FinalDissertationSE

!1
!
Dissertation Title:
GENDER, SEXUALITIES AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IN SCIENCE FICTION
VIDEO GAMES: AN ANALYSIS OF MASS EFFECT
!
Author: Susannah East
!
Academic Year: 2013/2014
!
Word Count: 14588
!
This dissertation is submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the
degree of MSc in Gender and International Relations.
!
This dissertation contains no plagiarism, has not been submitted in whole or in part for the
award of another degree, and is solely the work of Susannah East.
!
Signed:
!
Susannah East (11 September 2014)
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

!2
!
!
!
!
!
!
Dedicated to Josiah
who pestered me repeatedly to play Mass Effect.
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

!3
Abstract
!
This thesis explores the connections between popular culture, video games, gender, sexualities, and
international relations. By analysing the science fiction video game Mass Effect, I find that hegemonic
ideologies surrounding gender and international relations are both challenged and reinforced. I argue
that the inclusion of a range of gender identities in video games is extremely important, as the world
can then be presented as a more fluid, complex place; thereby undermining justification for rigid,
masculinised international relations strategies.
!
I find that Mass Effect subverts traditional gender stereotypes by including in-depth female characters
in the game; having a large emphasis on dialogue during conflict; allowing players to choose their
avatar’s gender, race and sexuality; and including male gay characters in a positive light. However,
while some of these points are extremely progressive for a video game that comes from an extremely
masculinised industry, overall Mass Effect tends to conform to gender stereotypes in a number of
ways. For example, many female characters are either over-sexualised or assimilated into the
masculine culture of aggressive politics; there is clear gendered division of labour; violence is
masculinised, negatively effecting men and women; military values are unquestioningly promoted;
the intergalactic relations presented are realist (and hence masculinised); and lesbianism is reduced to
serving the male gaze.
!
Thus, it is clear that Mass Effect has the potential to subvert gender stereotypes, as well as conform to
hegemonic ideologies and discourses relating to gender, sexualities and international relations. I begin
by explaining the importance of popular culture and gender, before describing Mass Effect, and then
considering how a predominately masculine games industry might effect gender portrayals. Then I
split the thesis into three main sections, where I discuss Mass Effect’s portrayal of femininities,
masculinities, and finally sexualities. Through this in-depth analysis of Mass Effect I find that, overall,
it is extremely important for games to provide a counter discourse to hegemonic ideologies, and that
science fiction video games are an ideal vehicle for this, utilising their imaginative virtual spaces to
challenge and transform taken for granted conceptions of reality.
!

!4
!
Contents
Introduction 5
!
The Importance of Gender and Popular Culture 6
Why Mass Effect? 7
The Game Industry as a “Masculine Dungeon”: Does This Effect Gender Representation? 9
!
Mass Effect’s Representations of Femininities 13
From Soldiers to Strippers: The Sexualisation of the Asari 13
This is a Man’s World/Universe: Assimilating Women Into Masculine Culture 19
Secretaries in Space: The Gendered Division of Labour in Mass Effect 21
!
Mass Effect’s Representations of Masculinities 22
The Krogan: Hyper-Masculine Warriors and Hyper-Domesticated Mothers 22
Voices Amidst the Gunfire: A Stifled Critique of Violence 26
War is Manly and Fun: The Gendering of Conflict 28
The Militarisation of Virtual Space 30
The Future is Anarchic… The Villains are Men 34
!
Mass Effect’s Representations of Sexualities 36
Queering Shepherd 36
Heterosexuality as the Norm 39
Lesbian ‘Heteroflexibility’ and the Male Gaze 40
A Positive Depiction of Male Homosexuality 41
The Transformative Potential of Gaming 43
!
Conclusion 45
!

!5
!
Gender, Sexualities and International Relations in Science Fiction Video Games: An Analysis of
Mass Effect
!
!
Introduction
!
In this essay I delve into the Mass Effect universe, analysing the portrayals of gender, sexualities and
international relations present in the video game. In recognising the link between popular culture and
international relations, I uncover hegemonic discourses apparent in Mass Effect, as well as counter-
discourses that challenge traditional notions of masculinities and femininities. Including a range of
gender identities in video games is extremely important, as the world is then presented as a more
fluid, complex place; thereby undermining justification for rigid, masculinised international relations
strategies. Mass Effect challenges gender stereotypes by including in-depth female characters in the
game; having a large emphasis on dialogue during conflict; allowing players to choose their avatar’s
gender, race and sexuality; and including male gay characters in a positive light. However, while
some of these points are extremely progressive for a video game, overall Mass Effect tends to
conform to gender stereotypes in a number of ways. For example, many female characters are either
over-sexualised or assimilated into the masculine culture of aggressive politics; there is clear gendered
division of labour; violence is masculinised, negatively effecting men and women; military values are
promoted; the inter-galactic relations are realist (and hence masculinised); and lesbianism is reduced
to serving the male gaze. Thus, it is clear that Mass Effect conforms to hegemonic discourses, while
simultaneously subverting gender norms. This illustrates how science fiction video games have the
potential to both challenge and conform to hegemonic discourses surrounding gender, sexualities and
international relations. I shall begin by explaining the importance of popular culture and gender,
describing Mass Effect, and considering how a predominately masculine games industry might effect
gender portrayals. Then I split the thesis into three main sections, where I discuss Mass Effect’s
portrayal of femininities, masculinities, and finally sexualities.
!

!6
!
The Importance of Gender and Popular Culture
!
Popular culture has the potential to conform to (and thus reproduce) societal norms and stereotypes
surrounding gender, which often result in limited depictions of what are, in reality, complex identities.
For example, gender stereotyping occurs when complex characters or individuals are reduced down to
preconceived ideas determined by their sex. These ideas are often limiting, as men are boxed into
macho, aggressive types and women are categorised as soft and nurturing. As Coleman (2007: 205)
explains, “gendered identities do not form a simple (masculine/feminine) binary but, as products of
power-laden social practices, are multiple, contradictory and open-ended, existing in hierarchical
relations with one another in which gender is interwoven with class, race and sexuality”. To limit fluid
and changeable identities to the extremes of the male/female binary is dangerous as it neglects to
represent the complexity of what it is to be human. This is particularly problematic as international
relations is intimately tied to the human experience, representing individuals, groups, cultures and
states. If complex and fluid identities are not represented in popular culture then it is possible that
conceptions of international relations will also be limited.
!
However, despite the pervasiveness of popular culture in our everyday lives, it remains an under-
recognised phenomenon in the study of international politics (Rowley, 2010: 309). In this thesis I
present a specific type of popular culture, the video game, to illustrate the importance of gaming in
world politics, with a particular emphasis on how gender is represented, thus analysing the ideological
structure of the text and its possible meanings, rather than audience reception or production processes
(Weldes 1999: 122). Popular culture matters in world politics because it is a means of manufacturing
consent, usually with regards to dominant ideologies. For example, repeated play of militarised and
masculinised ‘shoot ‘em ups’ might lead to the opinion that increased defence spending and an
aggressive foreign policy are to be expected (Leonard and King 2009: 3). Furthermore, it is important
to note that whilst Mass Effect is a science fiction game, this does not detract from its relevance to the
real world. As Lipschutz (2003: 96) argues, science fiction “… is never really about the future or
strange, new worlds where “no one has gone before”. It is about us and the world in which we live.”
Science fiction not only provides a mirror for looking at how society is perceived, but also provides a

!7
space to create subversive ideas and discourses. Mass Effect is an excellent example of how video
games have the propensity to conform to gender stereotypes, as well as create a space in which to
subvert them.
!
Whilst there is a huge range of science fiction popular culture to analyse, I have chosen to look
specifically at video games as these have become an important part of international culture and
politics. For example, McGonigal (2012: 4) describes the extent of gaming in today’s world:
With all of this play, we have turned digital games – for our computers, for our mobile
phones, and for our home entertainment systems – into what is expected to be a $68 billion
industry annually by the year 2012. And we are creating a massive virtual silo of cognitive
effort, emotional energy, and collective attention lavished on game worlds instead of on the
real world.
As Stuart (2014) argues, “over the last decade, games have progressed from being seen as a geeky
pastime for adolescent boys, to being understood and appreciated as a complex and significant art
form”. The more accepted games become, the more important it is to analyse their content, as they are
impacting popular culture more profoundly than ever before. Thus, on the one hand this thesis seeks
to uncover the “disseminated ideologies of hegemony” (Leonard 2004: 2) present in mainstream
games, while on the other hand explore their potential for challenging these dominant discourses.
!
Why Mass Effect?
!
Mass Effect is a three-part video game series produced by BioWare and EA Games from 2007 to
2012, available for Xbox 360, Playstation 3, and PC computers. Set almost 200 years in the future, it
envisions a universe where humans are struggling to prove themselves against a multitude of other
alien species who are more technologically advanced. When the universe comes under threat from an
ancient alien race called the Reapers, the humans and other aliens must work together to save the day.
Players take on the role of Commander Shepard, a soldier who, along with a diverse team of alien
squad-mates, fights to save the universe from the Reapers as well as from other threats. As a Third
Person Shooter (TPS) Role Playing Game (RPG), it is both an action-adventure and a science fiction

!8
space opera. The action side of the game incorporates regular fighting intervals, whereas the space
opera incorporates in-depth character portrayals and politically charged dialogue options. Mass Effect
is famous for its branching story lines that enable the player to make decisions that influence the
narrative, much like a ‘choose your own adventure’ story. With an expansive and interactive universe,
multiple story-lines, and a customisable gaming experience, it offers a unique experience for every
player, and a multitude of material to analyse.
!
There are three main reasons whey I have chosen this particular game for analysis. First, this is a
mainstream ‘blockbuster’ video game with widespread appeal. Described as “a transcendent
experience, the new standard-setter for what a game can be” (Curthoys 2007: 62) and “the pre-
eminent science fiction franchise today” (Gallaway 2007), Mass Effect is critically acclaimed as well
as popular. With approximately 10.2 million copies sold over all three games (D’Angelo 2012), it is
well known by many gamers. This popular appeal is relevant because it demonstrates that mainstream
games, as well as small-scale ‘indy’ games, have the potential to provide a gaming experience that can
be critical and provocative as well as fun.
!
Second, Mass Effect is a science fiction game. As Weldes (2003: 10) argues, “SF offers an
exceptionally useful focus for analysis because it concerns itself quite self-consciously with political
issues; it directly addresses issues like technological change and social change, confronting
contemporary verities with possible alternatives”. Thus, Mass Effect is a valuable game to analyse as
it showcases the mainstream game industry’s perspectives on gender through a universe that explores
a myriad of issues ranging from macho representations of the military through to a gendered division
of labour. The genre of science fiction allows Mass Effect to make statements that challenge
traditional conceptions of gender, while also revealing areas where Mass Effect conforms
unquestioningly to hegemonic discourses.
!
Third, Mass Effect is different from many games as it not only provides a complex and far-reaching
universe for players to explore, but it also presents the characters within this universe in an extremely
in-depth and engaging way. Shepard’s alien team-mates have diverse personalities and between them
represent a range of cultures and histories, leading to many conversations that stimulate gamers

!9
intellectually and emotionally. For example, gamers have commented online that: “Mass Effect
3 produced a reaction in me unlike anything else in games ever has before. It made me think. It made
me reflect on the human condition” (Prell 2012), and “the games allow you to explore your own
ethics, personality, and emotions the way other games haven't” (Michael117 2012). Furthermore,
because Mass Effect allows players to customise their avatar’s appearance, personality and story-line,
gamers can be more psychologically invested in the game. These experiences are important as they
show that Mass Effect has the capacity to resonate deeply with its audience, making it a powerful
medium in which to either challenge or conform to hegemonic discourses surrounding gender and
international relations.
!
The Game Industry as a “Masculine Dungeon”: Does this Affect Gender Representation?
http://levelsave.com/into-the-fray-mass-effect-the-franchise-that-defined-a-generation/
Fig. 1: Posters depicting the main characters in all three games, illustrating a roughly equal number of males
and females.
!
Mass Effect provides a universe full of detailed and engaging characters with whom the players can
interact. Unlike many blockbuster video games, many of the main characters are female (see Fig. 1),
illustrating the developer’s capacity to design and create in-depth personalities for female characters.
This is certainly refreshing as the games industry has often been critiqued for its reductionist portrayal
of women, who are either scantily clad, damsels in distress, or simply non-existent. The story-line in

!10
Mass Effect revolves around crew members aboard the Normandy 7 who can be selected to go on
missions with Shepard. Around half of these squad members are female in each game, leading to
empowering representations of women since this would suggest they are equally capable of
participating in futuristic science fiction adventures. However, most of the non-Normandy 7
characters are men, rendering the majority of the Mass Effect universe a masculine sphere. Thus,
while in some senses Mass Effect is a pioneering game (at least in terms of mainstream blockbuster
releases) as it occasionally ticks boxes pertaining to gender equality, on closer inspection there is a
more ingrained sense that it is pandering to masculine gender stereotypes.
!
One reason for this could be that the games industry is a predominately male institution, with an
unsurprising lack of engagement with feminist issues. The credits of Mass Effect demonstrate the
unequal proportion of male and female positions within the industry as the vast majority are male,
with most females working in receptionist or PR roles. This is a very similar problem to the film
industry as in 2013 in “the top 100 domestic US grossing films, females comprised 15% of
protagonists, 29% of major characters and 30% of speaking characters – a degree of marginalisation
largely unchanged since the 1940s” (Carroll 2014). This mirrors general video game industry
representations which show an alarming lack of diversity, with only 11.5% of games developers
identifying as female, compared to 88.5% identifying as male (International Game Developers
Association 2005: 12-13). This tremendous disparity has led Dyer-Witheford and Peuter (2006: 606)
to describe game development as an “overwhelmingly masculine dungeon”. Consequently, detailed,
complex or even existent female characters have been neglected, and there has been very little
meaningful engagement with feminist issues. Arguably, this gender inequality in the workplace has
contributed to a lack of males feeling the need to question gender disparities, as it is much easier to
keep making games within entrenched masculinised parameters, than to take risks and attempt to give
a meaningful voice to female characters.
!
This “masculine dungeon” effect has resulted in a lack of female characters being represented in the
video game. For example, in Mass Effect the majority of all alien species are solely represented by
male characters. Unlike the Asari (an alien race), who are deliberately presented as an (essentially)
all-female species, other species such as the Turians, Hanar, Drell, Vorcha, Volus, Elcor, Batarians and

!11
Yahg purport to include both male and females in their species. However, all representations of these
aliens in the game are male, whether they have speaking or non-speaking roles to play. Altogether, 8
species are represented solely by males, 2 species by females, and 5 have mixed representations .1
Through conversations and dialogue it is occasionally implied that females exist within the male-
represented species, but they are neither seen nor heard when playing the game. Overall, this gives the
impression that the majority of inhabitants in the Mass Effect universe are men. This in turn could be
seen as a telling reflection of the real life gender gap in the video game industry, as well as the gender
gap in international politics.
!
However, a predominantly male development team should still be able to challenge gender
stereotypes in games. One of the simplest ways of doing this is to include both male and females in
each species, demonstrating that men and women are an equally important part of this spectacular
universe. The trouble is that the team behind Mass Effect don’t do this. Instead, they attribute this
disparity to “insufficient development time and memory budget to support two different versions of
the same species” (Mass Effect Wiki 2014) . Furthermore, in discussing the prospect of female2
Turians, Derek Watts, the art director for Mass Effect 3, illustrates that there is also a sense of unease
in creating female counterparts:
…they’re all males in the game. We usually try and avoid the females ‘cos… well, what do
you do with a female Turian? Do you give her breasts? What do you do? Are you gonna put
lipstick on her… Actually some of the concept artists will draw lipstick on the male one and
go, “Hey, it’s done!”, and we’re like, no! Can you take this seriously? (Hanson 2011).
A presumed shortage of time or money to develop female models, and a lack of confidence to depict
realistic, detailed and complex female characters, has resulted in the systematic exclusion of female
characters in Mass Effect as well as the wider video games industry. While Mass Effect still compares
favourably to many other games in terms of female representation, overall it cannot be credited with
building a universe that includes men and women on an equal basis. Again, this parallels the lack of
Three of these “mixed representation” species depict only one female, the rest of the characters being male.1
This is a common reason given across the games industry for neglecting to create female characters alongside2
male characters (MacDonald 2014).

!12
representation of women in international relations, with both spheres being seen as a predominantly
masculine world, relating to men’s issues.
!
While the shortage of female characters in Mass Effect can be seen as a reflection of women’s
representation in society as a whole, this should not place limits on how women are depicted in
fictional spaces. With a disproportionate amount of men leading nations, owning businesses, and
serving in the military, it is unsurprising to see this reflected in the Mass Effect universe. But the
problem is that Mass Effect is a science fiction game that has been described as being a “giant leap
forward” in terms of storytelling (Vaughn 2007) as it clearly pushes the boundaries of traditional
games and narratives. As Sarkeesian (2014) argues, sexism “… is so powerful that it not only defines
our concepts of reality but it even sets the parameters for how we think about entirely fictional worlds,
even those taking place in the realms of fantasy and science fiction”. The fact that even creative, blue
sky thinking neglects to include females on an equal basis is highly disturbing, and could reflect game
developers’ lack of concern about feminist issues.
!
Clearly then, Mass Effect falls short of utilising fictional space to challenge gender inequality. This is
unfortunate as fictional spaces are a positive opportunity to represent women in a multitude of roles
that may not necessarily be possible in reality due to ingrained sexism. As Crawford (2003: 198)
argues, creating feminist science fiction utopias not only helps us to better understand our world, but
they can also allow us to imagine possibilities that are not constrained by pre-existing ideas of what is
considered politically feasible. Of course, Mass Effect is not aiming to be a feminist utopia, but the
built in bias/sexism could have been rectified by portraying an equal number of males and females.
The gender disparity in the game only serves to reinforce stereotypes, as millions of players spend
hours learning to negotiate a universe that systematically excludes women. This presents a problem,
as Peterson and Runyan (2010: 47) argue that there is a danger stereotypes can become common
sense, as opposed to being recognised as power-laden social constructions. Thus, while Mass Effect
comes across as a diverse and creative game, the exclusion of female characters not only reflects
reality in a limited, unimaginative way, but it also lends itself to the masculine world-view of
international relations.
!

!13
!
Mass Effect’s Representations of Femininities
!
From Soldiers to Strippers: The Sexualisation of the ‘Asari’
!
While most alien species are represented by men, the Asari are presented intentionally as an all-
female species. On the one hand this is extremely positive as it leads to the portrayal of Asari women
in all kinds of roles. This includes traditionally masculine occupations, such as soldiers (see Fig. 2),
politicians, and business owners. They are also regularly described in a positive way, for example as
“the most powerful and respected sentient species in the galaxy… known for their elegance,
diplomacy, and biotic aptitude” (Mass Effect Wiki 2014). However, as I shall argue below, this3
initially positive portrayal of the Asari becomes ultimately flawed when the Asari are undermined by
their over-sexualisation.
http://www.comicvine.com/images/1300-2958240
Fig. 2: An Asari Commando.
!
The Asari in Mass Effect are a telling example of how strong, intelligent female representation can be
warped and reduced down to their mere sexualisation. The Asari were “created to fill the ‘green alien
girls’ trope, which was made popular by Star Trek: The Original Series” (Mass Effect Wiki 2014).
Otherwise known as the ‘Green-skinned space babe’ (TV Tropes 2014), this trope allows for female
aliens that are still humanoid enough to be attractive to male audiences:
A form of psychic power.3

!14
The Asari of Mass Effect are one of the most blatant examples, with The Art of Mass
Effect explicitly stating they were designed from the beginning to be sexy aliens. Not only are
they a One-Gender Race that look near-identical to human women despite all other aliens
being drastically different, not only can the player character enter a relationship with one of
them regardless of Shepard's gender, not only are they considered desirable by nearly all
species in the known galaxy, but they can mate with and produce offspring with any sapient
individual regardless of gender or species (TV Tropes 2014).
Throughout the game Shepard learns more about the Asari and many of their traits turn out to
showcase positive female representation. For example, they are renowned for being diplomatic and
wise as well as fearless warriors, with the biggest naval fleet in the galaxy and being vital to the
creation of an inter-galactic council. As one Asari Councillor explains, “we always strive to be the
voice of peaceful cooperation in galactic disputes”. For an essentially female species to have such a
pivotal role in inter-galactic/international relations is extremely refreshing, and their dominant status
even suggests that a more feminine approach to politics might be wiser or more advanced than
traditional masculine methods. But even as they are presented as having superior intelligence, power,
fighting ability and longevity they are also undermined. As Liara (one of Shepard’s Asari team mates)
laments, “Although we seek to understand other species, it seems few of them seek to understand us.
The galaxy is filled with rumors and misinformation about my people.” Here she is referring to the
rumours of promiscuity which are not only rife in the narrative of the game, but also in Mass Effect’s
representation of the Asari on the whole.
!
While the player is told that the Asari are a powerful, intelligent race, their experience of Asari
characters often suggests otherwise. For example, Liara is an extremely clever archaeologist who has
extraordinary fighting abilities, but she is introduced as a damsel in distress who needs to be rescued;
her intelligence becomes unthreatening due to her klutzy personal manner as well as Shepard’s
‘ultimate knowledge’ of her research area ; she demonstrates fragility in front of Shepard in the form4
of headaches and light-headedness, and if romanced reveals that she is a virgin. Altogether this leads5
Shepard accidentally forms a psychic connection to the Protheans, the ancient alien species that Liara is4
studying.
In Mass Effect players can choose to ‘romance’ certain characters, leading to various story-lines about Shepard5
and their love interest.

!15
to her character taking on the identity of a cute, clumsy, innocent Asari who is in need of protection.
While Liara is presented as somewhat childlike in her innocence and wonder, she is also sexualised
along with most other Asari in the game. For example, despite explaining that Asari reproduction does
not require physical intimacy and is in fact similar to a mental and spiritual union, it seems convenient
that there is still a sex scene between Shepard and Liara if she is romanced. Other Asari are also
sexualised. Liara’s mother, Matriarch Benezia (see Fig. 3), is fully clothed except for a very visible
and pronounced cleavage and mainly bare breasts – despite Shepard encountering her on a frozen ice
planet. Another example is Sha’ira, an Asari consort that Shepard meets on the Citadel (a colossal
space station that essentially serves as the capital of the game’s universe). She is programmed to
speak very suggestively and in a filmic sequence there is a prolonged, sexualised shot of her body.
http://scoutsix-3.deviantart.com/art/Matriarch-Benezia-359543297
Fig. 3: Matriarch Benezia.
!
However, the most notable example of the sexualisation of the Asari is their presence in Mass Effect’s
strip clubs. When entering a club, Shepard’s team mate Ashley remarks with disdain, “A million light
years from where humanity began and we walk into a bar filled with men drooling over half-naked
women shaking their asses on a stage. I can’t decide whether it’s funny or sad.” Arguably, it’s sad.
Despite being set hundreds of years in the future, and humans coexisting with aliens that are far more
developed, it is disheartening to find that strip clubs are an accepted part of inter-galactic life. There
are three main clubs (Chora’s Den, Purgatory Bar and the Afterlife Club) in the Mass Effect series that
feature Asari erotic dancers (see Fig. 4) on stages, sometimes pole dancing. Notably, the dancers

!16
working at these clubs are only ever Asari; there are no humans or other species taking on this role,
contributing to the presentation of the Asari as the most sexualised race.
!
When Shepard visits Chora’s Den he or she can choose to view an Asari dancing and during the6
performance has the option to ‘sit forward’ (placing the camera behind the dancer) or ‘relax’ (placing
the camera in front of the dancer). Thus Mass Effect gives the player the option to have a private
dance from an Asari dancer, even choosing even choosing the angles from which to view their body.
This is clearly an objectification of the dancer, as they are merely there as objects for player to gaze
upon, negating any meaningful engagement. Anita Sarkeesian (2014) calls this the ‘Women as
background decoration’ trope, describing it as: “The subset of largely insignificant non-playable
female characters whose sexuality or victimhood is exploited as a way to infuse edgy, gritty or racy
flavoring into game worlds. These sexually objectified female bodies are designed to function as
environmental texture while titillating presumed straight male players.” Using women as merely a
“decorative function” (Schroder 2008: 246) in video games not only serves to reinforce the
acceptability of these roles in society, but also leads to a warped perception of women as a less than
whole or human identity. As Sarkeesian (2014) argues, “Since these women are just objects, there’s no
need or reason for players to have any emotional engagement with them. Meaningful relationships or
interactions are not even possible. Their programming simply does not allow for it.” This is extremely
problematic as it is impossible for players to learn about sex workers’ experiences, the assumption
being that they are dancing because they enjoy it, or because they are just extremely sexual in nature.
As Brennan (2002: 156) argues, this is in fact the biggest ‘charade’ of the sex industry, and something
that has to be challenged. Unfortunately Mass Effect in no way attempts to humanise these workers,
letting the charade go unquestioned. Overall, it is clear that the use of Asari dancers as decorations in
Mass Effect is extremely harmful as it equates them with objects to be subjected to the male gaze,
rather than respected or understood as complex characters.
Players can decide the gender of Shepard at the start of the game.6

!17
http://beingloquacious.files.wordpress.com/2014/01/chorasden.png
Fig. 4: An Asari dancer in Chora’s Den.
!
These strip clubs clearly resonate with Enloe’s (2000: 36) description of international sex tourism
where “sex tourism requires… men from affluent societies to imagine certain women, usually women
of colour, [here represented by the blue skin of the Asari] to be more available and submissive than
the women in their own countries”. Brennan (2002: 156) concurs, arguing that sex tourism is “fuelled
by the fantasies of white, First-World men who exoticize dark-skinned ‘native’ bodies”. The Asari
therefore fill the role of the exotic, coloured, ‘other’, to be consumed by curious Western men. This
highlights the power inequality between men and women, as well as the imperialistic nature of
international sex tourism, leading Magnet (2006: 146) to argue that players are actively indoctrinated
into the rules of imperialism, as opposed to being given an opportunity to challenge oppressive power
relations. Similarly, Leonard (2003: 5) describes video games as inexpensive versions of international
sex tours as they offer virtual sampling of dark bodies, but without consequence or cost, illustrating a
relationship of domination. Thus, both Shepard and the player are involved in perpetuating the power
inequalities of the sex industry, and hence the use of strip clubs in Mass Effect serves overall to
diminish women’s representation as an equal sex.
!

!18
Clearly, there are two sides to the Asari. On the one hand they are presented as possibly the best
species in the galaxy with wisdom, strength and political power that few can rival. However, this is
undermined by their constant sexualisation both within the narrative of the game, and through the
design of the characters. As Behm-Morowitz and Mastro (2009: 809) argue, “Although this type of
female character fits the normative characteristics of an action hero (i.e. male action hero) by
demonstrating strength, speed, intellect, and independence… her sexuality is her defining feature,
relegating her status to that of an object to be gazed upon”. This is extremely similar to the
representation of Ripley in the science fiction film Alien (Scott 1979), who demonstrates the above
characteristics before the final few scenes where she affectionately looks after “Jonesy” the cat before
appearing in her underwear with the camera shot lingering on her body. As Newton (1990: 87)
explains, “Ripley, though in many ways a fine and thrilling hero, is robbed of radical thrust.
Impulsive, nurturing, and sexually desirable, she is not so threatening to men after all.” Thus, while
Mass Effect presents the Asari as independent, powerful, wise women, they are ultimately reduced to
their sexuality, resulting in the concretisation of gender stereotypes, and a reduced threat to gamers’
masculinity.
!
Human characters are also not immune to the same over-sexualised portrayals, although this is done
on an individual basis, as opposed to being a species-wide phenomenon. Two of Shepard’s human
team-mates, Miranda and Jack, are presented in revealing outfits. Miranda’s suit is skin tight, clearly
being designed to show off her curvaceous body. While her beauty is part of her character’s story-line
(her father genetically engineered her to be the best in every way…), gamers have noticed that in
dialogue sequences the camera sometimes focuses on her body disproportionately to her face (see Fig.
5) (John 2010). Coupled with this, she has only been programmed to wear high heels and have her
hair down, emphasising her looks over her fighting ability. Jack (also female) on the other hand is the
complete opposite, being about as far away as a femme fatale as it is possible to get. She is covered in
tattoos, has a shaved head, and an aggressive, no-nonsense personality. While this can be seen as
rather refreshing portrayal of a woman, the overall image is let down by the fact that the majority of
her body is exposed, as only a thin strap covers her breasts. Casey Hudson’s (the Mass Effect 2 project
lead) explanation for this is that each of the team mates have to be really different from each other in
order to be characters in their own right (John 2010). But as Jack is clearly already very different, her

!19
exposed body would appear completely unnecessary. This sexualised appearance undermines the
threat that Jack poses to traditional masculinity, thus leaving gender stereotypes unchallenged as
skimpy outfits remain firmly in the sphere of women.
http://www.themarysue.com/what-women-want-in-female-video-game-protagonists/
Fig. 5: Camera angles sexualising Miranda’s body.
!
This is a Man’s World/Universe: Assimilating Women into Masculine Culture
!
Although some female characters display masculine traits, they are still clearly women in their own
right. While the option to play as a woman in Mass Effect is certainly positive, there is a sense that she
is in fact a man as she is virtually the same as her male equivalent. Hence, the ability to play as a
female in Mass Effect does not necessarily mean that this is an empowering move for women, as
FemShep falls prey to what Anita Sarkeesian (2012) calls the “Ms. Male” trope. The script of male7
and female Shepards hardly differs at all, and both avatars display the same macho body language and
posturing throughout the game. When describing FemShep in an interview, Mass Effect designer
Casey Hudson commented that the character is “very strong, in a way you'd expect from a real-life
military officer” (Goldstein 2007). As discussed later, the military is an inherently masculine
institution, and hence FemShep is arguably merely a man in disguise – or as Sarkeesian (2012) would
argue, the designers have simply “put a bow on it”, distinguishing the female version from the male
by applying make-up and a female voice recording. Consequently, while it may initially be perceived
‘FemShep’ is a nickname that gamers use to describe ‘Female Shepard’, the implications of this are discussed7
later on. I use both the terms ‘FemShep’ and ‘MaleShep’ to describe the female and male Shepards respectively.

!20
as progressive to see a female being the action hero, or having a central, powerful role to play, it may
not be as radical as the game suggests as it is arguable that she is parroting words and body language
that were written with a symbolically male Shepard in mind.
!
However, despite FemShep being symbolically male with the vast majority of the script being the
same as MaleShep’s, there are a few points in the game where designers included gender specific
dialogue options. One such example is where Shepard encounters a character named Harkin, who is a
sleazy police officer. If Shepard is male, Harkin will begin the conversation with, “Alliance military?
I could’ve been a Marine you know…” before the conversation reverts to mission-specific topics.
However if Shepard is female Harkin will make a sexist comment: “… I gotta say that soldier getup
looks real good on that bod of yours. Why don’t you sit your sweet little ass down beside old
Harkin?” Players controlling FemShep will then be presented with a set of dialogue options from
which to respond. The Paragon option is labelled ‘Not right now’ whereas the Renegade option is8
‘You’re disgusting’. As Satterwhite (2013) argues, “The problem is that, should a female Shepard
choose to tell Harkin off, she will receive Renegade points… [which] are assigned for immoral
actions.” Thus, while the depiction of Harkin is negative, and the designers are clearly not condoning
his behaviour, the player’s options to interact with Harkin are deeply flawed, suggesting that to be a
Paragon/good person, one should ignore sexism as opposed to challenging it. Therefore, in rewarding
feminine passivity Mass Effect conforms to traditional gender expectations, and reinforces harmful
discourses that suggest women are in some way subordinate to men.
!
Finally, FemShep provides a useful insight into how the inclusion of women in masculine
environments does not necessarily lead to systemic change. For example, standpoint feminists argue
that the inclusion of women in policy-making would result in more feminine outcomes as “aspects of
women’s lives render them less aggressive than men and less likely to support wars” (Sylvester 2002:
207). However, as Mass Effect clearly demonstrates, the ‘add women and stir’ approach (Steans 1998:
161) does not necessarily give women the freedom to make choices that differ greatly from men, as
they are constrained by powerful masculine discourses that are attached to authoritative institutions
Mass Effect has a moral choice system where the dialogue options that players choose contribute to8
Shephard’s character becoming a ‘Paragon’ (peaceful and friendly) or ‘Renegade’ (aggressive and abrasive).

!21
such as political offices, or the military. Therefore, even when women work in politically elite roles,
there is a pressure to make tough decisions and act or think like a man. As Enloe (2007: 40) explains,
“… security experts must be capable of ‘muscular thinking’; they must never show themselves to be
‘soft’.” FemShep is an excellent example of this, as she is confined to certain behaviours and
dialogues due to both her construction within, and engagement with, a deeply masculinised
environment. It is this environment that needs to be addressed, as Peterson (1992: 55, emphasis in
original) argues, “… what is required is not simply the addition of women to masculine abstractions
but a transformation in our understanding of politics, power, and political identities.” Mass Effect does
not challenge or reformulate these traditionally masculine environments, and hence FemShep is
assimilated into this culture by effectively taking on the identity, goals and pursuits of a man.
!
Secretaries in Space: The Gendered Division of Labour in Mass Effect
!
Moving on from specific characters, there is an overall trend that applies to all females within the
futuristic Mass Effect universe. Women are seen throughout the game working as exotic dancers,
receptionists, secretaries and nurses; and are largely absent from roles in the military and police.
Clearly, this is a gendered division of labour. As Pateman (1988: 135) argues, “Women have now won
civil and juridical standing almost equal to men's, but they are not incorporated into workplaces on the
same basis as male workers.” This accurate portrayal of inequality reflects today’s gender disparities
in the workplace, however by merely replicating reality Mass Effect does little to challenge or criticise
this status quo.
!
There are a number of reasons why gendered work has become so ingrained as to penetrate even a
futuristic science fiction game. First, in the workplace women’s capabilities have been routinely
undervalued, and there has been an urge to defend traditional boundaries of masculinity by excluding
women from certain jobs. Elson (1999: 619) argues that women are often underestimated by
employers (or in this case game designers) as having less productive potential, leading to them being
paid (or represented) less than the male equivalent. Second, she argues that “discrimination against
women in the labor market may persist even though it is not economically efficient… because it is an
effective way of empowering men socially and politically” (Elson 1999: 620, emphasis added). In her

!22
study of female labour in Mexico, Livingston (2004: 68) argues thirdly that, “By encouraging female
employees to dress fashionably, to participate in beauty contests, and to go dancing in the clubs,
managers are able to feminize, sexualize, and trivialize them as workers.” Thus, despite gender
disparity in the workplace being both economically and socially backward, these roles are still
perpetuated both in reality and in the media, through the underestimation of women’s capabilities, and
the urge to protect the social boundaries of masculinity. Once again, by simply mirroring today’s
gendered working practices Mass Effect does little to challenge hegemonic discourses that suggest
women are subordinate to men.
!
As described above, the women in Mass Effect are pigeon-holed into certain roles that are considered
to be compatible with femininity, with the caring roles of medical staff, receptionists and secretaries
mainly being filled by women in the game. As Enloe (2000: 162) argues, women are placed in these
roles because of patriarchal assumptions that hinge on the idea that women are naturally suited to
detailed or delicate work, are incapable of engaging with physically demanding roles (despite
technological advancements), and are imagined to be the secondary wage earners in a family, thus not
needing a well-paid, higher-scale job. All of these patriarchal assumptions seem to have contributed to
the gendered depiction of labour in Mass Effect, as, despite several female characters proving they are
more suited to ‘heavy’ work, the majority of women are in fact relegated to engaging with ‘light’
work. It follows that there are very few female soldiers or police, regardless of futuristic technological
advancements that would even-out any assumed physical difference between the sexes. Thus, the
women in Mass Effect are mainly associated with care roles, reinforcing the gender stereotype
suggesting that women are weaker and more delicate than men.
!
!
Mass Effect’s Representations of Masculinities
!
The ‘Krogan’: Hyper-Masculine Warriors and Hyper-Domesticated Mothers
!

!23
The male Krogan are the hyper-masculine aliens of the Mass Effect universe. They look like a cross
between a dinosaur and a tortoise and typically have deep voices, large builds, display violence-
seeking behaviour, and make gruff comments such as, “I need to get my blood flowing. Find me
something to kill!” (Wrex, Mass Effect 1). They are also a key part of the game’s story-line with three
Krogan, Wrex, Grunt, and Eve, being central to the story-line. Wrex (see Fig. 6) is a clan leader and is
struggling to persuade his fellow clan (and rival clans) that the Krogan should focus on reproduction,
which has been undermined by a Salarian-made disease that led to the genophage, where only one in
thousands of baby Krogans survive childbirth. Grunt on the other hand is a clone (and hence outcast
in Krogan society) who is trying to prove his status as a ‘true Krogan’. Shepard helps him do this by
helping him complete a Krogan rite of passage that involves killing a lot of monsters to prove his
bloodthirsty nature. Finally there is a female Krogan, Eve, who holds a mirror up to the consequences
of the male Krogan’s blood-thirsty ‘nature’.
http://img3.wikia.nocookie.net/__cb20130216012755/masseffect/images/1/11/Urdnot_wrex_14_by_johntesh-
d4y9jqc.jpg
!Fig. 6: Wrex, one of the main Krogan characters in Mass Effect.
!
As a clear example of pure masculine values, the Krogan present problematic gender representations
as they portray males as being a violent homogenous group. The explicit association of violence with
masculinity (all Krogan engaged in fighting are men) suggests that this is a natural linkage and not
socially constructed. In reality men are more prone to violence than women, with, for example, more
men in the armed forces than women, more men committing violent and sexual assaults, and men
being responsible for the majority of domestic violence cases (Connell 2000: 213). However, this
doesn’t mean that all men are violent. As Connell (2000: 215) argues, “Almost all soldiers are men,

!24
but most men are not soldiers”. The problem in depicting the Krogan as a homogenous mass of
aggressive masculinity is that it suggests these violent traits apply to everyone, not individuals.
Hence, Wrex asserts that violence is an inherent part of the Krogan identity: “When was the last time
you saw a Krogan scientist? You ask a Krogan: would he rather find a cure for the genophage or fight
for credits? He’ll choose fighting every time. It’s just who we are, Shepard. I can’t change that.
Nobody can” (Wrex, Mass Effect 1).
!
The link between masculinity and violence therefore becomes concretised, with aggressive traits
perceived as a natural part of being a man/Krogan. This is illustrated in Grunt’s journey to prove his
authentic Krogan (read: manly) status. He does this through participation in a trial set up by Krogan
clans, which involves a lot of killing in order to demonstrate his lust for aggression. However, the
scenario is set up assuming that he already has this violent, innate aggression, and he just has to prove
it. In reality, the symbolic transition from boy to man is often a militarised one. For example, Enloe
(1993: 55) astutely argues that, if boys had the ‘raw’ potential to become men, then they wouldn’t
need a drill sergeant. The game designers, however, do not present the militarised Krogan society as
fostering aggressive tendencies, but instead presents Krogan militarised society as an outlet for the
natural aggression of Krogan men. This is an extremely limiting view, as it not only justifies the
presence of the military as an institution to cater for ‘natural masculine behaviours’, but it also implies
that all men have innate aggressive tendencies. This not only reinforces harmful gender stereotypes,
but it also suggests that masculinised, aggressive international relations policies are necessary.
!
Furthermore, only allowing males to display this kind of aggression leads to a gender hierarchy in
which women are treated as the subordinate sex. As Cockburn (2012: 23) argues, a primarily male
exhibition of violence “magnifies the distance between femininity and masculinity and enhances
men’s authority in a quantum leap”. This is apparent in Mass Effect’s depiction of the Krogan females.
They have a reduced form of existence compared to the male Krogan, as they are the last hope for the
reproduction of the Krogan race and so are hidden away most of the time, under the protection of the
males. This results in a warped gender hierarchy where men play strong soldiers and the women play
delicate mothers.
!

!25
These roles essentialise gender as they strongly equate women with nature and men with culture, with
women intimately tied to child birth, and men tied to clan battles and politics. In analysing the
gendered character of nature and culture, Ortner (1974: 75) argues that:
… a woman’s body seems to doom her to mere reproduction of life; the male, in contrast,
lacking natural creative functions, must (or has the opportunity to) assert his creativity
externally, “artificially,” through the medium of technology and symbols. In so doing, he
creates relatively lasting, eternal, transcendent objects, while the woman creates only
perishables – human beings.
This reflects the Krogan society in Mass Effect, where the males are the builders (and destroyers) of
their home world, and are involved in intergalactic politics and decision making. The women on the
other hand are rarely seen, and their lives outside of their natural reproductive roles are rarely
discussed. This essentialisation of the genders is damaging as it leaves little room for identity fluidity,
or the notion that not all men are ‘manly and tough’, and not all women want to settle down to have
children.
!
These essentialised positions also lead to the ingrained notion that men are natural protectors while
women are weak, and in need of men’s protection. For example, in Mass Effect the male Krogan are
constantly trying to protect the females, despite Eve’s proven ability to fight for herself, insinuating
that the females are the weaker and more vulnerable sex. As Annandale and Clark (1996: 19) argue,
“In associating 'deficiencies' of the female body with women's reproductive capacity, patriarchy
conflates biological sex and social gender.” Thus, the presumed weakness of a woman’s biology (due
to reproductive ‘constraints’) transfers to a presumed weakness of women on the whole, or as a social
gender. In turn this leads to women occupying the role of ‘protected’ and men taking on the role of
‘protector’. Enloe (2007: 60) argues that this widespread assumption has the ability to distort power
relations, as “it is much easier to claim the authority to speak for others if one can claim to be The
Protector; it is much easier to be silenced and to accept that silencing if one absorbs the self-identity
of The Protected.” This unequal relationship is intimately related to women as nature, and bearers of
children, and men as culture, who make societal decisions (Ortner 1974: 75). Thus the Krogan in
Mass Effect are a clear example of this dynamic, and their representation of this gender disparity

!26
naturalises the Protector/Protected logic, implicitly relying on essentialist notions of gender that
suggest international politics is manly, tough, and the realm of men.
!
There is, however, a voice that critiques the entrenched gendered nature of the Krogan. This comes
from the only female Krogan depicted in the entire game – Eve. The sole survivor of medical
experiments attempting to cure the genophage, she is the last hope for the ‘rebirth’ of the Krogan
population, as she is the sole carrier of the cure. When Shepard talks to her she comes across as being
very critical of the “power hungry males”, arguing that they use petty excuses to be violent, and
should have done more to address the genophage problem. However, Eve’s feminist position is
undermined by the fact that she is reduced to effectively being the last mother of the Krogan. Hence,
despite being critical of the status quo in Krogan society she is ultimately tied to the needs of the egg,
rather than her own requirements (de Beauvoir 1953: 24). Overall, the small, yet highly pivotal role
that Eve plays in Mass Effect demonstrates the gender hierarchy of the Krogan race, as her
reproductive role defines her as a vessel to be protected, whether she likes it or not. Clearly the
Krogans lend themselves to a reductive reading of gender, and therefore contribute to Mass Effect’s
reinforcement of gender stereotypes.
!
Voices Amidst the Gunfire: A Stifled Critique of Violence
!
Mass Effect takes a positive step in its presentation of warfare, as dialogue as well as violence is
essential in engaging in conflict. While many blockbuster military style video games such as Call of
Duty (Activision 2003-2014) and Battlefield (Electronic Arts 2002-2014) focus solely on killing and
therefore belittle political engagement, Mass Effect is an exception as it includes both, challenging the
notion that war is an inherently masculine realm. Mass Effect’s large emphasis on dialogue is
refreshing and more true to real life combat, resonating with Elworthy and Rifkind’s (2005:11)
argument that the sole use of arms is “woefully inadequate” in preventing conflict. Mass Effect is also
particularly good at showing the effects of conflict on civilians, which is often overlooked by
military-style video games that only allow soldiers to have a voice. For example, in Mass Effect
Shepard encounters civilians on the Citadel that have been affected by conflict, hearing about losing
loved ones and how the war has affected trade and inter-species relations. It is possible for Shepard to

!27
hear a nurse lamenting budget cuts to the hospital due to the war, and also go into a refugee camp (see
fig. 7) to take footage that shows the refugees’ experiences. Hence Mass Effect allows the player to
see war in a range of ways, not just through the barrel of a gun. This is extremely progressive as it
provides a counter to hegemonic discourses in international relations that suggest conflict is
predominantly violent, with arms capabilities being seen as more important than dialogue.
http://guides.gamepressure.com/masseffect3/gfx/word/475634312.jpg
Fig. 7: Shepard seeing the results of war: An injured Batarian in a refugee camp.
!
Similarly there are instances where Mass Effect questions masculine and military ‘hero’ discourses.
For example, in speaking to a soldier who is excited about experiencing his first taste of live combat,
Shepard replies, “This isn’t about personal glory Corporal!”. Similarly, Doctor Chakwas (the squad’s
physician) retorts, “I sincerely hope you’re kidding Corporal. Your ‘real action’ usually ends with me
patching up crew members in the infirmary”. Here, Mass Effect is clearly displaying a counter
argument to hero-like glory and dangerous actions, positing that it is unwise to seek out violence as it
has detrimental consequences. However, while moments like this can be seen as progressive, they are
all but drowned out by the constant hypocritical reliance on force to get the job done. Overall the
counter-discourse going against the glorification of violence mainly serves as an emotional spectacle
rather than any kind of meaningful intellectual critique.
!
Hence while Mass Effect sets itself apart from the hyper-masculine killing fields of Call of Duty and
Battlefield, it still relies heavily on violence and the spectacle of destruction to fuel narratives and

!28
involve the player in the conflict. Thus, while most military blockbuster games, with their graphically
spectacular explosions and detailed weaponry, are made to be “life-like and true, not politically
correct” (Leonard and King 2009: 5), Mass Effect presents itself as the opposite. Set in a science
fiction future, the narrative is more fantasy than true to real life, however it is also a game that forces
the player to confront mature ethical and political dilemmas in a critical way, evoking a sense of
sombre reality even in a virtual world. However, the presence of a somewhat critical reality is
undermined by the overarching narrative of the game: the fight against the Reapers. Its use of the
Reapers as an existential threat to the universe means that the violence enacted by the player
throughout all three games is completely legitimised. While the player is encouraged to engage with
some ethical questions, others are never addressed. Thus on the one hand, the game allows the player
to question and decide whether or not to let the Krogan race rebuild themselves, and on the other hand
it provides no space for the player to question the constant intervals of fighting that demarcate
missions. This illustrates how Mass Effect both challenges and subverts gender stereotypes as it
encourages critical discussion while also relying on hyper-masculine intervals of unquestioned
violence.
!
War is Manly and Fun: The Gendering of Conflict
!
The violence presented in Mass Effect conforms to traditional notions of gender due to its
masculinised nature. While the game is seen as progressive as it incorporates lots of dialogue,
narratives, and character detail, this only makes up around half of the game, while the other half
consists of completing violent missions that usually involve killing a multitude of enemies, much like
in other Third Person Shooters such as Gears of War (Microsoft 2006-2013) and Halo (Microsoft
2001-2014). Unlike these games, there is no ‘kill count’ to measure the exact number of enemies
killed during game play, however there are unlock-able trophies, such as the ‘Veteran Badge’ in Mass
Effect 3, which is given to the player when they have killed 5000 enemies (Xbox Achievements
2014). This gives an idea of the extent of violence utilised in the game, illustrating how Mass Effect
can cater to traditional violent game play.
!

!29
This violence can be seen as masculinised for a number of reasons. First, a lot of Renegade options
utilise threats or violence. For example, in interrogating a gang member, Shepard can assert: “Put a
round in his leg. See if he talks”. These Renegade options can be seen as masculine as they value
violence over persuasion or understanding. Furthermore, Clarke et al. (2012: 721) argue that, “when a
squad leader in a video game engages in torture or extrajudicial killing, this provides the signal to
players that such behaviour is implicitly authorized”. While it is unlikely that players will mimic these
particular actions, there is certainly a risk that the repetition of these hypermasculine actions will
contribute to a player’s sense of what it means to be manly and tough, and what is acceptable in real-
life combat, once more conforming to masculinised conceptions of international relations. Second,
although Shepard and her teammates can be female, all other soldiers (both enemy and friendly – with
the exception of the Asari) are male. This clearly links the sphere of violence to men as they are the
main perpetrators, and hence violence is overwhelmingly depicted as a manly practice.
http://media.pcgamer.com/files/2011/10/Mass-Effect-multiplayer-1.jpg
Fig. 8: Conflict is glamourised, with violence being portrayed as safe and fun.
!
Despite being more progressive than most military style video games, Mass Effect still has a tendency
to justify masculine warfare, where masculine values such as strength and rationality trump feminine
values such as compassion and empathy. In a discussion of what it means to be ‘real man’ in conflict,
Cohn (1999: 461) argues that it “means a willingness to take risks, having the strength to stare death
in the face and not flinch, and really being able to kill.” This is all part of the adventure in Mass
Effect, with Shepard demonstrating their grit and determination through their risk-taking behaviour,
bravery and lethality in the face of danger (see Fig. 8). This is an extremely romanticised notion of

!30
combat. No matter how seriously it is presented, it is always a theatrical experience of warfare, rather
than a true depiction of the horror of real life combat, with the player essentially taking the leading
role in a glamourised war movie (Cowlishaw 2005). Furthermore, in Mass Effect there are no gory
wounds or loss of limbs. Killing is extremely sanitised, portraying war as not only fun but also safe,
contributing to an increasing acceptance of war (Leonard 2004: 5). As Power (2007: 285) argues,
“Games can reinforce the image of a clean war with clean battle lines, no moral questions posed and
no consideration given to the reality of taking a life”. Thus, Mass Effect’s reliance on violent missions,
and masculine values in warfare lead to problematic notions of conflict that portray it as safe, fun and
legitimate.
!
Third, the justification given for the use of violence makes it seem necessary and natural, and doesn’t
allow players to question the use of force in mission sequences. As Rowley (2007: 323) argues in
relation to Firefly/Serenity films, “the crew is ‘forced’ to resort to violence to resolve a dispute or get
themselves out of trouble, while the narrative is established in such a way that it is difficult to feel
anything other than empathy for the crew, or to critique the inevitability of violence, even where our
heroes are first to use physical or military force”. This applies to Mass Effect, as in these mission
scenarios there is often no option but to shoot down enemies, negotiations only being options at select
times . While Mass Effect can be seen as progressive due to the occasional option to negotiate, overall9
the emphasis is firmly on killing unknown enemies for a greater cause. For every moment where
Shepard is given the opportunity to reject violence, there are plenty of others where violence is the
only option available. As Enloe (2002: 23) argues, seeing violence as the “ultimate resolver of
tensions” is both a militarised and masculinised concept. Mass Effect validates this through its
constant reliance on killing enemies to progress in the game, reinforcing traditional, realist
conceptions of international relations.
!
The Militarisation of Virtual Space
!
For example, on a side mission on Presrop Shepard can choose to peacefully negotiate with a biotic cult leader9
rather than shoot them and start a fight with their followers.

!31
The induced acceptance of regular violence in Mass Effect stems from presenting The Alliance (the
military) as an institution that is right and just, a group of people that can get the job done when
everyone else is panicking or only thinking of themselves. Such unquestioningly positive portrayals of
the military in video games lead to consent, support and pride in the real-life military, in turn resulting
in the expansion of the contemporary military-industrial complex (Leonard and King 2009: 5). The
uncritical view that Mass Effect takes of the military, combined with the use of the Reapers as an evil
existential threat, allows for a lack of ethical questioning when it comes to many of the violent
sequences in the game. As Power (2007: 284-5) argues, games can produce a moral and ethical
distance, “… allowing players to experience violence cleanly (gone in a puff of red smoke) and
encouraging them to accept the role of perpetrators who bear no moral or ethical culpability for their
actions carried out in a just/virtuous crusade against evil.” Thus Mass Effect only allows for critical
questioning on its own terms, allowing the player to engage with what are often complex ethical
narratives, while both legitimising and naturalising the use of constant masculine heroic violence.
!
http://i863.photobucket.com/albums/ab192/sqbr/Screenshots/tumblr_lrqwy0pHcc1qhqxqyo1_500.jpg
!Fig. 9: Kelly Chambers saluting Shepard.
!
However, Shepard does not fit the stereotype of hyper-masculine, muscle bound hero, that blindly
fights for justice. Instead Shepard incorporates a new kind of masculinity that is more refined,
emotionally engaged, and intelligent. This reflects the change in types of soldier masculinities in
modern day conflict. As Khalili (2011: 1475) has argued, “a new form of masculinity emerges,
authorised by consumerism and neo-liberal feminism, in which ‘manliness’ is softened, and the
sensitive masculinity of the humanitarian soldier-scholar (white, literate, articulate, and doctorate-

!32
festooned) overshadows the hyper-masculinity of warrior kings.” This new type of masculinity is
progressive in some senses as it allows for men to be slightly more feminine, however, it is not
necessarily a wholly positive step away from the traditional notion of a ‘manly man’. The soldier-
scholar masculinity also justifies violent practices, not just through the glorification of destruction (the
soldier side of the identity) but also through the intellectual reasoning that goes alongside it, justifying
violence as the right course of action. Thus, soldier-scholar masculinity is misleading as it can be used
to promote what may seem like more feminine, unthreatening practices, which in fact are disguising
the true violent intent of militaristic institutions. Shepard, therefore, does challenge manly warrior
gender stereotypes, but only in a limited way, as Shepard’s solder-scholar identity ultimately serves to
reinforce masculine discourses of the military.
!
The soldier-scholar masculinity that Shepard embodies helps to reveal how this type of masculinity is
used to deepen the link between the military and civilians, as well as legitimise the military’s actions
in real life. Research shows that the military is constantly attempting to create links with civil society
with the aim to boost recruitment and legitimise military practices (Quaker Peace and Social Witness
Report 2014: 10). This is shown in Mass Effect, as Shepard interacts with many civilians, presenting
the military in a positive light in order for them to get on board with the war effort. Shepard
collaborates with a journalist, Diana Allers, to promote the Alliance’s cause. He/she also has the
option to sponsor various venues and products marketed on the Citadel by being recorded saying that
this is their favourite store on the Citadel. Furthermore these actions are rewarded with xp . This is10
clearly a form of militarisation of the civilian sphere. Enloe (2007: 4) describes militarisation as the
adoption of “militaristic values and priorities as one’s own, to see military solutions as particularly
effective, to see the world as a dangerous place best approached with militaristic attitudes.” As
Shepard interacts with civilians, these values become clear, both to the virtual citizens, and the player
in reality. Overall, while Shepard’s soldier-scholar masculinity allows Shepard to converse with
civilians, demonstrating a more feminine reading of what soldiers can be, this new masculinity still
serves to legitimise militaristic values by providing an identifiable hero for the public to support. This
in turn leads to acceptance of masculine military values, illustrating Mass Effect’s conformity to
hegemonic discourses surrounding gender and international relations.
Xp stands for ‘Experience Points’, which are needed for Shepard to level up.10

!33
!
The weaponry system (see Fig. 10) in Mass Effect is as integral to the game as the dialogue options.
Players must equip Shepard and his/her teammates with a range of weapons including assault rifles,
pistols, snipers, shotguns and grenades. Once weapons are equipped they are clearly displayed on
characters’ bodies, holstered onto the back of their armour and always in view, even when speaking or
negotiating with other aliens. Various types of ammunition are available which can be used tactically
against different opponents. For example, players learn that armour piercing ammo works well against
synthetics (robots) whereas it is prudent to use anti-personnel rounds for ‘organics’ (non-robots).
There are also chemical rounds that do extra toxic damage, as well as radioactive rounds that “induce
low levels of radiation sickness in targets” (Mass Effect Codex). The range of weapons and ammo that
the player engages with leads to a militaristic immersion in the game, where even culturally frowned
upon weapons such as nuclear material are utilised to their fullest potential. Second, it is important,
particularly with reference to the radioactive rounds, to note the use of the word ‘target’. Much like
the technostrategic language outlined by Cohn (1987: 690), this depersonalisation of what is
essentially murder, leads to acceptance and legitimisation of violent intent, and inhumane destructive
weapons. These militaristic values (Enloe 2002: 23) within the game suggest to players that violence
is natural and to be expected. This is a masculine notion that goes unchallenged and hence reinforces
masculinity as a core component of conflict.
!
http://img4.wikia.nocookie.net/__cb20120409142410/masseffect/images/f/fd/ME3_Weapon_Customization.png
Fig. 10: Customising Shepard’s weaponry (in this case an assault rifle) at a work-bench.

!34
!
Reliance on the use of weaponry has negative implications for what it means to explore and interact
with alien people and places. While the game encourages players to explore new environments and
ask various aliens questions about their lives, it rewards the player by giving them xp which are
mostly used to upgrade Shepard’s fighting capabilities. This reinforces the notion that knowledge
leads to destructive power as opposed to constructive understanding. For example, Shepard may gain
xp for talking to Liara about her cultural background, studying a computer terminal, or looking at a
view through a window. These xp points then contribute to a level up which can be spent on
unlocking weapons capabilities such as ‘overkill’ which allows continuous assault rifle fire. Thus,
while Mass Effect encourages players to engage with the game on an exploratory basis (as opposed to
just fighting) this is undermined by a foundation based on violence. Once again, while Mass Effect
presents a progressive front, the reliance on physical combat means that, like most traditional shoot
‘em ups, it relies on notions of masculinity that render violence acceptable.
!
The Future is Anarchic… The Villains are Men
!
Despite being set over 100 years in the future, and encountering alien species that have existed for
thousands of years with different customs and cultures, the political situation in Mass Effect’s
universe is presented as extremely similar to current day politics and traditional international
relations. While Mass Effect depicts a variety of cultures in an in-depth way, the overarching
discourse portrays intergalactic relations as being very similar to abstract, masculine notions of
international relations. Masculine international relations covers many things from a predominance of
old white men in leadership positions, to defence strategies that assume the unknown other will
always present a hostile threat. The reflection of these discourses shows that Mass Effect gives a
masculine impression of international politics.
!
First, Mass Effect presents imperialism and the founding of new colonies as unproblematic. Colonies
in the game are usually whole planets that have been settled by humans or the military. There is no
discussion of whether indigenous life forms existed, and hence colonies and expansionist policies are
presented as unthreatening and a natural part of development. Second, there is a strong sense of

!35
anarchy. Shepard learns about the history of some of the alien species and finds that there is a lot of
mistrust, threats and back-room politics going on in all of them. These political representations are
consistent with the “manly world” of realist international relations theory that presents states as
anarchic and dangerous, with power, conflict and warfare being privileged activities (Tickner 1988:
429). Furthermore, Tickner (1997: 617) also argues that traditional international relations involves
abstract ‘high politics’ that neglects to consider the personal politics of people’s (and especially
women’s) everyday lives. Thus, while Mass Effect presents diverse alien races and a range of differing
opinions for Shepard to engage with, they are all confined to an overarching masculine and realist
narrative. Consequently, this masculine representation is what players perceive politics to consist of,
when in fact there are a range of other international relations schools that would present a more
critical view. This reliance on mainstream political thought reinforces traditional notions of masculine
politics and hence limits Mass Effect’s potential of being a critical, progressive game that might
challenge gender stereotypes.
http://www.josephmcconnell.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/elusiveman-871391.jpeg
Fig. 11: The Illusive Man, one of Mass Effect’s super-villains
!
The Mass Effect narrative includes a predominately male cast of villains, consisting of Saren in Mass
Effect 1, The Illusive Man (see Fig. 11) in Mass Effect 3, and Councilman Udina and the Reapers
throughout all three games. While there have been female opponents throughout the series, such as
Matriarch Benezia, Tela Vasir and Morinth, there have been no female ‘super-villains’ or
masterminds. This is consistent with findings made by Mou and Peng (2009: 929) in a study of

!36
character representations in games, that shows female characters are rarely portrayed as villains.
Similarly, Miller and Summers (2007: 739) find that in games narratives “men would be more
muscular, evil and powerful, while women would be more innocent, attractive, sexy, and helpless.” It
is important to note that in Mass Effect the villains are a range of human and non-humans. The
Illusive Man is a human (with synthetic upgrades), Saren is a Turian, and the biggest villain of all, the
existential threat of the Reapers, are millennia-year-old aliens. Unlike the other villains, the Reapers
are not humanoid in shape, and hence are not immediately identifiable as male. However, the Reapers
are voiced by a man, Peter Jessop, and the voice is clearly masculine, with a deep, threatening,
sonorous tone. As Mass Effect is consistent with other games where villains are predominately male,
it does little to challenge gender stereotypes, with men performing the accepted role of perpetrator.
!
Again, this shows how science fiction is often a reflection of reality, despite having the potential to
create utterly transformed worlds. The Illusive Man is an extremely wealthy and powerful individual
that is attempting to make humanity the dominant race. With only approximately 10% of the world’s
richest being women (Kroll 2014), it is unlikely that a female equivalent of the Illusive Man would
have been as believable. The Reapers are masculine in order to portray danger, threat, and destruction,
aspects traditionally associated with masculinity. This also reflects real-life experiences of warfare,
with men being the main perpetrators of physical violence. Thus, in presenting males as the ‘super-
villains’ Mass Effect is doing little to challenge traditional gender representations, which in turn
support the notion of a masculinised, aggressive and anarchic world.
!
!
Mass Effect’s Representations of Sexualities
!
Queering Shepard
!
“My Commander Shepard is impatient, impulsive, committed to social justice, a survivor, and a queer
woman of color. The character I impose on the game avatar is multiracial, which is likely to be the
norm by the year 2183 when Mass Effect takes place, although that’s not why I did it. I did it because

!37
I don’t see queer women of color as protagonists very often, not in video games, but not anywhere else
in media either” (Kinzel 2011).
http://thenewgamer.com/content/archives/mass_effect%3A_playing_through_ugly
Fig. 12: Some examples of customisation options for FemShep’s appearance.
!
The creation of a unique avatar, specific to each player, not only contributes to immersion and
psychological investment in the game as the player has a say in who their hero is, but also allows for a
range of genders and sexualities to be represented. Mass Effect begins with the customisation (see Fig.
12) of Commander Shepard, with players selecting Shepard’s first name, gender, race, facial structure,
hairstyle, historical background and fighting abilities. The personalisation of the on-screen avatar,
coupled with detailed storytelling and background identity, leads to players’ immersion in the game:
“Mass Effect constantly kept me involved with its dialogue choices and moral choice system, making
me really feel like my hero onscreen (helped by the character being customized to look a lot like me)”
(Mangan 2013). In exploring video game identities, Murphy (2004: 232) argues that a gamer’s
identification with their avatar breaks down if their avatar differs from them in their appearance or the
decisions they make. Identification with the avatar is likely to lead to identification with other
characters in the game, as it is no longer the gamer’s avatar that is interacting with these characters,
but the gamers themselves. Hence the game is taken much more seriously, enabling the player to
invest in other characters on a deeper level. Furthermore, the potential for the hero, Commander
Shepard, to represent diverse identities (such as a queer mixed race woman) limits the negative
othering of real life subordinate identities. Simply making these identities a playable option means
that Mass Effect is challenging the gender stereotype of having a heterosexual white male as the hero.

!38
Furthermore this playable range of identities reflects the diverse nature of world politics, giving all
identities a strong voice, rather than presuming that politics is the realm of white, heterosexual males.
!
However, Mass Effect is a complicated mix of subversion as well as stereotype. On the one hand,
players can personalise their avatar in numerous ways to help them become immersed in the game,
and identify with various genders and sexualities. On the other hand, the default avatars (used for
advertisements) are rather stereotypical, and can potentially undermine the limitation of negative
othering. John Shepard, the main default avatar, is a white male with a military buzz cut (see Fig. 13).
He is the ‘base’ avatar that players can then change to suit their own preferences, although many
players choose not to edit him. He is also pictured on the gaming covers as well as on the trailers for
all three Mass Effect games. The use of a default white male reinforces hegemonic ideas about
Western dominance, with whites presented as praiseworthy, and blacks simply missing in action
(Leonard 2004: 6). The female avatar does not fare much better. First, her default state comes with
heavy eyeliner and lipstick. While this is removable, it is still naturalised as the original/default option
for women. Second, the female Shepard avatar is affectionately referred to as “FemShep” by many
gamers. While the celebration of the female avatar is progressive, the name illustrates how male is
still the norm (there is no “MaleShep”). Therefore, the avatar design in Mass Effect is both conformist
and subversive, with a reliance on white male stereotypes, but the potential to have a black, female,
queer hero.
http://cultspark.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/03/defaultshepard.jpg
Fig. 13: The appearance of a default male Shepard.
!
!

!39
Heterosexuality as the Norm
!
While Mass Effect presents homosexual relationships in a positive light, this doesn’t fully extend to
playable options. In his analysis of Mass Effect, Baker (2014: 239) correctly explains that homosexual
relations are possible in the game, however he neglects to specify the discourses surrounding these
relationships, and hence jumps to an overly positive conclusion. The core problem with the
relationship options in Mass Effect is that there is an imbalance in the number of gay and lesbian
characters (not to mention there are no transexuals). Across all three games, women that can be
romanced by a female Shepard include: Liara, Kelly Chambers, Samara, Morinth, Samantha Traynor
and Diana Allers, whereas the men that can be romanced by a male Shepard are Steve Cortez and
Kaidan Alenko. Notably, there are two female characters in each instalment of Mass Effect that allow
for a lesbian relationship, whereas (male) gay relationships are only possible in Mass Effect 3. This
discrepancy illustrates that while Mass Effect is certainly including homosexual characters in a serious
way, these relationships are still constrained by heteronormative and masculine discourses. The high
proportion of lesbian encounters not only serves to sexualise lesbians but also affirms the masculinity
of the player, providing them with options that cater to the male gaze. This mirrors the presence of
‘booth babes’ described by Taylor et al (2009: 247) who constitute a sexualised female presence at
games fairs to reaffirm the heterosexuality of male customers in what is otherwise a highly
homosocial environment.
!
This is arguably why, despite the occasional homosexual options, Mass Effect is a predominately
heterosexual affair, especially if lesbian relationships are in fact not for lesbian players, but to service
the male gaze. The reason for this is similar to the argument made earlier about how a predominately
male production team will tend to neglect designing female characters in a serious way. Similarly, it is
arguable that a predominately heterosexual production team is unlikely to represent diverse sexualities
accurately. In a survey of video game worker demographics, 5.4% of respondents identified
themselves as lesbian/gay/bisexual, and of these respondents 31% strongly agreed that “a diverse
workforce has a direct impact on the games produced” whereas only 17% of heterosexual workers
strongly agreed (International Game Developers Association 2005: 15). With diversity being low on
the agenda for the majority of video game workers, it is unsurprising that heterosexual relationships

!40
are the norm in Mass Effect. Thus, as Pulos (2013: 79) argues, it is frustrating that, “While digital
environments have the potential to overcome the heteronormative ignorance and social stigma
perpetuated by those in power and by the pressure to conform to social norms, the problematic
portrayals of sexual and gendered norms are continually rearticulated”. Overall, while Mass Effect
shows promise in attempting to include homosexual relationships in the games, it tends to rely on
heterosexual discourses which pander to (presumed) heterosexual male players. However, it must be
credited with the inclusion of the gay relationships in Mass Effect 3, as these were clearly challenging
traditional gaming discourse on acceptable relationships. Thus once again Mass Effect demonstrates it
is capable of both subverting and conforming to gender stereotypes, and thus reinforcing and
challenging the status quo.
!
Lesbian ‘Heteroflexibility’and the Male Gaze
!
The representation of lesbians in Mass Effect reflects typical media representations of lesbians, the
only noteworthy element in this case is their inclusion in the virtual game world. With non-
recognition as the worst scenario and authentic representation as the best, Mass Effect lies in between
as it tends to mis-represent lesbian identities. Firstly, none of the characters in Mass Effect clearly
identify as lesbians, as they are all available as partners for both female and male Shepard. This is in
contrast to the pilot in Mass Effect 3 who can only be romanced by male Shepard and is therefore
strictly gay rather than bisexual, or what Diamond (2005: 3) refers to as ‘heteroflexibility’, wherein
the media portrays women as experimenting with their sexuality, but ultimately for the male viewers’
benefit. This ‘heteroflexibility’ as opposed to lesbianism means that players’ masculinities are not
undermined, as female on female relationships are presented as temporary and experimental as
opposed to permanent, which would signify that males lacked something. Hence Mass Effect’s lesbian
representation mostly serves to affirm male players’ masculinity and the dominance of
heterosexuality.
!
While representing homosexuality is certainly a positive step in the video game world, it is important
to analyse where this drive comes from. Mass Effect is an edgy, liberal game, but the lesbian
romances depicted seem to be included as a form of ‘commodity lesbianism’. This is a term used by

!41
Clark (1993: 186) that explains how capitalism has led to businesses utilising lesbian sexualities to
sell their products. This in turn leads to lesbianism being “treated as merely a sexual style that can be
chosen – or not chosen – just as one chooses a particular mode of fashion for self-expression” (Clark
1993: 197). This belittlement of a complex sexuality serves to weaken its transformative potential for
the viewer, and thus they experience only the consumer style of lesbianism as opposed to the political.
For example, Gill (2009:151) argues that, “The figure of the ‘luscious lesbian’ within advertising is
notable for her extraordinarily attractive, conventionally feminine appearance. Women depicted in this
way are almost always slim yet curvaceous, flawlessly made up and beautiful.” This is the image of
all the ‘lesbian’ characters in Mass Effect, neglecting depictions of butch lesbians in favour of what
will appeal to heterosexual males. Overall this shuts down any kind of diverse representation of
lesbian identities, and thus maintains patriarchal power over what could be subversive sexualities.
!
A Positive Depiction of Male Homosexuality
!
“I was in love with Cortez's history and I'm not going to lie, my heart skipped a beat when he said
"husband". As I played through the game, I definitely developed a crush on Cortez and he was a loyal
teammate. Talking to him felt real…” –Gregoire (Gay Authors 2012)
http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-KESlldYMU30/U_UDUwdj8xI/AAAAAAAAA4Q/0xJDbrjbMDM/s1600/Steve.jpg
Fig. 14: Cortez and MaleShep.
!

!42
In Mass Effect 3 MaleShep can engage in romances with Kaidan, a team mate, and Cortez (see Fig.
14), a shuttle pilot. While the lesbian romances can be critiqued for pandering to male tastes, the
option of male homosexual relationships are definitely a step forward in the representation of gender
and sexualities. Although Shaw (2009: 246/7) posits that making homosexuality optional is arguably a
way of taking the path of least resistance in inclusion of LGBT characters, it still has to be noted that
Mass Effect allows for it at all. Furthermore, when discussing Cortez’s personal life, there are only
positive dialogue options that the player can choose from, despite many players’ discontent: “After
first learning of Steve's sexual orientation, the only dialogue options you have are all highly positive
ones. Is this fair to everyone who is playing the game? What about people who view homosexuality as
wrong?” (Rock, Paper, Shotgun 2011). Evidently, despite audience concerns and critical industry
discourses that often impede LGBT content (Shaw 2009: 243/4), Mass Effect is clearly making a
statement for diversity and tolerance which is extremely positive and much needed in the video game
industry, as well as in representations of international politics.
!
The reason why it is such an achievement for Mass Effect to include a gay male romance option in a
positive way is because it dares to challenge traditional notions of masculinity and it presents a
counter discourse to often homophobic LGBT representations in the video game industry . As11
Connell (2005: 40) argues, “Homophobia is not just an attitude. Straight men’s hostility to gay men
involves real social practice, ranging from job discrimination through media vilification to
imprisonment… The point of these practices is not just to abuse individuals. It is also to draw social
boundaries, defining ‘real’ masculinity by its distance from the rejected.” Thus, because “gayness is
easily assimilated to femininity” (Connell 2005: 78), it is difficult to create gay characters in video
games in an inclusive, positive way, as they present a threat to the social boundaries of traditional
masculinity. Therefore Mass Effect does well by including Cortez as an in-depth, likeable character.
!
The inclusion of a range of masculinities matters for international relations. This is because
international relations is not only gendered, but also sexualised (Pratt 2007: 130) as heteronormative
discourses surround issues of security and nationality. The presence of positive gay characters in
For example, Schroder (2008: 251) explains how the character Mud is portrayed in an extremely homophobic11
way in Gothic (Piranha Bytes 2001-2006).

!43
popular culture can weaken this discourse. For example, Cortez is a key part of Shepard’s team,
piloting the shuttle that takes them to key destinations and conflict zones. His contribution in the
militarised context debases discourses that “punish homosexuality in order to ‘rescue’… masculinity
from the insecurities experienced as a result of socioeconomic changes and shifting gender
roles” (Pratt 2007: 137). Overall, the inclusion of Cortez in a blockbuster style action/adventure video
game is therefore extremely encouraging and signifies Mass Effect’s progressive representation of
sexuality, which destabilises notions of traditional masculinity, hence challenging gender stereotypes
and giving a more realistic depiction of identities that matter in international relations.
!
The Transformative Potential of Gaming
!
In all video games there is a sense in which ‘the game is playing you’. For example Gee (2008: 259)
asserts that “your own personal goals must become [Shepard]-like goals, goals that flow from his
(virtual) mind and body as they are placed in this specific game world.” In other words the player
must conform to the virtual rules and environment in order to participate in the game, and this
assimilation can be described as the game ‘playing the player’. However, like many video games,
there are cheats and hacks that allow subversions of the standard gaming experience, and even, as12
Schleiner (2001: 221) argues, can provide space for feminists and hackers to influence the formation
of gender configurations. This is possible in Mass Effect, as despite a predominately heterosexual and
macho virtual environment, dialogue options can be hacked to allow MaleShep to engage in a
homosexual romance with Kaidan in Mass Effect 1. There are a few minor quirks, however, as Kaidan
refers to MaleShep as a woman (thus potentially lending itself to a transgender reading), in a sense
making the hack even more subversive. As Schroder (2008: 242) argues, “By parody of- and play
with social norms and expectations, the constructedness of binary opposites can be made visible...”.
While not an intentional part of Mass Effect’s design, this hack allows for Mass Effect to represent
diverse forms of sexuality that fall outside of heteronormative boundaries, and hence enables a
progressive reading of the game.
!
Video games are consumed in a unique way by each player, so it is important to also include alternative12
strategies of playing the game, despite perhaps being outside of the developers’ intentions.

!44
Creatively resisting the boundaries imposed on players leads to queer readings and experiences of the
game itself. This kind of hacking potential doesn’t have to involve cheats and codes and electronic
software. It can merely involve the imagination and psychological shifts. For example, Cross (2012:
75, emphasis in original) charts her own experiences of playing World of Warcraft (Blizzard
Entertainment 2004-2014) as a female avatar, when she still considered herself a man: “We can
transcend their edicts and their intentions… Blizzard Entertainment’s envisaged ends in creating
World of Warcraft did not entail a transgender revolution or conceive even of a transgender becoming.
Yet I am here.” In this way, it doesn’t matter whether a game company is on board with LGBT
representation (World of Warcraft certainly wasn’t), as through the player’s unique experiences they
can experience the virtual environment as a subversive space, despite the developer’s original
intentions. In this sense, the player is now truly ‘playing the game’, not how the designers envisioned
it, but on their own terms. As Pulos (2013: 78/9) argues,
If we take seriously the queer potential of digital environments such as WoW, where
individuals can simultaneously confront the discursive practices and disrupt the structural
powers that resist LGBTQ communities, then we can recognize digital games not as a forum
to perpetuate pejorative viewpoints but as focal points to foster a commitment to equality and
antisuffering that can transfer to experiences outside the digital spaces.
Therefore, while not always intentional, Mass Effect does allow for a certain amount of fluidity in its
gaming by allowing players to embody different genders and sexualities, and by encouraging them to
ask questions and explore others’ identities. Overall, this gaming experience demonstrates a virtual
space that permits a sense of becoming, rather than being, which is extremely progressive in terms of
both gender and sexuality representations. Furthermore, it gives the impression that the world is a far
more complex and diverse place than is often recognised in mainstream, masculinised international
relations. Thus, the presence of identity fluidity challenges entrenched notions of identities being
static and unchangeable, which can often lead to violence in international relations. As Sen (2006: 16)
argues, “The insistence, if only implicitly, on a choiceless singularity of human identity not only
diminishes us all, but also makes the world much more flammable.”
!
!

!45
Conclusion
!
By analysing the gender, sexualities and international relations present in Mass Effect, I have
uncovered hegemonic discourses that run through the game as well as illustrated the potential for
video games to challenge these discourses. There are a several ways in which Mass Effect subverts
gender norms, and hence resists traditional conceptions of rigid, masculine world politics. First, it
includes in-depth female characters in the game, providing players with interesting and diverse
identities to engage with and learn about. Second, there is a large emphasis on dialogue alongside the
conflict presented in the game, allowing for a less hyper-masculine reading of war. Third, players are
able to choose their avatar’s gender, race and sexuality, giving a range of identities the role of ‘hero’.
Finally, Mass Effect includes male gay characters in a serious, positive light. As I have argued, these
are valuable accomplishments in the masculinised world of game design. However, while some of
these aspects are extremely progressive, overall Mass Effect tends to conform to gender stereotypes in
a number of ways: Female characters are often either over-sexualised or assimilated into the
masculine culture of aggressive politics. There is clear gendered division of labour with women taking
on care roles and men serving in the military. Violence is masculinised, negatively affecting men and
women, as men are perceived as naturally aggressive and women are left to take care of the domestic
sphere. Military values are promoted, with violence being presented as necessary and inevitable.
Similarly, the intergalactic relations are realist (and hence masculinised), depicting an anarchic
universe where armament is as essential as dialogue. Finally, lesbianism is reduced to serving the
male gaze, reinforcing heterosexual discourses. Overall, while it is impressive for a mainstream video
game to subvert some gender stereotypes, on the whole there is still a lot more work to be done. Video
games have the potential to be transformative spaces for players to explore gender and sexuality, as
well as to challenge hegemonic discourses surrounding gender and international relations. If more
mainstream games were to build upon this, and provide more alternative discourses that challenge the
now endemic gender stereotypes within gaming, this might contribute to a more expansive conception
of international relations. Thus, in the context of the rapidly expanding games market, it is more
essential now than ever before to highlight the multitude of complex identities implicated in gender
and international relations. As video games become more powerful in popular culture, it would be

!46
transformative for them to utilise their imaginative, creative virtual realities, to challenge hegemonic
discourses, rather than just conform to them.
!
!
References
!
Annandale, Ellen. and Clark, Judith. (1996) ‘What is Gender? Feminist Theory and the Sociology of
Human Reproduction’, Sociology of Health & Illness, 18 (1): 17-44.
!
Baker, Benjamin. (2014) ‘Bioware: Mass Effect 3’, Women’s Studies in Communication, 37 (2):
239-241.
!
Battlefield (2002-2014) Console game: Xbox, Electronic Arts.
!
Beauvoir, Simone de. (1953) The Second Sex, New York: Knopf.
!
Behm-Morowitz, Elizabeth. and Mastro, Dana. (2009) ‘The Effects of the Sexualization of Female
Video Game Characters on Gender Stereotyping and Female Self-Concept’, Sex Roles, 61 (11-12):
808-823.
!
Brennan, Denise. (2002) ‘Selling Sex for Visas: Sex Tourism as a Stepping-stone to International
Migration’, in Ehrenreich, Barbara. and Hochschild, Arlie Russell. (eds) Global Woman: Nannies,
Maids and Sex Workers in the New Economy, London: Granta Publications, pp. 154-168.
!
Call of Duty (2003-2014) Console game: Xbox, Activision.
!
Carroll, Rory. (2014) ‘It's a Man's Celluloid World: Study Finds Women Under-represented in Film’,
available at http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/mar/11/mans-celluloid-world-study-finds-
women-under-represented-film, accessed 15th July 2015.
!

!47
Clark, Danae. (1993) ‘Commodity Lesbianism’, in Abelove, Henry. et al (eds) The Lesbian and Gay
Studies Reader, New York: Routledge, pp. 186-201.
!
Clarke, Ben., Rouffaer, Christian. and Senechaud, Francois. (2012), ‘Beyond the Call of Duty: Why
Shouldn’t Video Game Players Face the Same Dilemmas as Real Soldiers?’, International Review of
the Red Cross, 94 (886): 711-737.
!
Cockburn, Cynthia. (2012) ‘Gender Relations as Causal in Militarisation and War: A Feminist
Standpoint’, in Kronsell, Annica. and Svedberg, Erika. (eds) Making Gender, Making War: Violence,
Military and Peacekeeping Practices, New York: Routledge, pp. 19-34.
!
Cohn, Carol. (1987) ‘Sex and Death in the Rational World of Defense Intellectuals’, Signs, 12 (4):
687-718.
!
Cohn, Carol. (1999) ‘Missions, Men and Masculinities: Carol Cohn discusses Saving Private Ryan
with Cynthia Weber’, International Feminist Journal of Politics, 1 (3): 460-475.
!
Coleman, Lara. (2007) ‘The Gendered Violence of Development: Imaginative Geographies of
Exclusion in the Imposition of Neo-liberal Capitalism’, The British Journal of Politics and
International Relations, 9 (2): 204-219.
!
Connell, R. W. (2005) Masculinities (second edition), Cambridge: Polity Press.
!
Connell, R. W. (2000) The Men and the Boys, New York: Polity Press.
!
Cowlishaw, Brian. (2005) ‘Playing War: The Emerging Trend of Real Virtual Combat in Video
Games’, available at http://www.americanpopularculture.com/archive/emerging /
real_virtual_combat.htm, accessed 14 December 2013.
!

!48
Crawford, Neta C. (2003) ‘Science Fiction, Utopia, and the Art of Possibilities in World Politics’, in
Weldes, Jutta. (ed.) To Seek Out New Worlds: Exploring Links Between Science Fiction and World
Politics, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 195-220.
!
Cross, Katherine Angel. (2012) ‘The New Laboratory of Dreams: Role-playing Games as Resistance’,
Women’s Studies Quarterly, 40 (3/4): 70-88.
!
Curthoys, Paul. (2007) ‘Mass Effect Review’, Official Xbox Magazine, Issue 78, p. 62.
!
D’Angelo, William. (2012) ‘Mass Effect: A Sales History’, available at http://www.vgchartz.com/
article/250066/mass-effect-a-sales-history/, accessed 20 May 2014.
!
Diamond, Lisa. (2005) ‘'I'm Straight, but I Kissed a Girl': The Trouble with American Media
Representations of Female-Female Sexuality’, Feminism and Psychology, 15 (1): 104-110.
!
Elson, Diane. (1999) ‘Labor Markets as Gendered Institutions: Equality, Efficiency and
Empowerment Issues’, World Development, 27 (3): 611-627.
!
Elworthy, Scilla. and Rifkind, Gabrielle. (2005) ‘Hearts and Minds: Human Security Approaches to
Political Violence’, Demos, available at http://www.demos.co.uk/files/heartsandminds.pdf, accessed
12 January 2014.
!
Enloe, Cynthia. (2000) Bananas, Beaches and Bases: Making Feminist Sense of International Politics
(second edition), London: University of California Press Ltd.
!
Enloe, Cynthia. (1993) The Morning After: Sexual Politics at the End of the Cold War, Berkeley:
University of California Press Ltd.
!

!49
Enloe, Cynthia. (2002) ‘Demilitarisation – or More of the Same? Feminist Questions to Ask in the
Postwar Moment’, in Cockburn, Cynthia. and Zarkov, Dubravka. (eds) The Postwar Moment:
Militaries, Masculinities and International Peacekeeping, London: Lawrence and Wishart, pp. 22-32.
!
Enloe, Cynthia. (2007) Globalization and Militarism: Feminists Make the Link, Mayland: Rowman
Littlefield.
!
Gallaway, Brad. (2007) ‘Mass Effect – Review’, available at http://www.gamecritics.com/mass-effect-
review, accessed 1 September 2014.
!
Gay Authors (2012) ‘Mass Effect 3 Romance: Kaiden vs Cortez’, comment by Gregoire, available at
http://www.gayauthors.org/forums/topic/34602-mass-effect-3-romance-kaiden-vs-cortez/, accessed 14
August 2014.
!
Gears of War (2006-2013) Console game: Xbox, Microsoft.
!
Gee, James Paul. (2008) ‘Video Games and Embodiment’, Games and Culture, 3 (3/4): 253-263.
!
Gill, Rosalind. (2009) ‘Beyond the ‘Sexualization of Culture’ Thesis: An Intersectional Analysis of
‘Sixpacks’,‘Midriffs’ and ‘Hot Lesbians’ in Advertising’, Sexualities, 12 (2): 137-160.
!
Goldstein, Hilary. (2007) ‘Mass Effect: Creating Commander Shepherd’, available at http://
uk.ign.com/articles/2007/08/28/mass-effect-creating-commander-shepard?page=1, accessed 8 July
2014.
!
Halo (2001-2014) Console game: Xbox, Microsoft.
!
Hanson, Ben. (2011) ‘Mass Effect 3: Creating Garrus’, available at http://www.gameinformer.com/b/
features/archive/2011/04/22/mass-effect-3-creating-garrus.aspx, accessed 15 July 2014.
!

!50
International Game Developers Association (2005) ‘Game Developer Demographics: An Exploration
of Workforce Diversity’, available at http://legacy.igda.org/game-developer-demographics-report,
accessed 4 May 2014.
!
John, Tracey. (2010) ‘The Thoughts Behind Miranda's Behind in Mass Effect 2’, available at http://
kotaku.com/5511913/the-thoughts-behind-mirandas-behind-in-mass-effect-2, accessed 4 September
2014.
!
Khalili, Laleh. (2011) ‘Gendered Practices of Counterinsurgency’, Review of International Studies, 37
(4): 1471-1491.
!
Kinzel, Lesley. (2011) ‘Shepard Ain’t White: Playing with Race and Gender in Mass Effect’, available
at http://blog.twowholecakes.com/2011/06/shepard-aint-white-playing-with-race-and-gender-in-mass-
effect/, accessed 20 May 2014.
!
Kroll, Louisa. (2014) ‘Inside The 2014 Forbes Billionaires List: Facts And Figures’, available at
http://www.forbes.com/sites/luisakroll/2014/03/03/inside-the-2014-forbes-billionaires-list-facts-and-
figures/, accessed 18 August 2014.
!
Leonard, David. (2003) ‘“Live in Your World, Play in Ours”: Race, Video Games, and Consuming the
Other’, Studies in Media & Information Literacy Education, 3 (4): 1–9.
!
Leonard, David. (2004) ‘Unsettling the Military Entertainment Complex: Video Games and a
Pedagogy of Peace’, Studies in Media & Information Literacy Education, 4 (4): 1–8.
!
Leonard, David., and King, Richard. (2009) ‘Replaying Empire: Racialised Violence, Insecure
Frontiers, and Displaced Terror in Contemporary Video Games’, Ethnicity and Race in a Changing
World: A Review Journal, 1 (2): 2-14.
!

!51
Lipschutz, Ronnie D. (2003) ‘Aliens, Alien Nations, and Alienation’, in Weldes, Jutta. (ed.) To Seek
Out New Worlds: Exploring Links Between Science Fiction and World Politics, New York: Palgrave
Macmillan, pp. 79-98.
!
Livingston, Jessica. (2004) ‘Murder in Juárez: Gender, Sexual Violence, and the Global Assembly
Line’, Frontiers, 25(1): 59-76.
!
MacDonald, Keza. (2014) ‘Video Games Need More Women – and Asking For That Won't End the
World’, available at http://www.theguardian.com/technology/commentisfree/2014/feb/19/video-
games-need-more-women-female-characters, accessed 2 September 2014.
!
Magnet, Shoshana. (2006) ‘Playing at Colonization: Interpreting Imaginary Landscapes in the Video
Game Tropico’, Journal of Communication Inquiry, 30 (2): 142-162.
!
Mangan, Bryan. (2013) ‘The Emotional Effectiveness of Mass Effect’, available at http://
venturebeat.com/2013/09/29/the-emotional-effectiveness-of-mass-effect/, accessed 1 June 2014.
!
Mass Effect (2007-2012) Console game: Xbox, BioWare and Electronic Arts.
!
Mass Effect Wiki (2014) ‘Mass Effect’, available at http://masseffect.wikia.com/wiki/
Mass_Effect_Wiki, accessed 3 June 2014.
!
McGonigal, Jane. (2012) Reality Is Broken: Why Games Make Us Better and How They Can Change
the World, London: Vintage Books.
!
Michael 117 (2012) Commented on ‘Tell Me About Your Emotional Connection to Mass Effect’ by
DiMola, Nick. available at http://www.pixlbit.com/feature/ 1205/tell_me_about_your_emotional
_connection_to_mass_effect, accessed 3 June 2014.
!

!52
Miller, Monica K. and Summers, Alicia. (2007) ‘Gender Differences in Video Game Characters’
Roles, Appearances, and Attire as Portrayed in Video Game Magazines’, Sex Roles, 57 (9/10):
733-742.
!
Mou, Yi. and Peng, Wei. (2009) ‘Gender and Racial Stereotypes in Popular Video Games’, in Ferdig,
Richard. (ed.) Handbook of Research on Effective Electronic Gaming in Education, London: IGI
Global, pp. 922-937.
!
Murphy, Sheila. (2004) “Live in Your World, Play in Ours’: The Spaces of Video Game Identity’,
Journal of Visual Culture, 3 (2): 223-238.
!
Newton, Judith. (1990) ‘Feminism and Anxiety in Alien’, in Kuhn, Annette. (ed.) Alien Zone:
Cultural Theory and Contemporary Science Fiction Cinema, London: Verso, pp. 82-90.
!
Ortner, Sherry B. (1974) ‘Is Female to Male as Nature is to Culture?’, in Rosaldo, Michelle. and
Lamphere, Louise. (eds) Woman, Culture, and Society, Stanford CA: Stanford University Press, pp.
67-88.
!
Pateman, Carole. (1988) The Sexual Contract, Cambridge: Polity Press.
!
Peterson, Spike. and Runyan, Anne. (2010) Global Gender Issues (second edition), Boulder CO:
Westview Press.
!
Peterson, Spike. V. (1992) ‘Security and Sovereign States: What is at Stake in Taking Feminism
Seriously?’, in Peterson, Spike. V. (ed.) Gendered States: Feminist (Re)visions of International
Relations Theory, Boulder CO: Lynne Rienner, pp. 31-64.
!
Dyer-Witheford, Nick. and Peuter, Greig de. (2006) ‘“EA Spouse” and the Crisis of Video Game
Labour: Enjoyment, Exclusion, Exploitation, Exodus’, Canadian Journal of Communication, 31 (3):
599-617.

!53
!
Gothic (2001-2006) PC game: Microsoft Windows, Piranha Bytes.
!
Power, Marcus. (2007) ‘Digitized Virtuosity: Video War Games and Post-9/11 Cyber-Deterrence’,
Security Dialogue, 38 (2): 271–288.
!
Pratt, Nicola. (2007) ‘The Queen Boat case in Egypt: sexuality, national security and state
sovereignty’, Review of International Studies, 33 (1): 129-144.
!
Prell, Sophie. (2012) ‘How Mass Effect Kicked My Emotional Ass’, available at http://
www.destructoid.com/how-mass-effect-3-kicked-my-emotional-ass-229195.phtml, accessed 6 June.
!
Pulos, Alexis. (2013) ‘Confronting Heteronormativity in Online Games: A Critical Discourse Analysis
of LGBTQ Sexuality in World of Warcraft’, Games and Culture, 8 (2): 77.
!
Quaker Peace and Social Witness Report (2014) The New Tide of Militarisation, available at http://
www.quaker.org.uk/sites/default/files/Militarisation-briefing-web_0.pdf, accessed April 1 2014.
!
Rock, Paper, Shotgun (2011) ‘Homosexuality and Player Choice in ME3’, comment by db1331,
available at http://www.rockpapershotgun.com/forums/showthread.php?3509-Homosexuality-and-
player-choice-in-ME3, accessed 14 August 2014.
!
Rowley, Christina. (2010) ‘Popular Culture and the Politics of the Visual,’ in Shepherd, Laura J. (ed.)
Gender Matters in Global Politics: A Feminist Introduction to International Relations, London and
New York: Routledge, pp. 309-325.
!
Rowley, Christina. (2007) ‘Firefly/Serenity: Gendered Space and Gendered Bodies’, The British
Journal of Politics and International Relations, 9 (2): 318-25.
!

!54
Sarkeesian, Anita. (2012) ‘Ms Male Character: Tropes vs Women’, available at http://
www.feministfrequency.com/2013/11/ms-male-character-tropes-vs-women/, accessed 8 July 2014.
!
Sarkeesian, Anita. (2014) ‘Women as Background Decoration (Part Two)’, available at http://
www.feministfrequency.com/2014/08/women-as-background-decoration-part-2/, accessed September
2 2014.
!
Satterwhite, Rebekah. (2013) ‘Sexism in Mass Effect’, available at http://
unitedmediacritics.blogspot.co.uk/2013/12/sexism-in-mass-effect.html, accessed 8 July 2014.
!
Schleiner, Anne-Marie. (2001) ‘Does Lara Croft Wear Fake Polygons? Gender and Gender-Role
Subversion in Computer Adventure Games’, Leonardo, 34 (3): 221-226.
!
Schroder, Arne. (2008) ‘“We don’t want it changed, do we?”: Gender and Sexuality in Role-Playing
Games’, Eludamos, 2 (2): 241-256.
!
Scott, Ripley. (1979) Alien, film.
!
Sen, Amartya. (2006) Identity and Violence: The Illusion of Destiny, London: Penguin.
!
!
Shaw, Adrienne. (2009) ‘Putting the Gay in Games: Cultural Production and GLBT Content in Video
Games’, Games and Culture, 4 (3): 228-253.
!
Steans, Jill. (1998) Gender in International Relations: an Introduction, Cambridge: Polity Press.
!
Stuart, Keith. (2014) ‘Gamergate: The Community is Eating Itself But There Should Be Room For
All’, available at http://www.theguardian.com/technology/2014/sep/03/gamergate-corruption-games-
anita-sarkeesian-zoe-quinn, accessed 3 September 2014.
!

!55
Sylvester, Christine. (2002) Feminist International Relations: An Unfinished Journey, Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
!
Taylor, Nicholas., Jenson, Jen. and Castell, Suzanne de. (2009) ‘Cheerleaders/Booth Babes/Halo
Hoes: Pro-gaming, Gender and Jobs for the Boys’, Digital Creativity, 20 (4): 239-252.
!
Tickner, Ann J. (1997) ‘You Just Don’t Understand: Troubled Engagements Between Feminists and
IR Theorists,’ International Organization, 41 (4): 611-632.
!
Tickner, Ann J. (1998) ‘Hans Morgenthau’s Principles of Political Realism: A Feminist
Reformulation,’ Millennium, 17 (3): 429-440.
!
TV Tropes (2014) ‘Green-Skinned Space Babe’, available at http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/
Main/GreenSkinnedSpaceBabe, accessed 28 August 2014.
!
Vaughn, Hayden. (2007) ‘Mass Effect UK Review’, available at http://uk.ign.com/articles/2007/11/19/
mass-effect-uk-review?page=2, accessed 3 September 2014.
!
Weldes, Jutta. (1999) ‘Going Cultural: Star Trek, State Action, and Popular Culture’, Millennium, 28
(1): 117-134.
!
Weldes, Jutta. (2003) ‘Popular Culture, Science Fiction, and World Politics: Exploring Intertextual
Relations’ in Weldes, Jutta. (ed.) To Seek Out New Worlds: Exploring Links Between Science Fiction
and World Politics’, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 1-27.
!
Wohl, Dan. (2013) ‘On Female Villains, or the Lack Thereof’, available at http://
www.themarysue.com/on-female-villains-or-the-lack-thereof/, accessed 18 August 2014.
!
World of Warcraft (2004-2014) PC game, Blizzard Entertainment.
!

!56
Xbox Achievements (2014) ‘Mass Effect 3 Achievements’, available at http://
www.xboxachievements.com/game/mass-effect-3/achievement/63890-Veteran.html, accessed 7
August 2014.
!
!

FinalDissertationSE

More Related Content

What's hot (15)

Similar to FinalDissertationSE (20)

More from Susie East (6)

FinalDissertationSE