostly of neuron cell bodies Figure 7.13a
  • 49. Layers of the Cerebrum Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  White matter Fiber tracts inside the gray matter Example: corpus callosum connects hemispheres Figure 7.13a
  • 50. Layers of the Cerebrum Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Basal nuclei – internal islands of gray matter  Regulates voluntary motor activities by modifying info sent to the motor cortex  Problems = ie unable to control muscles, spastic, jerky  Involved in Huntington’s and Parkinson’s Disease Figure 7.13a
  • 51. Diencephalon Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Sits on top of the brain stem  Enclosed by the cerebral heispheres  Made of three parts Thalamus Hypothalamus Epithalamus
  • 52. Diencephalon Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 7.15
  • 53. Thalamus Slide 7.35 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Surrounds the third ventricle  The relay station for sensory impulses  Transfers impulses to the correct part of the cortex for localization and interpretation
  • 54. Hypothalamus Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Under the thalamus  Important autonomic nervous system center Helps regulate body temperature Controls water balance Regulates metabolism
  • 55. Hypothalamus Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  An important part of the limbic system (emotions)  The pituitary gland is attached to the hypothalamus
  • 56. Epithalamus Slide 7.37 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Forms the roof of the third ventricle  Houses the pineal body (an endocrine gland)  Includes the choroid plexus – forms cerebrospinal fluid
  • 57. Brain Stem Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Attaches to the spinal cord  Parts of the brain stem Midbrain Pons Medulla oblongata
  • 58. Brain Stem Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 7.15a
  • 59. Midbrain Slide 7.39 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Mostly composed of tracts of nerve fibers Reflex centers for vision and hearing Cerebral aquaduct – 3rd-4th ventricles
  • 60. Pons Slide 7.40 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  The bulging center part of the brain stem  Mostly composed of fiber tracts  Includes nuclei involved in the control of breathing
  • 61. Medulla Oblongata Slide 7.41 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  The lowest part of the brain stem  Merges into the spinal cord  Includes important fiber tracts  Contains important control centers Heart rate control Blood pressure regulation Breathing Swallowing Vomiting
  • 62. Cerebellum Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Two hemispheres with convoluted surfaces  Provides involuntary coordination of body movements
  • 63. Cerebellum Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 7.15a
  • 64. Protection of the Central Nervous System Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Scalp and skin  Skull and vertebral column  Meninges Figure 7.16a
  • 65. Protection of the Central Nervous System Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Cerebrospinal fluid  Blood brain barrier Figure 7.16a
  • 66. Meninges Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Dura mater Double-layered external covering Periosteum – attached to surface of the skull Meningeal layer – outer covering of the brain Folds inward in several areas
  • 67. Meninges Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Arachnoid layer Middle layer Web-like  Pia mater Internal layer Clings to the surface of the brain
  • 68. Cerebrospinal Fluid Slide 7.46 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Similar to blood plasma composition  Formed by the choroid plexus  Forms a watery cushion to protect the brain  Circulated in arachnoid space, ventricles, and central canal of the spinal cord
  • 69. Ventricles and Location of the Cerebrospinal Fluid Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 7.17a
  • 70. Ventricles and Location of the Cerebrospinal Fluid Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 7.17b
  • 71. Blood Brain Barrier Slide 7.48 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Includes the least permeable capillaries of the body  Excludes many potentially harmful substances  Useless against some substances Fats and fat soluble molecules Respiratory gases Alcohol Nicotine Anesthesia
  • 72. Traumatic Brain Injuries Slide 7.49 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Concussion Slight brain injury No permanent brain damage  Contusion Nervous tissue destruction occurs Nervous tissue does not regenerate  Cerebral edema Swelling from the inflammatory response May compress and kill brain tissue
  • 73. Cerebrovascular Accident (CVA) Slide 7.50 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Commonly called a stroke  The result of a ruptured blood vessel supplying a region of the brain  Brain tissue supplied with oxygen from that blood source dies  Loss of some functions or death may result
  • 74. Spinal Cord Slide 7.52 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Extends from the medulla oblongata to the region of T12  Below T12 is the cauda equina (a collection of spinal nerves)  Enlargements occur in the cervical and lumbar regions Figure 7.18
  • 75. Alzheimer’s Disease Slide 7.51 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Progressive degenerative brain disease  Mostly seen in the elderly, but may begin in middle age  Structural changes in the brain include abnormal protein deposits and twisted fibers within neurons  Victims experience memory loss, irritability, confusion and ultimately, hallucinations and death
  • 76. Spinal Cord Anatomy Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Exterior white mater – conduction tracts Figure 7.19
  • 77. Spinal Cord Anatomy Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Internal gray matter - mostly cell bodies Dorsal (posterior) horns Anterior (ventral) horns Figure 7.19
  • 78. Spinal Cord Anatomy Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Central canal filled with cerebrospinal fluid Figure 7.19
  • 79. Spinal Cord Anatomy Slide 7.54 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Meninges cover the spinal cord  Nerves leave at the level of each vertebrae Dorsal root  Associated with the dorsal root ganglia – collections of cell bodies outside the central nervous system Ventral root
  • 80. Peripheral Nervous System Slide 7.55 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Nerves and ganglia outside the central nervous system  Nerve = bundle of neuron fibers  Neuron fibers are bundled by connective tissue
  • 81. Structure of a Nerve Slide 7.56 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Endoneurium surrounds each fiber  Groups of fibers are bound into fascicles by perineurium  Fascicles are bound together by epineurium Figure 7.20
  • 82. Classification of Nerves Slide 7.57 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Mixed nerves – both sensory and motor fibers  Afferent (sensory) nerves – carry impulses toward the CNS  Efferent (motor) nerves – carry impulses away from the CNS
  • 83. Spinal Nerves Slide 7.63 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  There is a pair of spinal nerves at the level of each vertebrae for a total of 31 pairs
  • 84. Spinal Nerves Slide 7.64 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 7.22a
  • 85. Autonomic Nervous System Slide 7.67 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  The involuntary branch of the nervous system  Consists of only motor nerves  Divided into two divisions Sympathetic division Parasympathetic division
  • 86. Comparison of Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems Slide 7.69 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 7.24
  • 87. Anatomy of the Autonomic Nervous System Slide 7.73 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 7.25
  • 88. Autonomic Functioning Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Sympathetic – “fight-or-flight” Response to unusual stimulus Takes over to increase activities Remember as the “E” division = exercise, excitement, emergency, and embarrassment
  • 89. Autonomic Functioning Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Parasympathetic – housekeeping activites Conserves energy Maintains daily necessary body functions Remember as the “D” division - digestion, defecation, and diuresis
  • 90. Development Aspects of the Nervous System Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  The nervous system is formed during the first month of embryonic development  Any maternal infection can have extremely harmful effects  The hypothalamus is one of the last areas of the brain to develop
  • 91. Development Aspects of the Nervous System Slide Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  No more neurons are formed after birth, but growth and maturation continues for several years (new evidence!)  The brain reaches maximum weight as a young adult  However, we can always grow dendrites!