![Sex chromosomes, Sex hormones
These biological factors are influenced by environmental
factors (diet, lifestyle, etc)
Differences between the two sexes-males and females are
due to sex chromosomes and genes that form sex hormones
and certain reproductive organs.
• Note, however, of epigenesis.
Epigenesis - happens when some genes in chromosomes are
activated or repressed (without altering the DNA) by various
environmental factors (diet, lifestyle, physical activity, etc.)
• Various epigenetic modifications contribute differences
between males and females.
Sex chromosomes and sex hormones are purely biological
aspects of a person's gender.
These factors interact with cultural/social/psychological
factors (via epigenesis) to produce complex differences
between males and females.
Sex differences in brain and cognition Sex differences in
health/aging
Brain differences between males and females
There are sex differences in the whole brain images as well as
in each specific brain regions.
These brain structural differences might be related to gender
differences in cognition, emotional control as well as
neurological disorders
Sex Differences in Brain (Structures)
There are sex differences in the whole brain images as well as
in each specific brain regions.
These brain structural differences might be related to gender
differences in cognition, emotional control as well as
neurological disorders
"human brains are composed of an ever-changing
heterogeneous mosaic of 'male' and 'female' brain
characteristics (rather than being all 'male' or all 'female')
that cannot be aligned on a continuum between a 'male
brain' and a 'female brain."
Thus, human brains are multi- morphic, instead of dimorphic
On average, male's brain is about 11% larger than female's
brain, but this is mainly because males are taller than
females.
• Nevertheless, many studies reported that in both males and
females, most brain regions are similar in size and that
differences, if any, are small.
• brains are not simply male brains or female brains.
•, males and females may differ in "[brain] performances." In
terms of language skills, it seems that male and female brains
work differently to produce the same behavior.
Sex Differences in Temperament and Cognition
Many of the cognitive and behavioral differences between
males and females appear early in life, and they are
biologically determined rather than learned.
Prenatal and neonatal testosterone exposures, together with
genetic factors affecting androgen signaling are some of the
biological factors to these sex differences.
Example: Females more empathic, males less emotional.
• Is this a stereotype or there is a biological aspect to it?
Empathy, at its core, is an ancient biological phenomenon.
• Female human infants exhibit higher rates than males in
various rudimentary forms of empathy, such as contagious
crying, neonatal imitation, social referencing (i.e., looking to
social partners for information in ambiguous situations), and
general social interest and sensitivity.
Males: Better at planning tasks, inhibition (executive
function)
Females: Better at emotion recognition tasks, spatial
working memory tasks
• This indicates that higher emotionality in females may lead
to attentional biases toward emotional stimuli.
• Warning: Do not generalize: Participants from London
(belonging to W.E.I.R.D.)
Human behavior is complex
Cultural, social, and psychological factors affect gene
expression, which altogether shape the various complex
differences between males, females, and intersex.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/gensoc-midterm-reviewer-250203124845-9ca06001/85/GENSOC-MIDTERM-REVIEWER-Ldocx-15-320.jpg)
GENSOC-MIDTERM-REVIEWER..,,,,,,,,,,Ldocx
- 1. GE Gender and Society CHAPTER 1. Gender 101: SOGIE How is gender different from sex? • Sex refers to biological characteristics, and gender is a multifaceted aspect of one's identity. • Sex is typically assigned at birth as either male or female depending on the appearance of genitals. • There are individuals who are intersex, meaning that their bodies do not fully match our expectations of what female or male bodies are. • Typical sex development: Those with XX chromosomes are expected to grow with ovaries, a vagina, a vulva, and a clitoris. Those with XY • Just as we are assigned a sex at birth, we are also assigned a gender role, and our assigned gender roles generally reflect our assigned sex. • Those with vulva are raised and expected to be girls, and those with penis are raised and expected to boys. • Being raised as girls or boys means people assign us gender roles- positions and responsibilities expected of us based on our assigned gender. • Note that these gender roles can vary from country to country and even within countries. • Aspects of our sex are biological, while "gender" is so much more. • Gender/SOGIE is an amalgamation of several elements: chromosomes (those X's and Y's), anatomy (internal sex organs and external genitals), hormones (relative levels of testosterone and estrogen), psychology (self- defined gender identity and patterns of attraction), culture (socially defined gender behaviors). Gender is a complex psychosocial construct. Institutionalized Distribution of power in political, education, and other social institutions Shapes gender norms Relations Interpersonal interactions e.g., family, workplace dynamics Roles Societal expectations (parents, peers, schools and teachers) Career you pursue, your role in the family SOGIE Being cisgender, transgender, or nonbinary Being feminine, masculine, or others Sexual characteristics, sexual orientation What is gender identity? • Gender identity is our self- conception of who we are our innermost sense of being a man, a woman, or something else entirely. • For some people, gender identity is consistent with their sex assigned at birth, leading people to believe that sex and gender should be congruent. • What really makes someone a man or a woman? Is it our physical sexual characteristics?
- 2. • Gender identity is how our brain thinks about ourselves as gendered beings, and what those genders mean to us regardless of what body parts we (or do not) possess • General types of people based on gender identity: 1. Cisgender people - congruent sex and gender identity 2. Transgender people - incongruent sex and gender identity; people who tend to feel they are "born in the wrong body" 3. Non-binary people - identifying with both men and women or a gender that is neither • As early as 3 years old, toddlers already have a sense of gender identity. • Despite having it early on, gender identity is not always expressed in words or actions. Why is this so? What is gender expression? • Gender expression is a term used to describe a person's outward appearance. • Characteristics that are commonly gendered include clothing, jewelry, and hair length and style; also includes activities, interests, and mannerisms that are observable. • Gender expressions vary with culture: 1. Masculinity - Presentation in ways a culture associates with being a man. Masculine - possessing qualities or characteristics considered typical of or appropriate to a man Masculinism - ideologies and socio-political movements that seek to eliminate sexism against men, or increase adherence to or promotion of attributes regarded as typical of males.It is also a men's rights movement or men's movement. 2. Femininity - Presentation in ways a culture associates with being a woman. Feminine - having qualities regarded as characteristic of women and girls, as gentleness, weakness, delicacy, or modesty Feminism - the belief that women deserve equal social, economic, and political rights and freedoms. Over the years, feminism has focused on issues like the right to vote, reproductive and sexual freedom, and equal pay. Feminist - someone who supports equal rights for women 3. Androgyny - A combination of masculine and feminine traits or a nontraditional gender expression. Androgynous - neither specifically feminine nor masculine" and has "characteristics or nature of both male and female • Important note: Gender expression may or may not correspond with gender identity. • Gender expression varies depending on the cultural context and time. • Consider crying. It is a sign of emotional vulnerability in many cultures today, but it used to be sign of heroism in feudal Japan. What other behaviors are examples of gender expressions that vary across cultures? Clothing and Accessories: In many Western cultures, clothing like skirts and dresses are traditionally associated with women, while trousers are seen as men's wear. Body Language: In some cultures, more expressive or animated body language may be seen as a trait of femininity, while others might associate a reserved or stoic demeanor with masculinity Hair Styles: Haircuts and styles can also signify gender. What are gender roles? • Gender roles are those spoken and unspoken duties that are assigned to a person based on their sex or gender. • Gender roles not only vary throughout the globe and over time but also within a particular community. In 1870 in the US, women worked as miners, steelworkers, hunters, locksmiths. In ancient Egypt, there were powerful women who held highest positions of leadership (e.g., Cleopatra). In precolonial Philippines, we used to have female leaders called babaylans (who were warriors, healers, priestesses, and sages). • Important: Gender roles are fluid. • However, within a specific culture, as one strays from the norms of accepted gender roles, skepticism and devaluing are common.
- 3. In the Philippines, what are the usual reactions of people when they see someone deviating from their expected gender roles? 1. Cisgender woman becoming a Chief of police force 2. Cisgender man using a tote bag 3. Transgender woman joining the Miss Universe pageant 4. Transgender man singing a feminine ballad song. 5. Non-binary person being just themselves, not harming anybody What is the gender binary? • The gender binary refers to a structure of understanding wherein sex and gender are viewed as consisting of only two choices- male/female, man/woman, masculine/feminine-with nothing in between. • When we think about sex or gender in a binary system, we tend to identify characteristics that are exclusive to one or the other, rather than traits that many people across different genders share. • Why is it that our society seems to maintain the gender binary? The answer is related to power or social influence. • The gender binary is so ingrained in our culture that most of us do not notice or question it. Even the way we speak is inherently binary. • Throughout history, multiple genders are recognized. • A significant number of people have begun to use words like non- binary or genderqueer to describe themselves. They may see themselves as androgynous or gender neutral, or they may oppose the strict boundaries of binary gendering. What is gender nonconformity? Gender Nonconformity refers to the experience of someone who does not identify or express the culturally accepted set of gendered behaviors or actions associated with the sex they were assigned at birth. What are examples of gender nonconforming behaviors that you can think of? Clothing and Appearance: Men wearing dresses, skirts, or traditionally feminine clothing Women wearing suits, pants, or traditionally masculine clothing Behaviors and Roles: Men expressing emotions openly, such as vulnerability or tenderness Women being assertive, strong, or taking on leadership roles • Some people describe their gender identity as gender nonconforming, or GNC. What is gender expression? • People who demonstrate gender nonconforming behaviors may identify in a variety of ways, including as cisgender, transgender, or nonbinary. • However, many people who identify themselves as GNC often see themselves as falling under the transgender umbrella. • They also use other terms, such as 1. Nonbinary (not identifying as a man or a woman) 2. Agender (not having a gender) 3. Bigender (identifying as man and woman) 4. Multigender (multiple genders) 5. Genderfluid (fluid or changing gender identity) 6. Genderqueer (another word to identify outside of the binary) • To respectfully use the correct gender identity for someone, it is usually best to ask them directly. • Misgendering someone can cause discomfort on the person. How to use singular They 1. As a nonbinary personal pronoun 2. As a universal gender-neutral pronoun 3. As an indefinite pronoun when a person's self-identified gender is unknown. What does it mean to be transgender? • Transgender refers to someone who identifies with a gender that is outside the expectations associated with the sex they were assigned at birth. • Men born with vulvas and ovaries are transgender men or transmen, while women born with penises and testes are transgender women or transwomen.
- 4. Important notes: 1. Being transgender is separate from being gay, lesbian, or nonbinary. They should not be confused with one another. 2. Being transgender is not a "extreme version" of being gay. 3. It is not a result of some trauma, poor parenting, or abuse. • Transgender identity remains to be stigmatized in many societies, which is why young children who are GNCs cause distress to parents and caretakers. • These young children who are GNCs experience anxiety, getting warned of embarrassment. Note: 1. Many masculine-presenting girls, or tomboys, do not grow up to be transgender. 2. Many feminine boys do not grow up to be trans girls. 3. Not all transgender young people demonstrate gender- nonconforming behaviors. • Gender identity can be closely related to gender expression, but they are not necessarily equivalent. • How do we know when someone is transgender? • If your answer is cross-dressing, you are wrong. • If your answer is sex reassignment, you are wrong also. it's impossible to "know" if someone is transgender simply by observing their behavior or appearance. A person's gender identity is a deeply personal and internal experience, and it's not something that can be determined by external factors. What does it mean to be intersex? • Intersex people are those whose sexual or reproductive organs develop differently than the typical male or female pathways. • The antiquated term hermaphrodite is now considered offensive. • Some physicians categorize intersex people as having "disorders of sex development." A less pathologizing phrase is "differences of sex development." • Most intersex people are healthy, and their only major differences from others are in their sexual or reproductive organs. • Some intersex people consider themselves to be part of the LGBTQ spectrum, while others do not. • Longer forms of the abbreviation often include the word intersex (i.e., LGBTQIA, which is sometimes expanded to mean lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, intersex, and asexual). Questions to ponder: 1. Is being intersex a disease or a medical condition? No, being intersex is not a disease or a medical condition. It's a naturally occurring variation in human sex characteristics. Intersex people are born with sex characteristics, including chromosomes, genitals, or hormones, that don't fit typical binary notions of male or female. Past Misconceptions: In the past, intersex variations were often labeled as "disorders of sex development" (DSD), implying a medical problem that needed to be "fixed." However, this terminology has been widely criticized for pathologizing natural variations and promoting unnecessary medical interventions. 2. Is being intersex a type of gender? No, being intersex is not a type of gender. Intersex is a biological variation related to sex characteristics. Gender, on the other hand, is a social construct about how people identify and express themselves. Gender Identity: Intersex people can identify with any gender, including male, female, non-binary, or genderfluid. Their gender identity is separate from their biological sex characteristics. 3. Are transgender people and intersex people the same?
- 5. No, transgender people and intersex people are not the same. Transgender: Transgender people have a gender identity that differs from the sex they were assigned at birth. Their bodies may align with typical male or female characteristics, but their internal sense of self does not match the assigned sex. Intersex: Intersex people have biological variations in their sex characteristics that don't fit the typical male or female categories. 4. Are intersex people automatically gay or lesbian? No, there's no connection between being intersex and being gay or lesbian. Sexual orientation and intersex status are independent of each other. Sexual Orientation: Intersex people can be straight, gay, lesbian, bisexual, or asexual, just like anyone else. Their sexual orientation is determined by who they are attracted to, regardless of their biological sex characteristics What does gender have to do with sexuality? • Gender identity refers to our own sense of how we see ourselves, while sexuality is defined as the gender or genders of the people we are attracted to. • Sexuality, or sexual orientation, is an enduring pattern of romantic or sexual attraction (or a combination of these) to persons of the opposite sex or gender, the same sex or gender, or to both sexes or more than one gender. • The sexual orientation spectrum: 1. Heterosexual (or straight): people who get attracted to opposite sex or gender 2. Homosexual (or gay/lesbian): people who get attracted to the same sex or gender 3. Bisexual: people who get attracted to both sexes or genders. 4. Pansexual or queer: People whose attractions span across many different gender identities 5. Questioning/curious: People who are unsure about their sexual orientation 6. Asexual: People who don't experience any sexual attraction for anyone. What does gender have to do with sexuality? • Sexuality, or sexual orientation, is an enduring pattern of romantic or sexual attraction (or a combination of these) to persons of the opposite sex or gender, the same sex or gender, or to both sexes or more than one gender. • It can be independent from a person's gender identity and expression. Sexual activities, regardless of gender identity; usually by so- called "sex workers", can be independent as well from gender: • MSM: men who have sex with men • WSW/FSF: women who have sex with men or female who have sex with female • Heterosexual sex: individual who engages in sexual activity with another of opposite gender Illustration of SOGIE, present in all human persons 1. SEX (S) - Biological aspects of gender, usually the genitalia 2. SEXUAL ORIENTATION (O) – Patterns of emotional/romantic attraction to other persons 3. GENDER IDENTITY (GI) - Cognition or belief of one's identity (brain) 4. GENDER EXPRESSION (E) – Outward observable behaviors
- 6. SOGIE is an inclusive terminology to refer to human persons' complex gender-related and sexuality-related identities. • SOGIE components can be independent of one another, which means that: Sex ≠ Sexual Orientation ≠ Gender Identity ≠ Gender Expression How does language influence our perceptions of SOGIE ? what are the implications of the words and terms we choose to use when discussing gender and sexuality? What are the potential psychological effects on individuals when their SOGIE is not recognized or respected by their community or society? What would be the legal/ethical implications of recognizing or failing to recognize diverse SOGIE in various societal institutions, such as education, healthcare, and the workplace? How should educational systems adapt to accommodate and support diverse SOGIE among students and staff, and what challenges might arise in this process? 1. How does language influence our perceptions of SOGIE? Language plays a crucial role in shaping and reflecting societal attitudes toward Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity, and Gender Expression (SOGIE). For instance, the evolution of terms related to gender and sexuality has expanded our understanding of these concepts. Example: The use of terms like "non-binary" or "genderqueer" has become more common and widely understood over the past decade. These terms help people express identities that don't fit within the traditional binary framework of male and female. Conversely, outdated or incorrect terms can perpetuate misunderstanding or stigma. For example, using derogatory or incorrect terms for LGBTQ+ identities can reinforce negative stereotypes and discrimination. 2. What are the implications of the words and terms we choose to use when discussing gender and sexuality? The words and terms used can either affirm or invalidate individuals' experiences and identities. Respectful and accurate language fosters inclusion and support, while harmful or incorrect language can perpetuate marginalization. Example: In the workplace, using inclusive language such as "partner" instead of assuming "husband" or "wife" respects diverse sexual orientations and avoids assuming heterosexuality. On the other hand, failing to use a person's preferred pronouns can contribute to feelings of exclusion and disrespect. 3. What are the potential psychological effects on individuals when their SOGIE is not recognized or respected by their community or society? When individuals' SOGIE is not recognized or respected, they may experience significant psychological distress, including anxiety, depression, and low self-esteem. Example: A study published in the American Journal of Public Health found that transgender individuals who face discrimination or are not supported by their families have higher rates of mental health issues, including depression and suicidal ideation. Not being recognized or validated can lead to a sense of isolation and reduced overall well-being. 4. What would be the legal/ethical implications of recognizing or failing to recognize diverse SOGIE in various societal institutions, such as education, healthcare, and the workplace? Recognizing diverse SOGIE in various institutions has significant legal and ethical implications. Example: Education: Schools that fail to recognize diverse SOGIE may not provide adequate support for LGBTQ+ students. This can lead to higher dropout rates and lower academic performance among these students. Conversely, policies that include gender-neutral bathrooms and anti-bullying measures can create a safer and more inclusive environment. Healthcare: In healthcare, failing to recognize diverse SOGIE can lead to inadequate care. For example, if a healthcare provider is not trained to handle the specific needs of transgender patients, it may result in inappropriate treatments or a lack of proper care, exacerbating health disparities. Workplace: In the workplace, recognizing diverse SOGIE through inclusive policies and practices can enhance employee satisfaction and productivity. For instance, companies with strong anti-discrimination policies and benefits that cover diverse SOGIE are often seen as more attractive to potential employees and have lower turnover rates.
- 7. 5. How should educational systems adapt to accommodate and support diverse SOGIE among students and staff, and what challenges might arise in this process? Educational systems should implement policies and practices that create an inclusive environment for students and staff of all SOGIE identities. Example: Supportive Policies: Schools can establish clear anti-bullying policies that include protections based on sexual orientation and gender identity. They can also offer training for staff on LGBTQ+ issues to foster a supportive atmosphere. Curriculum Integration: Integrating diverse perspectives into the curriculum helps all students understand and respect different SOGIE identities. For example, including LGBTQ+ history and contributions in history and social studies classes promotes a more comprehensive and inclusive education. Challenges: Resistance: Some communities may resist changes due to cultural or religious beliefs. For instance, implementing policies around gender-neutral bathrooms can face opposition from those who feel it conflicts with traditional values. Resource Allocation: Schools may struggle with the resources needed to train staff and provide adequate support services. Smaller schools or districts with limited budgets might find it challenging to implement comprehensive support systems. Chapter 1 | Gender 101: SOGIE Practice test 1. What is the significance of using 'they' as a singular pronoun in the context of gender identity? a. It is used exclusively for people who identify as non-binary. b. It is incorrect grammatically and should not be used. c. It is a way to refer to someone without assuming their gender. d. It is only appropriate in informal or casual conversations. 2. What is a key aspect of understanding the gender identity spectrum? a. Recognizing only two fixed points as valid genders. b. Seeing gender as a range of identities beyond just man and woman. c. Viewing the gender spectrum as a temporary societal trend. d. Believing that the gender spectrum complicates basic biology. 3. What is an appropriate approach to gender expression in educational settings? a. Strictly enforcing traditional gender expressions. b. Allowing flexibility and respect for various forms of gender expression. c. Avoiding any mention of gender to prevent discrimination. d. Basing academic evaluation on gender conformity. 4. What is a fundamental understanding of a transgender individual? a. Someone who adopts gender roles different from their assigned sex at birth. b. An individual whose gender identity aligns with their biological sex. c. A person who frequently changes their gender identity. d. An individual who identifies with a gender different from their assigned sex at birth. 5. Considering the concept of SOGIE, which stands for Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity, and Expression, how can it be best described in terms of its role in understanding human identities? a. SOGIE is a limited framework focusing only on biological aspects of gender and sexuality. b. SOGIE is an inclusive terminology to refer to human persons’ complex genderrelated and sexuality-related identities. c. SOGIE is a concept applicable exclusively to the LGBTQ+ community and has no relevance outside of it. d. SOGIE refers only to the legal and societal rights of individuals, without addressing personal identity aspects.
- 8. 6. In understanding that the components of SOGIE can be independent of one another, which means that Sex ≠ Sexual Orientation ≠ Gender Identity ≠ Gender Expression, what does this imply? a. One's biological sex automatically determines their gender identity and sexual orientation. b. An individual's gender expression is always aligned with their sexual orientation. c. Each component of SOGIE can vary independently, reflecting a person's unique identity. d. Sexual orientation is the only component that significantly influences gender identity and expression. 7. What does the presence of intersex people imply? a. Intersex individuals are a clear example of the biological diversity that exists within human sexual development, challenging the strict male-female binary. b. Being intersex is a condition that needs medical correction to align with the typical male or female physical traits. c. Intersexuality represents a third gender that is entirely separate from male or female identities. d. The development of intersex individuals is a recent phenomenon resulting from modern environmental and lifestyle changes. 8. The statement “Being transgender is being extremely gay/lesbian” reflects a common misconception. What is the accurate understanding of the relationship between being transgender and sexual orientation? a. Being transgender is about gender identity and is independent of a person's sexual orientation, which can vary widely among transgender individuals. b. All transgender individuals are heterosexual, as their gender identity aligns with their sexual orientation. c. The term 'transgender' exclusively refers to the sexual orientation of individuals, not their gender identity. d. Sexual orientation in transgender individuals is always opposite to their gender identity. 9. Which of the following best demonstrates the concept of gender nonconformity? a. A person wearing clothing traditionally associated with a different sex than the one they were assigned at birth. b. An individual strictly adhering to the gender roles and expectations assigned to their birth gender. c. A person expressing their gender identity in a way that aligns perfectly with societal norms. d. Someone choosing hobbies and interests based solely on their biological sex. 10. Gender expression may or may not correspond with gender identity. Considering this statement, which of the following is true? a. A person's gender expression is always a direct reflection of their internal gender identity. b. Gender expression can vary and is not necessarily indicative of a person's gender identity. c. Gender identity is solely determined by how an individual chooses to express themselves externally. d. It is impossible for gender expression to differ from gender identity. 11. Gender identity is how our brain thinks about ourselves as gendered beings. Which of the following statements aligns with this definition? a. Gender identity is determined solely by the physical characteristics one is bornwith. b. Gender identity is a personal and internal sense of one's own gender, which may or may not align with their biological sex. c. Gender identity is a concept only relevant in the context of social interactions and societal norms. d. Gender identity changes frequently and depends on external circumstances and influences.
- 9. 12. Which of the following statements is true regarding gender being viewed as SOGIE? a. Gender is defined exclusively by one's chromosomes and anatomical characteristics. b. Gender is a comprehensive concept that includes biological, psychological, and cultural factors. c. It is a concept that pertains only to the LGBTQ+ community. d. Culture and psychology play no significant roles in defining a person’s gender. 13. What really makes someone a man or a woman? a. It depends entirely on one’s understanding and declaration of being a man/woman. b. It is determined by biological sex and the physical characteristics they’re born with. c. It is a combination of societal norms, personal identification, and biological factors. d. It depends entirely on how an individual is perceived and treated by society. 14. What is the proper pronoun for transgender men? a. He b. She c. They d. It 15. Which term does not belong to the group? a. Questioning b. Bisexual c. Bigender d. Asexual 16. A female individual who undergoes operation to remove her uterus becomes: a. A transgender man b. Not anymore a woman c. Less of a woman d. None of the above 17. Which of the following is true? a. A married man who once had sex with another man in the past is a homosexual man. b. Typically, females are expected by society to be feminine. c. All gender nonconforming individuals are transgenders. d. Gender identity is decided at the heart of the person. 18. An individual born with vagina believes that the pronoun that should be used to describe him is HE/HIM. He is a drag queen, so he wears clothes typically for women. Question: What is this person's sexual orientation? a. Gay b. Lesbian c. Unknown d. Confused 19. A transgender man is sexually attracted to men. Is this possible? a. No, transgender men get attracted to women only. b. Yes, transgender men can be attracted to men. c. No, transgender men are not homosexual gays. d. Yes, transgender men are actually gender-fluid. 20. At birth, a baby is typically assigned by people with sex and: a. Gender identity b. Gender expression c. Gender role
- 10. d. Sexual orientation CHAPTER 2: GENDER & BIOLOGY SEXUALITY EDUCATION: Female and male reproductive systems Trivia about sexuality education • Comprehensive sexuality education (CSE) is a process of teaching and learning about the cognitive, emotional, physical, and social aspects of sexuality. It aims to empower children and young people to: 1. realize their health, well-being, and dignity 2. develop respectful social and sexual relationships 3. consider how their choices affect their own well- being and that of others 4. understand and ensure the protection of their rights throughout their lives. CSE addresses: sexual and reproductive anatomy and physiology; puberty and menstruation; reproduction, contraception, pregnancy, and childbirth; STIs, including HIV and AIDS. CSE also covers: human rights* a healthy and respectful family life and interpersonal relationships** gender equality* sexual behaviors* gender-based and other violence* consent and bodily integrity** sexual abuse and harmful practices such as child, early, and forced marriage, and female genital mutilation/cutting.* Reproductive System of FEMALES Female reproductive system The main parts of your vulva or external genitals are: 1. Labia majora: Your labia majora ("large lips") enclose and protect the other external reproductive organs. During puberty, hair growth occurs here, containing sweat and oil-secreting glands. 2. Labia minora: Your labia minora ("small lips") lie just inside your labia majora and surround the opening to your vagina and urethra. This skin is very delicate and can become easily irritated. 3. Clitoris: Your two labia minora meet at your clitoris, a small, sensitive protrusion that's comparable to a penis in males. Your clitoris is covered by a fold of skin called the prepuce and is very sensitive to stimulation. 4. Vaginal opening: Your vaginal opening allows menstrual blood and babies to exit your body. Tampons, fingers, sex toys or penises can go inside your vagina through your vaginal opening. 5. Hymen: Your hymen is a piece of tissue covering or surrounding part of your vaginal opening. It's formed during development and present during birth. 6. Opening to your urethra: The opening to your urethra is the hole you pee from. Internal parts 1. Vagina: Your vagina is a muscular canal that joins the cervix (the lower part of uterus) to the outside of the body. It can widen to accommodate a baby during delivery and then shrink back to hold something narrow like a tampon. It's lined with mucous membranes that help keep it moist. 2. Cervix: Your cervix is the lowest part of your uterus. A A hole in the middle allows sperm to enter and menstrual blood to exit. Your cervix opens (dilates) to allow a baby to come out during a vaginal childbirth. Your cervix is what prevents things like tampons from getting lost inside your body. 3. Uterus: Your uterus is a hollow, pear-shaped organ that holds a fetus during pregnancy. Your uterus is divided into two parts: the cervix and the corpus. Your corpus is the larger part of your uterus that expands during pregnancy. 4. Ovaries: Ovaries are small, oval-shaped glands that are located on either side of your uterus. Your ovaries produce eggs and hormones. 5. Fallopian tubes: These are narrow tubes that are attached to the upper part t of your uterus and serve as pathways for your egg (ovum) to travel from your ovaries to your uterus. Fertilization an egg by sperm normally occurs in the he fallopian tube tubes. The fertilized egg then moves to the uterus, he uterus where it implants into your uterine lining.
- 11. Reproductive System of MALES Male Reproductive System Parts of the male reproductive system: 1. Penis is the male organ for sexual intercourse. It contains many sensitive nerve endings, and it has three parts: a. Root. The root is the base of your penis. It attaches to the wall of your abdomen. b. Body (shaft). The body has a shape like a tube or cylinder. It consists of three internal chambers: the two larger chambers are the corpora cavernosa, and the third chamber is the corpus spongiosum. c. Glans (head). The glans is the cone-shaped tip of the penis. A loose layer of skin (foreskin) covers the glans. In most people, the opening of the urethra is at the tip of the glans. The urethra transports pee and semen out of your body. Semen contains sperm. What is a normal size of the penis? tudies suggest that the average penis is about 3.5 inches (8.9 cm) when flaccid (soft) and a little more than 5 inches (13 cm) when erect. 2. Scrotum is the loose, pouch-like sac of skin that hangs behind the penis. It holds the testicles (testes) as well as nerves and blood vessels. 3. Testicles (testes) are oval-shaped organs that lie in your scrotum. They're about the size of two large olives. The testicles make testosterone and produce sperm. 4. The epididymis is a long, coiled tube that rests on the back of each testicle. It carries and stores the sperm cells that your testicles create. The epididymis also brings the sperm to maturity-the sperm that emerge from the testicles are immature and incapable of fertilization. During sexual arousal, muscle contractions force the sperm into the vas deferens. 5. The vas deferens is a long, muscular tube that travels from the epididymis into the pelvic cavity, just behind the urinary bladder. The vas deferens transports mature sperm to the urethra in preparation for ejaculation. 6. Ejaculatory ducts: Each testicle has a vas deferens that joins with seminal vesicle ducts to form ejaculatory ducts. The ejaculatory ducts move through your prostate, where they collect fluid to add to semen. They empty into yoururethra. 7. The urethra is the tube that carries pee from your bladder outside of your body. If you have a penis, it also ejaculates semen when you reach orgasm. 8. The seminal vesicles are sac-like pouches that attach to the vas deferens near the base of the bladder. Seminal vesicles make up to 80% of your ejaculatory fluid. 9. The prostate is a gland that adds additional fluid to ejaculate, which helps nourish sperm. The urethra runs through the center of the prostate gland. 10. Bulbourethral (Cowper) glands are structures that create a clear, slippery fluid that empties directly into the urethra. This fluid lubricates the urethra and neutralizes any acids that may remain from your pee. Gender/SOGIE is an amalgamation of several elements: chromosomes (those X's and Y's), anatomy (internal sex organs and external genitals), hormones (relative levels of testosterone and estrogen), psychology (self-defined gender
- 12. identity and patterns of attraction), and culture (socially defined gender behaviors). Sex Chromosomes • Humans, in addition to 22 autosomal chromosomes, have two sex chromosomes X and Y. These two chromosomes distinguish males and females at chromosomal levels. Sex chromosomes are responsible for sex determination, but the process of sex differentiation is complex. Sperm Egg Human embryos, no matter their chromosomes, all begin with an indifferent stage (i.e., bipotential gonads), and remain so until approximately 6-9 weeks after conception. • The Y chromosome has a sex determining gene (SRY), which produces testosterone and anti- Mullerian hormone (AMH), leading for the two ducts (Wolffian and Mullerian) to develop into the typical male sex reproductive organs.
- 13. • More specifically, there should be an enzyme in male embryos that converts testosterone into the potent hormone DHT (dihydrotestosterone). • When DHT is present, the embryonic structure called genital tubercle grows into a penis; when it is absent, the tubercle becomes a clitoris. Some Y chromosomes do not contain the SRY gene, while some embryos do not respond to AMH. These are some of the instances which lead to differences in sex development (DSD or being intersex). DSDS Different DSD conditions: 1. Females with CAH (46,XX DSD) 2. Males with CAIS (46,XY DSD) 3. Others: a. Klinefelter syndrome and variants (47,XXY) b. Turner syndrome and variants (45,X) c. Sex chromosome mosaicism and variants (45,X/46,XΥ) d. Chimerism (46,XX/46,XY) These are the conditions that can make a person become an intersex. Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH) Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) -refers to a group of genetic disorders that affect the adrenal glands, which produce the ff hormones: Individuals with CAH have imbalances in these hormones (too little or too much). 1. Cortisol-s a steroid hormone in the glucocorticoid class of hormones and a stress hormone. When used as medication, it is known as hydrocortisone. 2. Mineralocorticoids- are a class of corticosteroids, which in turn are a class of steroid hormones. Mineralocorticoids are produced in the adrenal cortex and influence salt and water 3. Androgens (Testosterone) - male sex hormone, such as testosterone. Female infants with CAH may have atypical genitalia appearance: enlarged clitoris that may resemble a penis; partially closed labia resembling a scrotum. The uterus, fallopian tubes and ovaries usually develop typically. The person is, at the chromosome level, female (XX) but his gender identity is he/him. The report mentions that chromosomes "did not have a role in gender identity" nor gender expression. (s ≠ gi, ge) Complete Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (CAIS) Complete androgen insensitivity syndrome occurs when the body cannot use androgens (testosterone) at all. People with this condition are genetically male, with one X chromosome and one Y chromosome (thus, 46,XY). Affected individuals have the external sex characteristics of females, so they are typically raised as females and have a woman (she/her) gender identity. However, they have male internal sex organs (testes) that are undescended, but do not have a uterus and therefore do not menstruate and are unable to conceive a child (infertile). The person is, at the chromosome level, male (XY) but she is reared as female; has developed breasts, normal- appearing vagina, but has testes; an achiever in school and a dancer. DSDS At least two implications that we can derive from DSD cases: 1. There are people who will not fit neatly into the male/female dichotomy (e.g., females with CAH) 2. Gender identity and expression can be independent from sex assigned at birth (e.g., Males with CAIH) Sex hormones • Sex hormones are chemical substances that regulate sex- related characteristics in both males and females. These are: 1. Testosterone (androgen) 2. Estrogen 3. Progesterone
- 14. 4. Oxytocin Sex hormones principally exert their effects to produce sexual differentiation and reproduction. • However, they also have roles in bone health, some brain functions, and immune system. • The gonads (ovaries and testes) produce sex hormones, alongside the adrenal glands. • Alternatively, sex hormones are produced due to the biochemical conversion (e.g., aromatase enzyme converts testosterone to estrogen). • The amount of these hormones vary throughout an individual's lifetime and are influenced by several factors: 1. Age 2. Menstruation 3. Menopause 4. Stress 5. Medication 6. Recreational drug use Testosterone Produced in the testes, ovaries in women, and adrenal glands. Predominant in males Maintains healthy muscle mass, stamina, and strength. Supports libido, energy levels, memory, and an overall well-being. Contributes to males having deep voices, penis size, facial hair, and broader shoulders. Too much testosterone can causeaggression, depression, impotence, and excessive libido. Testosterone deficiency can cause fatigue, mood swings, low libido, and irritability. In females- testosterone is necessary. Deficiency can also lead to low energy, decreased libido, and a drop in an overall sense of well-being. Estrogen Predominant in females, but also found in males Produced mostly in the ovaries and adrenal glands. Stimulates fat cells to grow and is a key hormone in reproduction. Has roles in promoting strong bones and reducing bad cholesterol in the body A deficiency can cause decreased libido, fatigue, inflammation, hair loss, mood swings, wrinkles, weight gain, and migraines. Excessive amounts of estrogen can cause bloating, bleeding, breast tenderness and mood swings. In males- Low estrogen results in an actual increase in body fat Progesterone Naturally produced in the ovaries and has duties in the reproduction cycle. Responsible for both the regulation of the monthly menstrual cycle and at ceasing it during pregnancy. Once conception is achieved, the regular, concentrated levels of progesterone (along with estrogen) is what suppresses ovulation. High levels of progesterone can cause mood swings, bloating, and breast tenderness. Low progesterone can cause migraines, depression, anxiety, lowered libido, hot flashes, and menstrual cycle abnormalities. Oxytocin (OT) Produced in the hypothalamus Facilitates social cognition and behaviors, facilitates parental behavior and sexual activity and inhibits feeding and pain perception Among males: OT has a role in penis erection, experience of pleasure during sex, and orgasm and ejaculation. Among females: In menstruation, OT facilitates ovulation During pregnancy, OT promotes maternal behavior and lactation. In parturition, OT accelerates the expelling of fetus and reduce postpartum hemorrhage. During lactation, OT is necessary for the milk- ejection reflex and maternal behavior. Deficiency in OT accounts for maternal depression and hypogalactia. In menopause, less OT accounts for many menopausal symptoms and diseases. Why do male and female bodies differ?
- 15. Sex chromosomes, Sex hormones These biological factors are influenced by environmental factors (diet, lifestyle, etc) Differences between the two sexes-males and females are due to sex chromosomes and genes that form sex hormones and certain reproductive organs. • Note, however, of epigenesis. Epigenesis - happens when some genes in chromosomes are activated or repressed (without altering the DNA) by various environmental factors (diet, lifestyle, physical activity, etc.) • Various epigenetic modifications contribute differences between males and females. Sex chromosomes and sex hormones are purely biological aspects of a person's gender. These factors interact with cultural/social/psychological factors (via epigenesis) to produce complex differences between males and females. Sex differences in brain and cognition Sex differences in health/aging Brain differences between males and females There are sex differences in the whole brain images as well as in each specific brain regions. These brain structural differences might be related to gender differences in cognition, emotional control as well as neurological disorders Sex Differences in Brain (Structures) There are sex differences in the whole brain images as well as in each specific brain regions. These brain structural differences might be related to gender differences in cognition, emotional control as well as neurological disorders "human brains are composed of an ever-changing heterogeneous mosaic of 'male' and 'female' brain characteristics (rather than being all 'male' or all 'female') that cannot be aligned on a continuum between a 'male brain' and a 'female brain." Thus, human brains are multi- morphic, instead of dimorphic On average, male's brain is about 11% larger than female's brain, but this is mainly because males are taller than females. • Nevertheless, many studies reported that in both males and females, most brain regions are similar in size and that differences, if any, are small. • brains are not simply male brains or female brains. •, males and females may differ in "[brain] performances." In terms of language skills, it seems that male and female brains work differently to produce the same behavior. Sex Differences in Temperament and Cognition Many of the cognitive and behavioral differences between males and females appear early in life, and they are biologically determined rather than learned. Prenatal and neonatal testosterone exposures, together with genetic factors affecting androgen signaling are some of the biological factors to these sex differences. Example: Females more empathic, males less emotional. • Is this a stereotype or there is a biological aspect to it? Empathy, at its core, is an ancient biological phenomenon. • Female human infants exhibit higher rates than males in various rudimentary forms of empathy, such as contagious crying, neonatal imitation, social referencing (i.e., looking to social partners for information in ambiguous situations), and general social interest and sensitivity. Males: Better at planning tasks, inhibition (executive function) Females: Better at emotion recognition tasks, spatial working memory tasks • This indicates that higher emotionality in females may lead to attentional biases toward emotional stimuli. • Warning: Do not generalize: Participants from London (belonging to W.E.I.R.D.) Human behavior is complex Cultural, social, and psychological factors affect gene expression, which altogether shape the various complex differences between males, females, and intersex.
- 16. A critique: The studies are largely "binary" • Studies about differences in brain, temperament, and cognition have been heavily focused on comparing males and females. • Being intersex, transgender, or homosexual and others have been, sort of, left understudied. On Transgenders and their Brain • Postmortem studies (Dick Swaab) indicated that transgender women and men have brain structures more similar to the brains of cisgender individuals of the same gender identity than cisgender individuals of the gender they were assigned at birth. But those studies were criticized. • On the other hand, there were functional MRI studies showing that both cisgender boys and transgender boys (assigned female at birth) had similar activation patterns during a spatial-reasoning task, compared to cisgender girls. The brains of 24 transgender women (before hormonal therapy) were different from those of cisgender men's brains and cisgender women's brains, but more similar to cisgender men's brains. • This supports the idea that being transgender is a not a "brain" thing, but more of "personal identification". • There are some people who criticize the conduct of "biological" or "brain" research on gender-diverse individual, especially transgenders, because such research seems to invalidate "the truth and authenticity of assertions of gender identity." • Florence Ashley, a transfeminine jurist and bioethicist, wrote in Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry that "gender is not something given that we need to unearth, but something that remakes itself-the same or anew-over and over again as we gather new experiences of the world." Biological factors constitute only one side of a coin. They may solve mysteries surrounding sex development and offer insights about our sex-differentiated behaviors, still being a gendered human person goes beyond those X and Y and estrogen and testosterone. What is your take-home lesson? CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS How do biological factors and environmental facts interact to shape gender identity? Biological Factors: Biological factors include genetics, hormone levels, and brain structure. Environmental Factors: Environmental factors encompass societal expectations, cultural norms, and personal experiences. These include: Socialization: From a young age, children are exposed to gender norms and expectations through family, media, and education. These influences can shape how individuals perceive and express their gender identity. Cultural Context: Cultural attitudes towards gender can either reinforce or challenge individual gender identity. For example, in cultures with rigid gender roles, individuals may experience pressure to conform to traditional gender identities. Interaction: The interaction between biological and environmental factors is complex. For instance, a person might have a biological predisposition towards a particular gender identity, but societal expectations and personal experiences can influence how they express and experience this identity. Gender identity emerges from the interplay between these biological predispositions and the surrounding environment. How can society better accommodate and support the needs of individuals with DSD? Medical and Healthcare Support Access to Specialized Care: Ensure individuals with DSD have access to healthcare professionals who specialize in DSD. This includes endocrinologists, geneticists, and urologists who are knowledgeable about the conditions and treatments. Example: The Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia has a dedicated DSD clinic that provides comprehensive care tailored to the specific needs of individuals with DSD. Psychological and Emotional Support
- 17. Counseling and Support Groups: Offer psychological counseling and support groups for individuals with DSD and their families. This helps them navigate the emotional and psychological challenges associated with DSD. What are the implications of sex differences in cognition and temperament for school/ workplace environments? Cognitive and Temperamental Differences: Cognitive Differences: Research suggests that there may be differences in cognitive abilities between sexes, though these differences are often small and influenced by many factors. For example, some studies have found that males may excel in spatial tasks, while females might perform better in verbal tasks. However, these differences are not absolute and can be influenced by socialization and individual experiences. Temperamental Differences: There may be differences in temperament, such as emotional sensitivity and aggression, which can affect behavior in school and workplace environments. For instance, some studies suggest that males might be more prone to risk-taking behavior, while females might display higher levels of empathy. Implications: Educational Settings: Teachers can benefit from recognizing and accommodating diverse learning styles rather than relying on generalized sex-based approaches. Tailoring teaching methods to individual needs can support all students, regardless of sex. How do insights from transgender brain research challenge traditional views on gender and biology? Insights from Transgender Brain Research: Brain Structure and Function: Some studies have found that brain structures in transgender individuals may more closely resemble those typical of their gender identity rather than their sex assigned at birth. For example, research has shown that certain brain areas in transgender women (assigned male at birth but identify as female) may align more with the average female brain structure. Neuroplasticity: Research into neuroplasticity suggests that the brain is highly adaptable and can be influenced by various factors, including hormonal treatments. This challenges the view of a strictly binary and fixed notion of gender based solely on biological sex. Challenges to Traditional Views: Biological Determinism: These insights challenge the traditional view that gender identity is solely determined by biological sex. They suggest that gender identity involves a complex interplay of biological, psychological, and social factors. Gender Fluidity: Findings from transgender brain research support the idea that gender is not strictly binary and that biological differences exist within the spectrum of gender identity. This challenges rigid, binary models of gender and supports a more nuanced understanding of gender diversity. Example: Research published in journals such as JAMA Psychiatry has explored how brain structure and function in transgender individuals might align more with their experienced gender identity than their sex assigned at birth, contributing to a broader understanding of gender beyond traditional biological perspectives. Chapter 2 Quiz Gender and Biology 1. Which of the following is not one of the biological aspects of SOGIE? a. Sex chromosomes (e.g., XX, XY) b. Reproductive systems (male and female) c. Gender roles and expectations d. Levels of sex hormones (e.g., estrogen, testosterone) 2. Female body part that joins the cervix to the outside of the body: a. Vagina b. Fallopian Tube c. Urethra d. Ovary 3. Male body part that stores the sperm cells that testicles create: a. Epididymis b. Seminal vesicle c. Vas deferens d. Prostate gland 4. Male body part that is responsible for lubricating the urethra and neutralizing acids that may remain from urine: a. Prostate gland b. Cowper's gland c. Seminal vesicle d. Epididymis
- 18. 5. Female body part that produces egg cells and estrogen: a. Ovary b. Uterus c. Fallopian Tube d. Endometrium 6. Human embryos, no matter their chromosomes, all begin with an indifferent stage. What does this mean? a. All embryos initially develop external male characteristics. b. Chromosomes determine the embryo's development from conception. c. Embryos can choose their gender based on environmental factors. d. Embryos have neutral organs that can develop into either male or female. 7. Dihydrotestosterone in males is responsible for: a. Deepening of voice b. Developing external male genitalia c. Developing internal male genitalia d. “Masculinizing” the brain 8. Dihydrotestorone is derived from testosterone, which in turn is produced by testes. Which of the following is responsible for the appearance of testes in embryos? a. SRY gene on the Y chromosome b. Estrogen levels in the embryo c. Presence of two X chromosomes d. Activation of the ovaries 9. Female external genitalia, such as clitoris and labia majora, appear in embryos because of which condition? a. Absence of the SRY gene b. High levels of dihydrotestosterone c. Presence of two Y chromosomes d. Activation of estrogen receptors 10. In the lecture video, there’s a statement that says, “Some Y chromosomes do not contain the SRY gene, while some embryos do not respond to AMH.” What does this statement imply? a. Sex differentiation can be influenced by factors beyond chromosome presence. b. Only the presence of the SRY gene determines the embryo's sex. c. Anti-Müllerian Hormone (AMH) is irrelevant in sex differentiation. d. Y chromosomes are always indicative of male development. 11. Which of the following is true about individuals with DSD? a. They always require surgical intervention for healthy development. b. They cannot lead a normal, healthy life without medical treatment. c. They have atypical development of chromosomal, gonadal, or anatomical sex. d. They must choose a gender identity that aligns with their biological characteristics. 12. Which of the following is NOT true about "Males with CAIH (46, XY DSD)" a. They have a typical male XY chromosome pattern. b. They naturally produce higher amounts of estrogen than testosterone. c. They are usually infertile due to the inability to produce sperm. d. They typically develop female secondary sexual characteristics at puberty. 13. Female infants with CAH may be characterized with which of the following? a. Enlarged clitoris and fused labia b. Inability to metabolize sugar c. Early development of male secondary sexual characteristics d. Increased height and muscle mass before puberty
- 19. 14. What can we infer from the presence of intersex cases to understand the concept of gender identity? a. Gender identity is strictly determined by biological factors. b. DSDs highlight the variability and spectrum of gender identities. c. Gender identity and biological sex are always aligned. d. The existence of intersex individuals is a modern phenomenon. 15. In a case report on CAIS on a 13-year-old Lebanese child, it was mentioned that "The person is, at the chromosome level, male (XY) but she is reared as female; has developed breasts, normal- appearing vagina, but has testes; an achiever in school and a dancer." What does the case imply? a. CAIS challenges traditional definitions of gender, showing that gender identity can diverge from chromosomal sex. b. The presence of CAIS indicates a direct correlation between chromosomal makeup and physical development. c. CAIS cases prove that gender identity and roles are universally fixed and unchangeable. d. The case shows that personal achievements and talents are determined by one's gender identity. 16. Which of the following is an action of oxytocin in male bodies? a. Enhances muscle growth and strength b. Promotes social bonding and trust c. Increases testosterone production d. Directly stimulates hair growth 17. Consider the following statements about sex hormones: I. Estrogen is involved in the development of secondary sexual characteristics in females. II. Testosterone is only present in males. III. Progesterone prepares the uterus for pregnancy. IV. Androgens have no role in female bodies. Which of the following is true? a. Only I and II are true. b. Only I and III are true. c. Only II and IV are true. d. All items are true. 18. Which of the following is true about epigenesis in the context of development of sex differentiated brains? a. Epigenetic changes are solely responsible for the development of sex-differentiated brains. b. Environmental factors have no impact on the epigenetic development of sex differentiated brains. c. Epigenesis involves both genetic factors and environmental influences in shaping the development of sex-differentiated brains. d. The process of epigenesis ends at birth, with no further sex- differentiated brain development occurring afterward. 19. In research (Joel, 2011), it was found that "human brains are multi-morphic, instead of dimorphic". What does this mean? a. Human brains are categorized into two distinct types: male and female. b. There is a spectrum of brain types beyond the simple male/female binary. c. Brain morphology is determined at birth and remains unchanged. d. Gender differences in the brain are purely cultural. 20. Which of the following is evidence-based about the statement: "Females more empathic, males less emotional."? a. Scientific research supports that females inherently possess a higher capacity for empathy than males. b. Gender differences in emotionality and empathy are largely shaped by societal expectations and cultural norms. c. Studies show no significant differences in emotional capacity between males and females. d. Emotional expression in males is often underreported due to social stigmas surrounding masculinity. 21. Which of the following best captures the critique on research about transgender brains?
- 20. a. Research conclusively demonstrates that transgender individuals have brain structures identical to their identified gender. b. Critiques often point out that such research invalidates the authenticity of assertions of gender identity. c. Most studies on transgender brains lack sufficient evidence and are therefore unreliable. d. The critique is primarily focused on the ethical implications of conducting research on transgender individuals without their consent. 22. Which of the following does not align with this statement: "Gender is not something given that we need to unearth, but something that remakes itself—the same or anew—over and over again as we gather new experiences of the world.” a. Gender identity evolves through ongoing interaction with society and personal experience. b. Our understanding of gender is reshaped continually by societal norms and individual experiences. c. The concept of gender has a basis in either biology or society and is entirely a personal choice. d. The perception of gender is fluid, influenced by cultural contexts and personal growth. Chapter 3: Becoming Gendered: A Developmental Psychology Perspective Content overview 1. MODAL GENDER DEVELOPMENT 2. Development of gender in gender-diverse children o Gender-referred children, transgender children, female children with CAH, and tomboys 3. Factors shaping gender development: Social factors o The role of families, peers, schools, and media consumption 4. Factors shaping gender development: Cognitive factors o Schemas 5. Factors shaping gender development: Biological factors o Genes and hormones MODAL GENDER DEVELOPMENT - Developmental science has long characterized gender in children, but this characterization is the typical or modal- most common-pattern of gender development. o By "most common" we mean gender identity and gender expression being aligned with assigned sex. Modal gender development is the statistically most common trajectory of gender development or the development shown by cisgender, gender-conforming children. Infants discriminate gendered faces as early as 3-4 months (Quinn et al., 2002) At age 3, children associate binary gender labels with faces, toys, and activities (Campbell et al., 2004) At age 3 also, children categorize themselves into binary gender categories (Thompson, 1975) Children's gender stereotypes take root around 2-3 years of age (Poulin- Dubois et al. 2002) What are gender stereotypes? Gender stereotypes refer to preconceived ideas and expectations about how individuals of a particular gender should behave, think, or feel. These stereotypes often serve to reinforce traditional gender roles and norms within a society. Gender stereotypes peak in rigidity around 5-7 (Halim & Ruble 2010) Gender stereotyping becomes more flexible as children age (Carter & Patterson 1982).
- 21. Starting in preschool, children show preferences for toys and clothing stereotypically associated with their gender (Halim et al. 2014) Boys tend to engage in more rough-and- tumble play (DiPietro 1981). By early childhood, children show same- gender peer preferences (Shutts et al. 2013). Children's essentialist gender beliefs-that differences between genders are inborn and unalterable- develop early (Taylor et al. 2009) • These essentialist beliefs persist through adolescence (Gelman & Taylor 2000) Children also view gender as relatively stable by early childhood (Martin & Halverson 1983). From age 3, girls spend more time working whereas boys spend more time in play (Edwards, 1993) When playing in groups, children self- segregate by sex, in addition to age (Edwards, 1993) Boys begin to spend more time than girls away from home and their mothers; they also engage in more practice play with weapons and vehicles than girls do (Edwards, 1993) Girls engage in more infant contact and care; they also engage in more grooming (real and play) than boys do (Edwards, 1993) GENDER DEVELOPMENT IN GENDER- DIVERSE CHILDREN - "Gender-diverse children" is a term referring to children who identify with a gender other than their binary, birth- assigned sex and/or show consistent gender nonconformity. This is similar to our understanding of GNC (gender nonconformity). Four (sometimes overlapping) sub-groups of gender-diverse children: 1. Gender-referred children 2. Transgender children 3. Female-assigned children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) 4. Tomboys 1) GENDER-REFERRED CHILDREN Gender-referred children: children who showed gender nonconformity and were referred to clinics specializing in the assessment and treatment of gender nonconformity. Context: 1960s-2010s, usually in clinical settings in universities; the aim of referrals was to study and provide treatment to GNC Some of the research works cited: Doering et al, 1989, Fridell eta al 2006; Green, 1976; Bates et al., 1979, Chiu et al., 2006) Summary of findings They liked toys, dolls, games, and play activities stereotypically assigned with the other binary gender more than gender conforming children The gender-referred boys also engaged in less rough-and- tumble play and were more feminine than gender conforming boys. They reported preferences for, or related more to, peers of the other binary gender. Wearing clothing stereotypically associated with the other binary gender was common in gender- referred children. Highlights and Limitations These studies were the first to systematically document GNC They also served as proof that GNC could be consistent/have patterns. But many of these studies assumed that GNC was harmful, and should be subjected into clinical intervention. 2) TRANSGENDER CHILDREN Transgender children: describes a person who identifies as a gender other than the one assumed on the basis of their birth assigned sex Context: Studies conducted on 2010 onwards Much of the research data of these strand of research works come from a single, ongoing longitudinal study of a cohort of transgender youth called the Trans Youth Project (Olson & Gulgoz, 2018), which began tracking them when the children were 3-12 years old • These transgender children underwent childhood social transitions, changing their names, pronouns, hairstyle, and clothing to match their identity.
- 22. • The studies also focused on similarities with gender they associate themselves with. Summary of findings Transgender and cisgender children both identified with the gender they express. They were also found to favor toys and clothes stereotypically associated with their gender. Both of them did not differ in their preference for same-gender peers. Transgender youth (and their siblings) reported slightly less traditional views of gender-that is, they endorsed gender stereotypes as less constant. Approximately after 5 years of their social transition, 94% of the cohort continued to live as transgender youth (3.5% lived as nonbinary yourth; 2.5% lived as cisgender youth). Highlights and Limitations This cluster of research represents the first large- scale study of gender development of transgender youth who have gone on to social transition. It generally shows that gender development in binary transgender and cisgender children is similar. It is noteworthy that these studies reject the notion that persistent GNC is the result of parent socialization, as the transgender youth were mostly raised cisgenders. Also, the definition of transgender was determined by pronoun use (binary, instead of a continuum) 3) FEMALE CHILDREN WITH CONGENITAL ADRENAL HYPERPLASIA (CAH) CAH: a genetic condition that affects the adrenal glands in higher- than- normal production of-and therefore exposure to-androgens, beginning in the uterus. Context: dating back to 1970s; focused on female youth (XX chromosomes) with CAH Some of the cited works: Berenbaum & Hines 1992, Berenbaum & Snyder 1995, Hines et al. 2016, Nordenström et al. 2002, Servin et al. 2003, Spencer et al. 2021. • Put simply, in classical CAH, newborns with XX chromosomes have ambiguous genitalia because of the high exposure to androgens (male sex hormones) in utero. Summary of findings Out of 250 female adults with CAH, 13 of them (5.2%) experienced gender dysphoria and 4 (1.6%) transitioned to live as men in adulthood (significant finding) Compared to females without CAH, female children with CAH: were more likely to prefer stereotypically masculine toys, male or masculine playmates, and masculine hobbies showed more aggression and rough- and-tumble play, more masculine free drawings, and less interest in infant caretaking Highlights and Limitations Generally, female-assigned children with CAH show stronger interest in masculine-stereotyped toys and activities than assigned-female children without CAH. These are all evidence for possible biological influences on gender development. However, it is difficult to pin down how exposure to androgens "masculinize" the brain of the growing fetus in utero. CAH is diagnosed during pregnancy and measuring the exact amount of testosterone or androgens in utero is not possible. 4) TOMBOYS Tomboys: girls who possess stereotypically masculine characteristics. Context: From 1980s Definition of tomboy is not consistent (subjective, objective, sometimes through parents) Some cited research works: Green et al., 1982; Martin & Dinella, 2012; Plumb & Cowan, 1984; Bailey et al., 2002; Ahlqvist et al., 2013). Summary of findings • In an early study (1982), self- identified tomboys preferred stereotypically masculine play activities and boy playmates much more than other girls, but later in more recent research (2013, 2012), they were found to prefer both masculine and feminine activities equally. • This suggests that tomboy's preferences may be flexible and perhaps androgynous (high in both masculine and feminine qualities). • Tomboys showed substantial variability in beliefs about their own identity, what it means to be a tomboy, and gender stereotypes.
- 23. • In a 2002 study, tomboys reported more feminine than their non- tomboy sisters • In a 2013 study, being tomboy was associated with flexibility (instead of an exclusive identification with masculinity) • In a 2012 study, tomboys were more likely to recognize variability in girls' activity preferences. Highlights and Limitations • Tomboys are "girls with options"; are girls whose preferences and interests fall in between those of gender conforming boys and gender conforming girls • Tomboy identity is common, has ben studied in non- stigmatizing nonpathologizing manner • However, the label tomboy is neither clearly defined nor consistently assessed. • Studies are scarce, limited Summary of Research Works Considered • There is a wide range of gender development patterns in children, which is not commonly represented in studies that focus on modal gender development • It is hard to be conclusive because gender identity has been assessed in a binary manner (male-female, yes- no, tomboy-not, trans-not, etc.) • No sufficient studies to explain how children develop their initial sense of gender. Research often involves children who have already reached a stable gender identity. • Becoming gendered may be due to various social, cognitive, and biological factors . FACTORS SHAPING GENDER DEVELOPMENT: SOCIAL FACTORS • Mischel (1966) argued that children acquire gendered behavior, preferences, and stereotypes via reinforcement from the social environment (e.g., parents, peers, school, and media and consumption) • Bussey and Bandura (1999) refined this proposition, through the social cognitive theory, posited that children learn by observing others' modeled behavior. 1. SOCIAL FACTORS: BECOMING GENDERED IN FAMILIES Many children enter gendering process before birth. o Before babies are born, parents start thinking about what it means to have a girl or boy o Come to analyze why there are baby showers and gender reveal parties) • Once children are born, families, especially parents, truly begin to gender their children. Research: Rubin et al. (1974): Many parents already create gender- differentiated expectations for their infants within the first 24 hours after birth: o Parents of daughters describe their children as weak and delicate, sweet and cute o Parents of sons describe them as large and alert; little man. o Parents also dress their infants in gendered clothing and colors in order to signal their baby's gender. • This pattern goes on up to early childhood years. o Parents tend to engage in more aggressive styles of play (such as wrestling) with their sons than with their daughters. • Parents also teach their children how they are to perform their gender, and sometimes parents serve as gender enforcers, punishing when their children break gender conformity. o Come to imagine the typical reaction of parents when they see their sons behaving in a feminine way. Research: Kane (2006): • Parents welcome gender nonconformity among young daughters, but they are less likely to welcome these tendencies for their sons. • Parents respond positively to their sons' abilities of nurturance, empathy, and domestic skills, but with the need to affirm masculinity.
- 24. • Heterosexual fathers in particular promote hegemonic masculinity with their sons and view masculinity as something that they need to actively work to accomplish with their son. o Meaning, gender is something that must consciously work to construct, particularly with their sons. o Hegemonic masculinity: practice that legitimizes men's dominant position in society; includes strength, competitiveness, assertiveness, confidence, and independence. Research: Sanapo and Nakamura (2010): o Among Grade 6 pupils in the Philippines, physical punishment is used more often with boys than with girls. o Mothers are also the more frequent users of physical punishment compared to fathers. • In many books about parenting advice in the 1970s, it is not advocated that parents raise their boys and girls in the same way. o This is because gender nonconformity in young children is still seen as signifying a future gay or lesbian or transgender identity, and is understood to be managed and prevented. • As parents construct the gender of their children, they also construct their sexuality. • Gender and sexuality are part and parcel of one another: o Feminine girl/woman or masculine boy/man requires one to be also heterosexual. • Parenting advice about gender raises fears that non- normative gender behaviors are signs of homosexuality. • Heterosexual fathers' fears about gender nonconformity are tied to concerns about sons' heterosexuality. • Most ignore the possibility and "hope for the best," while conservative Protestant parents actually report working to try to prevent such identity formation in their children. o What are your personal stories of becoming gendered in your own family? • Note that parents are not always with their children. o Children have friends, peers o Children also go to school 2. SOCIAL FACTORS: BECOMING GENDERED WITH PEERS Gender separation: the first sign of social differentiation in young children's peer relations • Children as young as 3 show preferences for play with children of the same gender. • Children use differences between their bodies as a way to tease and differentiate from the other gender and are used to exclude or include others from the playgroup. • During early childhood, children's categories are rigid • The themes of play are gendered: only girls can be nurses, and boys can be firefighters. What are other gender-rigid themes of play that you used to play as a child? • Play offers children an outlet to express gendered messages they are learning. Children do not just imitate adult culture and the world they are experiencing. • Instead, children accept, change, and dismiss aspects of the adult world in order to create their own cultures. • Interpretive reproduction: children participate and produce their own peer culture by creatively appropriating information they receive from the adult world in order to address peer concerns. Children's early peer cultures are constructed around gender difference, and gender is socially negotiated in peer interactions. • Through the process of borderwork, gender boundaries become activated as separate and reified peer groups; "the boys" versus "the girls", resulting to same-gender play. • Associating with the opposite gender violates peer group boundaries hence children's policing of borderwork through practices such as "no boys allowed." • However, even within peer group interactions, gender varies in salience from situation to situation. • Sometimes children participate in cross-gender play more in neighborhoods than in schools, perhaps because neighborhoods do have as many children to play games that need more children. • In general, peer groups influence children's experiences of becoming gendered during the early school years, but teachers' expectations and school practices, particularly disciplinary practices, greatly influence the gendering process.
- 25. 3. SOCIAL FACTORS: BECOMING GENDERED DURING THE EARLY YEARS OF SCHOOLS Preschools and daycares are important sites for the development of gendered peer cultures in the early years. • Many children first encounter peers in daycare centers • Teachers also implement hidden curricula, which construct and reconstruct gendered bodies Research: • Markstrom (2010): Teachers use gender stereotypes when defining good versus bad behaviors o Girls are believed to have higher school attachment and allegiance to school values than do boys o Boys in elementary school are believed to look for ways to break teachers' rules. Gender interacts with sexuality. Children also understand, participate, and enact sexuality and gender among themselves by elementary school. • Gansen (2017): young boys and girls are socialized into explicitly gendered notions of heteronormativity beginning in preschool. • Best (2018): Second-grade girls participated in gendered heterosexual discourses and practices through talk about having boyfriends and imbued these imagined relationships with ideas about girls being irresistible to boys. • Myers and Raymond (2010): Girls define their interests as heterosexual and boy-centered as part of the way they construct gender for other girls. o By late elementary school, children make sophisticated use of heterosexual discourses and practices in their peer group interactions, relying on heteronormativity as a guide and homophobic harassment to sanction homosexuality. 4. SOCIAL FACTORS: BECOMING GENDERED THROUGH MEDIA AND CONSUMPTION While families, peers, and schools play a significant role in children becoming gendered, children are also saturated in gendered media and gendered consumption. • Children's retail and children's media (where much marketing takes place) remains highly gendered and play a pervasive role in the gendering process. • Adults use gender codes to purchase things for children. • Children themselves also use gender-based reasoning to distinguish between what types of toys they and their peers should play with, and children are less likely to play with toys that are labeled for other the gender. • Media are also an important socializing agent in children's process of becoming gendered. o Children are immersed in media-rich worlds. o Boys are introduced early to racing games; girls to social media. o Children's TV shows depict characters in narrowly gendered and racialized ways. o Cartoon characters are gendered in their clothing, appearance, speech, and behavior. • Children also watch, re-watch, and often dress-up as, or play with toys, from movies. What gendered movies are popular among young children? • Mass media construct gendered heteronormativity and heterosexuality. • Hetero-romantic love is portrayed as having exceptional, magical, and transformative power • Heterosexuality is also constructed through racialized and gendered depictions of interactions between gendered bodies in which men gaze desirously at women's bodies Can you name a movie for children that features a love story between two homosexuals? Social factors • In summary, various socializing agents and objects play a role in children becoming gendered. • But, socialization is unlikely to be the mechanism that accounts for children's sense of their own gender in the first place. • Early-identifying transgender children show consistent patterns of gender identity and expression that conflict with the explicit messaging they received in their social environment. • Photographs from their childhood show that they were initially raised as the gender associated with their sex assigned at birth FACTORS SHAPING GENDER DEVELOPMENT: COGNITIVE FACTORS
- 26. Children's own cognition (or thinking) about gender, such as their beliefs about gender constancy, stereotype knowledge, and gender schemas comprise another factor driving gender development. • Kohlberg (1966): Children search for clues in the environment that tell them which behaviors are appropriate for someone of their gender. • Bem (1981): Children form gender schemas, structures that organize future information processing about sex typing and gender stereotyping in a top-down way. Implication: • Children are self-socializing, meaning that they actively use their gender schemas and other cognitions as guide to which gender- related symbols they seek out or enact. • This explains why gender diverse identities (transgender, tomboys, etc.) persist despite discouragement or punishment from the social environment. • What cognitive factors do explain is how children's most basic gender cognitions arise in the first place. FACTORS SHAPING GENDER DEVELOPMENT: BIOLOGICAL FACTORS Biological factors emphasize the importance of genetic and hormonal determinants of gender identity and gendered behaviors. From the previous chapter, we learned how the SRY gene and androgens (testosterone) interact with the bipotential gonads to produce typical male sexual characteristics. Also, we learned about: • Brain research involving transgender • CAIS (complete androgen insensitivity syndrome) • CAH (congenital androgen hyperplasia) But the issue remains: limited sample in these research studies on biological factors shaping gender development Chapter 4 Becoming Gendered: A Developmental Psychology Perspective 1. What is meant by modal gender development? a. The specific pathways children follow to develop their individual and unique gender identities. b. The statistical norm of gender identity development among children within a specific cultural context. c. The psychological process by which children learn and adopt gender roles that are not typical for their sex. d. The range of behaviors that are considered acceptable for boys and girls within a society. 2. Accordingly, children’s gender stereotypes take root around 2–3 years of age. What are gender stereotypes? a. Preconceived notions about the abilities and roles of males and females based on their biological sex. b. The biological differences between males and females that dictate their roles in society. c. A set of rules that strictly define how boys and girls should express their gender identities. d. The personal choices that individuals make regarding their gender expression and identity. 3. According to research conducted by Campbell and colleagues (2004), at what age do children begin to associate binary gender labels with faces, toys, and activities? a. As early as 6 months of age. b. Around 2–3 years of age. c. By the age of 5 years. d. Starting at 18 months of age. 4. Which of the following is associated with the stereotype of being male? a. Exhibiting nurturing and caring behaviors. b. Engaging primarily in domestic and household tasks. c. Showing a stronger inclination towards artistic activities. d. Preference for playing with vehicles and construction toys. 5. Professional development is said to be a neglected need of stereotypically females. Which of the following best supports this statement? a. Families, peers, and media often reinforce traditional gender roles that prioritize domestic responsibilities for females over professional advancement. b. Gender stereotypes suggest that males are more suited for leadership roles, potentially limiting opportunities for professional development for females.
- 27. c. Schools and educational systems provide equal opportunities for professional development for both genders, focusing on merit rather than gender. d. Recent studies have shown no significant difference in professional ambitions between genders, indicating an equal distribution of development opportunities. 6. What are the consequences of adhering too much to gender stereotypes? a. Enhanced creativity and flexibility in gender expression and interests. b. Increased understanding and acceptance of gender diversity in society. c. Limited personal development and perpetuation of gender inequality. d. Improved communication and empathy between different gender groups. 7. What is meant by children's essentialist beliefs about gender? a. The understanding that gender roles and preferences are learned and can change over time. b. The belief that differences between genders are socially constructed and vary widely across cultures. c. The perception that differences between genders are inborn, fixed, and unalterable. d. The idea that gender identity is solely a result of individual choice and personal preference. 8. Which of the following is NOT true about modal gender development? a. It involves the early discrimination of gendered faces by infants as early as 3-4 months. b. It is characterized by children's association of binary gender labels with faces, toys, and activities around 3 years of age. c. It includes the development of children's essentialist beliefs about gender being inborn and unalterable at an early age. d. Boys engage in more infant contact and care; they also engage in more grooming than girls do. 9. Evaluate the correctness of this statement: "Modal gender development is the development of cisgender children." a. Incorrect, as modal gender development includes a broad spectrum of gender identities beyond the cisgender experience. b. Correct, as modal gender development specifically refers to the typical patterns of gender development observed in cisgender children. c. Incorrect, because modal gender development exclusively focuses on the biological aspects of gender differentiation without considering cisgender or transgender identities. d. Correct, only when considering the sociocultural factors influencing gender development, excluding any biological considerations. 10. Which of the following best defines "gender-diverse children"? a. Children whose interests and behaviors align perfectly with societal gender norms, such as being heterosexual and cisgender. b. Children who strictly adhere to traditional gender roles and expressions as assigned at birth. c. Children who identify with a gender other than their binary birth-assigned sex and/or show consistent gender nonconformity. d. Children who have not yet developed a sense of their own gender identity or preferences. 11. Which of the following is NOT an example of being gender- diverse? a. Children who express a gender identity different from their birth-assigned sex. b. Children who consistently show preferences for toys, clothes, and activities stereotypically associated with the opposite gender. c. Children who exhibit flexibility and variability in their gender expressions, including both traditionally masculine and feminine behaviors. d. Children who adhere strictly to gender norms and stereotypes traditionally associated with their birth-assigned sex. 12. Which of the following is NOT true about gender-referred children, according to various research from the 1960s to early 2010s? a. Gender-referred children often showed a preference for toys, games, and play activities stereotypically associated with the opposite gender.
- 28. b. Gender-referred children commonly wore clothing stereotypically associated with the opposite binary gender. c. Research consistently showed that gender nonconformity in gender-referred children was a temporary phase that typically resolved by adolescence. d. Gender-referred children were the first group systematically documented to exhibit consistent patterns of gender nonconformity. 13. What is meant by transgender children who have undergone social transitions? a. Transgender children who only express a desire to be recognized in their identified gender without changing their social presentation. b. Transgender children who have undergone medical procedures to align their physical appearance with their gender identity. c. Transgender children who have changed their names, pronouns, hairstyles, and clothing to match their gender identity. d. Transgender children who are in the process of exploring their gender identity without making any changes to their social or physical presentation. 14. Which of the following is NOT true about transgender children, according to various research from 2010 and onwards? a. Transgender children often undergo social transitions, changing their names, pronouns, hairstyles, and clothing to match their gender identity. b. The majority of transgender children, after social transition, continue to live as their identified gender into later childhood and adolescence. c. Studies have found that the gender development of transgender and cisgender children is markedly different. d. Research rejects the notion that persistent gender nonconformity in transgender youth is primarily the result of parental socialization. 15. Which of the following is NOT true about female children with CAH, according to various research dating back to the 1970s? a. Female children with CAH are more likely to prefer stereotypically masculine toys, male or masculine playmates, and masculine hobbies compared to females without CAH. b. A significant percentage of female adults with CAH have reported experiencing gender dysphoria, with some transitioning to live as men in adulthood. c. The exposure to androgens in utero is believed to "masculinize" the brain, influencing gendered preferences and behaviors in female children with CAH. d. Research conclusively determined that the masculinization of behaviors in female children with CAH directly leads to identifying as transgender in adulthood. 16. Being tomboy is which aspect of SOGIE? a. Sex (or sexual characteristics) b. Gender identity c. Gender expression d. Sexual orientation 17. Which of the following is NOT true about tomboys, according to various research dating back to the 1980s? a. Research consistently shows that all tomboys eventually identify as transgender in adulthood. b. Tomboys often exhibit a preference for stereotypically masculine play activities and boy playmates. c. Over time, tomboys may develop a more flexible approach to gender, often showing interest in both masculine and feminine activities. d. The definition and understanding of what constitutes a tomboy can vary and is often influenced by subjective perspectives. 18. Which of the following scenarios best represents the correct usage of the word "tomboy"? a. A girl who exclusively engages in activities traditionally associated with boys, rejecting all feminine behaviors and preferences. b. A girl who exhibits flexibility in her interests, sometimes preferring activities and playmates associated with boys, while also engaging in traditionally feminine activities. c. A girl who has undergone a social transition to live as a boy, changing her name, pronouns, and appearance to align with her gender identity. d. A girl who strictly conforms to all societal expectations of femininity but occasionally plays sports.
- 29. 19. Considering the research about becoming gendered, it is hard to be conclusive because gender identity has been assessed in a binary manner (male-female, yes-no, tomboy-not, trans-not, etc.).What does this statement imply? a. Gender identity research is comprehensive and accounts for the full spectrum of gender experiences. b. The binary assessment of gender identity overlooks the complexity and fluidity of gender experiences. c. The binary method of assessing gender identity is the most effective way to understand gender development. d. Research on gender identity exclusively focuses on non-binary and transgender identities without considering cisgender experiences. 20. Which of the following represents the views of Mischel (1966) regarding gender development? a. Gender behavior preferences and stereotypes are innate and not significantly influenced by the social environment. b. Children acquire gendered behavior preferences and stereotypes primarily through genetic inheritance and biological predispositions. c. Children learn gendered behavior preferences and stereotypes through reinforcement and modeling from the social environment, including parents, peers, schools, and media. d. The development of gendered behaviors and stereotypes is unrelated to socialization andsolely a result of individual cognitive development. 21. Which of the following is NOT true about becoming gendered within family settings? a. Parents may serve as gender enforcers, punishing when their children break gender conformity. b. Heterosexual fathers often promote hegemonic masculinity with their sons, viewingmasculinity as something that needs to be actively accomplished. c. Gender and sexuality are constructed as inseparable, with non- normative gender behaviors raising fears of non-heterosexuality. d. Family settings provide a neutral environment where children can explore gender without influence from societal norms or expectations. 22. Which of the following is NOT true about becoming gendered within school environments? a. Schools and teachers play a significant role in reinforcing gender stereotypes through hidden curricula and disciplinary practices. b. Preschools and daycares serve as crucial sites for the development of gendered peer cultures, where children first encounter gendered social interactions. c. Gendered behaviors and preferences are primarily determined by the biological differences between boys and girls, with little influence from school environments. d. School practices, including the behaviors encouraged by teachers, contribute to the construction and reinforcement of gender norms among students. 23. Which of the following is NOT true about becoming gendered through media and consumption? a. Media and children's retail marketing play a pervasive role in reinforcing gendered stereotypes through highly gendered content. b. Children use gender-based reasoning to distinguish between toys, often avoiding toys labeled for the opposite gender. c. Mass media often depict hetero-romantic love as having exceptional, magical, and transformative power, reinforcing gendered heteronormativity. d. Media consumption provides an unbiased platform where children are exposed to a wide variety of gender representations that equally value all gender identities. 24. Which of the following is NOT true about becoming gendered through media and consumption? a. Media and children's retail marketing play a pervasive role in reinforcing gendered stereotypes through highly gendered content. b. Children use gender-based reasoning to distinguish between toys, often avoiding toys labeled for the opposite gender. c. Mass media often depict hetero-romantic love as having exceptional, magical, and transformative power, reinforcing gendered heteronormativity.
- 30. d. Media consumption provides an unbiased platform where children are exposed to a wide variety of gender representations that equally value all gender identities. 25. Cognitive psychologists would argue that children are self- socializing. What does this mean and how is this manifested? a. It means that children passively absorb gender norms and behaviors from their environment without any active engagement or interpretation. b. It signifies that children actively use their gender schemas to guide which gender-related symbols they seek out or enact, demonstrating agency in their gender development. c. It implies that children rely solely on direct instruction from adults and peers to form their gender identities, without contributing their own understanding or interpretations. d. It suggests that children's gender development is predetermined by biological factors alone, minimizing the role of cognitive processes and social learning. 26. What are the implications of defining a "most common" trajectory for gender development, and what are its impacts on understanding gender diversity? 27. In what ways do gender-referred children's experiences as documented in clinical settings from the 1960s to the 2010s reflect broader societal attitudes towards gender nonconformity? 28. Considering the findings from studies on transgender children, particularly the Trans Youth Project, what does this suggest about the nature of gender identity development in comparison to cisgender children? 29. Reflect on the role of media and consumption in shaping gender identities. How do gendered marketing strategies and media portrayals influence children's gender development? 30. If you had to do some reflection, what would be the most potent factor/s that shaped your own gender today?