Grammar base

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NOUNS
COUNTABLE NOUNS
These nouns are also called "count nouns" and are easy to recognize. They refer to things that we can
count. For example: "pen". We can count pens. We can have one, two, three or more pens.
Here are some more countable nouns:
• dog, cat, animal, man, person
• bottle, box, litre
• coin, note, dollar
• cup, plate, fork
• table, chair, suitcase, bag
Countable nouns can be singular or plural:
• My dog is playing.
• My dogs are hungry.
We can use the indefinite article a/an with countable nouns:
• A dog is an animal.
When a countable noun is singular, we must use a word like a/the/my/this with it:
• I want an orange. (not I want orange.)
• Where is my bottle? (not Where is bottle?)
When a countable noun is plural, we can use it alone:
• I like oranges.
• Bottles can break.
We can use some and any with countable nouns:
• I've got some dollars.
• Have you got any pens?
We can use a few and many with countable nouns:
• I've got a few dollars.
• I haven't got many pens.
"People" is countable. "People" is the plural of "person". We can count people:
• There is one person here.
• There are three people here.

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UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS
These nouns also called non count nouns. They are mass nouns that can be substances, concepts, etc.
that we cannot divide them into separate elements. We cannot "count" them.
For example
We cannot count "milk". We can count "bottles of milk" or "litres of milk", but we cannot count "milk"
itself. Here are some more uncountable nouns:
• music, art, love, happiness
• advice, information, news
• furniture, luggage
• rice, sugar, butter, water
• electricity, gas, power
• money, currency
We usually treat non count nouns as singular. We use a singular verb. For example:
• This news is very important.
• Your luggage looks heavy.
We do not usually use the indefinite article a/an with non count nouns. We cannot say "an information"
or "a music". But we can say a something of:
• a piece of news
• a bottle of water
• a grain of rice
We can use some and any with non count nouns:
• I've got some money.
• Have you got any rice?
We can use a little and much with non count nouns:
• I've got a little money.
• I haven't got much rice.
Here are some more examples of countable and non count nouns:
Coun
Dollar
Non count
money
Coun
Song
Non count
music
Suitcase Luggage/baggage Table furniture
Battery
Report
Journey
electricity
information
travel
Bottle
Tip
Job
wine
advice
work
View scenery

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When you learn a new word, it's a good idea to learn whether it's countable or uncountable.
Nouns That Can Be Both Count And Non Count Nouns
Sometimes, the same noun can be count and non count noun, often with a change of meaning.
Hair
Countable
There are two hairs in my coffee!
Uncountable
I don't have much hair.
Light There are two lights in our bedroom. Close the curtain. There's too much
light!
Noise Shhhhh! I thought I heard a noise.
There are so many different noises in the city.
It's difficult to work when there is so
much noise.
Paper Have you got a paper to read? (newspaper)
Hand me those student papers.(dame-
deberes
I want to draw a picture.
Have you got some paper?
Room Our house has seven rooms. Is there room for me to sit here? (hay
sitio para sentarme aqui?
Time We had a great time at the party.
How many times have I told you no?
Have you got time for a cup of coffee?
Work Macbeth is one of Shakespeare's greatest works. I have no money. I need work!
Drinks (coffee, water, orange juice) are usually non count nouns. But if we are thinking of a cup or a
glass, we can say (in a restaurant, for example):
 Two teas and one coffee please.
Partitive Structure with Non Count Nouns
These are words we use to count a non count noun.
Here are some examples:
• Don't forget to buy a bag of rice when you go shopping.
• Can I have one cup of coffee and two cups of tea.
• The police found some items of clothing scattered(diseminado) around the floor.
• I need a truck that will take at least three pieces of furniture.
• You'd think a tablespoon of honey would be more than enough.
Servingspoon cucharadeservir__teaspoon__cucharita__ladle-cazo _ soupspoon cuchara

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ARTICLES
Indefinite article: “a” and “an”
1. We use the indefinite article, a/an, with count nouns when the hearer/reader does not know exactly
which one we are referring to:
• Police aresearching for a14year-old girl. (es adjetivo)
2. We also use it to show the person or thing is one of a group:
• She is a pupil at London Road School.
Police have been searching for a14 year-old girl who has been missing since Friday.
Jenny Brown, a pupil at London Road School, is described as 1.6 metres tall with short blonde hair.
She was last seen wearing a blue jacket, a blue and white blouse, dark blue jeans and blue shoes.
Anyone who has information should contact the local police on 0800349781.
3. We do not use an indefinite article with plural nouns and non count nouns:
• She has short blonde hair. (= non count noun)
• She was wearing blue shoes. (= plural noun)
Police have been searching for a14 year-old girl who has been missing since Friday.
Jenny Brown, a pupil at London Road School, is described as 1.6 metres tall with short blonde hair.
She was last seen wearing a blue jacket, a blue and white blouse, dark blue jeans and blue shoes.
Anyone who has information should contact the local police on 0800349781.
4. We use a/an to say what someone is or what job they do:
• George is a student.
• My brother is a doctor.
5. We use a/an with a singular noun to say something about all things of that kind:
• A man needs friends. (= All men need friends)
• A dog likes to eat meat. (= All dogs like to eat meat)
Definite article: the
The article “the” is the most frequent word in English. We use it in front of a noun when we believe the
hearer/reader knows exactly what we are referring to.
We use it in the following situations:
-Whenthereisonlyone:

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• The Pope is visiting Russia.
• The moon is very bright tonight.
• The Shah of Iran was deposed in 1979.
-This is whywe usethedefinite article with asuperlativeadjective:
• He is the tallest boy in the class.
• It is the oldest building in the town.
-Whenthereis only onein that place orin thosesurroundings:
• We live in a small village next to the church = (the church in our village)
• Dad, can I borrow the car? = (the car that belongs to our family)
• Look at the boy in the blue shirt over there = (the boy I am pointing at)
-Whenwehavealreadymentionedit:
A woman who fell 10 meters from High Peak was lifted to safety by a helicopter. The woman fell while
climbing. The rescue is the latest in a series of incidents on High Peak. In January last year two men
walking on the peak were killed in a fall.
We also use the definite article:
-To saysomething aboutall the things referredto bya noun:
• The wolf is not really a dangerous animal (= Wolves are not really dangerous animals)
• The kangaroo is found only in Australia (= Kangaroos are found only in Australia)
• The heart pumps blood around the body. (= Hearts pump blood around bodies)
-To talk aboutmusicalinstruments:
• Joe plays the piano really well. (= George can play any piano)
• She is learning the guitar. (= She is learning to play any guitar)
-To refer to asystemorservice:
• How long does it take on the train?
• I heard it on the radio.
• You should tell the police.
-With adjectives like rich, poor,elderly,unemployedto talk aboutgroupsofpeople:
• Life can be very hard for the poor.

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• I think the rich should pay more taxes.
• She works for a group to help the disabled.
The definite article with names:
We do not normally use the definite article with names:
• William Shakespeare wrote Hamlet.
• Paris is the capital of France.
• Iran is in Asia.
But we do use the definite article with:
Countries whose names include words like kingdom, states or republic:
The United Kingdom; The kingdom of Nepal;
The United States; The People’s Republic of China.
Countries, which have plural nouns as their names:
The Netherlands The Philippines
Geographical features, suchas mountain ranges, groups ofislands, rivers, seas, oceans and canals:
The Himalayas; The Canaries; The Atlantic;
The Atlantic Ocean; The Amazon; The Panama Canal.
Newspapers:
The Times; The Washington Post
Well known buildings or works of art:
The Empire State Building; The Taj Mahal;
The Mona Lisa; The Sunflowers
Organizations:
The United Nations; The Seamen’s Union
Hotels, pubs and restaurants*:
The Ritz; the Ritz Hotel; The King’s Head; The Déjà Vu
*Note: We do not use the definite article if the name of the hotel or restaurant is the name of the owner,
e.g., Brown’s; Brown’s Hotel; Morel’s; Morel’s Restaurant, etc.
Families:
The Obamas; The Jacksons

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PRONOUNS
Pronouns are words that we use in place of Nouns (or other Pronouns) in a sentence to make it less
repetitive and less awkward (torpe, embarazoso). These Pronouns are divided into different categories based
on their use
PERSONAL PRONOUNS
These pronouns are used to represent people. They can show first person (the speaker), secondperson
(the person being spoken to), or third person (the person being spoken about).
SUBJECT PRONOUNS
If the pronoun is the subject of the sentence it is a subject pronoun, and it is used in place of a person’s
or thing’s name or description, particularly after the subject has already been introduced.
The subject pronoun represents the person or thing doing an action (verb).
 Heeatspizza everySunday.(He-> Subject pronoun,eats->Action verb)
Also, they represent people or things expressing state, when they use stative verbs.
 She is happy. (She -> Subject pronoun, is -> Stative/non-action verb)
PersonSubject Pronouns Singular Subject Pronouns Plural
1st (speaking) I We
2nd (being spoken to) You You
3rd (being spoken about) He/She/It They
• (Joe, Scott, and Bob) went hiking on the mountain together.
• (My Aunt Jane) likes to watch scary movies on television.
• (Nick and I) have a favorite restaurant in town.
• (The neighbor’s car) has a very noisy engine.
• (Jenny and Fatima) wore heavy coats to school because of the rain.
Subject questions
However, there are also subject questions. Questions we ask to find out about the subject. These
questions are asked using 'who', 'what' and 'which'.

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 Who plays football in this class? (Who -> is the subject pronoun which we need to know)
 Who loves you?
 Which car will arrive first?
 What type of food costs less?
Notice the structure stays as if it were a positive sentence; therefore, the auxiliary is not needed.
Object pronouns
If the pronoun is the object of the sentence, we say it is an object pronoun. An object pronoun is used in
place of a person or thing that is acted upon, or receives the action of the verb in a sentence.
 Marycalled melastnight.(me->objectpronoun,called->actionverb)
PersonObject Pronouns Singular Object Pronouns Plural
1st Me Us
2nd You You
3rd Him/Her/It Them
• (Joe, Scott, and Bob) The waiter brought out three plates of food for_ them
• (My Aunt Jane) My brother and I wrote thank you letters to_ her
• (Nick and I) The science teacher gave a bottle rocket to_ us
• (The neighbor’s car) The mechanic from the garage went to work on it
• (Jenny and Fatima) My parents bought $25 gift certificates for_ them
Object questions
Most questions are object questions. In other words, they ask about a place, object, or time.
 Where do you live? (Where -> isthe object pronoun which weneed to know)
 What will you do?
 When is she coming?
Notice that the auxiliary, or verb TO BE, working as auxiliary, is needed.

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Direct and indirect objects
Some verbs have two objects –an indirect object and a direct object:
Subject Verb Indirectobject Direct object
My wife sent me an email
He brought his mother some flowers
He cooked all his friends a delicious meal
These clauses have the structure: V + N (indirect object) + N (direct object)
We can use a prepositional phrase with to or for with an indirect object:
These clauses have the structure: V + N (direct object) + Prepositional phrase (indirect object)
Common verbs with for and an indirect object are:
 They booked a table for me at the restaurant.
 We made toys for all the children.
Common verbs with to and an indirect object are:
give lend offer pass post read
sell send show promise tell
 He gave his program to the man sitting next to him.
 They sent Christmas cards to all their customers.
If the indirect object is a long phrase we normally use to or for:
 He showed his ticket to the policeman standing by the door.
 We kept something to eat and drink for all the people who arrived late.
If the indirect object is a pronoun we normally use the N + V + N + N pattern:
 I poured him another drink.
 Their mother read them another story.
Subject Verb Direct object Prepositional phrase
My wife sent an email to me
He brought some flowers for his mother
He cooked a delicious meal for all his friends.
book buy get cook keep
bring make (verter)pour save find

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POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS
Possessive pronouns show that something belongs to someone or something.
Person Poss Pronouns Singular Poss Pronouns Plural
1st Mine Ours
2nd Yours Yours
3rd His/Hers/Its Theirs
• If the shoes belong to me, they are my shoes. They are mine.
• If the car belongs to you, it is your car. It is yours.
• If the books belong to her, they are her books. They are hers.
• If the pencil belongs to him, it is his pencil. It is his.
• If the leaf belongs to the plant, it is its leaf.
• If the food belongs to us, it is our food. It is ours.
• If the house belongs to them, it is their house. It is theirs.
* Be careful with possessive adjectives, which are underlined.
INDEFINITEPRONOUNS
Indefinite pronouns are used to refer to people, places, or things that are unknown or not stated. They
use the singular form of verbs (like the pronouns he, she, or it).
Indefinite pronouns usually begin with:
Every
 Everyone
 Everybody
Some (for “P” positivesentences)
 Someone (P)
 Somebody (P)
No (for “N” negative sentences, no need to add “not” nor “no” since it is already negative)
 No one (N)
 Nobody (N)

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Any (for “Q” questions) means “Some”
 Anyone (Q)- means “Someone”
 Anybody (Q)- means “Somebody”
Any (For “N” negatives) means “No/none”
 Anyone (N)– means “No one”
 Anybody (N)–means “Nobody”
Add an indefinite pronoun to complete each sentence.
• I put my soda down on the table, but moved it!
• The party is going to be great! will be there.
• Does have change for a dollar so I can buy a soda?
• I was disappointed because that I invited came to the party.
• Rachel was so popular that wanted to sit next to her.
Other words with Some, Every, Any, No:
 Everything (Pron)
 Something (Pron)
 Anything (Pron)
 Nothing(Pron)
 Everywhere(Adv)
 Somewhere(Adv)
 Anywhere(Adv, Pron)
 Nowhere(Adv)
 Every time (Adv)
 Sometime (Adv)
 Anytime (Adv)
 Never (Adv)
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS
Interrogative pronouns areused in sentencesthat ask questions.
The interrogative pronounsare:

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Who Whom What Whose Which
Add an interrogative pronoun to complete each question sentence.
• one of the books is your favorite?
• To should I address the letter?
• shoes are sitting outside the front door?
• would you like to do tomorrow?
• house should we go to on Saturday to watch the game?
Interrogative Pronouns Ending –ever
The interrogative pronounswiththesuffix -ever areusedfor emphasisor to showsurprise.
They are quite rare. For example:
 My school did nothing whatsoever in the way of athletics.
 Give it to whoever asks for it first (Somebody asks for it first, subject)
 We will hire whomever you recommend (You recommend somebody, object)
You use whatever as a pronoun or determiner to refer to anything or everything of a particular kind.
 I read whatever I could find about the course.
 You can buy whatever ingredients you need from the market.
You can also use whatever to say that something is true in all possible circumstances.
 Whatever happens, I'll be back by five.
 Whatever type of garden you have, you can have fun growing your own vegetables.
RELATIVE PRONOUNS
A relative pronoun introduces a dependent clause that modifies or gives more information about a
word, phrase, or idea in the independent clause.
The most common relative pronounsare:
Who Whom Whose That Which
Examples
• The book that I got from the library is due tomorrow.

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• My father, whom I respect, congratulated me on a job well done.
• People who talk while watching a movie always frustrate me.
• The store no longer sold the computer that I wanted.
• We walked past the church in which I was baptized.
Note that if the relative clause is between comas the information it provides is additional, not really
necessary; but if there is no comas then the information is necessary.
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS
These pronouns point something(s) specific that can be either near or far in distance or time.
The demonstrative pronounsare:
This (one thing near/close in either distance or time)
That (one thing far in either distance or time)
These (two or more things near/close in either distance or time)
Those (two or more things far in either distance or time)
• Would you like some of these cookies?
• Those years at the lake were the best times of my life.
• That is the toy I would like to buy.
• These pancakes are absolutely delicious!
• This is my favorite teddy bear.
REFLEXIVEPRONOUNS
A reflexive pronoun is used when the subject and object of the sentence are the same.
The reflexivepronounsare:
• I dressed myself this morning.
• He made breakfast all by himself.
• We had to cook for ourselves since mom didn’t want to make dinner.
• If you go shopping for me, you can buy yourself a present.
• She created all the Christmas decorations by herself.
myself, yourself, yourselves, ourselves,
himself, herself, itself, themselves

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ADJECTIVES
An adjective is a word that tells us more about a noun. (By "noun" we include pronouns and noun
phrases.) An adjective "qualifies" or "modifies" a noun
 A big dog
Adjectives can be used before a noun
 I like Chinese food
After certain verbs
 It is hard
We can often use two or more adjectives together
 A beautiful young French lady
1.COMPARATIVE ADJECTIVES
We use comparative adjectives when talking about 2 things (not 3 or 10 or 1,000,000 things, only 2
things). Often, the comparative adjective is followed by "than.”
Look at these examples:
• John is 1.80m He is tall. But Chris is 1.85m He is taller than John.
• America is big. But Russia is bigger.
• I want to have a more powerful computer.
• Is French more difficult than English.
Although we use comparative adjectives when talking about two things (not three or more things), in
fact one or both of the things may be a group of things.
• Mt Everest is higher than all other mountains.
Here, we are talking about hundreds of mountains, but we are still comparing one thing (Mt Everest) to
one other thing (all other mountains).
FormationofComparative Adjectives
There are two ways to make or form a comparative adjective:
 Short adjectives: add "-er"
 Long adjectives: use "more" or “less”
Shortadjectives
1-syllable adjectives old, fast
2-syllable adjectives ending in –y happy, easy

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 Normal rule: add "-er" old → older
 Iftheadjectiveendsin-e,justadd-r late → later
 If the adjective ends in consonant, vowel, consonant, double the last consonant big → bigger
 If theadjective ends in -y,change the -yto-ier happy → happier
Longadjectives
2-syllable adjectives not ending in –y modern, pleasant
all adjectives of 3 or more syllables expensive, intellectual
 Normal rule: use "more" or “less” modern → more modern
expensive → less expensive
Withsome2-syllable adjectives,wecanuse'er'or 'more':
• Quiet → quieter/more quiet Clever → cleverer/more clever
• Narrow → narrower/morenarrow Simple → simpler/more simple
Exception
The following adjectives haveirregular forms:
• Good → better Well (healthy) → better
• Bad → worse Far → farther/further
2.SUPERLATIVE ADJECTIVES
A superlative adjective expresses the extreme or highest degree of a quality.
In the example below, "biggest" is the superlative form of the adjective "big":
• A B C “A” is the biggest letter.
We use a superlative adjective to describe one thing in a group of three or morethings. Look at these
examples:
• John is 1.75m David is 1.80m Chris is 1.85m Chris is the tallest.
• Canada, China and Russia are big countries. But Russia is the biggest.
• Mount Everest is the highest mountain in the world.

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FormationofSuperlative Adjectives
As with comparative adjectives, there are two ways to form a superlative adjective:
 Short adjectives: add "-est"
 Long adjectives: use "most" or “least”
We also usually add 'the' at the beginning.
Shortadjectives
1-syllable adjectives old, fast
2-syllable adjectives ending in -y happy, easy
Normal rule: add "-est" old → the oldest
 Iftheadjectiveendsin-e,justadd-st late → the latest
 If the adjective ends in consonant, vowel, consonant, double the last consonant
big → the biggest
 Ifthe adjectiveendsin -y, changethey to i
happy → the happiest
Longadjectives
2-syllable adjectives notending in-y modern, pleasant
all adjectives of 3 or more syllables expensive, intellectual
Normal rule: use "most" or “least” modern → the most modern
expensive → the least expensive
With some 2-syllable adjectives, we can use '-est' or 'most':
• quiet → the quietest/most quiet
• clever → the cleverest/most clever
• narrow → the narrowest/most narrow
• simple → the simplest/most simple
Exception
The following adjectives haveirregular forms:
• good → the best
• bad → the worst
• far → the farthest/furthest

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Types and the order of adjectives
Before the adjectives you will normally have the Determiner.
Determiner: The determiner tells us if the noun is singular or plural, definite or indefinite
 a, an, the, my, your, four, those, some etc.
And then we have the adjectives that refer to…
Opinion: Explains what we think about something. This is usually our opinion, attitude or observations.
These adjectives almost always come before all other adjectives.
 beautiful, boring, stupid, delicious, useful, lovely, comfortable
Size: Tells us how big or small something is.
 big, small, tall, huge, tiny
Shape / Weight / Length: Tells about the shape of something or how long or short it is. It can also refer
to the weight of someone or something.
 round, square, circular, skinny, fat, heavy, straight, long, short,
Condition: Tells us the general condition or state of something
 broken, cold, hot, wet, hungry, rich, easy, difficult, dirty
Age: Tells us how old someone or something is.
 old, young, new, ancient, antique
Colour: The colour or approximate colour of something.
 green, white, blue, reddish, purple
Pattern: The pattern or design of something.
 striped, spotted, checked, flowery
Origin: Tells us where something is from.
 American, British, Italian, eastern, Australian, Chilean

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Material: What is the thing made of or constructed of?
 gold, wooden, silk, paper, synthetic, cotton, woollen
Purpose/Qualifier/Use: What is it for? These adjectives often end in –ing.
 sleeping (bag), gardening (gloves), shopping (bag), wedding (dress)
If you look at the examples above, you can ask…
 What are the gloves used for? (Gardening)
 What is the bag used for? (Shopping)
And after these we adjectives we have the…
Noun: The person or thing that is being described
Something to keep in mind is that it does not sound natural using three or more adjectives in the same
sentence and it is very rare to hear four adjectives together before a noun.
Examples of the order of adjectives before a noun
 A big fat dog.
 An interesting old Indian rug.
 A striped silk shirt
 Some comfortable black sleeping bags
 Four small round wooden tables
 Those funny little old men

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ADVERBS
An adverb is a word that tells us more about a verb. It "qualifies" or "modifies" a verb. In the following
examples, the adverb is in bold and the verb that it modifies is in italics.
• John speaks loudly. (How does John speak?)
• Afterwards she smoked a cigarette. (When did she smoke?)
• Mary lives locally. (Where does Mary live?)
But adverbs can also modify adjectives (Tara is really beautiful), or even other adverbs (It works very
well). Look at these examples:
• Modify an adjective: He is really handsome. (How handsome is he?)
• Modify another adverb: She drives incredibly slowly. (How slowly does she drive?)
Note that adverbs have other functions, too. They can:
• Modify a whole sentence: Obviously, I can't know everything.
• Modify a prepositional phrase: It's immediately inside the door.
AdverbForm
Wemake many adverbsbyadding-lyto anadjective, for example:
• Quick (adjective) > quickly (adverb)
• Careful (adjective) > carefully (adverb)
• Beautiful (adjective) > beautifully (adverb)
Therearesomebasicrulesaboutspellingfor -ly adverbs.Seethenext table:

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But notall wordsthatendin -ly areadverbs.Thewordsfriendly, lovely, lonelyandneighborly, for
example, are all adjectives. And some adverbs have no particular form. Look at these examples:
• Well, fast, very, never, always, often, still
Note that the form of an adverb can also change to make it comparative or superlative.
Relative Adverbs
A relative adverb can be used instead of a relative pronounplus preposition. This often makes the
sentence easier to understand.
 This is the shop in which I bought my bike.
 This is the shop where I bought my bike.
Relat adverb meaning use example
When in/on which refers to a time expression the day when I met them
Where in/at which refers to a place the place where I met them
Why for which refers to a reason the reason why I met them
Adverb placement
Now consider the following example:
 She decided to write her paper. (No adverbs)
 She quickly decided to write her paper. (Her decision was quick)
 She decided to write her paper quickly. (Her writing was quick)
There are different places where you can put the adverb, depending onthe type, manner, place, time,
frequency,anddegree.
Adverbsofmanner -theseanswer thequestionhow?
Fast, hard, so, straight, well, fairly, far, fully, greatly, hardly, highly, how, incredibly,
This adverb usually comes after the direct object or if there is no direct object, after the verb:
 She speaks Italian beautifully.
 He works well.
 You must drive your car carefully.
 Eat quietly.
Adverbsofplace-theseanswer thequestionwhere?
Off, on, out, outside, over, there, towards, under, up, upstairs, about, across, along, around, behind,
by, down, in, over, round, through.

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This adverb usually comes after the object, otherwise after the verb:
 We saw you there.
 We were sitting here.
 We looked everywhere.
Note: somewhere, anywhere, follow the same rules as some and any:
 Have you seen my glasses anywhere?
 I'm sure I left them somewhere.
 I can't find them anywhere.
There and here can be used with prepositions to form other adverbs:
down here down there over here over there;
under here under there up here up there
There and here can also be placed at the beginning to show emphasis.
They are followed by the verb if the subject is a noun:
Here comes the bus. (followed by the verb) Or
by a pronoun if this is the subject (it, she, he etc.):
Here it is! (followed by the pronoun)
There she goes! (followed by the pronoun)
NOTE: most common adverbs of place also function as prepositions
Other adverbsofplace:endingin'-wards', expressingmovementinaparticular direction:
backwards forwards downwards upwards
inwards outwards northwards southwards
eastwards westwards homewards onwards
Other adverb combinations with "where-"
anywhere everywhere nowhere somewhere
Adverbsoftime -theseanswer thequestionwhen?Examples:
Now then today tomorrow tonight yesterday last year next Friday

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This adverb usually comes either at the very beginning of the sentence or at the end.
 Afterwards we decided to go by car. I've done that journey before.
Note: yet and still:
Yet should be placed at the end of the sentence.
o We haven't started yet.
Still should be placed before the verb, except with the verb 'to be' when it comes after.
o He still wears old-fashioned clothes.
o She is still a student.
Compare these two sentences:
 The train still hasn't arrived. The train hasn't arrived yet.
Adverbsoffrequency-theseanswer thequestionhowmanytimes? Examples:
always frequently generally hardly ever a lot
infrequently normally occasionally never yearly
often rarely regularly seldom usually
sometimes every day twice a day
This adverb comes after the verb 'to be':
 She is always honest.
Comes before simple tenses of all other verbs:
 They sometimes spend the whole of Saturday fishing.
Comes after the first auxiliary in a tense consisting of more than one verb:
 I have often wondered how they did that.
 I can sometimes go without food for days.
Note: with 'used to' and 'have' the frequency adverb is usually placed in front:
 We always used to look forward to the school holidays.
 He never has any trouble with his old car.

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The adverb Ever comes before the main verb:
 Do you ever go to the cinema at the weekend?
 Have you ever been there?
We can also put them at the very beginning or end of the sentence. This makes them stronger:
 Often I go to the cinema.
 I go to the cinema often.
 But never: I go often to the cinema.
We also have these longer phrases that work as adverbsof frequency; they go at the beginning or the
end of the sentence but not in the middle.
 Once in a while: I go to the cinema once in a while.
 Every now and again: She drinks wine every now and again.
 From time to time: From time to time I visit my mother.
You can also use a number (1,2,3) or 'several' or 'many', followed by 'times'.( If the number is one, use
'once' instead of 'one time'. If the number is two use 'twice,' instead of 'two times') Then add 'a' and a
periodof time:
 I go to the cinema twice a week.
 She takes these tablets three times a day.
 I change the sheets once a fortnight (fortnight = two weeks).
 I meet him several times a year.
 I visit my parents once a month.
We can also use 'every' + period of time:
every morning every day every Tuesday
every week every month every year
A day of the week with 's' at the end (for example 'on Tuesdays') means the same as 'every Tuesday':
 I take a dance class on Wednesdays.
 I relax on Saturdays.

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Adverbsofdegree-theseanswer thequestionto whatextent?Examples:
Almost, nearly, quite, just, too, enough, hardly, scarcely, completely, very, extremely, barely
This adverb can modify an adverb or an adjective and comes beforethe word it modifies:
 The bottle is almost full, nearly empty.
 They should be able to pass their exams quite easily.
The following adverbs of degree can also modify verbs:
Almost nearly quite hardly scarcely barely just
They follow the same pattern as frequency adverbsin terms of where they are placed:
 I quite understand.
 We had almost reached the hut when the rain started.
 I am just beginning a new course.
Inversion
However,someadverbscancause aninversion -theorder is reversedandthe verbgoesbeforethe
subject. The normal word order changes if you begin a sentence with one of the following:
never, seldom, scarcely ..... when, no sooner ..... than,
nowhere, on no account, only then, not only
in no circumstances,
 I have never seen such courage. >Never have I seen such courage.
 She rarely left the house. >Rarely did she leave the house.
 I would never be persuaded to do that. >Never would I be persuaded to do that.
Usual word order with different adverbs: Manner Place Time
 She sang beautifully in the concert hall last night.

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DETERMINERS
Determiners are words, which come at the beginning of the noun phrase. They tell us whether the noun
phrase is specific or general. Determiners are either specific or general
Specific determiners:
The specific determinersare:
•The definite article: the
•Possessives: my, your, his, her, its; our, their, whose
•Demonstratives: this, that, these, those
•Interrogatives:which
We use a specific determiner when we believe the listener/reader knows exactly what we are referring
to:
• Can you pass me the salt please?
• Look at those lovely flowers.
• Thank you very much for your letter.
• Whose coat is this?
Generaldeterminers:
The generaldeterminersare:
•A; an; any; another; other; what
When we are talking about things in general and the listener/reader does not know exactly what we are
referring to, we can use a non count noun or a plural noun with no determiner:
• Milk is very good for you. (= Non count noun)
• Health and education are very important. (= 2 non count nouns)
• Girls normally do better in school than boys. (= Plural nouns with no determiner)
-Or you canuse asingular nounwith theindefinite article a or an:
• A woman was lifted to safety by a helicopter.
• A man climbing nearby saw the accident.

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We use the general determiner any with a singular noun or an uncount noun when we are talking about
all of those people or things:
• It’s very easy. Any child can do it. (= All children can do it)
• With a full license you are allowed to drive any car.
• I like beef, lamb, or pork. Any meat.
We use the general determiner another to talk about an additional person or thing:
• Would you like another glass of wine?
The plural form of another is other:
• I spoke to John, Helen and a few other friends.

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QUANTIFIERS
A quantifier is a word or phrase that is used before a noun to indicate the amount or quantity:
'Some', 'many', 'a lot of' and 'a few' are examples of quantifiers.
Quantifiers can be used with both countable and uncountable nouns.
 There are some books on the desk He's got only a few dollars.
 How much money have you got? There is a large quantity of fish in this river.
 He's got more friends than his sister.
With Uncountable Nouns
much a little/little/very little *
a bit (of) a great deal of
a large amount of a large quantity of
With Both
all enough more/most less/least
no/none not any some any
a lot of lots of plenty of
With Countable Nouns
many a few/few/very few ** a number (of)
several a large number of a great number of
a majority of
*Little, very little mean that there is not enough of something.
A little means that there is not a lot of something, but there is enough.
**Few, very few mean that there is not enough of something.
A few, means that there is not a lot of something, but there is enough.
Some and any are used with countable and uncountable, to describe an indefinite or incomplete
quantity.
Some is used in positive statements and any in questions and negative statements
Note: Some could be used in a question if we expect a positive answer or the answer is obviously yes.

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We also use them particularly with abstract nouns such as time, money, trouble, etc:, we often use:
• a great deal of
• a good deal of
Members of groups
You can put a noun after a quantifier when you are talking about members of a group in general…
• Few snakes are dangerous.
• Both brothers work with their father.
• I never have enough money.
…but if you are talking about a specific group of people or things, use of the … as well
• Few of the snakes are dangerous.
• All of the children live at home.
• He has spent all of his money.
Note that, if we are talking about two people or things we use the quantifiers both, either and neither:
One supermarket Two supermarkets* More than two supermarkets
The supermarket was closed
Both the supermarkets were
closed.
All the supermarkets were
closed
The supermarket wasn't open
Neither of the supermarkets
was open.
None of the supermarkets were
open
I don’t think the supermarket
was open.
I don’t think either of the
supermarkets was open.
I don't think any of the
supermarketswere open
*Nouns with either and neither have a singular verb.

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Singular quantifiers:
We use every or each with a singular noun to mean all:
 There was a party in every street. = There were parties in all the streets.
 Every shop was decorated with flowers. = All the shops were decorated with flowers.
 Each child was given a prize. = All the children were given a prize.
 There was a prize in each competition. = There were prizes in all the competitions.
We often use every to talk about times like days, weeks and years:
• When we were children we had holidays at our grandmother’s every year.
• When we stayed at my grandmother’s house we went to the beach every day.
• We visit our daughter every Christmas.
BUT: We do not use a determiner with every and each. We do not say:
• The every shop was decorated with flowers.
• The each child was given a prize.

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PREPOSITIONS
The name "preposition" (pre + position) means, "Place before".
Prepositions usually come before another word, usually a noun or noun phrase:
• noun pronoun
• noun phrase gerund (verb in -ing form)
If a preposition does not come before another word, it is still closely linked to another word:
• Who did you talk to To whom did you talk? I talked to Jane.
Therefore, a preposition is a word that is placed before a noun or pronoun to show the relationship
between them.
Prepositionsof place
These are the most used ones.
If something is contained inside a box or a wide flat area, we use ‘in’:
in the newspaper in a house in a cup in a drawer
in a bottle in a bag in bed in a car
in London in England in a book in a pub
in a field in the sea in my stomach in a river
in the back of a car in the corner of a room in prison in the sky
If something is on a line or a horizontal or vertical surface, we use ‘on’:
on the table on the wall on the floor on the fridge
on my face on a plate on the page on the sofa
on a chair on a bag on the river on a t-shirt
on the ceiling on a bottle on a bike
If something is at a point, (it could be a building) we use ‘at’:
at the front of a building at the table at the top at the bottom
at sea (on a voyage) at the front at the back at the door
at the window at the piano at the seaside

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Also public places or social events ‘at’:
at the cinema at the pub at school at the station
at the hospital at the corner of a street at the cinema at the reception
at the bus stop at university at college at the airport
at the party at the concert at the stadium at the wedding
Here are some more common ones that don’t really fit:
on thegroundfloor - on the bus on a train on a plane
on the radio at home at work on a ship
on the corner of a street on afarm- on theleft - on theright -
on the first, second floor on theway- on my way on thechair (sit)-
at the traffic lights on television on a horse in a picture
on a piece of paper one piece of paper on the back in the street
on the front of a letter on his foot in a mirror
in an armchair (sit) in a photograph in front of a car
Some Other Prepositions of Place
Preposition Meaning Examples
above higher than sth. The picture hangs above my bed.
across from one side to the other You mustn't go across this road here.
after one follows the other The cat ran after the dog.
against directed towards sth. The bird flew against the window.
along in a line They're walking along the beach.
among in a group, more than two I like being among people.
around/round in a circular way We're sitting around the campfire.
behind at the back of Our house is behind the supermarket.
below lower than sth. Death Valley is 86 metres below sea level.
beside next to Our house is beside the supermarket.
between in the middle of two The cat is between the dog and the parrot .
by near He lives in the house by the river.
close to near Our house is close to the supermarket.

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down from high to low He came down the hill.
from the place where it starts Do you come from Tokyo?
in front of across the direction it faces Our house is in front of the supermarket.
inside opposite of outside You shouldn't stay inside the castle.
into entering sth. You shouldn't go into the castle.
near close to Our house is near the supermarket.
next to beside Our house is next to the supermarket.
off away from sth. The cat jumped off the roof.
onto moving to a place (the top) The cat jumped onto the roof.
opposite on the other side Our house is opposite the supermarket.
out of leaving sth. The cat jumped out of the window.
outside opposite of inside Can you wait outside?
over above sth./sb. The cat jumped over the wall.
past going near sth./sb. Go past the post office.
through crossing sth in a line You shouldn't walk through the forest.
to towardssth./sb. I like going to Australia.
towards in the direction of sth. We ran towards the castle.
under below sth. The cat is under the table.
up from low to high He went up the hill.
Prepositionsoftime
In, at, on and no preposition with time words:
At
• Times: at 8pm, at midnight, at 6:30 Holiday periods: at Christmas, at Easter
• At night At the weekend
• At lunchtime, at dinnertime, at breakfast time
On
• Days: on Monday, on my birthday, on Christmas Day
• Days + morning / afternoon / evening / night: on Tuesday morning
• Dates: on the 20th of June

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In
• Years: in 1992, in 2006 Months: in December, in June
• Decades: in the sixties, in the 1790s Centuries: in the 19th century
• Seasons: in winter, in summer In the morning, in the afternoon, in the evening
Be careful do not use a preposition before:
• Next week, year, month etc. Last night, year etc.
• This morning, month etc. Every day, night, years etc.
• Today, tomorrow,yesterday
Adjective prepositions
Some adjectives go with certain prepositions. There is no real pattern; you need to learn them as you
meet them.
Here are some of the most common ones, adjective + preposition:
• Famousfor France is famous for its food.
• Good / Bad for Jogging is good for your health but smoking is bad for you.
• Proudof He is very proud of his new car.
• Interestedin Julie is very interested in sport.
• Pleased with John is very pleased with his new suit.
• Bad at They are very bad at math.
• Good at Einstein was very good at physics.
• Married to My mother has been married to my father for 20 years.
• Excited about I'm very excited about my holiday.
• Different from / to Coffee is different from tea.
• Afraid of I'm afraid of spiders.
• Worried about I’m worried about my new job.
• Capable of I’m perfectly capable of doing it myself, thank you.
• Aware of I am perfectly aware of the problem
• Responsible for / to
Be responsible for something or carrying out an action. For example,
 We are responsible for ensuring delivery of the program. (an action)
 We are responsible for the program. (a specific thing)

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Be responsible to a person or group of people. For example,
 We are responsible to our clients (group of people) for the program.
Verbprepositions
Some verbs need a preposition before an object or another verb. The preposition is only grammatical; it
doesn't change the meaning of the verb.
Here are some of the most common ones, verb + preposition:
• Arrive at / in somewhere We arrived at the airport /We arrived in London.
• Belong to somebody This book belongs to me.
• Borrowsomethingfromsomebody I borrow a book from my classmate.
• Concentrate on something / doing something I concentrated on studying at the weekend.
• Dependon something / somebody It depends on the weather.
• Explain something to somebody The coach explained the game to the students.
• Listen to something / somebody I listen to music.
• Pay somebody for something I pay the waiter for the coffee.
• Wait for somebody / something Wait for me!
• Worry about somebody / something Don’t worry about a thing

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What is a Gerund?
GERUND AND INFINITIVES
A gerundisa nounmadefroma verb.To make a gerund,youadd"-ing" to the verb.
First example:
 In the sentence "I swim every day", the word "swim" is a verb.
 In the sentence "I like swimming", the word "swimming" is a noun.
Therefore, "swimming" is a gerund.
Secondexample:
 In the sentence "She reads several books a week", the word "read" is a verb.
 In the sentence "Reading is important", the word "reading" is a noun.
Therefore, "reading" is a gerund.
More examples of gerunds: buying, fishing, running, watching, telling, and so forth.
Gerunds after some verbs, such as: like, hate, enjoy, quit, suggest, dislike, deny
 I like cooking.
 I enjoy fishing.
Gerundsgo after prepositions
 I’m interested in buying a computer.
 I’m scared of walking alone in the dark.
The word "gerund" actually comes from the Latin word gerere, which means "do."
You could say this actually makes sense: the gerund describes an activity, something you do.
A good learner’s dictionary will tell you whether a verb is followed by a gerund or not.
Gerunds are often used when actions are real or completed.
Examples:
(Note how the main underlined verb relates to real or completed actions.)
 She stopped smoking. I finished doing my homework.
 They keep on fighting. We discussed moving to Florida.
 You recommended waiting until tomorrow. He recalled falling asleep on the couch.
 She practices playing those drums all the time. John finished fixing the car.
 The job involves dealing with animals. Brian mentioned staying up late.
 They suggested not keeping the luggage. We started working on this yesterday.

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We use the Gerund after the following phrases adjectives + prepositions:
 Afraid of They are afraid of losing the match.
 Angry about/at Pat is angry about walking in the rain.
 Bad at / good at John is good at working in the garden.
 Clever at He is clever at skateboarding.
 Crazy about The girl is crazy about playing tennis.
 Disappointed about/at He is disappointed about seeing such a bad report.
 Excited about We are excited about making our own film.
 Famous for Sandy is famous for singing songs.
 Fed up with I'm fed up with being treated as a child.
 Fond of Hannah is fond of going to parties.
 Glad about She is glad about getting married again.
 Happy about/at The children are not happy about seeing a doctor.
 Interested in Are you interested in writing poems?
 Keen on Joe is keen on drawing.
 Proud of She is proud of riding a snowboard.
 Sick of We're sick of sitting around like this.
 Sorry about/for He's sorry for eating in the lesson.
 Tired of I'm tired of waiting for you.
 Used to She is used to smoking.
 Worried about I'm worried about making mistakes.

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What is an Infinitive?
An infinitive is the basic form of the verb + "to.”
Example Sentences:
 "I want to swim." "They asked us to leave."
 "To be, or not to be – that is the question." "The goal is to win."
More examples: to buy, to fish, to run, to watch, to tell, and so forth.
Infinitives go after some verbs, such as: agree, arrange, ask, promise, decide, afford
 I agreed to do the work.
 I arranged to see the doctor.
 They decided to get married.
Infinitives are used to show the intention, reason or purpose of why you do/did something.
 Tony went to the post office to pay a bill.
 I go to school to study.
Infinitives go after adjectives, to show the reason of what the adjective indicates
 I was surprised to see Erica.
 I’m pleased to meet you.
The word"infinitive" comesformtheLatin wordinfinitus, fromin- (not), andfinitus(finished, limited).
Since the infinitive describes an action it is not limited in any way, unlike a regular verb. The regular
verb is limited to the tense and subject.
For example, in the sentence
 "Diana danced" the action is limited to Diana and to the past.
However, the infinitive is unlimited. In the sentence
 "To dance is easy", the action is not limited to any subject or to any time.

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Infinitives are often used when actions are unreal, general, or future.
Examples:
(Note how the main underlined verb relates to unreal, general, or futureactions.)
 Kate agreed to come. I hope to see you soon.
 We plan to finish this shortly. They decided to return home.
 She promised to stop smoking. We agreed never to talk about it again.
 He offered to sell the house. I refuse to pay!
 You seem to be disappointed. She asked him not to leave.
 I want to drink. They need to get up early.
Both gerunds and infinitives can be the subject, object or compliment of the sentence.
Gerunds
 Reading helps you learn English. (Subject of sentence)
 Her favorite hobby is reading. (Complement of sentence)
 I enjoy reading. (Object of sentence)
Infinitives
 To learn is important. (Subject of sentence)
 The most important thing is to learn. (Complement of sentence)
 He wants to learn. (Object of sentence)
Gerunds and infinitives are verbs that act like nouns. Again, they can be either the subject or the object
of the sentence.
Look at this example:
 Soccer is fun. (Soccer is a noun)
The subject of this sentence is soccer, which is a noun. If the subject is a verb, it can be a gerund or
infinitive.
 Playing soccer is fun.
 To play soccer is fun.
The verb "play" acts like a noun in these sentences, so it must be a gerund or infinitive.

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Subjects
Subjects are usually at the beginning of the sentence. They are the things doing the action.
 Gerund: Running is fun. (Describes an activity)
 Infinitive: To run is fun.(Describes something abstract - less common)
It is better to use a gerund as the subject of the sentence. An infinitive is very formal and abstract, it
does not sound very goodin conversation.
Objects
When a verb is the object of the sentence it can be either a gerund or infinitive. It can't be a base verb.
Gerund: Verb = Verb + ING
 I like running. (I like the activity of running)
Infinitive: Verb + To + Verb
 I like to run. (I like the action itself, to run)
 I want to run (Here we are describing the intention)
Verbs that take infinitives or gerunds
Forget, Remember, Regret, Go On, Continue, Stop, Try
After these verbs, an infinitive refers to the future, while a gerund expresses an earlier action, relative to
the time of the verb in the main clause
 Don't forget to meet Mr. Moriarty at 10 o'clock this morning.
(You should meet Mr. Moriarty at 10 o'clock this morning.)
 I'll never forget meeting her for the first time.
(I'll never forget when I met her for the first time.)
 Did you remember to buy tea?
(Did you remember that you should buy tea?)
 I don't remember ever visiting this museum.
(I don't remember that I have ever visited this museum.)

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 We regret to inform you that your application has been rejected.
(We are sorry we have to inform you that your application has been rejected.)
 I regret spending so much money last night.
(I am sorry that I spent so much money last night.)
 Whichever page you're on, go on to read the next chapter.
(Continue with the next chapter.)
 Go on reading the article.
(Continue reading the article.)
 We stopped to drink a cup of coffee.
(We stopped in order to drink a cup of coffee.)
 I stopped smoking years ago.
(I gave up smoking years ago.)
 I tried to reach her at work, but the line was busy.
(I made an attempt to reach her at work.)
 Why didn't you try calling her on her mobile?
(Why didn't you call her on her mobile to see if you could reach her?)
Like, Love, Hate, Prefer, Can't Bear
The verbs like and hate express liking if they are followed by a gerund:
 I like getting up early in summer.
(I enjoy getting up early in summer.)
 I hate dancing, so don't ask me to.
(I don't like dancing.)
But if theseverbsarefollowedbyato-infinitive, theyexpresshabitualpreference,somethingthatwedo
not necessarily like or enjoy but consider as useful, right or wise:

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 I like to be punctual.
(It's important to be punctual and I am.)
 I hate to lie, but sometimes I do.
(It's not right to lie but sometimes I do.)
If like is in the negative, agerundrefersto an action that we do but don'tenjoy doing,while a to-
infinitive means that we don't do something because we don't think it right to do:
 I could tell that Sandra didn't like being photographed though she didn't say a word.
(Sandra was photographed, which she didn't like.)
 Sandra didn't like to be photographed, so she turned her back to the camera.
(Sandra didn't want to be photographed, and she wasn't.)
Prefer andcan'tbear canalso takeagerundor ato-infinitive:
 I prefer walking to taking the bus.
(I like walking better than taking the bus.)
 If you prefer to walk, it will take you 30 minutes to school.
(If you want to walk, it will take you 30 minutes to school.)
 I can't bear seeing people being humiliated.
(I don't like it when I see people being humiliated.)
 I couldn't bear to see those animals suffer, so I looked away.
(I didn't want to see them suffer, so I looked away.)
Consider, Imagine
 I am considering working abroad.
(I am thinking of working abroad.)

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 Everybody considers him to be the best.
(Everybody thinks that he is the best.)
 Imagine living at 2Km above sea level!
(Imagine what it would be like to live at 2Km above sea level.)
 I imagined him to be much taller.
(I expected that he would be much taller.)
Mean,Help
They can be followed by either a gerund or an infinitive but with different meanings:
 In those days, being a student meant spending long hours in the library.
(In those days if you were a student, it meant that you spent long hours in the library.)
 I didn't mean to hurt your feelings.
(I didn't intend to hurt your feelings.)
 I can't help thinking that you are hiding something.
(Only in the negative: I have to think that you are hiding something.)
 Could you help me (to) undo my shoelaces? My fingers are frozen.
(Could you undo my shoelaces?)
Help can be followed by a bare infinitive or an infinitive.
Need, Require, Want
They express active or passive meanings with infinitives:
 I need to make a phone call. (Active)
 Sometimes, people need to be told the truth. (Passive)
 My job requires me to handle many letters from abroad. (Active)

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 They required the information to be sent as soon as possible. (Passive)
 I wanted to stay for a few more days. (Active)
 It was obvious that he wanted to be invited. (Passive)
But active gerunds after these verbsexpress passive meanings:
 Your hair needs cutting. (It should be cut.)
 These photos require careful handling. (They should be handled carefully.)
 The windows want cleaning. (They should be cleaned.)****
Don't forget that "to" can also be a preposition, not just part of the infinitive.
For example:
 I'm looking forward to seeing you this weekend.
 I'm used to getting up early in the morning.
 I object to smoking in public.
 He confessed to stealing the money.
It's difficult to know when it's a preposition- justtry to learnexpressions like thesewhen you seethem.
Following an indirect object (infinitive only)
Some verbs are followed by a pronoun or noun referring to a person, and then an infinitive.
Gerunds cannot be used in this position.
Some common verbs followed by an indirect object plus an infinitive:
 Ask I must ask you to reconsider your statement.
 Beg They begged her to stay for another term.
 Cause His findings caused him to investigate further.
 Challenge Wilkins challenged Watson to continue the research.
 Convince Can we convince them to fund our study?
 Encourage She encouraged him to look beyond the obvious.
 Expect They did not expect us to win an award.
 Forbid The author forbade me to change his wording.
 Force They cannot force her to reveal her sources.
 Hire Did the department hire him to teach the new course?

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 Instruct I will instruct her to prepare a handout.
 Invite We invite you to attend the ceremony.
 Need They need her to show the slides.
 Order He ordered the group to leave the building.
 Persuade Can we persuade you to contribute again?
 Remind Please remind him to check the references.
 Require They will require you to submit an outline.
 Teach We should teach them to follow standard procedures.
 Tell Did she tell him to make three copies?
 Urge I urge you to read the instructions before you begin.
 Want I do not want you to have an accident.
 Warn Why didn't they warn me to turn down the heat?
Verbs followed only by infinitives
 Agree Tom agreed to help me.
 Appear His health appeared to be better.
 Arrange Naomi arranged to stay with her cousin in Miami.
 Ask [OP] She asked to leave.
 Care He doesn't care to participate in the activity.
 Choose [OP] I chose to help.
 Claim She claimed to be a princess.
 Decide We decided to go to Hawaii.
 Demand He demanded to speak to Mr. Harris.
 Deserve He deserves to go to jail.
 Expect [OP] They expect to arrive early.
 Fail He failed to get enough money to pay for the new project.
 Get (be allowed to) Debbie gets to go to the concert next week! Why can't I?
 Happen She happened to be at the bank when it was robbed.
 Hesitate She hesitated to tell me the problem.
 Hope I hope to begin college this year.
 Intend We intend to visit you next spring.
 Learn I learned to speak Japanese when I was a kid.

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 Manage He managed to open the door without the key.
 Offer Frank offered to drive us to the supermarket.
 Plan We plan to go to Europe this summer.
 Prepare [OP] They prepared to take the test.
 Pretend The child pretended to be a monster.
 Promise [OP] She promised to stop smoking.
 Refuse The guard refused to let them enter the building.
 Seem Nancy seemed to be disappointed.
 Swear She swore to tell the truth.
 Tend He tends to be a little shy.
 Threaten [OP] He threatened to leave forever.
 Vow He vowed to get revenge.
 Wait She waited to buy a movie ticket.
 Want [OP] I want to study Spanish.
 Wish [OP] I wish to stay. (meaning "wish" or "want")
 Would like [OP] We would like to start now.
 Yearn Melanie yearns to travel somewhere exotic.
Verbs followed only by gerunds
 Admit He admitted stealing the ring.
 Anticipate We didn't anticipate winning this match.
 Appreciate I really appreciate you coming.
 Avoid Let's avoid being late.
 Can’t help I can't help counting those calories.
 Complete He completed baking the apple pie.
 Consider She never considered moving to England.
 Delay We delayed moving to the new house until the spring.
 Deny He will deny stealing that car.
 Despise She despises asking for favors.
 Discuss We discussed buying a bigger apartment.
 Dislike She dislikes cooking and baking.
 Don’t mind I don't mind waiting.

47
 Enjoy She enjoys reading.
 Forgive Can you forgive me for not fixing the car?
 Imagine Can you imagine living on the moon?
 Involve The new project involves writing and rewriting many reports.
 Keep She keeps coming late!
 Mention I never mentioned meeting him.
 Mind Will he mind switching rooms?
 Miss I miss chatting with you.
 Postpone Let's postpone going out of town.
 Practice He practices playing the guitar daily.
 Recall Can you recall ordering this product?
 Recommend The doctor recommends resting in bed.
 Report They reported seeing him leave with a stranger.
 Resent He resents doing it all by himself.
 Resist I can't resist liking him.
 Resume They resumed talking after the teacher left.
 Risk Would you risk losing everything?
 Suggest I suggest not taking him too seriously.
 Tolerate We can't tolerate being screamed at.
 Understand He couldn't understand her leaving so suddenly.
The purpose of something orsomeone
There are two ways you can talk about the purpose of an object. Compare these two sentences …
 A hair dryer is for drying hair.
 I use a hair dryer to dry my hair.
To describe the purpose of something, use for + gerund:
 What is a hair dryer for? A hair dryer is for drying hair.
 What is this program for? This computer program is for editing videos.
 My lips are for kissing!
 Be quiet! A library is for studying, not for socializing!

48
To describe the purpose of someone, use an infinitive.
 What do you use a hair dryer for? I use a hair dryer to dry my hair.
 Why did you go to the store? I went to the store to buy some milk.
 Why are you going to Toronto? I‘m going to Toronto to learn English
 I use my lips to kiss!
 Be quiet! I come to the library to study, not to socialize!
You can still use for + noun to talk about the purpose of someone, but the noun CANNOT be a gerund:
 Why did you buy a box of chocolates?
o I bought a box of chocolates for my husband.
o NOT: I bought a box of chocolates for give my husband.
o NOT: I bought a box of chocolates for giving my husband.

49
TO GET
This is a very useful verb in English; it has different meanings depending on its usage,
To get + object = to obtain, receive, buy, or come into possession
• He got his driving license yesterday
• They got an interesting letter last week
• I got a new bicycle for this weekend
• She got her certificate last month
To get + place = to arrive
• I need to get to the airport soon or else I will lose my flight
• What time are you getting home tonight?
To get + adjective = to become or turn into (what the adjective indicates)
• I don't feel well; I think I am getting sick.
• By the time they got home they were getting hungry.
• I'm getting tired of all this nonsense.
• I will get my friend drunk tonight.
• It gets dark very early in the winter.
• Don't touch the stove until is gets cool.
• to get dirty to get drunk to get ready
• to get wet to get angry/mad to get divorced
• to get old to get older to get dressed
• to get worried to get sick to get married
• to get hurt to get bored to get lost
• to get thirsty to get hungry to get cloudy
• to get sleepy to get cold to get windy
• to get hot to get well to get dark
• to get better to get late to get tired
To get + preposition or adverb = phrasal verbs with different meanings
• He got on his bicycle and rode down the street.
• He gets up at 6.00 a.m. every morning.

50
• She gotout ofthe washing-up every day, even when it was her turn.
• We got off the train just before the bomb exploded.
• We've gotthrough all the sugar - can you buy some more?
• The children are very quiet - I wonder what they're getting up to.
• get out of avoid doing something, especially a duty
• get over recover (from an illness, a surprise)
• get through use or finish the supply of something
• get up leave your bed
• get up to do-usuallysomething bad
• get at try to express
• get away with escape punishment for a crime or bad action
• get by manage (financially)
• get down descend; depress
• get off leave a form of transport (train, bus, bicycle, plane)
• get on enter/sit on a form of transport (train, bus, bicycle, plane); have a
relationship; manage

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PHRASAL VERBS
A phrasal verb is a verb plus a preposition or an adverb, which create a different meaning from the
originalverb.
 I ran into my teacher at the movies last night. Run + into = meet
 He ran away when he was 15. Run + away = leave home
Some phrasal verbs requirea direct object (someone/something), while others do not. Some phrasal
verbs can be separated by the object, while others cannot.
Phrasal verbs can be:
Intransitive (no direct object)
An object cannot follow an intransitive verb.
meaning examples direct object
 Get up
 Show up
rise from bed
come
I don't like to get up.
He suddenly showed up.
(X -no direct object)
(X -no direct object)
Transitive (direct object)
An object can follow a transitive verb
 Put off postpone We will have to put off the meeting.
 Turn down refuse They turned down my offer.
Phrasal verb "Verb + adverb"
Some verbs are two part verbs. They consist of a verb and a particle:
Note A particle is a unit of speech expressing some general aspect of meaning or some connective or
limiting relation and including the articles, most prepositions and conjunctions, and some interjections and
adverbs (the particle up has a perfective meaning in phrases such as beat up and cut up)
 Grow + up
>> The children are growing up.
Often this gives the verb a new meaning:
 Take + after
>> She takes after her mother
= She looks like her mother, or She behaves like her mother.

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 Count + on
>> I know I can count on you
= I know I can trust you, or I know I can believe you.
Sometransitive two-partverbs(An objectcanfollow atransitive verb)haveonlyonepattern:
N (subject) + V + p + N (object)
N (Subject) Verb Particle N (Object)
She takes after her mother
I can count on you
My father comes from Madrid
Sometransitivetwo-part verbsarephrasalverbs.Phrasalverbshavetwo differentpatterns:
• The usual pattern is:
N (Subject) Verb (N) Object Particle
She gave the money back
He knocked the glass over
We will be leaving our friends behind
• But sometimes these verbs have the pattern:
N (Subject) Verb Particle N (Object)
She gave back the money
He knocked over the glass
We will be leaving behind our friends
However, if the direct object is a pronoun, we have no choice. We must separate the phrasal verb and
insert the pronoun in the middle:
We will be leaving behind them
>> We will be leaving them behind
N (Subject) +Verb +(Pronoun) Object +Particle
She gave back
it
>> She
gave it back
He knocked
over it
>> He knocked it over

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Phrasal verbs are nearly always made up of a transitive verb and a particle. Common verbs with their
most frequent particles are:
Bring: about, along, back, forward, in, off, out, round, up
Buy: out, up
Call: off, up
Carry: off, out
Cut: back, down, off, out, up
Give: away, back, off
Hand: back, down, in, on out, over, round
Knock: down, out, over
Leave: behind, out
Let: down, in, off, out
Pass: down, over, round
Point: out
Push: about, around, over
Put: across, away, down, forward, off, on, out, through, together, up
Read: out
Set: apart, aside, back, down
Shut: away, in, off, out
Take: apart, away, back, down, in, on, up, over
Think: over, through, up
Prepositional verbs "Verb + preposition"
Since a preposition always has an object, all prepositional verbs are transitive, and have direct objects.
This object is generally stated, but sometimes just implied or inferred. Here are some examples of
prepositionalverbs:
meaning examples direct object
 Believe in
 Look after
 Talk about
 Wait for
have faith in the existence of
take care of
discuss
await
I believe in
He is looking after
Did you talk about
John is waiting for
God.
the dog.
me?
Mary.

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Prepositional verbs cannot be separated. That means that we cannot put the direct object between the
two parts. For example:
Look after the baby (Ok)
Look the baby after (X)
Phrasal-prepositionalverbs"Verb+adverb+preposition"
Becausephrasal-prepositionalverbsendwithapreposition,theyaretransitive;thereisalways adirect
object. So in reality, the structure of these verbs is actually phrasal verb + particle.
And,like prepositionalverbs,phrasal-prepositionalverbscannotbeseparated.
 get on with
meaning
have a friendly
examples
He doesn't get on with
direct object
his wife.
relationship with
 put up with tolerate I won't put up with your attitude.
 look forward to anticipate with pleasure I look forward to seeing you.
 run out of use up, exhaust We have run out of eggs.
 We ran out of fuel.
 We ran out of it.

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