Final ppt of ts
- 1. A TECHNICAL SEMINAR (16SEC107S) ON “OFFSHORE PLATFORM” Submitted by MOHD OMER AHMED USN:20298 Under the Guidance of Miss. Shobha.L Asst.professor Civil Engineering Department VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY Jnanasangama, Belgaum- 590018 DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING Submitted in Partial fulfillment for the requirements of I Sem M.Tech – Structural Engineering Internal guide Dr. Bharathi Ganesh Prof.and Head Civil Engineering Department External guide Correct Name Present Designation Company Name
- 2. WELCOME PRESENTATION ON OFFSHORE PLATFORM 2CSD PRESENTATION
- 3. OVERVIEW INTRODUCTION • Offshore platforms are used for exploration of Oil and Gas from under Seabed and processing. • The First Offshore platform was installed in 1947 off the coast of Louisiana in 6M depth of water. • Today there are over 7,000 Offshore platforms around the world in water depths up to 1,850M 3CSD PRESENTATION
- 4. OVERVIEW cont.… • Platform size depends on facilities to be installed on top side eg. Oil rig, living quarters, Helipad etc. • Classification of water depths: – < 350 M- Shallow water – < 1500 M - Deep water – > 1500 M- Ultra deep water – US Mineral Management Service (MMS) classifies water depths greater than 1,300 ft as deepwater, and greater than 5,000 ft as ultra-deepwater. 4CSD PRESENTATION
- 5. 5CSD PRESENTATION OVERVIEW Offshore platforms can broadly categorized in two types Fixed structures that extend to the Seabed. Steel Jacket Concrete gravity Structure Compliant Tower
- 6. Literature review DECISION ANALYSIS APPROACH TO OFFDHORE PLATFORM DESIGN (Robert G.Bea, S.T Hong, James D . Mitchell, members, ASCE) This paper describes and illustrates a methodology with which alternative design strategies for offshore platforms in combined loading environment may be assessed. The, methodology is structured around a decision analysis approach to evaluating and selecting among alternatives. Experience with application of this approach to engineering structures for new offshore frontiers, such as the artic and dewater, indicates that it represents powerful toll to assist development of optimum engineering decisions. WAVE FORCE ON DECKS OF OFFSHORE PLATFORMS (R.G Bea, Fellow , ASCE, T.Xu, J.Stear, And R.Ramos) The wave crest height according to RP 2A of America petroleum institute (API) is higher than the lower deck elevation of many existing platforms. The API guideline to determine wave force acting on the deck of these platforms indicate that most platform cannot survive such loadings. The deck either to raise to clear specified wave crest. A variety of laboratory test have been performed to address this problem. Several approach have been developed to compute the wave crest loadings and responses of the platforms to design. They did a study on the performance of platforms in the Gulf of Mexico that have survived and failed during hurricane wave loading on their decks.
- 7. EXPERIMENTAL TESTING OF GROUTED CONNECTIONS FOR OFFSHORE SUB STRUCTURES: A CRITICAL VIEW (Paul Dallyn, Ashraf El-Hamalawali, Alessandro Palmeri, Robert Knight) Grouted connections have been extensively used in the oil and gas industry for decades, and more recently their applications have been extended to the offshore wind industry. Unfortunately plain-pipe grouted connections for large-diameter mono pile foundation have recently exhibit clears sign of insufficient axial capacity. Resulting in slippage between the transition piece and mono pile. Motivated by the emergency of such problems. This paper presents a critical review of technical literature related to the experimental testing for grouted connections for offshore substructures , covering all the key materials and design parameters that influence their capacity, including the confinement provided by pile and sleeve, surface finish, simultaneous bending action, connection length dynamic loading, early-age cycling during grout curing, grout shrinkage, radial pre-stress and temperature. OFFSHORE CONCRETE STRUCTURE (Rodrigo Perez Fernandez, Miguel Lams Pardo) In offshore industry there are two possible materials for the construction of hull of any structure: steel and concrete. Steel is being widely used in the ship building industry for merchant ships. warships etc. materials such as aluminium glass reinforced plastics (GRP) or timber are also used in the small units with lengths lower than 100 m and with less adverse condition than in offshore. Nevertheless, some ships, barges have been built of concrete in the past, but these have been rather isolated case and have not changed the industry practice.one of the main differences in these priorities is the importance of maintenance and resistance to fatigue, precisely the areas where concrete perform better.
- 8. Ships can easily be dry docked for maintenance and repair, while in offshore platform these works have to be done in situ. So maintenance and fatigue are crucial to them/ beside the aspect, concrete has other advantages, according to a number of findings several studies .this supports the fact that in recent years concrete offshore units have been built proving that certain cases the benefits of steel are inferior to those of concrete. CHLORIDE PENETRATION INTO CONCRETE IN AN OFFSHORE PLATFORM-ANALYSIS OF EXPOSURE CONDITION (Ronaldo Alves De Medeiros-Junior, Maryangela Geimba De Lima,Priscila Catarine De Brito, Marcelo Henrique) In this paper they carried out the research on chloride penetration in three different exposure zones (atmospheric, splash and tidal) of an offshore concrete platform in the year 2000 and 2005 was analysed. the apparent diffusion coefficient and surface chloride content of the concrete specimen were determined by curve fitting of chloride profile in chloride penetration models based in diffusion. They find that the main factors responsible for increase in chloride content were exposure to wind wetting and dry cycles. In conclusion they said that, different types of intensity degradation exist in the same concrete structure exposed in a marine environment. RECENT STUDIES ON DURABILITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURE (S.W. Tang ,Y.Yao , C.Andrade, Zj.Li) Durability of concrete has attracted significance attentions over the past several decades and is still a research hotspot until now .this paper reviews and discuss the recent research activities on the durability of concrete, including
- 9. 1. Major durability problem such as alkali aggregate reactions, sulphate attack, steel corrosion and freeze-thaw. 2. Durability of concrete in marine environment and 3.Coupling effect of mechanical load and environment factors on durability of concrete. In conclusion they mention that, in general consensus is adding optimal type and amount of pozzolonic materials is a cost- effective approach to improve the durability performance to some extent.
- 10. 10CSD PRESENTATION OVERVIEW Structures that float near the water surface- Recent development Tension Leg platforms Semi Submersible Spar Ship shaped vessel (FPSO)
- 11. TYPE OF PLATFORMS (FIXED) • JACKETED PLATFORM – Space framed structure with tubular members supported on piled foundations. – Used for moderate water depths up to 400 M. – Jackets provides protective layer around the pipes. – Typical offshore structure will have a deck structure containing a Main Deck, a Cellar Deck, and a Helideck. – The deck structure is supported by deck legs connected to the top of the piles. The piles extend from above the Mean Low Water through the seabed and into the soil. 11CSD PRESENTATION
- 12. TYPE OF PLATFORMS (FIXED) • JACKETED PLATFORM (Cont.) – Underwater, the piles are contained inside the legs of a “jacket” structure which serves as bracing for the piles against lateral loads. – The jacket also serves as a template for the initial driving of the piles. (The piles are driven through the inside of the legs of the jacket structure). – 95% of offshore platforms around the world are Jacket supported. 12CSD PRESENTATION
- 13. TYPE OF PLATFORMS (FIXED) • COMPLIANT TOWER – Narrow, flexible framed structures supported by piled foundations. – Has no oil storage capacity. Production is through tensioned rigid risers and export by flexible or catenary steel pipe. – Undergo large lateral deflections (up to 10 ft) under wave loading. Used for moderate water depths up to 600 M. 13CSD PRESENTATION
- 14. TYPE OF PLATFORMS (FIXED) • CONCRETE GRAVITY STRUCTURES: – Fixed-bottom structures made from concrete – Heavy and remain in place on the seabed without the need for piles – Used for moderate water depths up to 300 M. – Part construction is made in a dry dock adjacent to the sea. The structure is built from bottom up, like onshore structure. – At a certain point , dock is flooded and the partially built structure floats. It is towed to deeper sheltered water where remaining construction is completed. – After towing to field, base is filled with water to sink it on the seabed. – Advantage- Less maintenance 14CSD PRESENTATION
- 15. TYPE OF PLATFORMS (FLOATER) • Tension Leg Platform (TLP) – Tension Leg Platforms (TLPs) are floating facilities that are tied down to the seabed by vertical steel tubes called tethers. – This characteristic makes the structure very rigid in the vertical direction and very flexible in the horizontal plane. The vertical rigidity helps to tie in wells for production, while, the horizontal compliance makes the platform insensitive to the primary effect of waves. – Have large columns and Pontoons and a fairly deep draught. 15CSD PRESENTATION
- 16. TYPE OF PLATFORMS (FLOATER) • Tension Leg Platform (TLP) – TLP has excess buoyancy which keeps tethers in tension. Topside facilities , no. of risers etc. have to fixed at pre-design stage. – Used for deep water up to 1200 M – It is sensitive to topside load/draught variations as tether tensions are affected. 16CSD PRESENTATION
- 17. TYPE OF PLATFORMS (FLOATER) • SEMISUB PLATFORM – Due to small water plane area , they are weight sensitive. Flood warning systems are required to be in-place. – Topside facilities , no. of risers etc. have to fixed at pre-design stage. – Used for Ultra deep water. – Semi-submersibles are held in place by anchors connected to a catenary mooring system. 17CSD PRESENTATION
- 18. TYPE OF PLATFORMS (FLOATER) • SPAR: – Concept of a large diameter single vertical cylinder supporting deck. – These are a very new and emerging concept: the first spar platform, Neptune, was installed off the USA coast in 1997. – Used for Ultra deep water depth of 2300 M. – The center of. buoyancy is considerably above center of gravity , making Spar quite stable. – Due to space restrictions in the core, number of risers has to be predetermined 18CSD PRESENTATION
- 19. TYPE OF PLATFORMS (FLOATER) • SHIP SHAPED VESSEL (FPSO) – Ship-shape platforms are called Floating Production, Storage and Offloading (FPSO) facilities. – FPSOs have integral oil storage capability inside their hull. This avoids a long and expensive pipeline to shore. – Can explore in remote and deep water and also in marginal wells, where building fixed platform and piping is technically and economically not feasible – FPSOs are held in position over the reservoir at a Single Point Mooring (SPM). The vessel is able to weathervane around the mooring point so that it always faces into the prevailing weather. 19CSD PRESENTATION
- 20. PLATFORM PARTS • TOPSIDE: – Facilities are tailored to achieve weight and space saving – Incorporates process and utility equipment • Drilling Rig • Injection Compressors • Gas Compressors • Gas Turbine Generators • Piping • Instrumentation – Accommodation for operating personnel. – Crane for equipment handling – Helipad 20CSD PRESENTATION
- 21. PLATFORM PARTS • MOORINGS & ANCHORS: – Used to tie platform in place – Material • Steel chain • Steel wire rope – Catenary shape due to heavy weight. – Length of rope is more • Synthetic fiber rope – Taut shape due to substantial less weight than steel ropes. – Less rope length required – Corrosion free 21CSD PRESENTATION
- 22. PLATFORM PARTS • RISER: – Pipes used for production, drilling, and export of Oil and Gas from Seabed. – Riser system is a key component for offshore drilling or floating production projects. – The cost and technical challenges of the riser system increase significantly with water depth. – Design of riser system depends on filed layout, vessel interfaces, fluid properties and environmental condition. 22CSD PRESENTATION
- 23. PLATFORM PARTS • RISER: – Remains in tension due to self weight – Profiles are designed to reduce load on topside. Types of risers • Rigid • Flexible - Allows vessel motion due to wave loading and compensates heave motion – Simple Catenary risers: Flexible pipe is freely suspended between surface vessel and the seabed. – Other catenary variants possible 23CSD PRESENTATION
- 24. PLATFORM INSTALLATION • BARGE LOADOUT: – Various methods are deployed based on availability of resources and size of structure. • Barge Crane • Flat over - Top side is installed on jackets. Ballasting of barge • Smaller jackets can be installed by lifting them off barge using a floating vessel with cranes. 24CSD PRESENTATION
- 25. CORROSION PROTECTION • The usual form of corrosion protection of the underwater part of the jacket as well as the upper part of the piles in soil is by cathodic protection using sacrificial anodes. • A sacrificial anode consists of a zinc/aluminium bar cast about a steel tube and welded on to the structures. Typically approximately 5% of the jacket weight is applied as anodes. • The steelwork in the splash zone is usually protected by a sacrificial wall thickness of 12 mm to the members. 25CSD PRESENTATION
- 26. STRUCTURAL DESIGN • Loads: • Offshore structure shall be designed for following types of loads: – Permanent (dead) loads. – Operating (live) loads. – Environmental loads – Wind load » Wave load » Earthquake load – Construction - installation loads. – Accidental loads. • The design of offshore structures is dominated by environmental loads, especially wave load 26CSD PRESENTATION
- 27. STRUCTURAL DESIGN • Permanent Loads: Weight of the structure in air, including the weight of ballast. – Weights of equipment, and associated structures permanently mounted on the platform. – Hydrostatic forces on the members below the waterline. These forces include buoyancy and hydrostatic pressures. 27CSD PRESENTATION
- 28. STRUCTURAL DESIGN • Operating (Live) Loads: – Operating loads include the weight of all non- permanent equipment or material, as well as forces generated during operation of equipment. • The weight of drilling, production facilities, living quarters, furniture, life support systems, heliport, consumable supplies, liquids, etc. • Forces generated during operations, e.g. drilling, vessel mooring, helicopter landing, crane operations. • Following Live load values are recommended in BS6235: Crew quarters and passage ways: 3.2 KN/m2 Working areas: 8,5 KN/m2 28CSD PRESENTATION
- 29. STRUCTURAL DESIGN • Wind Loads: • Wind load act on portion of platform above the water level as well as on any equipment, housing, derrick, etc. • For combination with wave loads, codes recommend the most unfavorable of the following two loadings: –1 minute sustained wind speeds combined with extreme waves. 29CSD PRESENTATION
- 30. STRUCTURAL DESIGN 30CSD PRESENTATION Wave load: The wave loading of an offshore structure is usually the most important of all environmental loadings. The forces on the structure are caused by the motion of the water due to the waves Determination of wave forces requires the solution of , a) Sea state using an idealization of the wave surface profile and the wave kinematics by wave theory. b) Computation of the wave forces on individual members and on the total structure, from the fluid motion.
- 31. STRUCTURAL DESIGN 31CSD PRESENTATION Ice and Snow Loads: Ice is a primary problem for marine structures in the arctic and sub-arctic zones. Ice formation and expansion can generate large pressures that give rise to horizontal as well as vertical forces. In addition, large blocks of ice driven by current, winds and waves with speeds up to 0,5 to 1,0 m/s, may hit the structure and produce impact loads. Temperature Load: Temperature gradients produce thermal stresses. To cater such stresses, extreme values of sea and air temperatures which are likely to occur during the life of the structure shall be estimated. In addition to the environmental sources , accidental release of cryogenic material can result in temperature increase, which must be taken into account as accidental loads. The temperature of the oil and gas produced must also be considered.
- 32. STRUCTURAL DESIGN 32CSD PRESENTATION Installation Load : These are temporary loads and arise during fabrication and installation of the platform or its components. During fabrication, erection lifts of various structural components generate lifting forces, while in the installation phase forces are generated during platform load out, transportation to the site, launching and upending, as well as during lifts related to installation.
- 33. STRUCTURAL DESIGN 33CSD PRESENTATION Accidental Load : Accidental loads are loads, which may occur as a result of accident or exceptional circumstances. Examples of accidental loads are, collision with vessels, fire or explosion, dropped objects, and unintended flooding of buoyancy tanks. Special measures are normally taken to reduce the risk from accidental loads.
- 34. STRUCTURAL DESIGN 34CSD PRESENTATION Load Combinations : The load combinations depend upon the design method used, i.e. whether limit state or allowable stress design is employed. The load combinations recommended for use with allowable stress procedures are: Normal operations Dead loads plus operating environmental loads plus maximum live loads. Dead loads plus operating environmental loads plus minimum live loads. Extreme operations Dead loads plus extreme environmental loads plus maximum live loads. Dead loads plus extreme environmental loads plus minimum live loads Environmental loads,should be combined in a manner consistent with their joint probability of occurrence. Earthquake loads, are to be imposed as a separate environmental load, i.e., not to be combined with waves, wind, etc.
- 35. STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS • ANALYSIS MODEL: • The analytical models used in offshore engineering are similar to other types of on shore steel structures • The same model is used throughout the analysis except supports locations. • Stick models are used extensively for tubular structures (jackets, bridges, flare booms) and lattice trusses (modules, decks). • Each member is normally rigidly fixed at its ends to other elements in the model. • In addition to its geometrical and material properties, each member is characterized by hydrodynamic coefficients, e.g. relating to drag, inertia, and marine growth, to allow wave forces to be automatically generated. 35CSD PRESENTATION
- 36. • Acceptance Criteria: • The verification of an element consists of comparing its characteristic resistance(s) to a design force or stress. It includes: • a strength check, where the characteristic resistance is related to the yield strength of the element, • a stability check for elements in compression related to the buckling limit of the element. • An element is checked at typical sections (at least both ends and mid span) against resistance and buckling. • Tubular joints are checked against punching. These checks may indicate the need for local reinforcement of the chord using larger thickness or internal ring-stiffeners. • Elements should also be verified against fatigue, corrosion, temperature or durability wherever relevant. 36CSD PRESENTATION
- 37. CASE STUDY ON OFFSHORE CONCRETE STRUCTURES BRIEF HISTORY OF THE SHIPS AND STRUCTURES OFFSHORE THAT USE CONCRETE • The use of concrete in marine structures dates back to ancient Rome and Greece, and its use extends to diverse applications such as bridges, piers, dock sand lighthouses. But the use of concrete as a building material for commercial hull vessels began in the late nineteenth century • The first concrete platform for oil and gas production in the Gulf of Mexico was installed in 1950 and since then there have been more than1000 small concrete-like structures built in that area
- 38. Cont.…. • But the first major concrete offshore structure supported at its base by gravity, gravity base structure (GBS), was installed in1973 in the North Sea: the Ekofisk tank • The LNG terminal Adriatic, the concrete box built by Acciona in Algecirasin2007, is the last major mile stone in concrete offshore structures in spain
- 39. CHARACTERISTICS OF CONCRETE IN PREFERENCE TO STEEL Of all types of concrete, two are applied in shipbuilding and offshore industry: reinforced concrete and pre-stressed concrete. We compared the steel properties against more typical shipbuilding material. 1. REINFORCED CONCRETE 2. PRE-STRESSED CONCRETE 1. REINFORCED CONCRETE Reinforced concrete is found inside steel armour, properly calculated and placed. This concrete is able to with stand compressive forces and traction
- 40. Cont.. • The tensile stress of steel reinforcement is resisted by reinforced steel. • Reinforced concrete has far fewer maintenance requirements than steel. • How- ever, if loaded with tension, the concrete develops cracks overtime, which may cause the bar to rust. • Even so, the cost per weight of concrete is much cheaper than steel, so the concrete structure would have a lower cost.
- 41. 2. PRE-STRESSED CONCRETE • Pre-stressed concrete has special steel reinforcement under tension inside, which yields much higher tensile stress than normal concrete. • In pre-stressed concrete steel tensioning supports all loads, and the concrete role simply completes protection against corrosion and as a non- thermal link (non-thermal bond) for steel.
- 42. ADVANTAGES CONCRETE OFFSHORE STRUCTURES Concrete offshore structures show excellent performance: They have very high durability. They are constructed of maintenance-free materials. Better performance in motion, in the case of floating structures. They are suitable for harsh and /or arctic environments, such as ice and seismic regions. Can carry heavy topsides (equipment and oil systems on deck). Provide storage capacity within the structure.
- 43. Most supported platform sat the bottom, gravity based, do not need an additional anchor because of the large dimensions and weight of its support, which makes them suitable for soft and shaky floors. Fire resistant. Free of sparks, making them ideal as storage for flammable and explosive charges and, therefore, function as a bunkering barge, FPSOs, LNG terminal sand in general for the offshore oil and gas industry. Pollution due to corrosion and other damage to the load is minimized by the low thermal conductivity and corrosion resistance of concrete
- 44. Types of concrete structures in the industry offshore Supported Structures in the deep—Gravity base structures (GBS) • Concrete structures supported on the bottom, concrete gravity base Structures (CGBS) or simply concrete gravity substructure (CGS), run their support loads directly over the upper layers of the seabed that supports them. • The structure provides buoyancy during construction and towing and acts at the same time as structural support in the operation phase. Furthermore, the structure can be used as storage for oil and other liquids
- 46. Cylindrical tanks type • The first concrete offshore platform in the North Sea was the Ekofisk, which was built in 1973 as the concept of the French– Canadian compagnie general des pour les Richesse operationelles developments Sous Sous- Marines(CGDORIS)to Phillips petroleum. • The design consists of a large box made up of cylindrical tanks that once attached from a single structure that forms the basis for the upper deck. It is supported at the bottom of the sea and surrounded in turn by an exterior breakwater, built in two pieces
- 47. Condeep type • Between 1975 and1995 a total of fourteen condeeps settled in the North Sea (Holand etal.,2003) with depths of 104 m to 30 m, the Aker Kvaerner shipyard in Hinna (near Stavanger, Norway)was in charge of building them. • The most recent project developments Condeep with rectangular cells is by Arup for ExxonMobil Sakhalin II Project (Russia) The following figure shows the layout of the two CGS vessels designed by Arup The base was90m-100 with a depth of 12 m
- 48. CIDS (concrete island drilling system) • The Concrete Island Drilling Platform System (CIDS) was built in 1984 with precast pre- stressed concrete to withstand the severe pressure of ice in the Arctic. • This platform replaces the construction of islands made of gravel which cost at the time about $100 million. • In contrast, CIDS cost only $75 million and was reused to explore numerous locations along the north coast of Alaska and Russia without having shown any deterioration.
- 49. Adriatic LNG terminal This is the first offshore gas terminal that has been installed in the world The terminal consists of a pre-stressed concrete structure resting on the bottom GBS 180 m long, 88 m wide and 47 m in height, whose budget was over 200 million euros
- 50. Floating structures 1) Semi-submergible and TLP type 2) Barge type • Since concrete is very resistant to salt water and keeps maintenance costs low, floating concrete structures have become quite attractive for oil and gas industry in recent decades. • Temporarily floating platforms such as Condeep float during construction and towing, but are finally placed on the ocean floor Permanently floating concrete structures were used in the discovery of oil and gas deposits for production. Sto • rage, offloading units and in some cases as a system of heavy lifting. 1) Semi-submergible and TLP type • The geometry of semisubmersible and TLP platforms are very similar.they have a pontoon at the bottom and stabilization columns that cross the waterline to support the steel deck. • The differences are mainly the anchoring system: while the semisubmersible type has a traditional system of anchors, anchor chains in catenarythe TLP has an anchoring system with steel tendons fixed vertically at the bottom, which do not allow the vertical movements
- 52. 2) Barge type The FPSO and FSO are units for oil and gas storage tanks located in the ship’s hull which remain anchored to the bottom through a turret or other mooring system that allows the ship to find the best wind conditions and waves, allowing the flow of oil/ gas
- 53. New concepts • As we have seen in previous sections, the use of floating concrete structures has reduced to a few cases. • However, in the last few years an increase in interest has been observed being the offshore industry that desires this, pushed by the necessity has fed more to develop to fields of petroleum and gas in more and more hard regions, like the Arctic, where concrete has a better behaviour than steel. • In addition it has been caused by the necessity to develop more terminals of import and export for LNG, since the behaviour of concrete is superior to steel as hull for cryogenic storage of liquids since we have seen previously
- 54. Cont.… • In addition to these demands, the use of concrete in offshore structures is also being applied in conceptual ideas of very large floating structures (VLFS) like floating airports, as well as in floating wind generators, although they are being designed in steel they have a better alternative in concrete
- 55. 55CSD PRESENTATION REFERENCES • Ronaldo Alvesde Medeiros-Junior Maryangela Geimbade Lima Priscila Catarinede Brito , Marcelo Henrique Fariasde Medeiros • S.W. Tang, Y. Yao C. Andrade Z.J. Li • Rodrigo Pe´ rez Ferna´ndez Miguel Lamas Pardo • Paul Dallyn, Ashraf El-Hamalawi, Alessandro Palmeri, Robert Knight. • Ronaldo Alves De Medeiros-Junior, Maryangela Geimba De Lima,Priscila Catarine De Brito, Marcelo Henrique • R.G Bea, Fellow , ASCE, T.Xu, J.Stear, And R.Ramos . • W.J. Graff: Introduction to offshore structures. – Gulf Publishing Company, Houston 1981. – Good general introduction to offshore structures. – Civil engg,today,Technical Journal of ASCE-IS – WWW.wikipedia.com – WWW.sptoffshore.com
- 56. 56 THANK YOU