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Chapter 6 Structuring System Requirements: Process Modeling 1
Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 6
Structuring System Requirements:
Process Modeling
Chapter Overview
This chapter continues the discussion of systems analysis, introducing students to
requirements structuring. Specifically, students are introduced to process modeling and
logic modeling. Although there are several methods and techniques available for
process modeling, this chapter focuses on Data-flow Diagrams (DFDs) because they
have been popular for many years, especially in the structured analysis and design
literature. Also, many CASE tools have incorporated DFDs into their sets of system
development tools and techniques.
Structured English and decision tables are the two logic models presented in this
chapter. The chapter discusses how Structured English statements are used to
represent the basic constructs in structured programming: sequence, choice, and
repetition. Decision tables are discussed in reference to how they can represent more
complicated processing logic than simple Structured English statements.
Instructional Objectives
Specific student learning objectives are included at the beginning of the chapter. From
an instructor’s point of view, the objectives of this chapter are to:
1. Show how data-flow diagrams can logically model processes.
2. Teach students data-flow diagram symbols and the mechanical rules necessary for
them to create accurate and well-structured process models.
3. Show students how to decompose data-flow diagrams into lower-level diagrams.
4. Illustrate the concept of balanced DFDs.
5. Explain and demonstrate the differences among the four types of DFDs: current
physical, current logical, new physical, and new logical.
6. Illustrate how data-flow diagrams can be used as tools to support systems analysis.
7. Show how Structured English can be used to model process logic.
8. Demonstrate how decision tables can be used to represent the logic of choice in
conditional statements.
9. Explain that process modeling for Internet-based electronic commerce applications
is no different than the process used for other applications.

Classroom Ideas
1. Use Figures 6–2 and 6–6 to illustrate the basic DFD symbols and the correct and
incorrect ways to draw the diagrams. Use Figure 6–3 to demonstrate the problem
with trying to include sources/sinks inside the system being modeled.
2. Once you have taught the basics of drawing DFDs, have students complete
Problems and Exercises 1 through 3 and 8 as in-class exercises that you can then
go over in class.
3. Figures 6–4, 6–5, 6–7, 6–8, 6-9 and 6-10 can be used in class to teach
decomposition. These can be followed with students completing Problems and
Exercises 6-18 and 6-24 in-class.
4. Use Figure 6–11 to illustrate unbalanced DFDs.
5. Supplement the material in this chapter on DFD mechanics, decomposition, and
balancing with your own examples, which you can work through together in class.
A good source of such examples is written organizational procedure statements.
Modified procedure statements also make good homework problems. See
Problems and Exercises 6-24 and 6-25 for examples. It is probably best to devote
at least one complete class period to working through examples. Students can
prepare these diagrams outside of class or try for the first time in class. Many
issues arise that are best handled from examples, such as the following difficulties
that students often encounter:
• identifying when to show a direct data flow between processes and
when to decouple these with a data store (emphasize that data
stores allow different processes to work at different rates and at
different times).
• deciding what activities to encompass with each process (emphasize
the principle of cohesion and the goal of each process being of
roughly equal size and complexity).
• distinguishing processes from sinks and sources (emphasize factors
such as audience and the ability to change or control in making such
distinctions).
• logical inconsistencies or ambiguities in narrative descriptions
(emphasize that this is the power of DFDs and the typical interaction
between requirements structuring and requirements determination
necessary to resolve such ambiguities).
6. Use a CASE tool in class to demonstrate other ways to model processes other than
DFDs. Have students compare and contrast these alternative methods with DFDs.
7. Using a CASE tool that supports DFDs, show in class how the tool provides for
decomposition and balancing and how DFDs are linked to the CASE repository.
Later, when teaching Chapter 6, you can show how the repository links DFDs and
entity-relationship diagrams.

8. Use a CASE tool in class to show how the tool checks for completeness,
consistency, and other elements of analysis as discussed in the chapter.
10. Work through both decision table examples contained in the text, using Figures 6–
15 and 6–16, then work through Figures 6–17 and 6–18.
Lecture Notes
As illustrated in Figure 6–1, requirements structuring is the second of the three primary
analysis phases. This chapter introduces students to two methods useful for structuring
requirements: process modeling and logic modeling,
Process Modeling
Process modeling graphically represents the processes that capture, manipulate, store,
and distribute data between a system and its environment and among components
within a system. The data-flow diagram (DFD) is the type of process model discussed
in Chapter 6. During requirements determination, information is collected about the
current and new systems. The project team will structure this information into
meaningful representations of the current and new systems. The requirements
structuring process results in several deliverables, including a context data-flow diagram,
DFDs of the current system, DFDs of the new system, and a thorough description of
each DFD component. The process modeling deliverables are listed in Table 6–1.
CASE tools facilitate the preparation of these diagrams.
Data-Flow Diagramming Mechanics
Four symbols are used on data-flow diagrams; these symbols represent data flows, data
stores, processes, and source/sinks. The Gane and Sarson symbol set is illustrated in
Figure 6–3 and is the symbol set used in this textbook. A data flow represents data that
are in motion and moving as a unit. A data flow is represented by an arrow on the data-
flow diagram. A database query, sales report, or order are examples of data flows. In
contrast to a data flow, a data store represents data at rest. On a data-flow diagram, a
data store is represented as a rectangle with its right vertical line missing. A notebook,
file folder, or customer database are examples of data stores. A process, represented
as a rectangle with rounded corners, represents the works or actions performed on data.
Sources/sinks are the origin and/or destination of data and are represented on the
data-flow diagram as squares or rectangles. Suppliers, customers, and a bank are
examples. As it relates to sources/sinks, we are not interested in the interactions that
occur between sources and sinks, what a source or sink does with information or how it
operates, how to control or redesign a source or sink, and how to provide sources and
sinks with direct access to stored data. Figure 6–4 contrasts an incorrectly drawn DFD
(a process is shown as a sink) with one that is correctly prepared.
The Hoosier Burger case illustrates the DFD development process. The boundary or
scope of Hoosier Burger’s food-ordering system is represented by a context diagram;
this diagram, illustrated in Figure 6–5, also shows the system’s interactions with its

environment. The context diagram contains only one process labeled “0” and no data
stores. After the context diagram is prepared, a level-0 diagram is drawn. The food-
ordering system’s level-0 diagram is shown in Figure 6–6. The level-0 diagram
represents a system’s major processes, data flows, and data stores at a high level of
detail.
The preparation of data-flow diagrams (DFDs) is governed by a set of rules; these rules
are summarized in Table 6–2. Two additional DFD diagramming rules are that the
inputs to a process are different from the outputs of that process and DFD objects have
unique names. Figure 6–7 shows the incorrect and correct ways to draw data-flow
diagrams. The context diagram is functionally decomposed into finer and finer detail,
resulting in the preparation of several levels of diagrams. A level-n diagram is a DFD that
is the result of n nested decompositions of a series of subprocesses from a process on a
level-0 diagram. Functional decomposition will continue until a subprocess cannot be
exploded into more detail. Primitive DFDs are the lowest level DFDs. The level-1
diagram appearing in Figure 6–8 is a decomposition of Process 1.0 on the level-0
diagram. Figure 6–9 shows a level 1 diagram. Figure 6–10 shows a level-2 diagram.
DFDs should be balanced, meaning that the inputs and outputs to a process are
conserved at the next level of decomposition. Figure 6–11 shows a set of unbalanced
DFDs. Figure 6–12 provides an example of a data-flow splitting. Table 6–3
summarizes four advanced diagramming rules. These rules address splitting composite
data flows into component data flows at the next level, the conservation principle, an
exception to balancing, and minimizing clutter on the DFD.
Using Data-Flow Diagramming in the Analysis Process
Completeness, consistency, timing considerations, the iterative nature of drawing DFDs,
and drawing primitive DFDs are five additional data-flow diagramming guidelines. DFD
completeness is the extent to which all necessary components on a data-flow diagram
have been included and fully described. CASE tools can help identify areas where the
diagrams are incomplete. It is important that each DFD element be described in the
CASE repository. DFD consistency is the extent to which information contained on one
level of a set of nested data-flow diagrams is also included on other levels. Again,
CASE tools can be used to detect inconsistencies among diagrams. DFDs do not
represent time, thus they do not reflect how often a processing activity occurs. Because
diagrams are generally not perfect on the first try, these diagrams are modified, resulting
in iterative development.
As mentioned previously, primitive DFDs are the lowest level of diagramming. The
analyst has probably reached the primitive level when she has reduced each process to
a single decision or calculation; each data store represents data about a single entity;
the system user does not care to see any more detail; every data flow does not need to
be split further to show that different data are handled in various ways; each business
form or transaction, computer online display, and report has been shown as a single
data flow; and there is a separate process for each choice on all lowest-level menu
options.
Data-flow diagrams are useful for performing gap analysis and for identifying system
inefficiencies. Gap analysis is the process of discovering discrepancies between two or

more sets of data-flow diagrams or discrepancies within a single DFD. Gap analysis
helps identify redundant data flows, data that are captured and not used by the system,
and data that are updated identically in more than one location. CASE tools aid in this
analysis.
The IBM Credit Corporation is used as an example of how DFDs are useful during
business process reengineering. As Figures 6–13 and 6–14 illustrate, data-flow
diagrams made visualizing and analyzing the financing process much easier.
Logic Modeling
Because data-flow diagrams do not show the inner workings of processes, logic models
are useful for showing this internal logic. Decision tables are a popular method for
modeling system logic. In many instances, decision logic is quite complex, and often,
decision tables are best suited for these situations. A decision table is a matrix
representation of the logic of a decision, which specifies the possible conditions for the
decision and resulting actions. A decision table consists of three parts: condition
stubs, action stubs, and rules. A decision table can be simplified by removing
indifferent conditions. Figure 6–15 shows a complex decision table; Figure 6–16
shows the simplified version. The basic procedures for decision table construction are:
(1) name the conditions and the values each condition can assume; (2) name all
possible actions that can occur; (3) list all possible rules; (4) define the actions for each
rule; and (5) simplify the decision table. Figure 6–17 shows a decision table for the
Hoosier Burger’s inventory reordering system; Figure 6–18 shows the simplified table.
PVF WebStore: Process Modeling
The authors use Pine Valley’s WebStore to illustrate process modeling for an electronic
commerce application. This example shows that process modeling for electronic
commerce applications is the same as for more traditional application development
projects. Table 6–4 outlines the WebStore’s system structure and corresponding Level-
0 processes. Figure 6–19 is a Level-0 DFD for the WebStore.
Key Terms Checkpoint Solutions
Answers for the Key Terms Checkpoint section are provided below. The number
following each key term indicates its location in the key term list.
1. data-flow diagram (5) 11. DFD consistency (9)
2. balancing (2) 12. level-n diagram (13)
3. condition stubs (3) 13. process (15)
4. level-0 diagram (12) 14. rules (17)
5. source/sink (18) 15. data store (6)
6. indifferent condition (11) 16. process modeling (16)

7. context diagram (4) 17. gap analysis (10)
8. primitive DFD (14) 18. action stubs (1)
9. DFD completeness (8)
10. decision table (7)
Review Questions Solutions
6-1. What is a data-flow diagram? Why do systems analysts use data-flow
diagrams?
A data-flow diagram is a picture of the movement of data between external entities
and the processes and data stores within a system. Systems analysts use data-
flow diagrams to help them model the processes internal to an information system
as well as how data from the system’s environment enter the system, are used by
the system, and are returned to the environment. DFDs help analysts understand
how the organization handles information and what its information needs are or
might be. Analysts also use DFDs to study alternative information handling
procedures during the process of designing new information services.
6-2. Explain the rules for drawing good data-flow diagrams.
The rules for DFDs are listed in Table 6–2 and illustrated in Figure 6–6.
Processes cannot have only outputs, cannot have only inputs, and must have a
verb phrase label. Data can move to a data store from only a process, not from
another data store or an outside source. Similarly, data can be moved to only an
outside sink or to another data store by a process. Data to and from external
sources and sinks can be moved by only processes. Data flows move in one
direction only. Both branches of a forked or a joined data flow must represent the
same data. A data flow cannot return to the process from which it originated.
6-3. What is decomposition? What is balancing? How can you determine if
DFDs are not balanced?
Decomposition is the iterative process by which a system description is broken
down into finer and finer detail, creating a set of diagrams in which one process
on a given diagram is explained in greater detail on a lower–level diagram.
Balancing is the conservation of inputs and outputs to a data-flow diagram
process when that process is decomposed to a lower level. You can determine if
a set of DFDs are balanced or not by observing whether or not a process that
appears in a level-n diagram has the same inputs and outputs when decomposed
for a lower-level diagram.
6-4. Explain the convention for naming different levels of data-flow diagrams.
The highest level DFD is called a context diagram. It represents the system as a
single process, with all the related entities and the data flows in and out of the
system. The next level diagram, called a level-0, decomposes the one process
from the context diagram into between two to nine high-level processes. Each
process in a level-0 diagram can be decomposed, if necessary. Each resulting
diagram is called a level-1. Should processes in a level-1 diagram be

decomposed, each resulting diagram would be called a level-2 diagram. Each of
these processes would be decomposed on a level-3 diagram, and so on.
6-5. How can data-flow diagrams be used as analysis tools?
DFDs can be used as analysis tools to help determine the completeness of a
system model and a model’s internal consistency, as a way to determine when
system events occur through analyzing timeliness, and, through iterative use, to
develop and check models. Analysts can study DFDs to find excessive
information handling, thus identifying areas for possible efficiencies.
6-6. Explain the guidelines for deciding when to stop decomposing DFDs.
You can stop decomposing a DFD when the following six conditions are satisfied:
(1) each process is a single decision or calculation or a single database
operation, such as retrieve, update, create, delete, or read;
(2) each data store represents data about a single entity, such as a customer,
employee, product, or order;
(3) the system user does not care to see any more detail, or when you and other
analysts have documented sufficient detail to do subsequent systems
development tasks;
(4) every data flow does not need to be split further to show that different data are
handled in different ways;
(5) you believe that you have shown each business form or transaction, computer
screen, and report as a single data flow; and
(6) you believe there is a separate process for each choice on all lowest–level
menu options for the system.
6-7. How do you decide if a system component should be represented as a
source/sink or as a process?
Sources and sinks are always outside of the system being considered. They are
of interest to the system being considered only because they represent sources of
data coming into the system and destinations for data leaving the system. If any
data processing occurs inside a source or sink, it should be of no interest to the
system being modeled. If the processing is of interest, however, or if the identified
source/sink has several inputs and outputs to and from the rest of the system, it
may be better considered as an internal process.
6-8. What unique rules apply to drawing context diagrams?
Context diagrams have only one process that represents the entire system being
modeled and shows only the data flows into and out of the system. The diagram
also includes sources and sinks, which represent the system’s environmental
boundaries. There are usually no data stores in a context diagram.
6-9. Explain what the term DFD consistency means and provide an example.
DFD consistency is the extent to which information contained on one level of a set
of nested data-flow diagrams is also included on other levels. Balancing errors
are one type of consistency violation mentioned in the textbook. For instance, a

payment data flow that appears on a level-1 diagram, but not on the level-0
diagram, is a consistency violation.
6-10.Explain what the term DFD completeness means and provide an example.
DFD completeness is the extent to which all necessary components of a data-flow
diagram have been included and fully described. A data store that does not have
any data flows coming into or out of it is a completeness violation.
6-11.How well do DFDs illustrate timing considerations for systems? Explain
your answer.
Timing considerations are not noted on DFDs. For instance indications of whether
a process occurs hourly, daily, weekly, monthly, or yearly are not made.
6-12.How can data-flow diagrams be used in business process redesign?
DFDs can graphically illustrate, at varying levels of detail, how a process or
processes work. Analysts can study DFDs of the current system and identify
areas of inefficiency. Analysts can prepare DFDs for the new system, identifying
changes for the new system.
6-13. What are the steps in creating a decision table? How do you reduce the
size and complexity of a decision table?
The steps for creating a decision table are:
(1) name the conditions and the values each condition can assume;
(2) name all possible actions that can occur;
(3) list all possible rules;
(4) define the actions for each rule; and
(5) simplify the decision table.
To reduce the size and complexity of a decision table, use separate, linked
decision tables, or use numbers that indicate sequence rather than Xs where
rules and action stubs intersect. Also, the analyst should identify indifferent
conditions and simplify the decision table.
6-14.What formula is used to calculate the number of rules a decision table must
cover?
To determine the number of rules a decision table must cover, simply determine
the number of values each condition may have and multiply the number of values
for each condition by the number of values for every other condition.
Problems and Exercises Solutions
6-15.Using the example of an online cell phone apps store, list relevant data
flows, data stores, processes, and sources/sinks. Draw a context diagram
and a level-0 diagram that represent the app store. Explain why you chose
certain elements as processes versus sources/sinks.
A suggested context diagram and level-0 diagram are provided below.

Context Diagram:
CUSTOMER
0
Apps Store
PAYMENT
PROCESSOR
APPS
DEVELOPER
Customer Order
Confirmation of Payment
Payment Information
Report of Purchase
Receipt
Level-0 Diagram:
CUSTOMER
PAYMENT
PROCESSOR
APPS
DEVELOPER
Customer Order Confirmation of Payment
Payment Information
Report of Purchase
Receipt
1.0
Receive and
Process
Customer
Order
2.0
Update App
Sales History
App Sale Data
D1: App Sales
History
Formatted Sale Data
3.0
Generate App
Sales Data
Report
Monthly Sales Data
6-16. Using the example of checking out a book from your university or college
library, draw a context diagram and a level-0 diagram. A suggested
context diagram and a level-0 diagram are provided below.
Context Diagram:

PATRON
0
LIBRARY
CHECK-OUT
SYSTEM
LIBRARY
WEB
CATALOG
Book Checkout
Request Book Availability
Information
Book Loan Information
Level-0 Diagram:
PATRON
LIBRARY
WEB
CATALOG
Book Availability
Information
1.0
Receive
Checkout
Request
Book Checkout
Request
3.0
Determine
Book
Disposition
2.0
Determine
Patron
Eligibility
4.0
Process
Request
D1: Library
Catalog
5.0
Update
Library Web
Catalog
Changes in Checkout Status
Information on
Patron Requesting
Book
Information on
Book Requested
Book Information
Patron Eligibility
Information
Book Disposition
Information
Book Checkout Status
Book Loan
Information
6-17.Evaluate your level-0 DFD from Problem and Exercise 6-16 using the rules
for drawing DFDs in this chapter. Edit your DFD so that it does not break
any of these rules.
Students should go through the rules discussed in this chapter (and presented in
Table 6–2 and Figure 6–7) one at a time and check each of their data-flow
diagrams. Alternatively, if the students are using a CASE tool to create their data-
flow diagrams, the CASE tool may be used to automatically check for errors in the
diagrams. There are no rule violations in the example DFDs, but we cannot verify
that there are no logical problems until we decompose the diagrams to a primitive
level. One obvious missing system capability is how to handle invalid orders;
typically, processes to handle abnormal conditions, like invalid orders, are shown
on primitive or at least low-level diagrams.
6-18.Choose an example like that in Problem and Exercise 6-16, and draw a
context diagram. Decompose this diagram until it doesn’t make sense to
continue. Be sure that your diagrams are balanced, as discussed in this
chapter.

Students may choose a variety of situations to use for the nth level data-flow
diagrams for this answer. Basically, students should continue the process of
decomposition until they have reached the point where no subprocess can
logically be broken down further (i.e., each process meets the definition of a
primitive process). See the level-1 data-flow diagram for this exercise, which
shows a sample decomposition of the process titled Finalize Order from the level-
0 data-flow diagram provided for Problem and Exercise 6-16. The (italicized)
labels for processes and sources/sinks without borders represent the origin or
destination of flows that pass between this subsystem and other system
components. Note that the Goods Sold File is a potential black hole or should
possibly be treated as a sink.
6-19.Refer to Figure 6-21, which contains a draft of a context and a level-0 DFD
for a university class registration system. Identify and explain potential
violations of rules and guidelines on these diagrams.
Some errors and peculiarities in these diagrams include:
• In the level–0 diagram, the data store, Class Roster, does not have
the data flow, Scheduled Classes, flowing into it. Rather, this data
flow connects processes 2 and 3; thus, these DFDs are not
balanced.
2.1
Generate
Receipt
2.2
Log Goods Sold
Data
2.3
Generate
Information For
Shipping
Goods Sold File
Receipt
Valid Order Information
Goods Sold Data
Receipt
Cap and Gown Order
Inventory Data
Validate Order
Validate Order
Cap & Gown
Company
Update Inventory File
Problem and Exercise #4
Level-1 Diagram
Level-1 Diagram

• Process 1 appears to accomplish nothing since its inflow and outflow
are identical; such processes are uninteresting and probably
unnecessary; it is possible that this process will become interesting
when it is decomposed, where validation and error handling
processes might appear.
• Process 2 does not appear to need Course Request as input in order
to perform its function, as implied by its name.
• Some students may also wonder if process 3 has input sufficient to
produce its output; for example, where are prior class registrations
kept so that process 3 can determine when a course is full?
6-20.What is the benefit of creating multiple levels of DFDs? Consider the
concept of DFD consistency, as described on page 181. Why is consistency
important to take advantage of the multiple levels of DFDs that may be
created?
Creating multiple levels of DFDs assists in ensuring that sufficient levels of detail
can be understood when structuring requirements. By creating multiple levels,
those with a need for a broad overview can focus on context and level-0
diagrams. Those with need for more detail can use the more fully decomposed
diagrams. These diagrams need to remain consistent as missing sources, sinks,
or data flows can cause inconsistency between those referring to higher and lower
level diagrams.
6-21.Why do you think analysts have different types of diagrams and other
documentation to depict different views (e.g., process, logic, and data) of an
information system?
The various views (e.g., process, logic, data) of an information system each have
their own unique characteristics and provide the most relevant information to
different information system specialists. This variety is best understood,
expressed, and managed by using diagrams and documentation that are
specifically tailored for each view of the system. For example, data-flow diagrams
are useful for capturing the flow of data through business processes, but they are
not useful for describing the forms and relationships among data. As information
systems become larger and more complex, it becomes even more important to
use the right tool and technique to develop each component of an information
system. One technique that captured all aspects of an information system model
on one diagram or in one notation would likely be too complex for systems
professionals to handle.
6-22.Consider the DFD in Figure 6–22. List three errors (rule violations) on this
DFD.
Three major errors in Figure 6–22 are:
• Process 1.0 (P2) has only inputs, making it a “black hole”.
• Data flow DF5 should not move directly from source E1 to data store
DS1 without first going through a process.

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Transcriber's Note:
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COMMON MEDICAL PLANTS OF INDIA
WITH A FULL INDEX OF DISEASES, INDICATING THEIR
TREATMENT BY THESE AND OTHER AGENTS
PROCURABLE THROUGHOUT INDIA

TO WHICH ARE ADDED
DIRECTIONS FOR TREATMENT IN CASES OF
DROWNING, SNAKE-BITES, &c.
BY
EDWARD JOHN WARING, C.I.E., M.D.
FELLOW OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS OF LONDON
SURGEON-MAJOR (RETIRED) HER MAJESTY'S INDIAN ARMY
EDITOR OF THE PHARMACOPŒIA OF INDIA, ETC.
FIFTH EDITION
LONDON
J. & A. C H U R C H I L L
7 GREAT MARLBOROUGH STREET
1897

PREFACE TO THE FIFTH EDITION.
Owing to the favour in which this work is still being held by the public
in India, as proved by the entire sale of the Fourth Edition, I have
taken upon myself to issue this, the Fifth Edition, with the generous
assistance of my late father's friend, J. E. T. Aitchison, M.D., C.I.E.,
to whom I owe a great debt of gratitude for the time and trouble
and valuable special knowledge he has so liberally bestowed on the
work.
The only important changes that occur in this Edition are the
introduction of a couple of diagrams of a clinical thermometer, with a
few notes to guide the non-professional in its use; some alterations
in the text, where subjects that had been issued in the Fourth
Edition as notes to the text are now incorporated in the text itself;
and lastly, Dr. Aitchison has more fully entered upon his treatment of
small-pox with carbolised oil.
C. WARING.

PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION.
That this little work should have reached a Fourth Edition may be
taken as pretty clear indication that it has met a recognised want
amongst our Indian fellow-subjects, for whose instruction and
guidance it was originally issued. To render it worthy of continued
favour, and to make it additionally useful, has been my anxious
endeavour.
Of any merit which this edition may be found to possess over the
preceding one, a very large portion is due to Dr. J. E. T. Aitchison,
C.I.E., Surgeon-Major in H.M. Indian (Bengal) Medical Service, who,
with a liberality that demands my warmest thanks, placed at my
disposal an elaborate MS. commentary on the Third Edition,
embodying his own professional experience in India (extending over
many years), and supplying the vernacular names of the various
drugs in the Punjábí, Kashmírí, and Leh languages. Of this document
it need hardly be said I have availed myself largely, my only regret
being that I could not insert it in extenso, but to have done this
would greatly have exceeded the prescribed limits of the work. As it
is, Dr. Aitchison has laid me under a vast obligation, which I am only
too happy to have this opportunity of acknowledging.
Five new articles have been added to the List of Drugs: two at the
suggestion of Dr. Aitchison; namely, (1) Sugar, and (2) Kerosene Oil,
which latter, owing to its extensive use for lighting purposes during
the past few years, is now obtainable in nearly every bazaar in the
country; the other three being the (3) Cinchona Febrifuge
(Quinetum), (4) Petroleum, and (5) Rock Salt. The various ways in
which these articles may be utilised in the treatment of disease will
be found under their respective headings in the "Addenda," p. 171,
et seq.

In addition to these there have been introduced notices of Indian
Hemp (Gunjah) smoking in the treatment of Tetanus, of the
antiscorbutic properties of Ámchur (dried Mangoes), the lactifuge
powers of Sambac flowers (Jasminum Sambac), the emmenagogue
virtues of Til or Jinjili Seeds (Sesamum Indicum), and other points
unnoticed in previous editions. The therapeutic applications of Water
are enlarged upon; as also are those of Carbolic Acid, especially in
the treatment of Leprosy. The Sick Dietary has likewise been
extended. Amongst the new matter has been introduced a section
(pp. 268-272) detailing the "Precautions to be taken by persons
residing in snake-infested localities."
By these and other additions (occupying upwards of thirty pages
of new matter), and by the revision and modification of other
passages, it is confidently hoped that the practical value of the work
will be found to be materially increased. Indeed, it has been my
earnest endeavour throughout to render this little volume as useful
as possible, and if through its instrumentality suffering humanity be
in any degree benefited my highest aspiration will be attained.
E. J. WARING.

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.
Fourteen years have elapsed since this work, in an elementary form,
was first issued for the use of the District Vaccinators of Travancore,
whose sphere of action was far removed from regular medical aid. It
was originally published in English and Tamil on opposite pages;
subsequently it was reprinted in Tamil alone by the London
Missionary Society's Press at Nagercoil, for the use of the catechists
and others connected with that Mission. In 1868, a Malyalim
translation, by Dresser Ramswammy Rajoo, was issued by the
Travancore Government. From reports received from various
quarters, there is reason to believe that the work has enjoyed a wide
circulation amongst the people of Travancore and Tinnevelly, and
that it has exercised a considerable influence on the practice of the
native doctors of those districts.
Were I wise, I ought, perhaps, to rest satisfied with these results,
which far exceed what were originally contemplated; but recent
observation has convinced me that there are other classes scattered
through our great Indian possessions to whom a work of the kind
would prove most acceptable, by pointing out to them the agents—
either purchasable in the bazaars at an almost nominal price, or
procurable at the cost of collection, from the road-sides, waste
places, or gardens in the immediate neighbourhood of almost every
out-station—by means of which, with the exercise of ordinary
intelligence, they may often be enabled to relieve the sufferings of
those amongst whom their lot has been cast.
And at the head of these classes stand the Missionaries, whose
stations, for the most part, are too far removed from the busy
haunts of men to allow of their calling in regular medical aid in cases
of sickness, and who are consequently thrown, at such times, very
much on their own resources. Many of the missionaries have under
their charge large establishments of catechists, pupils, &c.; and it

cannot be otherwise than highly desirable that they should be put in
possession of any information regarding the available means of
relieving the sufferings, and treating the diseases, of those placed
under their care. This is not the place to enter into a disquisition on
missionary work, but I cannot refrain from expressing my firm
conviction that the more the principle of Medical Missions—making
Religion and Medicine go hand in hand—is carried out, the greater,
humanly speaking, will be the success of missionary efforts. How
many a door for the admission of Gospel truth, which would
otherwise be shut, would be opened, and that readily, to one who,
with "the glad tidings of great joy" in the one hand, would bring in
the other the means of relieving physical suffering and curing bodily
disease! The highest distinction that I would claim for this little work
is, that it may constitute, as far as India is concerned, a Missionaries'
Medical Vade Mecum.
Next on the rôle comes a large army of European and Anglo-
Indian officials, whether within the magic circle of "the Service" or
beyond its pale, who are attached to the Public Works, Forests,
Railway, Telegraph, or other Departments, or employed in Tea,
Coffee, or Cotton plantations, in commercial pursuits, &c., many of
them married men, with families and a large number of dependants,
the majority at distant "up-country stations," miles away from
medical aid; how important for persons under such circumstances to
possess a knowledge of the means lying (literally so in many
instances) at their very feet, by which pain and suffering may be
alleviated, and, perhaps, a valuable life saved.
Lastly, but by no means least, either in point of numbers or
importance, comes the daily increasing array of educated Natives,
who, as a class, readily avail themselves of every scrap of knowledge
drawn from trustworthy European sources, which tends to throw
light on the products and resources of their native land. Whilst, on
the one hand, I am perfectly prepared to admit that much of the
knowledge I possess of the properties and uses of Indian drugs has
been derived from Native sources, I think I may, on the other hand,
without presumption, claim the credit of repaying the debt with

interest, furnishing in return a considerable amount of information
on the uses of even the same drugs, of which the Natives
themselves had previously no idea. It is to this class that I venture
to think this little work will prove most useful and acceptable.
In addition to the above, I venture to hope that to even duly
qualified Medical Officers, especially at up-country stations, a work
like the present may prove serviceable on emergencies, e.g., a
failure of the supply of European drugs, &c., by showing them what
resources they have at command in the bazaars or in their
immediate neighbourhood, by means of which many a gap may be
stopped till more efficient remedies are available.
In undertaking a Second Edition of this work, I have been further
influenced by a desire to render its scope and contents more
complete. With more extended knowledge on my part, drawn partly
from subsequent personal experience in the use of Indian drugs, and
partly from the Reports received from Medical Officers during the
preparation of the Pharmacopœia of India, I realised how imperfect
the original work was; and feeling myself in a position to add much
information which would tend to increase its usefulness, I
determined upon issuing another edition. The whole work has
accordingly been rewritten and greatly enlarged.
It was evidently quite out of the question, in a small work like the
present, to include the host of medicines included under the general
headings of "Bazaar Medicines" and "Common Medical Plants of
India," but from them I have made a selection of about 80,
comprising—1 Antacid, 8 Astringents, 3 Antispasmodics, 2
Antiscorbutics, 6 Antiperiodics, 5 Demulcents and Emollients, 4
Diaphoretics or Sudorifics, 4 Diuretics, 3 Expectorants, 2
Emmenagogues, 4 Emetics, 6 Purgatives, 3 Narcotics or Sedatives, 5
Refrigerants, 9 Stomachics or Carminatives, 7 Bitter Tonics, 5
Alterative Tonics or Alteratives, 2 Metallic Tonics, 7 Local and 4
General Stimulants, 2 Vesicants, or Blistering Agents, 6 Vermifuges,
and 17 Miscellaneous Articles, not included in the above classes.

In making this selection I have been guided by the following
principles:—1. By the safety of the drug; hence Arsenic, Aconite Root
(Bish), Nux Vomica, Indian Hemp, and some other powerful
medicines have been omitted, as it was felt to be inadvisable, in a
work like the present, to introduce agents which, in the hands of
unprofessional persons, might do more harm than good if employed
in unsuitable cases. Where, however, a powerful drug, e.g., Opium,
has been admitted, minute directions as to its employment have
been given. 2. By the acknowledged utility or efficacy of the drug as
proved by European experience. 3. By the drug possessing a
generally well-known, recognised native name. 4. By its wide
distribution and easy procurability in all parts, and in all the bazaars
of India generally. It is hoped that by the addition of the native
names and descriptions of the drugs (which were omitted in the First
Edition), even a new-comer will have little difficulty in obtaining and
recognising any particular article he may require.
With this native "Apparatus Medicaminum" very much may be
accomplished under ordinary circumstances, in the way of relieving
suffering and curing disease; but it must be admitted that there are
certain articles included under the class "European Medicines" for
which the Indian bazaars supply no adequate substitutes. I have
therefore (in Appendix E) added a list of nine drugs which it appears
desirable should be kept in store. They are—1. Sulphate of Quinine;
2. Ipecacuanha; 3. Smyrna or Turkey Opium; 4. Calomel; 5. Acetate
of Lead; 6. Santonin; 7. Liquor Ammoniæ; 8. Blistering Fluid; and 9.
Carbolic Acid.[1] No attempt has been made in the body of the work
to enter into a description of the properties and uses of these drugs
generally (with the exception of Opium), but in the Synopsis or
Index of Diseases (Part II.) it has been pointed out how these
valuable agents may be utilised in the most efficient manner. It is
believed that, by adopting this course, the practical utility of the
work will be greatly enhanced.
Attention is particularly directed to the Synopsis or Index of
Diseases in Part II.; it is not pretended that the modes of treatment
therein detailed are the best which could be adopted; the object has

rather been to show how much good may be effected by the simple
means at command at almost every "upcountry station" throughout
India; and those who follow the directions may feel assured, that
with the exercise of ordinary prudence, if they fail to do good they
will at any rate do no harm.
London, 1874.
[1] To these Bromide of Potassium and Biniodide of Mercury have since
been added.

INTRODUCTION.
This work, it is presumed, will fall into the hands of many who are
wholly ignorant of, or very partially acquainted with, matters
pharmaceutical; hence some few introductory remarks are
indispensable to enable such persons to understand fully, and follow
out correctly, the directions given.
1. Weights and Measures.—In Appendix C, a small set of
Apothecaries' scales and weights is included, but in the absence of
the former it is well to remember that a small set of scales, such as
is used by native jewellers, can be procured for a few annas in every
bazaar; care, however, is necessary to see that the balance is strictly
correct and even.
Weights.—The Apothecary weights supplied from England have
the following marks or signs impressed upon them:
℈fs = half a scruple = 10 grains.
℈j = one scruple = 20 „
Ʒfs = half a drachm = 30 „
Ʒj = one drachm = 60 „
Ʒjfs = one drachm and a half = 90 „
Ʒij = two drachms = 120 „
The small circular indentations on the grain weights indicate the
number of grains each weight represents.
In the absence of these, the following hints may be useful:
A new rupee of the present currency weighs 180 grains or three
drachms.
A half rupee of the present currency weighs 90 grains or a drachm
and a half.

A quarter rupee of the present currency weighs 45 grains or three
quarters of a drachm.
To obtain smaller weights beat a new quarter rupee into a long,
thin, narrow plate, and divide it carefully into three equal parts. You
have thus three 15 grain weights. One of these divided again into
three equal parts, furnishes three 5 grain weights. One of these
subdivided into five equal parts furnishes five 1 grain weights. Care
should be taken to see that the parts are of equal weight, and each
part should be marked with a figure to denote its weight. A native
jeweller, at a very small cost, will readily carry out the above
subdivision.
With these, you may obtain any small weights you require; thus, if
you require nine grains, you use a 5 grain weight and four single
grain weights. If you want a drachm weight (60 grains), you use a
quarter rupee (45 grains) and a 15 grain weight, which makes
exactly the 60 grains or one drachm. To get a scruple (20 grains)
weight, you use one of the 15 grain and one of the 5 grain weights
= 20 grains or one scruple.
Two rupees and a half rupee together weigh 450 grains or slightly
over one ounce, which weight they may be taken to represent, in
the absence of regular weights in making up any of the prescriptions
given in the following pages.
Measures of Capacity.—For these, the English Graduated
Measures, glasses included, in Appendix C, should be employed. The
marks on them signify as follows:
♏︎ = 1 minim
fƷj one fluid-drachm = 60 minims.
f℥j one fluid-ounce = 8 fluid-drachms.
O one pint = 20 fluid-ounces.
In default of a graduated measure glass, it may be useful to know
that a small cup of silver or other metal, exactly the circumference of
a quarter rupee and 3¾ inches deep, will hold exactly one ounce,

and twenty of these full of liquid make one pint. Each ounce
contains eight fluid-drachms, so with the aid of this ounce measure
you can calculate the quantity required pretty accurately. The
measure should be made of silver, as some medicines, especially the
acids, act on the other metals.
Any native jeweller would manufacture one of these measures in a
short time, and at a very small cost.
In the following pages other domestic measures, as they may be
termed, are mentioned; they represent approximately the following
quantities:
A wine-glassful
(ordinary size)
= one fluid-oz. and
a half.
Two table-spoonfuls = one oz.
One table-spoonful = half oz.
One dessert-spoonful = two drachms.
One tea-spoonful = one drachm.
"A drop" may be taken generally to represent a minim, though in
many instances they differ considerably in capacity.
It must be borne in mind that these measurements apply solely to
fluids—never to solids. A tablespoonful of some solids, as powders,
would weigh two or three ounces, whilst of others it might only be
as many drachms.
Preparations.—A few hints on these may be useful to the
uninitiated. Infusions.—In preparing these, the following points
require attention: a, the solid ingredients should be cut into small
pieces or slices, or bruised in a mortar, so that the water shall readily
penetrate into the substance; b, the water should be boiling; c, the
vessel or chattie containing the ingredients on which the boiling
water has been poured, should be covered over to prevent
evaporation, and set aside till the liquid is cold, when it should be
strained through a muslin or thin rag. In hot climates infusions soon
spoil, hence they should be freshly prepared every other day at the

furthest. Decoctions.—These differ from Infusions so far that the
ingredients are subject to the process of boiling. The requisite
quantity of water having been heated to boiling-point, the solid
ingredients, prepared as for infusions, are to be introduced, and the
whole boiled in a covered vessel for the specified period. The liquid
whilst hot should be strained and set aside in a covered vessel till
cold. Like infusions, they rapidly become spoiled in hot climates.
Tinctures.—These are formed by macerating the solid ingredients,
prepared as directed for Infusions, in a bottle with the specified
quantity of spirit, for seven days or more, occasionally shaking the
same to ensure the spirit acting thoroughly on the ingredients. At
the end of the specified period it should be strained, and the clear
liquid set aside in a cool place in well-stoppered bottles, for use.
Great care is necessary to prevent evaporation; hence if a glass-
stoppered bottle is used, softened wax should be carefully placed
round the stopper, which should be further secured by a cap of thin
leather or wax-cloth tied tightly over it. It is thought by many that
evaporation of spirit takes place less rapidly in a closely fitting corked
bottle than in one provided with a glass stopper. Very serviceable
corks, especially for temporary use, may be made out of Sola, the
material used for hats, &c. In either case layers of wax and the
leather are advisable. Under the most favourable circumstances
evaporation to a greater or lesser extent will take place in hot
climates; hence by long keeping, the tincture acquires increased
strength, and in regulating the dose of the more active tinctures, as
of Opium or Datura, the fact ought to be borne in mind, or serious
consequences may ensue. Powders.—When an article is ordered to
be taken in the form of powder, it should be pulverised as finely as
possible. There is little difficulty in this when a large quantity of the
article is required to be kept in store, as is generally advisable, as
the natives, by the aid of the simple machinery which they employ in
making "Curry powder," will reduce the hardest woody ingredients to
the requisite state of fineness. When only a few grains or a small
quantity is required, it may be obtained by means of a nutmeg-
grater (included in List in Appendix C), and subsequently triturating
the rough powder thus obtained in a mortar till it is reduced to the

state of a fine powder. In the preparation of a Compound Powder,
i.e., a powder containing two or more ingredients, it is of the
greatest importance that they should be uniformly and thoroughly
incorporated, else it is evident that a small portion of it, such as is
usually prescribed as a dose, may contain an excess of one
ingredient—it may be an active or dangerous one, and operate
powerfully—whilst the next dose may be comparatively inert.
Powders, when prepared in large quantities, should be kept in well-
stoppered or corked bottles; if left in open vessels exposed to the
action of the air, they soon become deteriorated. Pills.—For the
reasons just stated, it is necessary, when two or more ingredients
enter into the composition of a pill mass, to be careful that they are
thoroughly incorporated. When powders, &c., enter into their
composition, a little honey or jaggery is the best thing to give them
cohesion and consistence. They should be moderately hard; if too
soft, they are apt to lose the globular form which they ought to
possess, and become a shapeless mass. When several pills are
made, a little Arrowroot or Rice Flour should be added to the box
which contains them, to keep them from adhering to one another.
No pill should ordinarily exceed 5 grains in weight, otherwise there
will be a difficulty in swallowing it; two 3 grain pills are more easily
taken than one of 6 grains. Pills, when prepared in any quantity,
should, like powders, be kept in well-stoppered or corked bottles.
Ointments.—Animal fats, e.g., Lard, which is so generally used in
English pharmacy, are apt to become rancid and irritating in hot
climates; hence they should be discarded in tropical practice. In
India there is another cogent reason for abandoning them, viz., the
religious prejudices of the natives, especially of the Mussulman, to
whom hog's fat is an abomination. The only allowable animal fat in
India is freshly prepared Ghee, or clarified butter; but this in the
hotter part of India is of too thin consistence for ordinary ointments.
Fortunately India supplies at least two vegetable substitutes, Kokum
Butter and Piney Tallow (the expressed Oil of Vateria Indica). In
addition to these, I have introduced a third article, Ceromel (a
mixture of wax and honey). With these three agents it is believed

that animal fats may be altogether dispensed with in Indian
pharmacy.
Native Names.—These have been mainly derived from Mr.
Moodeen Sheriff's valuable Catalogue, which forms the Supplement
to the Pharmacopœia of India. Some have been drawn from Ainslie's
Materia Indica, a work of sterling merit. For the Malay names I am
indebted to the Hon. Major F. M‘Nair, C.M.G., Surveyor-General,
Straits Settlements, and for the Punjábí and Kashmirí names to Dr. J.
E. T. Aitchison, formerly British Commissioner, Ladakh.
It is only necessary, in this place, to indicate the pronunciation of
the vowels met with in this work.
a (short) as in about, or the final a in Calcutta.
á (long) as in all, call.
e (short) as in elbow, or the first e in never.
é (long) as a in able or ai in fair.
i (short) as i in ink, bid.
í (long) as ee in feed and free.
o (short) as in from.
ó (long) as in opium, home.
u (short) as in full, or as in wolf.
ú (long) as in fool, too.
Explanation of the Abbreviations employed in the lists of the
native names of the drugs:
Hind. Hindústaní.
Duk. Dukhní.
Beng. Bengálí.
Punj. Punjábí.
Kash. Kashmirí.
Tam. Tamil.
Tel. Telugu.
Mal. Malyalim.

Can. Canarese.
Mah. Máhrattí.
Guz. Guzrattí.
Cing. Cingalese.
Burm. Burmese.
Malay Malay.
REMARKS ON THE USES
OF SOME OF THE
BAZAAR MEDICINES OF INDIA.

PART I.
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE BAZAAR MEDICINES
AND
INDIAN MEDICAL PLANTS INCLUDED IN THIS
WORK.
1. Abelmoschus, or Edible Hibiscus. Okra. The fresh unripe
capsules or fruit of Abelmoschus (Hibiscus) esculentus, Linn.
Bhindí, Rám-turáí (Hind.), Bhéndí (Duk., Punj.), Dhéras or
Dhénras, Rám-Toráí (Beng.), Vendaik-káy (Tam.), Benda-káya
(Tel.), Ventak-káya (Mal.), Bendé-káyi (Can.), Bhéndá (Mah.),
Bhíndu (Guz.), Banda-ká (Cing.). Youn-padi-sí (Burm.),
Kachang-lindir (Malay).
2. This well-known vegetable, cultivated throughout India,
abounds in a copious, bland, viscid mucilage, which possesses
valuable emollient and demulcent properties, rendering the
practitioner in India independent of mallow and other European
articles of that class. The dried fruit may be employed where it is not
procurable in a fresh state. It is best given in decoction, prepared by
boiling three ounces of the fresh capsules, cut transversely, in a pint
and a half of water for twenty minutes, straining and sweetening to
taste. This, taken as an ordinary drink, proves alike agreeable and
serviceable in Fevers, Catarrhal attacks, Irritable states of the
Bladder and Kidneys, in Gonorrhœa, and in all cases attended with
scalding pain, and difficulty in passing Urine. Under its use the urine
is said to become much increased in quantity. In Dysentery,
especially in the chronic form of the disease, the bland, viscid
mucilage is often most beneficial. It is a good plan to give it in soup.
3. In Hoarseness, and in dry and irritable states of the Throat,
giving rise, as is often the case, to a troublesome Cough, as in

Consumption, &c., the free inhalation of the vapour of the hot
decoction (ante) has in many instances been found serviceable.
4. The fresh capsules bruised are stated to form an efficient
emollient poultice.
5. Abrus, or Country Liquorice Root. The root of Abrus
precatorius, Linn.
Mulatthí-hindi, Gunj-ka-jar (Hind., Duk.), Jaishtomodhu-bengala,
Kunch-ka-jar (Beng.), Múlathí (Punj.), Shangir (Kash.),
Gundumani-vér (Tam.), Guru-venda-véru (Tel.), Kunnikuru-véra
(Mal.), Gul-ganji-béru (Can.), Olindamúl (Cing.), Yu-e-si-anú
(Burm.), Akar-sagamerah (Malay).
6. This root, obtained from a twining shrub common throughout
India, whose bright scarlet seeds with a black spot at one end are
universally known, possesses many of the sensible properties and
medical qualities of the true liquorice-root (which is also to be met
with in some of the large bazaars), hence its common name.
Country Liquorice. Properly prepared, and according to directions in
Indian Pharmacopœia, it yields an extract similar to officinal
liquorice, but less sweet and more bitter. According to Moodeen
Sheriff (Suppl. to Ind. Ph. p. 18), an extract prepared from the dried
leaves of Abrus precatorius is much superior both in taste and as a
medicine to that prepared from the root. He gives the following
directions for its preparation: Pour boiling distilled water on the dried
leaves till they are sufficiently covered; keep the vessel on a slow fire
for six hours; then strain the liquor while hot through flannel and
evaporate on a water bath to a proper consistence. The extract
prepared from the juice of the fresh leaves, he adds, is also sweet,
but very inferior to the latter for medicinal purposes. The following
syrup has been found useful in the Coughs of Childhood. Take of
fresh Abrus roots, the larger sized the better, well bruised, two
ounces; and Abelmoschus capsules sliced, one ounce; boil in a pint
of water for half an hour, and strain; to the liquor add eight ounces
of sugar-candy or honey, and boil down to the consistence of a

syrup. From a tea to a table-spoonful may be freely given several
times a day when the cough is troublesome, whether fever is
present or not. It forms also a good adjunct to other more active
cough mixtures. The great objection to this, in common with all
syrups in India, is the readiness with which it undergoes
fermentation; hence only small quantities should be prepared when
cases occur requiring its use.
7. Acacia, or Babúl Bark. The bark of Acacia Arabica, Willd.
Babúl-ka-chál, Kíkar-ka-chál (Hind.), Kali-kíkar-kí chilká (Duk.),
Babúl-sál (Beng.), Sák (Punj., Kash.), Karu-vélam-pattai (Tam.),
Kulit-pokoh-bunga (Malay).
8. Babúl bark occurs in large thick pieces, coarsely fibrous, of a
deep mahogany colour, and astringent, bitterish taste. It is an
excellent astringent, and though less powerful than some others of
the same class, it possesses the advantage of being obtainable,
either in the fresh or dried state, throughout India, the tree yielding
it being common everywhere in dry, sandy localities.
9. The best form for medical purposes is a decoction prepared by
boiling one ounce and a half of the bruised bark in a pint of water
for ten minutes, and straining. Of this the dose is from one and a
half to two ounces twice daily, or oftener in Chronic Diarrhœa, &c.; it
is, however, chiefly employed as an external or local application—as
an injection in Leucorrhœa and other Vaginal Discharges; as an
enema in Piles and Prolapsus (descent) of the Anus, and as a gargle
in Sore Throat, and in Sponginess and Ulceration of the Gums. In all
these cases, however, it is generally used conjoined with alum and
other agents.
10. Acorus, or Sweet Flag Root. The root stock or Acorus
Calamus, Linn.
Bach or Vach (Hind., Duk.), Bach, Saféd Bach (Beng.), Warch
(Punj.), Vá'í (Kash.), Vashambú (Tam.), Vasa, Vadaja (Tel.),

Vash-anpa (Mal.), Bajé (Can.), Vékhanda (Mah.), Vaj, Vach
(Guz.), Lene or Linhe (Burm.), Jaringowe (Malay).
11. This is one of the commonest of bazaar medicines, and
generally procurable everywhere, of good quality, at a very small
cost. It occurs in pieces of various lengths, about the thickness of
the thumb, rather flattened, spongy, provided with numerous
sheath-like, ringed appendages; odour peculiar and aromatic; taste,
bitterish, warm and somewhat acrid. Till very recently it was
included in the British Pharmacopœia. It well deserves a place in
every Indian domestic medicine chest.
12. It is a tonic and stomachic of no small value, and is best given
in the form of infusion: one ounce of the bruised root to half a pint
of boiling water, in doses of a wine-glassful twice or thrice daily.
Combined with Chiretta, it has been reported to cure Intermittent
Fevers in natives, but though its power in this respect is doubtful,
except, perhaps, in cases of the mildest description, yet in
Convalescence after this and other forms of Fever, a mixture of
equal parts of the infusion of Acorus and Chiretta (98) is as good a
formula as can be employed. The same combination proves also
most serviceable in Dyspepsia, especially when attended with much
flatulence, in Loss of Appetite and Constitutional Debility.
13. In the Dysentery of Natives, and in that especially of Native
Children, Dr. Evers (Indian Medical Gazette, Feb. 1, 1875) speaks
very highly of Acorus given in decoction as follows: Take of the
bruised root-stock two ounces, Coriander seed one drachm, Black
Pepper half a drachm, Water one pint; boil down to about twelve
ounces (or for about a quarter of an hour), and set aside to cool.
The dose for an adult is a wine-glassful three times daily; for a child
from one to three tea-spoonfuls, sweetened with sugar, two or three
times a day. Astringents or Quinine (the latter when the disease is
apparently of malarious origin) may be added if necessary. Dr. Evers
found this decoction not only useful in Dysentery and Diarrhœa, but
also in the Bronchitic Affections of Children. He considers it worthy
of a more extended trial.

14. This root, especially when freshly collected, and retaining its
full aroma, is reported, on good authority, to drive away fleas and
other insects, a fact well to bear in mind in a sick room, as well as
elsewhere.
15. Aloes. The inspissated juice of Aloe Socotrina, Linn., and
other species of Aloes.
Musabbar, Ilvá, Yalvá (Hind.), Musanbar (Duk.), Móshabbar
(Beng.), Elwá (Punj.), Mússbar, Sibar (Kash.), Kariya-pólam,
Irakta-pólam (Tam.), Múshámbaram (Tel.), Chenna-náyakam
(Mal.), Musam-bara-bóla (Mah.), Yéliyo (Guz.), Kalu-bólam,
Kari-bolam (Cing.), Mo (Burm.), Jadam (Malay).
16. Aloes, as met with in the bazaars, are generally imported, and
of a very inferior description, but they may be rendered fit for
medical use by the following process: Take of bazaar Aloes, in small
fragments, one pound; boiling water, one gallon; stir them well
together until they are thoroughly mixed, and set aside for twelve
hours; then pour off the clear liquor, strain the remainder, mix the
liquors, and place in open vessels in the sun, or over a gentle fire, till
it is evaporated to dryness. Aloes of very good quality may also be
prepared from two indigenous species of Aloe, A. Indica, Royle, and
A. litoralis, König; the former inhabiting dry sandy plains in the
Northwestern Provinces, and the latter similar localities on the sea-
coasts of the Madras peninsula. The viscid juice with which the thick
leaves abound should be collected and evaporated to dryness by
exposure in open pans in the sun or over a gentle fire.
17. The principal use of Aloes is as a purgative, in doses of from
three to six grains. If administered alone, it is apt to cause griping,
nausea, &c.; hence, it is generally given in combination with
aromatics, &c. It is ill adapted for children, for persons subject to
Piles, or for Pregnant Females.
18. Few medicines are more generally useful for women when
suffering from an Irregular or Suspended state of the Menstrual
Discharge; but it should not be given during pregnancy, nor whilst

the menstrual discharge is present. In these cases, especially when
the patient is pale, thin, and weak, it is best given as follows: Take
purified Aloes and Sulphate of Iron, of each, finely powdered, 24
grains; Cinnamon in powder, 60 grains; Honey, sufficient to make a
mass; be careful that all the ingredients are well mixed; and divide
into 24 pills, of which two are to be taken twice daily.
19. The following is another very good combination: Take Aloes
and Asafœtida, of each 20 grains; beat into a mass with honey, and
divide into 12 pills, of which one may be taken twice daily. These
pills often prove of great service to women subject to Hysterical fits,
and Flatulent distension of the Abdomen, especially when at the
same time there is Constipation of the Bowels. In Headaches arising
from the sudden stoppage either of menstrual discharge or of long-
standing bleeding from piles, these pills often prove useful. Aloes
should not ordinarily be given to persons subject to piles, as they are
apt to aggravate the disease.
20. In cases of Habitual Constipation of the Bowels great benefit
has been found from the persevering use of the following pills: Take
of purified Aloes, 18 grains; Sulphate of Iron, 30 grains; beat into a
mass with a little honey, and divide into 24 pills. Of these, one may
be taken three times a day, immediately after the principal meals, till
they begin to act upon the bowels gently and then the number may
be reduced to two daily. At the end of a week or two another pill
may be omitted, and within a month a single pill once or twice a
week will suffice. If at any time they should act powerfully on the
bowels as a purgative, they should be discontinued for a time.
21. Alum.
Phitkarí (Hind.), Phitkarí (Beng.), Fatkarí (Punj.), Fatkar, Phatkar
(Kash.), Pati-káram (Tam., Tel.), Chinik-káram (Mal.), Pati-kárá
(Can.), Patikár, Turatí (Mah.), Sina-karam (Cing.), Keo-khin
(Burm.), Twas (Malay).
22. Alum of good quality is generally procurable in all bazaars. It
should be in colourless, transparent, crystalline masses, or pieces of

various sizes, with an acid, sweetish, astringent taste. When mixed
with impurities, as it often is, it may be rendered fit for medicinal
purposes by dissolving it in boiling water, straining the solution, and
evaporating it so as to obtain crystals, which should be preserved for
use. Alum, whether applied externally or given internally, is a
valuable astringent. Dose, from 10 to 20 grains for adults.
23. In that form of Ophthalmia commonly known in India by the
name of Country Sore Eyes, especially when it attacks children, a
solution of Alum is often of great service. For children the strength
of three grains to an ounce of water is sufficient; but for adults, a
solution of double this strength may be used: the eyes should be
freely washed with it four or five times a day, or a cloth wet with it
may be kept constantly applied. If the eyelids are much swollen,
especially in the morning, they should be well bathed with warm
milk, the eyelids should then be carefully separated, and the Alum
lotion dropped in. There is a native plan of treatment of these cases
which proves in many instances effectual, but it has the
disadvantage of being very painful for a short time. It is as follows:
Place some finely powdered alum on a heated plate of iron, and
whilst it is in a state of fusion add a small portion of lemon or lime-
juice, until it forms a black, soft mass. This, whilst hot, is applied
entirely round the orbit, care being taken that none of it gets
beneath the eyelids, as it causes under such circumstances intense
agony. One or two applications, each being allowed to remain on for
twelve hours, suffice ordinarily to effect a cure.
24. After severe Blows on the Eye, when the pain and heat have
subsided, and much discoloration and swelling remain, an Alum
poultice is an effectual application. It is made by rubbing up 30
grains of powdered alum with the white of an egg till it forms a
coagulum. This placed between two pieces of thin rag or muslin,
should be kept applied to the eye for some hours.
25. In Hæmorrhage from the Lungs, Stomach, Kidneys, Uterus,
and other Internal Organs, Alum, in doses of 10 to 12 grains, thrice
daily, with or without opium, may often be given with advantage. It

is, however, inadmissible if much fever is present, and should at
once be discontinued if after the first few doses the symptoms are at
all aggravated. The following, called Alum Whey, is a good form of
administration: Boil for ten minutes two drachms of powdered Alum
in a pint of milk, and strain; of this, the dose is one and a half to two
ounces thrice daily. This may also be given with the view of checking
Excessive Menstrual Discharges (Menorrhagia) and Bleeding from
Piles. In this last case, clothes saturated with a solution of Alum in
decoction of Galls (145) or Babúl bark (9), in the proportion of two
drachms to eight ounces, should be kept constantly applied
externally. This application also proves useful in Prolapsus (descent)
of the Anus, especially in children. In Profuse Bleeding from the
Nose injections of a solution of Alum (20 grains to one ounce of
water) into the nostril is sometimes effectual; care, however, is
required in its use. Powdered Alum, or a very strong saturated
solution, applied locally on a compress, occasionally suffices to arrest
Bleeding from Leech-bites, Cuts, &c.
26. In the Chronic Diarrhœa of Natives, the following mixture has
been found useful: Take of Alum ten grains, infusion of Acorus root
(12), one and a half ounce, Laudanum, five drops; repeat three or
four times daily. In the Diarrhœa which precedes Cholera, and in the
early stages of Cholera, the following powders are worthy of a trial.
Take Alum, Catechu, and Cinnamon, of each, powdered, ten grains,
mix with honey, and give at a dose. It may be repeated every one or
two hours, according to circumstances. It proves useful also in
controlling the Diarrhœa of Phthisis.
27. As a palliative in Diabetes, "Alum Whey," prepared as directed
in paragraph 25, may be tried; under its use the quantity of urine
voided is, in some instances, diminished. In Albuminuria, also, it has
been useful in some instances in reducing the proportion of albumen
in the urine.
28. In Hooping Cough, when the first or acute stage has passed,
no remedy is more generally efficacious than Alum, in doses of three
or four grains, every four or six hours for a child from two to three

years old. It may be given in the form of powder or in solution (Alum
25 grains, Omum Water three ounces) in doses of a dessert-spoonful
every four or six hours for a child from two to four years old.
29. For Relaxed or Ulcerated Sore Throat, for Ulceration and
Sponginess of the Gums, in Salivation, and in Fissures of the Tongue
in Consumption, a very useful gargle or mouth wash is made by
dissolving two drachms of Alum in a pint of the decoction of Galls
(145) or Babúl Bark (9), and sweetening with honey. For the small
white Ulcers (Aphthæ, or Thrush) in the mouths of infants and
young children, a better application is 20 grains of finely powdered
Alum, incorporated with one ounce of honey. This may be applied
twice daily, with the tip of the finger. In the severer Ulcerative forms
of the disease (Ulcerative Stomatitis) Alum in fine powder, or in
strong solution, proves a more effectual application.
30. There is a disease often confounded with Gonorrhœa, where
the discharge does not come, as it does in true gonorrhœa, from the
urethra, but from a sore or excoriated surface between the prepuce
and the head of the penis. For this there is no better application
than a solution of Alum, 20 grains in one ounce of water. It may be
used twice or thrice daily. The strictest cleanliness should be
enforced at the same time. In Gleet, a solution of Alum (three
grains), in water (one ounce), used as an injection twice daily, is
often productive of benefit. In Leucorrhœa and other Vaginal
Discharges, injections of Alum in decoction of Galls or Babúl bark, as
advised in the last paragraph, often prove very useful.
31. In old Chronic spreading and gangrenous Ulcers so common
amongst natives, the following forms an excellent application: Finely
powdered Alum, four drachms; finely powdered Catechu, one
drachm; Opium, half a drachm; Ceromel (167), or Kokum butter, or
Ghee, one ounce. First, rub down the opium with the ceromel till
thoroughly mixed, and then incorporate the other ingredients. A
portion of this, spread on soft rag, should be applied to the ulcer
night and morning. If it occasion much pain, the proportion of
ceromel should be increased. For Bed-Sores or where these are likely

to occur, Dr. Aitchison describes as an excellent remedy—a mixture
of 30 grains of burnt alum and the white of an egg. It should be well
painted over the part.
32. For Enlargement of the Joints, especially that of the Knee, and
for other Swellings resulting from Blows, Bruises, or Sprains, the
following lotion has been found useful; Alum, four drachms, Vinegar
and Arrack, of each a pint; dissolve, and keep cloths wet with this
lotion constantly to the affected part. In Scorpion Bites, Alum
moistened with water and locally applied often affords instantaneous
relief (Dr. Saunders).
33. Asafœtida.
Hing (Hind., Duk., Beng., Pung., Mah., Guz.), Yang (Kash.),
Káyam, Perun-gáyam (Tam.), Inguva (Tel.), Perun-gáyam,
Káyam (Mal.), Perun-káyam (Cing.), Shinkhu or Shingu (Burm.),
Hingu (Malay).
34. Asafœtida of good quality may be obtained in most bazaars.
The moister and most strongly smelling kinds should be chosen for
medical purposes. It may be given in the form of pill, in doses of
from five to ten grains; or in that of mixture, prepared by rubbing
down in a mortar five drachms of Asafœtida in a pint of hot water,
and straining and setting aside to cool. Of this solution, which is
thick and milky, the dose is from one to two table-spoonfuls. Its
nauseous taste is a great objection to its use.
35. In Hysterical Fits and in Fainting, Nervous Palpitations, and
other affections connected with Hysteria, Asafœtida proves most
useful. When the symptoms are urgent, as in fits, &c., it is best
given in the liquid form (ante), but where the object is rather to
combat the tendency to this state, and to make an impression on
the system, the solid form should be preferred. For this purpose it
may be advantageously combined with Aloes, as advised in Sect. 19.
36. In Flatulence, Flatulent Colic, and Spasmodic Affections of the
Bowels, especially when connected with hysteria, it is best given in

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